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Several other families joined the wagon train along the way . Levinah Murphy ( 37 ) , a widow from Tennessee , headed a family of thirteen . Her five youngest children were John Landrum ( 16 ) , Meriam ( " Mary , " 14 ) , Lemuel ( 12 ) , William ( 10 ) , and Simon ( 8 ) . Levinah 's two married daughters and their families also came along : Sarah Murphy Foster ( 19 ) , her husband William M. ( 30 ) and son Jeremiah George ( 1 ) ; Harriet Murphy Pike ( 18 ) , her husband William M. ( 32 ) and their daughters Naomi ( 3 ) and Catherine ( 1 ) . William Eddy ( 28 ) , a carriage maker from Illinois , brought his wife Eleanor ( 25 ) and their two children James ( 3 ) and Margaret ( 1 ) . The Breen family consisted of Patrick Breen ( 51 ) , a farmer from Iowa , his wife Margaret ( " Peggy " , 40 ) and seven children : John ( 14 ) , Edward ( 13 ) , Patrick , Jr . ( 9 ) , Simon ( 8 ) , James ( 5 ) , Peter ( 3 ) , and 11 @-@ month @-@ old Isabelle . Their neighbor traveled with them , 40 @-@ year @-@ old bachelor Patrick Dolan . German immigrant Lewis Keseberg ( 32 ) joined with his wife Elisabeth Philippine ( 22 ) and daughter Ada ( 2 ) ; son Lewis Jr. was born on the trail . Two young single men named Spitzer and Reinhardt traveled with another German couple , the Wolfingers , who also had hired driver " Dutch Charley " Burger . An older man named Hardkoop rode with them . Luke Halloran was passed from family to family , a young man who seemed to get sicker with tuberculosis every day , as none could spare the time or resources to care for him .
= = Hastings Cutoff = =
To promote his new route , Hastings sent riders to deliver letters to traveling emigrants . On July 12 , the Reeds and Donners were given one of these letters . Hastings warned the emigrants that they could expect opposition from the Mexican authorities in California , and advised them therefore to band together in large groups . He also claimed to have " worked out a new and better road to California " , and said that he would be waiting at Fort Bridger to guide the emigrants along the new cutoff .
J. Quinn Thornton traveled part of the way with Donner and Reed , and in his book From Oregon and California in 1848 declared Hastings the " Baron Munchausen of travelers in these countries " . Tamsen Donner , according to Thornton , was " gloomy , sad , and dispirited " at the thought of turning off the main trail on the advice of Hastings , whom she considered " a selfish adventurer " .
On July 20 at the Little Sandy River , most of the wagon train opted to follow the established trail via Fort Hall . A smaller group opted to head for Fort Bridger and needed a leader . Most of the younger males in the group were European immigrants and not considered to be ideal leaders . James Reed had been living in the U.S. for a considerable time , was older , and had military experience , but his autocratic attitude had rubbed many in the party the wrong way , and they saw him as aristocratic , imperious , and ostentatious . By comparison , the mature , experienced , American @-@ born Donner 's peaceful and charitable nature made him the group 's first choice . The members of the party were comfortably well off by contemporaneous standards . Although they are called pioneers , all but a few lacked specific skills and experience for traveling through mountains and arid land , and had little knowledge about how to deal with Native Americans .
Journalist Edwin Bryant reached Blacks Fork a week ahead of the Donner Party . He saw the first part of the trail , and was concerned that it would be difficult for the wagons in the Donner group , especially with so many women and children . He returned to Blacks Fork to leave letters warning several members of the group not to take the shortcut . By the time the Donner Party reached Blacks Fork on July 27 , Hastings had already left , leading the forty wagons of the Harlan @-@ Young group . Jim Bridger 's trading post would fare substantially better if people used the Hastings Cutoff , and he told the party that the shortcut was a smooth trip , devoid of rugged country and hostile Native Americans , and would therefore shorten their journey by 350 miles ( 560 km ) . Water would be easy to find along the way , although a couple of days crossing a 30 – 40 @-@ mile ( 48 – 64 km ) dry lake bed would be necessary .
Reed was very impressed with this information , and advocated for the Hastings Cutoff . None of the party received Bryant 's letters warning them to avoid Hastings ' route at all costs ; in his diary account , Bryant states his conviction that Bridger deliberately concealed the letters , a view shared by Reed in his later testimony .
On July 31 , 1846 , the party left Blacks Fork after four days of rest and wagon repairs , eleven days behind the leading Harlan @-@ Young group . Donner hired a replacement driver , and the company was joined by the McCutcheon family , consisting of 30 @-@ year @-@ old William , his 24 @-@ year @-@ old wife Amanda , two @-@ year @-@ old daughter Harriet , and a 16 @-@ year @-@ old named Jean Baptiste Trudeau from New Mexico , who claimed to have knowledge of the Native Americans and terrain on the way to California .
= = = Wasatch Mountains = = =
The party turned south to follow the Hastings Cutoff . Within days , they found the terrain to be much more difficult than described , and the drivers were forced to lock the wheels of their wagons to prevent them from rolling down steep inclines . Several years of migrant traffic on the main Oregon Trail had left an easy and obvious path , whereas the Cutoff was more difficult to find . Hastings wrote directions and left letters stuck to trees . On August 6 , the party found a letter from Hastings advising them to stop until he could show them an alternative route to that taken by the Harlan @-@ Young Party . Reed , Charles Stanton , and William Pike rode ahead to get Hastings . They encountered exceedingly difficult canyons where boulders had to be moved and walls cut off precariously to a river below , a route likely to break wagons . Hastings had offered in his letter to guide the Donner Party around the more difficult areas , but he rode back only part way , indicating the general direction to follow .
Stanton and Pike stopped to rest , and Reed returned alone to the group , arriving four days after the party 's departure . Without the guide they had been promised , the group had to decide whether to turn back and rejoin the traditional trail , follow the tracks left by the Harlan @-@ Young Party through the difficult terrain of Weber Canyon , or forge their own trail in the direction that Hastings had recommended . At Reed 's urging , the group chose the new Hastings route . Their progress slowed to about a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) a day , and all the able @-@ bodied men were required to clear brush , fell trees , and heave rocks to make room for the wagons .
As the Donner Party made its way across the Wasatch Mountains , they were caught up by the Graves family , who had set off to find them . The Graves family consisted of 57 @-@ year @-@ old Franklin Graves , his 47 @-@ year @-@ old wife Elizabeth , their children Mary ( 20 ) , William ( 18 ) , Eleanor ( 15 ) , Lovina ( 13 ) , Nancy ( 9 ) , Jonathan ( 7 ) , Franklin , Jr . ( 5 ) , Elizabeth ( 1 ) , and married daughter Sarah ( 22 ) , plus son @-@ in @-@ law Jay Fosdick ( 23 ) , and a 25 @-@ year @-@ old teamster named John Snyder , traveling together in three wagons . Their arrival brought the Donner Party to 87 members in 60 – 80 wagons . The Graves family had been part of the last group to leave Missouri , confirming that the Donner Party was at the back of the year 's western exodus .
It was August 20 by the time that they reached a point in the mountains where they could look down and see the Great Salt Lake . It took almost another two weeks to travel out of the Wasatch Mountains . The men began to argue , and doubts were expressed about the wisdom of those who had chosen this route , in particular James Reed . Food and supplies began to run out for some of the less affluent families . Stanton and Pike had ridden out with Reed but had become lost on their way back ; by the time that the party found them , they were a day away from eating their horses .
= = = Great Salt Lake Desert = = =
Luke Halloran died of tuberculosis on August 25 . A few days later , the party came across a torn and tattered letter from Hastings . The pieces indicated that there were two days and nights of difficult travel ahead without grass or water . The party rested their oxen and prepared for the trip . After 36 hours they set off to traverse a 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 300 m ) mountain that lay in their path . From its peak , they saw ahead of them a dry , barren plain , perfectly flat and covered with white salt , larger than the one which they had just crossed , and " one of the most inhospitable places on earth " according to Rarick . Their oxen were already fatigued and their water was nearly gone .
The party pressed onward on August 30 , having no alternative . In the heat of the day , the moisture underneath the salt crust rose to the surface and turned the soil to a gummy mass . The wheels of their wagons sank into it , in some cases up to the hubs . The days were blisteringly hot and the nights frigid . Several of the group saw visions of lakes and wagon trains , and believed that they had finally overtaken Hastings . After three days , the water was gone , and some of the party removed their oxen from the wagons to press ahead to find more . Some of the animals were so weakened they were left yoked to the wagons and abandoned . Nine of Reed 's ten oxen broke free , crazed with thirst , and bolted off into the desert . Many other families ' cattle and horses had also gone missing . The rigors of the journey resulted in irreparable damage to some of the wagons , but no human lives had been lost . Instead of the promised two days journey over 40 miles , the journey across the 80 miles of Great Salt Lake Desert had taken six .
None of the party had any remaining faith in the Hastings Cutoff as they recovered at the springs on the other side of the desert . They spent several days trying to recover cattle , retrieve the wagons left in the desert , and transfer their food and supplies to other wagons . Reed 's family incurred the heaviest losses , and Reed became more assertive , asking all the families to submit an inventory of their goods and food to him . He suggested that two men should go to Sutter 's Fort in California ; he had heard that John Sutter was exceedingly generous to wayward pioneers , and could assist them with extra provisions . Charles Stanton and William McCutchen volunteered to undertake the dangerous trip . The remaining serviceable wagons were pulled by mongrel teams of cows , oxen , and mules . It was the middle of September , and two young men who went in search of missing oxen reported that another 40 @-@ mile ( 64 km ) long stretch of desert lay ahead .
Their cattle and oxen were now exhausted and lean , but the Donner Party crossed the next stretch of desert relatively unscathed , and the journey seemed to get easier , particularly through the valley next to the Ruby Mountains . Despite their near hatred of Hastings , they had no choice but to follow his tracks , which were weeks old . On September 26 , two months after embarking on the cutoff , the Donner Party rejoined the traditional trail along a stream that became known as the Humboldt River . The shortcut had probably delayed them by a month .
= = Rejoining the Trail = =
= = = Reed banished = = =
Along the Humboldt , the group met Paiute Native Americans , who joined them for a couple of days but stole or shot several oxen and horses . By now , it was well into October , and the Donner families split off to make better time . Two wagons in the remaining group became tangled , and John Snyder angrily beat the ox of Reed 's hired teamster Milt Elliott . When Reed intervened , Snyder turned the whip on him . Reed retaliated by fatally plunging a knife under Snyder 's collarbone .
That evening , the witnesses gathered to discuss what was to be done . United States laws were not applicable west of the Continental Divide ( in what was then Mexican territory ) and wagon trains often dispensed their own justice . But George Donner , the party 's leader , was a full day ahead of the main wagon train with his family . Snyder had been seen to hit James Reed , and some claimed that he had also hit Margret Reed , but Snyder had been popular and Reed was not . Keseberg suggested that Reed should be hanged , but an eventual compromise allowed Reed to leave the camp without his family , who were to be taken care of by the others . Reed departed alone the next morning , unarmed , but his daughter Virginia rode ahead and secretly provided him with a rifle and food .
= = = Disintegration = = =
The trials that the Donner Party had so far endured resulted in splintered groups , each looking out for themselves and distrustful of the others . Grass was becoming scarce , and the animals were steadily weakening . To relieve the load of the animals , everyone was expected to walk . Keseberg ejected Hardkoop from his wagon , telling the elderly man that he had to walk or die . A few days later , Hardkoop sat next to a stream , his feet so swollen that they split open , and he was not seen again . William Eddy pleaded with the others to find Hardkoop , but they all refused , swearing that they would waste no more resources on a man who was almost 70 years old .
Meanwhile , Reed caught up with the Donners and went on with one of his teamsters , Walter Herron . The two shared a horse , and they were able to cover 25 – 40 miles ( 40 – 64 km ) per day . The rest of the party rejoined the Donners , but their bad luck continued . Native Americans chased away all of Graves ' horses , and another wagon was left behind . With grass in short supply , the cattle spread out more , which allowed the Paiutes to steal 18 more during one evening ; and several mornings later , the Paiutes shot another 21 . So far , the company had lost nearly 100 oxen and cattle , and their rations were almost completely depleted . One more stretch of desert lay ahead . The Eddys ' oxen had been killed by Native Americans and they were forced to abandon their wagon . The family had eaten all their stores , but the other families refused to assist their children . The Eddys were forced to walk , carrying their children and miserable with thirst . Margret Reed and her children were also now without a wagon . But the desert soon came to an end , and the party found the Truckee River in beautiful lush country .
They had little time to rest , and the company pressed on to cross the mountains before the snows came . Stanton found the company ( one of the two @-@ man party who had left a month earlier to seek assistance in California ) , and he brought mules , food , and two Miwok Native Americans named Luis and Salvador . He also brought news that Reed and Herron , although haggard and starving , had succeeded in reaching Sutter 's Fort in California . By this point , according to Rarick , " To the bedraggled , half @-@ starved members of the Donner Party , it must have seemed that the worst of their problems had passed . They had already endured more than many emigrants ever did . "
= = Snowbound = =
= = = Donner Pass = = =
Faced with one last push over mountains that were described as much worse than the Wasatch , the ragtag company had to decide whether to forge ahead or rest their cattle . It was October 20 and they had been told that the pass would not be snowed in until the middle of November . William Pike was killed when a gun being loaded by William Foster was discharged negligently , an event that seemed to make the decision for them ; family by family , they resumed their journey , first the Breens , then Kesebergs , Stanton with the Reeds , Graveses , and Murphys . The Donners waited and traveled last . After a few miles of rough terrain , an axle broke on one of the Donners ' wagons . Jacob and George went into the woods to fashion a replacement . George Donner sliced his hand open while chiseling the wood , but it seemed a superficial wound .
Snow began to fall . The Breens made it up the " massive , nearly vertical slope " 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) to Truckee Lake , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the summit , and camped near a cabin that had been built two years earlier by another group of pioneers . The Eddys and Kesebergs joined the Breens , attempting to make it over the pass , but they found 5 – 10 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 0 m ) drifts of snow , and were unable to find the trail . They turned back for Truckee Lake and , within a day , all the families were camped there except for the Donners , who were 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) below them — half a day 's journey . Over the next few days , several more attempts were made to breach the pass with their wagons and animals , but all efforts failed .
= = = Winter camp = = =
Sixty members and associates of the Breen , Graves , Reed , Murphy , Keseberg , and Eddy families set up for the winter at Truckee Lake . Three widely separated cabins of pine logs served as their homes , with dirt floors and poorly constructed flat roofs that leaked when it rained . The Breens occupied one cabin , the Eddys and Murphys another , and Reeds and Graveses the third . Keseberg built a lean @-@ to for his family against the side of the Breen cabin . The families used canvas or oxhide to patch the faulty roofs . The cabins had no windows or doors , only large holes to allow entry . Of the 60 at Truckee Lake , 19 were men over 18 , 12 were women , and 29 were children , 6 of whom were toddlers or younger . Farther down the trail , close to Alder Creek , the Donner families hastily constructed tents to house 21 people , including Mrs. Wolfinger , her child , and the Donners ' drivers : 6 men , 3 women , and 12 children in all . It began to snow again on the evening of November 4 — the beginning of a storm that lasted 8 days .
By the time the party made camp , very little food remained from the supplies that Stanton had brought back from Sutter 's Fort . The oxen began to die and their carcasses were frozen and stacked . Truckee Lake was not yet frozen , but the pioneers were unfamiliar with catching lake trout . Eddy , the most experienced hunter , killed a bear , but had little luck after that . The Reed and Eddy families had lost almost everything and Margret Reed promised to pay double when they got to California for the use of three oxen from the Graves and Breen families . Graves charged Eddy $ 25 — normally the cost of two healthy oxen — for the carcass of an ox that had starved to death .
Desperation grew in camp and some reasoned that individuals might succeed in navigating the pass where the wagons could not . On November 12 , the storm abated and a small party tried to reach the summit on foot , but found the trek through the soft , deep powder too difficult , and returned that same evening . Over the next week , two more attempts were made by other small parties , but both quickly failed . On November 21 , a large party of about 22 persons made an attempt and successfully reached the peak . The party traveled about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) west of the summit , but this trip too was aborted , and they returned to the lake on November 23 .
Patrick Breen began keeping a diary on November 20 . He primarily concerned himself with the weather , marking the storms and how much snow had fallen , but gradually began to include references to God and religion in his entries . Life at Truckee Lake was miserable . The cabins were cramped and filthy , and it snowed so much that people were unable to go outdoors for days . Diets soon consisted of oxhide , strips of which were boiled to make a " disagreeable " glue @-@ like jelly . Ox and horse bones were boiled repeatedly to make soup , and they became so brittle that they would crumble upon chewing . Sometimes they were softened by being charred and eaten . Bit by bit , the Murphy children picked apart the oxhide rug that lay in front of their fireplace , roasted it in the fire , and ate it . After the departure of the snowshoe party , two @-@ thirds of the emigrants at Truckee Lake were children . Mrs. Graves was in charge of eight , and Levinah Murphy and Eleanor Eddy together took care of nine . Emigrants caught and ate mice that strayed into their cabins . Many of the people at Truckee Lake were soon weakened and spent most of their time in bed . Occasionally one would be able to make the full @-@ day trek to see the Donners . News came that Jacob Donner and three hired men had died . One of them , Joseph Reinhardt , confessed on his deathbed that he had murdered Wolfinger . George Donner 's hand had become infected , which left four men to work at the Donner camp .
Margret Reed had managed to save enough food for a Christmas pot of soup , to the delight of her children , but by January they were facing starvation and considered eating the oxhides that served as their roof . Margret Reed , Virginia , Milt Elliott , and the servant girl Eliza Williams attempted to walk out , reasoning that it would be better to try to bring food back than sit and watch the children starve . They were gone for four days in the snow before they had to turn back . Their cabin was now uninhabitable ; the oxhide @-@ roof served as their food supply , and the family moved in with the Breens . The servants went to live with other families . One day , the Graveses came by to collect on the debt owed by the Reeds and took the oxhides , all that the family had to eat .
= = = " The Forlorn Hope " = = =
The mountain party at Truckee Lake began to fail . Spitzer died , then Baylis Williams ( a driver for the Reeds ) , more from malnutrition than starvation . Franklin Graves fashioned 14 pairs of snowshoes out of oxbows and hide . A party of 17 men , women , and children set out on foot in an attempt to cross the mountain pass . As evidence of how grim their choices were , four of the men were fathers , and three of the women mothers who gave their young children to other women . They packed lightly , taking what had become six days ' rations , a rifle , a blanket each , a hatchet , and some pistols , hoping to make their way to Bear Valley . Historian Charles McGlashan later called this snowshoe party the " Forlorn Hope " . Two of those without snowshoes , Charles Burger and 10 @-@ year @-@ old William Murphy , turned back early on . Other members of the party fashioned a pair of snowshoes for Lemuel on the first evening from one of the packsaddles that they were carrying .
The snowshoes proved to be awkward but effective on the arduous climb . The members of the party were neither well @-@ nourished nor accustomed to camping in snow 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) deep and , by the third day , most were snowblind . On the sixth day , Eddy discovered that his wife had hidden a half @-@ pound of bear meat in his pack . The group set out again the morning of December 21 ; Stanton had been straggling for several days , and he remained behind , saying that he would follow shortly . His remains were found in that location the following year .
The group became lost and confused . After two more days without food , Patrick Dolan proposed that one of them should volunteer to die in order to feed the others . Some suggested a duel , while another account describes an attempt to create a lottery to choose a member to sacrifice . Eddy suggested that they keep moving until someone simply fell , but a blizzard forced the group to halt . Antonio the animal handler was the first to die ; Franklin Graves was the next casualty .
As the blizzard progressed , Patrick Dolan began to rant deliriously , stripped off his clothes , and ran into the woods . He returned shortly afterwards and died a few hours later . Not long after , possibly because 12 @-@ year @-@ old Lemuel Murphy was near death , some of the group began to eat flesh from Dolan 's body . Lemuel 's sister tried to feed some to her brother , but he died shortly afterwards . Eddy , Salvador , and Luis refused to eat . The next morning , the group stripped the muscle and organs from the bodies of Antonio , Dolan , Graves , and Murphy and dried it to store for the days ahead , taking care to ensure that nobody would have to eat his or her relatives .
After three days ' rest , they set off again , searching for the trail . Eddy eventually succumbed to his hunger and ate human flesh , but that was soon gone . They began to take apart their snowshoes to eat the oxhide webbing and discussed killing Luis and Salvador for food , before Eddy warned the two men and they quietly left . Jay Fosdick died during the night , leaving only seven members of the party . Eddy and Mary Graves left to hunt , but when they returned with deer meat , Fosdick 's body had already been cut apart for food . After several more days — 25 since they had left Truckee Lake — they came across Salvador and Luis , who had not eaten for about nine days and were close to death . William Foster shot the pair , believing that the flesh of the Native Americans was the group 's last hope of avoiding imminent death from starvation .
On January 12 , the group stumbled into a Miwok camp looking so deteriorated that the Native Americans initially fled . The Miwoks gave them what they had to eat : acorns , grass , and pine nuts . After a few days , Eddy continued on with the help of a Miwok to a ranch in a small farming community at the edge of the Sacramento Valley . A hurriedly assembled rescue party found the other six survivors on January 17 . Their journey from Truckee Lake had taken 33 days .
= = Rescue = =
= = = Reed attempts a rescue = = =
James Reed made it out of the Sierra Nevada to Rancho Johnson in late October . He was safe and recovering at Sutter 's Fort , but each day he became more concerned for the fate of his family and friends . He pleaded with Colonel John C. Frémont to gather a team of men to cross the pass and help the company , in return for which Reed promised that he would join Frémont 's forces and fight in the Mexican @-@ American War . Reed was joined by McCutchen , who had been unable to return with Stanton , as well as some members of the Harlan @-@ Young party . The Harlan @-@ Young wagon train had arrived at Sutter 's Fort on October 8 , the last to make it over the Sierra Nevada that season . The party of roughly 30 horses and a dozen men carried food supplies , and expected to find the Donner Party on the western side of the mountain , along the Bear River below the steep approach to Emigrant Gap , perhaps starving but alive . When they arrived in the river valley , they found only a pioneer couple , immigrants who had been separated from their company and were near starvation .
Two guides deserted Reed and McCutchen with some of their horses , but they pressed on farther up the valley to Yuba Bottoms , walking the last mile on foot . Reed and McCutchen stood looking up at Emigrant Gap , only 12 miles ( 19 km ) from the top , blocked by snow , possibly on the same day that the Breens attempted to lead one last effort to crest the pass from the east . Despondent , they turned back to Sutter 's Fort .
= = = First relief = = =
Much of the military in California were engaged in the Mexican @-@ American War , and with them the able @-@ bodied men . For example , Colonel Frémont 's personnel were occupied at that precise time in capturing Santa Barbara . Throughout the region , roads were blocked , communications compromised , and supplies unavailable . Only three men responded to a call for volunteers to rescue the Donner Party . Reed was laid over in San Jose until February because of regional uprisings and general confusion . He spent that time speaking with other pioneers and acquaintances , and the people of San Jose responded by creating a petition to appeal to the U.S. Navy to assist the people at Truckee Lake . Two local newspapers reported that members of the snowshoe party had resorted to cannibalism , which helped to foster sympathy for those who were still trapped . Residents of Yerba Buena , many recent emigrants , raised $ 1 @,@ 300 ( $ 33 @,@ 000 as of 2015 ) and organized relief efforts to build two camps to supply a rescue party for the refugees .
A rescue party including William Eddy started on February 4 from the Sacramento Valley . Rain and a swollen river forced several delays . Eddy stationed himself at Bear Valley , while the others made steady progress through the snow and storms to cross the pass to Truckee Lake , caching their food at stations along the way so that they did not have to carry it all . Three of the rescue party turned back , but seven forged on .
On February 18 , the seven @-@ man rescue party scaled Frémont Pass ( now Donner Pass ) ; as they neared where Eddy told them the cabins would be , they began to shout . Mrs. Murphy appeared from a hole in the snow , stared at them and asked , " Are you men from California , or do you come from heaven ? " The relief party doled out food in small portions , concerned that it might kill them if the emaciated immigrants overate . All the cabins were buried in snow . Sodden oxhide roofs had begun to rot and the smell was overpowering . Thirteen people at the camps were dead , and their bodies had been loosely buried in snow near the cabin roofs . Some of the emigrants seemed emotionally unstable . Three of the rescue party trekked to the Donners and brought back four gaunt children and three adults . Leanna Donner had particular difficulty walking up the steep incline from Alder Creek to Truckee Lake , later writing " such pain and misery as I endured that day is beyond description . " George Donner 's arm was so gangrenous that he could not move . Twenty @-@ three people were chosen to go with the rescue party , leaving twenty @-@ one in the cabins at Truckee Lake and twelve at Alder Creek .
The rescuers concealed the fate of the snowshoe party , informing the rescued immigrants only that they did not return because they were frostbitten . Patty and Tommy Reed were soon too weak to cross the snowdrifts , and no one was strong enough to carry them . Margret Reed faced the agonizing predicament of accompanying her two older children to Bear Valley and watching her two frailest be taken back to Truckee Lake without a parent . She made rescuer Aquilla Glover swear on his honor as a Mason that he would return for her children . Patty Reed told her , " Well , mother , if you never see me again , do the best you can . " Upon their return to the lake , the Breens flatly refused them entry to their cabin but , after Glover left more food , the children were grudgingly admitted . The rescue party was dismayed to find that the first cache station had been broken into by animals , leaving them without food for four days . After struggling on the walk over the pass , John Denton slipped into a coma and died . Ada Keseberg died soon afterwards ; her mother was inconsolable , refusing to let the child 's body go . After several days ' more travel through difficult country , the rescuers grew very concerned that the children would not survive . Some of them ate the buckskin fringe from one of the rescuer 's pants , and the shoelaces of another , to the relief party 's surprise . On their way down from the mountains , they met the next rescue party , which included James Reed . Upon hearing his voice , Margret sank into the snow , overwhelmed .
After these rescued emigrants made it safely into Bear Valley , William Hook , Jacob Donner 's stepson , broke into food stores and fatally gorged himself . The others continued on to Sutter 's Fort , where Virginia Reed wrote " I really thought I had stepped over into paradise " . She was amused to note that one of the young men asked her to marry him , although she was only 12 years old and recovering from starvation , but she turned him down .
= = = Second relief = = =
On March 1 , a second relief party arrived at Truckee Lake . These rescuers were mostly experienced mountaineers who accompanied the return of Reed and McCutchen . Reed was reunited with his daughter Patty and his weakened son Tommy . An inspection of the Breen cabin found its occupants relatively well , but the Murphy cabin , according to author George Stewart , " passed the limits of description and almost of imagination " . Levinah Murphy was caring for her eight @-@ year @-@ old son Simon and the two young children of William Eddy and Foster . She had deteriorated mentally and was nearly blind . The children were listless and had not been cleaned in days . Lewis Keseberg had moved into the cabin and could barely move due to an injured leg .
No one at Truckee Lake had died during the interim between the departure of the first relief party and the arrival of the second relief party . Patrick Breen documented a disturbing visit in the last week of February from Mrs. Murphy , who said that her family was considering eating Milt Elliott . Reed and McCutchen found Elliott 's mutilated body . The Alder Creek camp fared no better . The first two members of the relief party to reach it saw Trudeau carrying a human leg . When they made their presence known , he threw it into a hole in the snow that contained the mostly dismembered body of Jacob Donner . Inside the tent , Elizabeth Donner refused to eat , although her children were being nourished by the organs of their father . The rescuers discovered that three other bodies had already been consumed . In the other tent , Tamsen Donner was well , but George was very ill because the infection had reached his shoulder .
The second relief evacuated 17 emigrants from Truckee Lake , only three of whom were adults . Both the Breen and Graves families prepared to go . Only five people remained at Truckee Lake : Keseberg , Mrs. Murphy and her son Simon , and the young Eddy and Foster children . Tamsen Donner elected to stay with her ailing husband after Reed informed her that a third relief party would arrive soon . Mrs. Donner kept her daughters Eliza , Georgia , and Frances with her .
The walk back to Bear Valley was very slow ; at one point , Reed sent ahead two of the men to retrieve the first cache of food , expecting the third relief to come at any moment , a small party led by Selim E. Woodworth . A violent blizzard arose after they scaled the pass . Five @-@ year @-@ old Isaac Donner froze to death , and Reed nearly died . Mary Donner 's feet were badly burned because they were so frostbitten that she did not realize she was sleeping with them in the fire . When the storm passed , the Breen and Graves families were too apathetic and exhausted to get up and move , not having eaten for days . The relief party had no choice but to leave without them .
Three members of the relief party stayed , one at Truckee Lake and two at Alder Creek . When one , Nicholas Clark , went hunting , the other two , Charles Cady and Charles Stone , made plans to return to California . Tamsen Donner arranged for them to carry three of her children to California , perhaps for $ 500 cash , according to Stewart . Cady and Stone took the children to Truckee Lake but then left alone , overtaking Reed and the others within days . Several days later , Clark and Trudeau agreed to leave together . When they discovered the Donner girls at Truckee Lake , they returned to Alder Creek to inform Tamsen Donner .
William Foster and William Eddy , both survivors of the snowshoe party , started from Bear Valley to intercept Reed , taking with them a man named John Stark . After one day , they met Reed helping his children , all frostbitten and bleeding but alive . Desperate to rescue their own children , Foster and Eddy persuaded four men , with pleading and money , to return to Truckee Lake with them . Halfway there they found the crudely mutilated and eaten remains of two children and Mrs. Graves , with one @-@ year @-@ old Elizabeth Graves crying beside her mother 's body . Eleven survivors were huddled around a fire that had sunk into a pit . The relief party split , with Foster , Eddy , and two others headed toward Truckee Lake . Two rescuers , hoping to save the healthiest , each took a child and left . John Stark refused to leave the others . Stark picked up two children and all the provisions , and assisted the nine remaining Breens and Graveses to Bear Valley .
= = = Third relief = = =
Foster and Eddy finally arrived at Truckee Lake on March 14 , where they found their children dead . Keseberg told Eddy that he had eaten the remains of Eddy 's son , and Eddy swore to murder Keseberg if they ever met in California . George Donner and one of Jacob Donner 's children were still alive at Alder Creek . Tamsen Donner had just arrived at the Murphy cabin , and she could have walked out alone but chose to return to her husband , even though she was informed that no other relief party was likely to be coming soon . Foster and Eddy and the rest of the third relief left with four children , Trudeau , and Clark .
Two more relief parties were mustered to evacuate any adults who might still be alive . Both turned back before getting to Bear Valley , and no further attempts were made . On April 10 , almost a month since the third relief had left Truckee Lake , the alcalde near Sutter 's Fort organized a salvage party to recover what they could of the Donners ' belongings . The belongings would be sold , with part of the proceeds used to support the orphaned Donner children . The salvage party found the Alder Creek tents empty except for the body of George Donner , who had died only days earlier . On their way back to Truckee Lake , they found Lewis Keseberg alive . According to him , Mrs. Murphy had died a week after the departure of the third relief . Some weeks later , Tamsen Donner had arrived at his cabin on her way over the pass , soaked and visibly upset . Keseberg said that he put a blanket around her and told her to start out in the morning , but she died during the night .
The salvage party were suspicious of Keseberg 's story , and found a pot full of human flesh in the cabin along with George Donner 's pistols , jewelry , and $ 250 in gold . They threatened to lynch Keseberg , who confessed that he had cached $ 273 of the Donners ' money at Tamsen 's suggestion , so that it could one day benefit her children . On April 29 , 1847 , Keseberg was the last member of the Donner Party to arrive at Sutter 's Fort .
= = = Response = = =
News of the Donner Party 's fate was spread eastward by Samuel Brannan , an elder of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints and journalist , who ran into the salvage party as they came down from the pass with Keseberg . Accounts of the ordeal first reached New York City in July 1847 . Reporting on the event across the U.S. was heavily influenced by the national enthusiasm for westward migration . In some papers , news of the tragedy was buried in small paragraphs despite the contemporary tendency to sensationalize stories . Several newspapers , including those in California , wrote about the cannibalism in graphic exaggerated detail . In some print accounts , the members of the Donner Party were depicted as heroes , and California a paradise worthy of significant sacrifices .
Emigration to the west decreased over the following years , but it is likely that the drop in numbers was caused more by fears over the outcome of the ongoing Mexican @-@ American War than by the cautionary tale of the Donner Party . In 1846 , an estimated 1 @,@ 500 people migrated to California . In 1847 , the number dropped to 450 and to 400 in 1848 . The California Gold Rush spurred a sharp increase , however , and 25 @,@ 000 people went west in 1849 . Most of the overland migration followed the Carson River , but a few forty @-@ niners used the same route as the Donner Party and recorded descriptions about the site .
In late June 1847 , members of the Mormon Battalion under General Steven Kearny buried the human remains , and partially burned two of the cabins . The few who ventured over the pass in the next few years found bones , other artifacts , and the cabin used by the Reed and Graves families . In 1891 , a cache of money was found buried by the lake . It had probably been stored by Mrs. Graves , who hastily hid it when she left with the second relief so that she could return for it later .
Lansford Hastings received death threats . An emigrant who crossed before the Donner Party confronted Hastings about the difficulties they had encountered , reporting : " Of course he could say nothing but that he was very sorry , and that he meant well " .
= = = Survivors = = =
Of the 87 people who entered the Wasatch Mountains , 48 survived . Only the Reed and Breen families remained intact . The children of Jacob Donner , George Donner , and Franklin Graves were orphaned . William Eddy was alone and most of the Murphy family had died . Only three mules reached California ; the remaining animals perished . Most of the Donner Party members ' possessions were discarded .
A few of the widowed women remarried within months ; brides were scarce in California . The Reeds settled in San Jose and two of the Donner children lived with them . Reed fared well in the California Gold Rush and became prosperous . Virginia wrote an extensive letter to her cousin in Illinois about " our trubels getting to Callifornia " , with editorial oversight from her father . Journalist Edwin Bryant carried it back in June 1847 , and it was printed in its entirety in the Illinois Journal on December 16 , 1847 , with some editorial alterations .
Virginia converted to Catholicism in fulfillment of a promise which she had made to herself while observing Patrick Breen pray in his cabin . The Murphy survivors lived in Marysville . The Breens made their way to San Juan Bautista where they operated an inn and became the anonymous subjects of J. Ross Browne 's story about his severe discomfort upon learning that he was staying with alleged cannibals , printed in Harper 's Magazine in 1862 . Many of the survivors encountered similar reactions .
George and Tamsen Donner 's children were taken in by an older couple near Sutter 's Fort . Eliza was three years old during the winter of 1846 – 1847 , the youngest of the Donner children . She published an account of the Donner Party in 1911 , based on printed accounts and those of her sisters . The Breens ' youngest daughter Isabella was one year old during the winter of 1846 – 1847 , and was the last survivor of the Donner Party . She died in 1935 .
The Graves children lived varied lives . Mary Graves married early , but her first husband was murdered . She cooked his killer 's food while he was in prison to ensure that the condemned man did not starve before his hanging . One of Mary 's grandchildren noted that she was very serious ; Graves once said , " I wish I could cry but I cannot . If I could forget the tragedy , perhaps I would know how to cry again . " Mary 's brother William did not settle down for any significant time .
Nancy Graves was nine years old during the winter of 1846 – 1847 . She refused to acknowledge her involvement even when contacted by historians interested in recording the most accurate versions of the episode . Nancy reportedly was unable to recover from her role in the cannibalism of her brother and mother .
Eddy remarried and started a family in California . He attempted to follow through on his promise to murder Lewis Keseberg , but was dissuaded by James Reed and Edwin Bryant . A year later , Eddy recollected his experiences to J. Quinn Thornton , who wrote the earliest comprehensive documentation of the episode , also using Reed 's memories of his experiences . Eddy died in 1859 .
Keseberg brought a defamation suit against several members of the relief party who accused him of murdering Tamsen Donner . The court awarded him $ 1 in damages , but also made him pay court costs . An 1847 story printed in the California Star described Keseberg 's actions in ghoulish terms and his near @-@ lynching by the salvage party , reporting that he preferred eating human flesh over the cattle and horses that had become exposed in the spring thaw . Historian Charles McGlashan amassed enough material to indict Keseberg for the murder of Tamsen Donner , but after interviewing Keseberg he concluded that no murder occurred . Eliza Donner Houghton also believed Keseberg to be innocent .
As Keseberg grew older , he did not venture outside , for he had become a pariah and was often threatened . He told McGlashan , " I often think that the Almighty has singled me out , among all the men on the face of the earth , in order to see how much hardship , suffering , and misery a human being can bear ! "
= = Legacy = =
The Donner Party episode was insignificant in comparison with the hundreds of thousands of emigrants to Oregon and California , but it has served as the basis for numerous works of history , fiction , drama , poetry , and film . The attention directed at the Donner Party is made possible by reliable accounts of what occurred , according to Stewart , and the fact that " the cannibalism , although it might almost be called a minor episode , has become in the popular mind the chief fact to be remembered about the Donner Party . For a taboo always allures with as great strength as it repels " . The appeal is that the events focused on families and ordinary people , according to Johnson , writing in 1996 , instead of on rare individuals , and that the events are " a dreadful irony that hopes of prosperity , health , and a new life in California 's fertile valleys led many only to misery , hunger , and death on her stony threshold " .
The site of the cabins became a tourist attraction as early as 1854 . In the 1880s , Charles McGlashan began promoting the idea of a monument to mark the site of the Donner Party episode . He helped to acquire the land for a monument and , in June 1918 , the statue of a pioneer family was placed on the spot where the Breen @-@ Keseberg cabin was thought to have been , dedicated to the Donner Party . It was made a California Historical Landmark in 1934 .
The State of California created the Donner Memorial State Park in 1927 . It originally consisted of 11 acres ( 0 @.@ 045 km2 ) surrounding the monument . Twenty years later , the site of the Murphy cabin was purchased and added to the park . In 1962 , the Emigrant Trail Museum was added to tell the history of westward migration into California . The Murphy cabin and Donner monument were established as a National Historic Landmark in 1963 . A large rock served as the back end of the fireplace of the Murphy cabin , and a bronze plaque has been affixed to the rock listing the members of the Donner Party , indicating who survived and who did not . The State of California justifies memorializing the site because the episode was " an isolated and tragic incident of American history that has been transformed into a major folk epic " . As of 2003 , the park is estimated to receive 200 @,@ 000 visitors a year .
= = = Mortality = = =
Most historians count 87 members of the party , although Stephen McCurdy in the Western Journal of Medicine includes Sarah Keyes — Margret Reed 's mother — and Luis and Salvador , bringing the number to 90 . Five people had already died before the party reached Truckee Lake : one from tuberculosis ( Halloran ) , three from trauma ( Snyder , Wolfinger , and Pike ) , and one from exposure ( Hardkoop ) . A further 34 died between December 1846 and April 1847 : twenty @-@ five males and nine females . Several historians and other authorities have studied the mortalities to determine what factors may affect survival in nutritionally deprived individuals . Of the fifteen members of the snowshoe party , eight of the ten men who set out died ( Stanton , Dolan , Graves , Murphy , Antonio , Fosdick , Luis , and Salvador ) , but all five of the women survived . A professor at the University of Washington stated that the Donner Party episode is a " case study of demographically @-@ mediated natural selection in action " .
The deaths at Truckee Lake , Alder Creek , and in the snowshoe party were probably caused by a combination of extended malnutrition , overwork , and exposure to cold . Several members became more susceptible to infection due to starvation , such as George Donner , but the three most significant factors in survival were age , sex , and the size of family group that each member traveled with . The survivors were on average 7 @.@ 5 years younger than those who died ; children aged between 6 and 14 had a much higher survival rate than infants and children under the age of 6 , of whom 62 @.@ 5 percent died , including the son born to the Kesebergs on the trail , or adults over the age of 35 . No adults over the age of 49 survived . Deaths were " extremely high " among males aged between 20 and 39 , at more than 66 percent . Men have been found to metabolize protein faster , and women do not require as high a caloric intake . Women also store more body fat , which delays the effects of physical degradation caused by starvation and overwork . Men also tend to take on more dangerous tasks and , in this particular instance , the men were required to clear brush and engage in heavy labor before reaching Truckee Lake , adding to their physical debilitation . Those traveling with family members had a higher survival rate than bachelor males , possibly because family members more readily shared food with each other .
= = = Claims of cannibalism = = =
Although some survivors disputed the accounts of cannibalism , Charles McGlashan , who corresponded with many of the survivors over a 40 @-@ year period , documented many recollections that it occurred . Some correspondents were not forthcoming , approaching their participation with shame , but others eventually spoke about it freely . McGlashan in his 1879 book History of the Donner Party declined to include some of the more morbid details – such as the suffering of the children and infants before death , or how Mrs. Murphy , according to Georgia Donner , gave up , lay down on her bed and faced the wall when the last of the children left in the third relief . He also neglected to mention any cannibalism at Alder Creek . The same year McGlashan 's book was published , Georgia Donner wrote to him to clarify some points , saying that human flesh was prepared for people in both tents at Alder Creek , but to her recollection ( she was four years old during the winter of 1846 – 1847 ) it was given only to the youngest children : " Father was crying and did not look at us the entire time , and we little ones felt we could not help it . There was nothing else . " She also remembered that Elizabeth Donner , Jacob 's wife , announced one morning that she had cooked the arm of Samuel Shoemaker , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old teamster . Eliza Donner Houghton , in her 1911 account of the ordeal , did not mention any cannibalism at Alder Creek .
Archaeological findings at the Alder Creek camp proved inconclusive for evidence of cannibalism . None of the bones tested at the Alder Creek cooking hearth could be conclusively identified as human . According to Rarick , only cooked bones would be preserved , and it is unlikely that the Donner Party members would have needed to cook human bones .
Eliza Farnham 's 1856 account of the Donner Party was based largely on an interview with Margaret Breen . Her version details the ordeals of the Graves and Breen families after James Reed and the second relief left them in the snow pit . According to Farnham , seven @-@ year @-@ old Mary Donner suggested to the others that they should eat Isaac Donner , Franklin Graves , Jr . , and Elizabeth Graves , because the Donners had already begun eating the others at Alder Creek , including Mary 's father Jacob . Margaret Breen insisted that she and her family did not cannibalize the dead , but Kristin Johnson , Ethan Rarick , and Joseph King – whose account is sympathetic to the Breen family – do not consider it credible that the Breens , who had been without food for nine days , would have been able to survive without eating human flesh . King suggests Farnham included this into her account independently of Margaret Breen .
According to an account published by H. A. Wise in 1847 , Jean Baptiste Trudeau boasted of his own heroism , but also spoke in lurid detail of eating Jacob Donner , and claimed he had eaten a baby raw . Many years later , Trudeau met Eliza Donner Houghton and denied cannibalizing anyone , which he reiterated in an interview with a St. Louis newspaper in 1891 , when he was 60 years old . Houghton and the other Donner children were fond of Trudeau , and he of them , in spite of their circumstances and the fact that he eventually left Tamsen Donner alone . Author George Stewart considers Trudeau 's accounting to Wise more accurate than what he told Houghton in 1884 , and asserted that he deserted the Donners . Kristin Johnson , on the other hand , attributes Trudeau 's interview with Wise to be a result of " common adolescent desires to be the center of attention and to shock one 's elders " ; when older , he reconsidered his story , so as not to upset Houghton . Historians Joseph King and Jack Steed call Stewart 's characterization of Trudeau 's actions as desertion " extravagant moralism " , particularly because all members of the party were forced to make difficult choices . Ethan Rarick echoed this by writing , " ... more than the gleaming heroism or sullied villainy , the Donner Party is a story of hard decisions that were neither heroic nor villainous " .
= Passenger pigeon =
The passenger pigeon or wild pigeon ( Ectopistes migratorius ) is an extinct species of pigeon that was endemic to North America . Its common name is derived from the French word passager , meaning " passing by " , due to the migratory habits of the species . The scientific name also refers to its migratory characteristics . The morphologically similar mourning dove ( Zenaida macroura ) was long thought to be its closest relative , and the two were at times confused , but genetic analysis has shown that the genus Patagioenas is more closely related to it than the Zenaida doves .
The passenger pigeon was sexually dimorphic in size and coloration . The male was 39 to 41 cm ( 15 @.@ 4 to 16 @.@ 1 in ) in length , mainly gray on the upperparts , lighter on the underparts , with iridescent bronze feathers on the neck , and black spots on the wings . The female was 38 to 40 cm ( 15 @.@ 0 to 15 @.@ 7 in ) , and was duller and browner than the male overall . The juvenile was similar to the female , but without iridescence . It mainly inhabited the deciduous forests of eastern North America and was also recorded elsewhere , but bred primarily around the Great Lakes . The pigeon migrated in enormous flocks , constantly searching for food , shelter , and breeding grounds , and was once the most abundant bird in North America , numbering around 3 to 5 billion at the height of its population . It was not always as abundant , and the population size fluctuated rapidly over time . A very fast flyer , it could reach 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) . The bird fed mainly on mast , as well as fruits and invertebrates . It practiced communal roosting and communal breeding , and its extreme gregariousness may be linked with searching for food and predator satiation .
Passenger pigeons were hunted by Native Americans , but hunting intensified after the arrival of Europeans , particularly in the 19th century . Pigeon meat was commercialized as cheap food , resulting in hunting on a massive scale for many decades . There were several other factors contributing to the decline and subsequent extinction of the species , including shrinking of the large breeding populations necessary for preservation of the species and widespread deforestation which destroyed its habitat .
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A slow decline between about 1800 and 1870 was followed by a rapid decline between 1870 and 1890 . The last confirmed wild bird is thought to have been shot in 1900 . The last captive birds were divided in three groups around the turn of the 20th century , some of which were photographed alive . Martha , thought to be the last passenger pigeon , died on September 1 , 1914 , at the Cincinnati Zoo . Eradication of the species has been described as one of the greatest and most senseless extinctions induced by humans .
= = Taxonomy = =
Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus coined the binomial name Columba macroura for both the mourning dove and the passenger pigeon in the 1758 edition of his work Systema Naturae ( the starting point of biological nomenclature ) , wherein he appears to have considered the two identical . This composite description cited accounts of these birds in two pre @-@ Linnean books . One of these was Mark Catesby 's description of the passenger pigeon , which was published in his 1731 – 1743 work Natural History of Carolina , Florida and the Bahama Islands , which referred to this bird as Palumbus migratorius , and was accompanied by the earliest published illustration of the species . Catesby 's description was combined with the 1743 description of the mourning dove by George Edwards , who used the name C. macroura for that bird . There is nothing to suggest Linnaeus ever saw specimens of these birds himself , and his description is thought to be fully derivative of these earlier accounts and their illustrations . In his 1766 edition of Systema Naturae , Linnaeus dropped the name C. macroura , and instead used the name C. migratoria for the passenger pigeon , and C. carolinensis for the mourning dove . In the same edition , Linnaeus also named C. canadensis , based on Turtur canadensis , as used by Mathurin Jacques Brisson in 1760 . Brisson 's description was later shown to have been based on a female passenger pigeon .
In 1827 William John Swainson moved the passenger pigeon from the genus Columba to the new monotypic genus Ectopistes , due in part to the length of the wings and the wedge shape of the tail . In 1906 Outram Bangs suggested that because Linnaeus had wholly copied Catesby 's text when coining C. macroura , this name should apply to the passenger pigeon , as E. macroura . In 1918 Harry C. Oberholser suggested that C. canadensis should take precedence over C. migratoria ( as E. canadensis ) , as it appeared on an earlier page in Linnaeus ' book . In 1952 Francis Hemming proposed that the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) secure the specific name macroura for the mourning dove , and the name migratorius for the passenger pigeon , since this was the intended use by the authors on whose work Linnaeus had based his description . This was accepted by the ICZN , which used its plenary powers to designate the species for the respective names in 1955 .
= = = Evolution = = =
The passenger pigeon was a member of the pigeon and dove family , Columbidae . Its closest living relatives were long thought to be the Zenaida doves , based on morphological grounds , particularly the physically similar mourning dove ( now Z. macroura ) . It was even suggested that the mourning dove belonged to the genus Ectopistes and was listed as E. carolinensis by some authors , including Thomas Mayo Brewer . The passenger pigeon was supposedly descended from Zenaida pigeons that had adapted to the woodlands on the plains of central North America . The passenger pigeon differed from the species in the genus Zenaida in being larger , lacking a facial stripe , being sexually dimorphic , and having iridescent neck feathers and a smaller clutch . In a 2002 study by American geneticist Beth Shapiro et al . , museum specimens of the passenger pigeon were included in an ancient DNA analysis for the first time ( in a paper focusing mainly on the dodo ) , and it was found to be the sister taxon of the cuckoo @-@ dove genus Macropygia . The Zenaida doves were instead shown to be related to the quail @-@ doves of the genus Geotrygon and the Leptotila doves .
A more extensive 2010 study instead showed that the passenger pigeon was most closely related to the New World Patagioenas pigeons , including the band @-@ tailed pigeon ( P. fasciata ) of western North America , which are related to the Southeast Asian species in the genera Turacoena , Macropygia and Reinwardtoena . This clade is also related to the Columba and Streptopelia doves of the Old World ( collectively termed the " typical pigeons and doves " ) . The authors of the study suggested that the ancestors of the passenger pigeon may have colonized the New World from South East Asia by flying across the Pacific Ocean , or perhaps across Beringia in the north . In a 2012 study , the nuclear DNA of the passenger pigeon was analyzed for the first time , and its relationship with the Patagioenas pigeons was confirmed . In contrast to the 2010 study , these authors suggested that their results could indicate that the ancestors of the passenger pigeon and its Old World relatives may have originated in the Neotropical region of the New World .
The cladogram below follows the 2012 DNA study showing the position of the passenger pigeon among its closest relatives :
DNA in old museum specimens is often degraded and fragmentary , and passenger pigeon specimens have been used in various studies to discover improved methods of analyzing and assembling genomes from such material . DNA samples are often taken from the toe pads of bird skins in museums , as this can be done without causing significant damage to valuable specimens . The passenger pigeon had no known subspecies . Hybridization occurred between the passenger pigeon and the Barbary dove ( Streptopelia risoria ) in the aviary of Charles Otis Whitman ( who owned many of the last captive birds around the turn of the 20th century , and kept them with other pigeon species ) but the offspring were infertile .
= = = Etymology = = =
The genus name , Ectopistes , translates as " moving about " or " wandering " , while the specific name , migratorius , indicates its migratory habits . The full binomial can thus be translated as " migratory wanderer " . The English common name " passenger pigeon " derives from the French word passager , which means " to pass by " in a fleeting manner . While the pigeon was extant , the name passenger pigeon was used interchangeably with " wild pigeon " . The bird also gained some less @-@ frequently used names , including blue pigeon , merne rouck pigeon , wandering long @-@ tailed dove , and wood pigeon . In the 18th century , the passenger pigeon was known as tourte in New France ( in modern Canada ) , but to the French in Europe it was known as tourtre . In modern French , the bird is known as tourte voyageuse or pigeon migrateur , among other names . In the Native American Algonquian languages , the pigeon was called amimi by the Lenape , omiimii by the Ojibwe , and mimia by the Kaskaskia Illinois . Other names in indigenous American languages include ori 'te in Mohawk , and putchee nashoba , or " lost dove " , in Choctaw . The Seneca people called the pigeon jahgowa , meaning " big bread " , as it was a source of food for their tribes . Chief Simon Pokagon of the Potawatomi stated that his people called the pigeon O @-@ me @-@ me @-@ wog , and that the Europeans did not adopt native names for the bird , as it reminded them of their domesticated pigeons , instead calling them " wild " pigeons , as they called the native peoples " wild " men .
= = Description = =
The passenger pigeon was sexually dimorphic in size and coloration . It weighed between 260 and 340 g ( 9 and 12 oz ) . The adult male was about 39 to 41 cm ( 15 @.@ 4 to 16 @.@ 1 in ) in length . It had a bluish @-@ gray head , nape , and hindneck . On the sides of the neck and the upper mantle were iridescent display feathers that have variously been described as being a bright bronze , violet or golden @-@ green , depending on the angle of the light . The upper back and wings were a pale or slate gray tinged with olive brown , that turned into grayish @-@ brown on the lower wings . The lower back and rump were a dark blue @-@ gray that became grayish @-@ brown on the upper tail @-@ covert feathers . The greater and median wing @-@ covert feathers were pale gray , with a small number of irregular black spots near the end . The primary and secondary feathers of the wing were a blackish @-@ brown with a narrow white edge on the outer side of the secondaries . The two central tail feathers were brownish gray , and the rest were white . The tail pattern was distinctive as it had white outer edges with blackish spots that were prominently displayed in flight . The lower throat and breast were richly pinkish @-@ rufous , grading into a paler pink further down , and into white on the abdomen and undertail covert feathers . The undertail coverts also had a few black spots . The bill was black , while the feet and legs were a bright coral red . It had a carmine @-@ red iris surrounded by a narrow purplish @-@ red eye @-@ ring . The wing of the male measured 196 – 215 mm ( 7 @.@ 7 – 8 @.@ 5 in ) , the tail 175 – 210 mm ( 6 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) , the bill 15 – 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) , and the tarsus was 26 – 28 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 1 in ) .
The adult female passenger pigeon was slightly smaller than the male at 38 to 40 cm ( 15 @.@ 0 to 15 @.@ 7 in ) in length . It was duller than the male overall , and was a grayish @-@ brown on the forehead , crown , and nape down to the scapulars , and the feathers on the sides of the neck had less iridescence than those of the male . The lower throat and breast were a buff @-@ gray that developed into white on the belly and undertail @-@ coverts . It was browner on the upperparts and paler buff brown and less rufous on the underparts than the male . The wings , back , and tail were similar in appearance to those of the male except that the outer edges of the primary feathers were edged in buff or rufous buff . The wings had more spotting than those of the male . The tail was shorter than that of the male , and the legs and feet were a paler red . The iris was orange red , with a grayish blue , naked orbital ring . The wing of the female was 180 – 210 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 8 @.@ 3 in ) , the tail 150 – 200 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 9 in ) , the bill 15 – 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 0 @.@ 71 in ) , and the tarsus was 25 – 28 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 1 @.@ 10 in ) .
The juvenile passenger pigeon was similar in plumage to the adult female , but lacked the spotting on the wings , and was a darker brownish @-@ gray on the head , neck , and breast . The feathers on the wings had pale gray fringes ( also described as white tips ) , giving it a scaled look . The secondaries were brownish @-@ black with pale edges , and the tertial feathers had a rufous wash . The primaries were also edged with a rufous @-@ brown color . The neck feathers had no iridescence . The legs and feet were dull red , and the iris was brownish , and surrounded by a narrow carmine ring . The plumage of the sexes was similar during their first year .
Of the hundreds of surviving skins , only one appears to be aberrant in color — an adult female from the collection of Walter Rothschild , Natural History Museum at Tring . It is a washed brown on the upper parts , wing covert , secondary feathers , and tail ( where it would otherwise have been gray ) , and white on the primary feathers and underparts . The normally black spots are brown , and it is pale gray on the head , lower back , and upper @-@ tail covert feathers , yet the iridescence is unaffected . The brown mutation is a result of a reduction in eumelanin , due to incomplete synthesis ( oxidation ) of this pigment . This sex @-@ linked mutation is common in female wild birds , but it is thought the white feathers of this specimen are instead the result of bleaching due to exposure to sunlight .
The passenger pigeon was physically adapted for speed , endurance , and maneuverability in flight , and has been described as having a streamlined version of the typical pigeon shape , such as that of the generalized rock dove ( Columba livia ) . The wings were very long and pointed , and measured 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) from the wing @-@ chord to the primary feathers , and 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) to the secondaries . The tail , which accounted for much of its overall length , was long and wedge @-@ shaped ( or graduated ) , with two central feathers longer than the rest . The body was slender and narrow , and the head and neck were small .
The internal anatomy of the passenger pigeon has rarely been described . Robert W. Shufeldt found little to differentiate the bird 's osteology from that of other pigeons when examining a male skeleton in 1914 , but Julian P. Hume noted several distinct features in a more detailed 2015 description . The pigeon had particularly large breast muscles that indicate powerful flight ( musculus pectoralis major for downstroke and the smaller musculus supracoracoideus for upstroke ) . The coracoid bone ( which connects the scapula , furcula , and sternum ) was large relative to the size of the bird , 33 @.@ 4 mm ( 1 @.@ 31 in ) , with straighter shafts and more robust articular ends than in other pigeons . The furcula had a sharper V @-@ shape and was more robust , with expanded articular ends . The scapula was long , straight , and robust , and its distal end was enlarged . The sternum was very large and robust compared to that of other pigeons ; its keel was 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) deep . The overlapping uncinate processes , which stiffen the ribcage , were very well developed . The wing bones ( humerus , radius , ulna , carpometacarpus ) were short but robust compared to other pigeons . The leg bones were similar to those of other pigeons .
= = = Vocalizations = = =
The noise produced by flocks of passenger pigeons was described as deafening , audible for miles away , and the bird 's voice as loud , harsh , and unmusical . It was also described by some as clucks , twittering and cooing , and as a series of low notes instead of actual song . The birds apparently made croaking noises when building nests , and bell @-@ like sounds when mating . During feeding , some individuals would give alarm calls when facing a threat , and the rest of the flock would join the sound while taking off .
In 1911 American behavioral scientist Wallace Craig published an account of the gestures and sounds of this species as a series of descriptions and musical notations , based on observation of C. O. Whitman 's captive passenger pigeons in 1903 . Craig compiled these records to assist in identifying potential survivors in the wild ( as the physically similar mourning doves could otherwise be mistaken for passenger pigeons ) , while noting this " meager information " was likely all that would be left on the subject . According to Craig , one call was a simple harsh " keck " that could be given twice in succession with a pause in between . This was said to be used to attract the attention of another pigeon . Another call was a more frequent and variable scolding . This sound was described as " kee @-@ kee @-@ kee @-@ kee " or " tete ! tete ! tete ! " , and was used to call either to its mate or towards other creatures it considered to be enemies . One variant of this call , described as a long , drawn @-@ out " tweet " , could be used to call down a flock of passenger pigeons passing overhead , which would then land in a nearby tree . " Keeho " was a soft cooing that , while followed by louder " keck " notes or scolding , was directed at the bird 's mate . A nesting passenger pigeon would also give off a stream of at least eight mixed notes that were both high and low in tone and ended with " keeho " . Overall , female passenger pigeons were quieter and called infrequently . Craig suggested that the loud , strident voice and " degenerated " musicality was the result of living in populous colonies where only the loudest sounds could be heard .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The passenger pigeon was found across most of North America east of the Rocky Mountains , from the Great Plains to the Atlantic coast in the east , to the south of Canada in the north , and the north of Mississippi in the southern United States , coinciding with its primary habitat , the eastern deciduous forests . Within this range , it constantly migrated in search of food and shelter . It is unclear if the birds favored particular trees and terrain , but they were possibly not restricted to one type , as long as their numbers could be supported . It originally bred from the southern parts of eastern and central Canada south to eastern Kansas , Oklahoma , Mississippi , and Georgia in the United States , but the primary breeding range was in southern Ontario and the Great Lakes states south through states north of the Appalachian Mountains . Though the western forests were ecologically similar to those in the east , these were occupied by band @-@ tailed pigeons , which may have kept out the passenger pigeons through competitive exclusion .
The passenger pigeon wintered from Arkansas , Tennessee , and North Carolina south to Texas , the Gulf Coast , and northern Florida , though flocks occasionally wintered as far north as southern Pennsylvania and Connecticut . It preferred to winter in large swamps , particularly those with alder trees ; if swamps were not available , forested areas , particularly with pine trees , were favored roosting sites . There were also sightings of passenger pigeons outside of its normal range , including in several Western states , Bermuda , Cuba , and Mexico , particularly during severe winters . It has been suggested that some of these extralimital records may be considered as such more on the basis of the paucity of observers in what was then unsettled country than on the actual extent of wandering passenger pigeons , and that the bird may have appeared anywhere on the continent except for the far west . There were also records of stragglers in Scotland , Ireland , and France , although these birds may have been escaped captives , or the records simply incorrect .
More than 130 passenger pigeon fossils have been found scattered across 25 states and provinces of the United States , including in the La Brea Tar Pits of California . These records date as far back as 100 @,@ 000 years ago in the Pleistocene era , during which the pigeon 's range extended to several western states that were not a part of its modern range . The abundance of the species in these regions and during this time is unknown .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
The passenger pigeon was nomadic , constantly migrating in search of food , shelter , or nesting grounds . In his 1831 Ornithological Biography , American naturalist and artist John James Audubon described a migration he observed in 1813 as follows :
I dismounted , seated myself on an eminence , and began to mark with my pencil , making a dot for every flock that passed . In a short time finding the task which I had undertaken impracticable , as the birds poured in in countless multitudes , I rose and , counting the dots then put down , found that 163 had been made in twenty @-@ one minutes . I traveled on , and still met more the farther I proceeded . The air was literally filled with Pigeons ; the light of noon @-@ day was obscured as by an eclipse ; the dung fell in spots , not unlike melting flakes of snow , and the continued buzz of wings had a tendency to lull my senses to repose ... I cannot describe to you the extreme beauty of their aerial evolutions , when a hawk chanced to press upon the rear of the flock . At once , like a torrent , and with a noise like thunder , they rushed into a compact mass , pressing upon each other towards the center . In these almost solid masses , they darted forward in undulating and angular lines , descended and swept close over the earth with inconceivable velocity , mounted perpendicularly so as to resemble a vast column , and , when high , were seen wheeling and twisting within their continued lines , which then resembled the coils of a gigantic serpent ... Before sunset I reached Louisville , distant from Hardensburgh fifty @-@ five miles . The Pigeons were still passing in undiminished numbers and continued to do so for three days in succession .
These flocks were frequently described as being so dense that they blackened the sky and as having no sign of subdivisions . The flocks ranged from only 1 @.@ 0 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) above the ground in windy conditions to as high as 400 m ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) . These migrating flocks were typically in narrow columns that twisted and undulated , and they were reported as being in nearly every conceivable shape . A skilled flyer , the passenger pigeon is estimated to have averaged 100 km / h ( 62 mph ) during migration . It flew with quick , repeated flaps that increased the bird 's velocity the closer the wings got to the body . It was equally as adept and quick at flying through a forest as through open space . A flock was also adept at following the lead of the pigeon in front of it , and flocks swerved together to avoid a predator . When landing , the pigeon flapped its wings repeatedly before raising them at the moment of landing . The pigeon was awkward when on the ground , and moved around with jerky , alert steps .
The passenger pigeon was one of the most social of all land birds . Estimated to have numbered three to five billion at the height of its population , it may have been the most numerous bird on Earth ; researcher Arlie W. Schorger believed that it accounted for between 25 and 40 percent of the total land bird population in the United States . The passenger pigeon 's historic population is roughly the equivalent of the number of birds that overwinter in the United States every year in the early 21st century . One flock in 1866 in southern Ontario was described as being 1 @.@ 5 km ( 1 mi ) wide and 500 km ( 300 mi ) long , took 14 hours to pass , and held in excess of 3 @.@ 5 billion birds . Such a number would likely represent a large fraction of the entire population at the time , or perhaps all of it . Most estimations of numbers were based on single migrating colonies , and it is unknown how many of these existed at a given time . American writer Christopher Cokinos has suggested that if the birds flew single file , they would have stretched around the earth 22 times . A 2014 genetic study ( based on coalescent theory ) suggested that the passenger pigeon population fluctuated rapidly across the last million years , due to their dependence on availability of mast ( which itself fluctuates ) . The study suggested the bird was not always abundant , mainly persisting at around 1 / 10 @,@ 000 the amount of the several billions estimated in the 1800s . Some early accounts also suggest that the appearance of flocks in great numbers was an irregular occurrence .
A communally roosting species , the passenger pigeon chose roosting sites that could provide shelter and enough food to sustain their large numbers for an indefinite period . The time spent at one roosting site may have depended on the extent of human persecution , weather conditions , or other , unknown factors . Roosts ranged in size and extent , from a few acres to 260 km2 ( 100 square miles ) or greater . Some roosting areas would be reused for subsequent years , others would only be used once . The passenger pigeon roosted in such numbers that even thick branches on a tree would break under the strain . The birds frequently piled on top of each other 's backs to roost . They rested in a slumped position that hid their feet . They slept with their bills concealed by the feathers in the middle of the breast while holding their tail at a 45 @-@ degree angle . Dung could accumulate under a roosting site to a depth of over 0 @.@ 3 m ( 1 @.@ 0 ft ) .
If the pigeon became alert , it would often stretch out its head and neck in line with its body and tail , then nod its head in a circular pattern . When aggravated by another pigeon , it raised it wings threateningly , but passenger pigeons almost never actually fought . The pigeon bathed in shallow water , and afterwards lay on each side in turn and raised the opposite wing to dry it . The passenger pigeon drank at least once a day , typically at dawn , by fully inserting its bill into lakes , small ponds , and streams . Pigeons were seen perching on top of each other to access water , and if necessary , the species could alight on open water to drink . One of the primary causes of natural mortality was the weather , and every spring many individuals froze to death after migrating north too early . In captivity , a passenger pigeon was capable of living at least 15 years ; Martha , the last known living passenger pigeon , was at least 17 and possibly as old as 29 when she died . It is undocumented how long a wild pigeon lived .
The bird is believed to have played a significant ecological role in the composition of presettlement forests of eastern North America . For instance , while the passenger pigeon was extant , forests were dominated by white oaks . This species germinated in the fall , therefore producing acorns during the spring to be devoured and spread by the pigeons . The absence of the passenger pigeon 's seed dispersal may have led to the modern dominance of red oaks . At roosting sites , few plants grew for years after the pigeons left . Also , the immense amount of dung present at these sites increased both the frequency and intensity of forest fires . With the large numbers in the flocks , the excrement they produced was enough to destroy surface @-@ level vegetation , and along with the breaking of treelimbs under their collective weight , the passenger pigeons could do significant damage to forests . Due to these influences , some ecologists have considered the passenger pigeon a keystone species . The American chestnut trees that provided much of the mast on which the passenger pigeon fed was itself almost driven to extinction by an imported Asian fungus ( chestnut blight ) around 1905 . As many as thirty billion trees are thought to have died as a result in the following decades , but this did not affect the passenger pigeon , which was already extinct in the wild at the time .
= = = Diet = = =
Beeches and oaks produced the mast needed to support nesting and roosting flocks . The passenger pigeon changed its diet depending on the season . In the fall , winter , and spring , it mainly ate beechnuts , acorns , and chestnuts . During the summer , berries and softer fruits , such as blueberries , grapes , cherries , mulberries , pokeberries , and bunchberry , became the main objects of its consumption . It also ate worms , caterpillars , snails , and other invertebrates , particularly while breeding . Additionally , the passenger pigeon took advantage of cultivated grains , particularly buckwheat , when it found them . The species was especially fond of salt , which it ingested either from brackish springs or salty soil . Mast occurs in large quantities in different places at different times , and rarely in consecutive years , which is one of the reasons why the large flocks were constantly on the move . As mast is produced during autumn , there would have to be a large amount of it left by the summer , when the young were reared . It is unknown how they located this fluctuating food source , but their eyesight and flight powers aided them in surveying large areas for places that could provide food enough for a temporary stay .
The passenger pigeon foraged in flocks of tens or hundreds of thousands of individuals that overturned leaves , dirt , and snow with their bills in a frantic search for large quantities of food . One observer described the motion of such a flock in search of mast as having a rolling appearance , as birds in the back of the flock flew overhead to the front of the flock , dropping leaves and grass in flight . The flocks had wide leading edges to better scan the landscape for food sources . When nuts on a tree loosened from their caps , a pigeon would land on a branch and , while flapping vigorously to stay balanced , grab the nut , pull it loose from its cap , and swallow it whole . Collectively , a foraging flock was capable of removing nearly all fruits and nuts from their path . Birds in the back of the flock flew to the front in order to pick over unsearched ground ; however , birds never ventured far from the flock and hurried back if they became isolated . It is believed that the pigeons used social cues in order to identify abundant sources of food , and a flock of pigeons that saw others feeding on the ground often joined them . During the day , the birds left the roosting forest to forage on more open land . They regularly flew 100 to 130 km ( 62 to 81 mi ) away from their roost daily in search of food , and some pigeons reportedly traveled as far as 160 km ( 99 mi ) , leaving the roosting area early and returning at night .
The passenger pigeon had a very elastic mouth and throat , allowing for increased capacity , and a joint in the lower bill enabled it to swallow acorns whole . The bird was also able to store large quantities of food in its crop , which was capable of expanding to about the size of an orange , causing the neck to bulge . This allowed a bird to quickly grab any food it discovered in the highly competitive flock . The crop was described as being capable of holding at least 17 acorns or 28 beechnuts , 11 grains of corn , 100 maple seeds , plus other material ; it was estimated that a passenger pigeon needed to eat about 61 cm3 ( 3 @.@ 7 in3 ) of food a day in order to survive . If shot , a pigeon with a crop full of nuts would fall to the ground with a sound described as like the rattle of a bag of marbles . After feeding , the pigeons perched on branches and digested the food stored in their crop overnight . The pigeon could eat and digest 0 @.@ 100 kg ( 0 @.@ 22 lb ) of acorns per day . At the historic population of three billion passenger pigeons , this amounted to 210 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ( 55 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) of food a day . The pigeon was also able to regurgitate food from its crop when more desirable food became available .
= = = Reproduction = = =
Other than finding roosting sites , the migrations of the passenger pigeon were connected with finding places appropriate for this communally breeding bird to nest and raise its young . It is not certain how many times a year the birds bred ; once seems most likely , but some accounts suggest more . The nesting period lasted around four to six weeks . The flock arrived at a nesting ground around March in southern latitudes , and some time later in more northern areas . The pigeon had no site fidelity , often choosing to nest in a different location each year . The formation of a nesting colony did not necessarily take place until several months after the pigeons arrived on their breeding grounds , typically during late March , April , or May .
The colonies , which were known as " cities " , were immense , ranging from 49 ha ( 120 acres ) to thousands of hectares in size , and were often long and narrow in shape ( L @-@ shaped ) , with a few areas untouched for unknown reasons . Due to the topography , they were rarely continuous . Since no accurate data were recorded , it is not possible to give more than estimates on the size and population of these nesting areas , but most accounts mention colonies containing millions of birds . The largest nesting area ever recorded was in central Wisconsin in 1871 ; it was reported as covering 2 @,@ 200 km2 ( 850 sq mi ) , with the number of birds nesting there estimated to be around 136 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . As well as these " cities " , there were regular reports of much smaller flocks or even individual pairs setting up a nesting site . The birds do not seem to have formed as vast breeding colonies at the periphery of their range .
Courtship took place at the nesting colony . Unlike other pigeons , courtship took place on a branch or perch . The male , with a flourish of the wings , made a " keck " call while near a female . The male then gripped tightly to the branch and vigorously flapped his wings up and down . When the male was close to the female , he then pressed against her on the perch with his head held high and pointing at her . If receptive , the female pressed back against the male . When ready to mate , the pair preened each other . This was followed by the birds billing , in which the female inserted its bill into and clasped the male 's bill , shook for a second , and separated quickly while standing next to each other . The male then scrambled onto the female 's back and copulated , which was then followed by soft clucking and occasionally more preening . John James Audubon described the courtship of the passenger pigeon as follows :
Thither the countless myriads resort , and prepare to fulfill one of the great laws of nature . At this period the note of the Pigeon is a soft coo @-@ coo @-@ coo @-@ coo much shorter than that of the domestic species . The common notes resemble the monosyllables kee @-@ kee @-@ kee @-@ kee , the first being the loudest , the others gradually diminishing In power . The male assumes a pompous demeanor , and follows the female , whether on the ground or on the branches , with spread tail and drooping wings , which it rubs against the part over which it is moving . The body is elevated , the throat swells , the eyes sparkle . He continues his notes , and now and then rises on the wing , and flies a few yards to approach the fugitive and timorous female . Like the domestic Pigeon and other species , they caress each other by billing , in which action , the bill of the one is introduced transversely into that of the other , and both parties alternately disgorge the contents of their crop by repeated efforts .
After observing captive birds , Wallace Craig found that this species did less charging and strutting than other pigeons ( as it was awkward on the ground ) , and thought it probable that no food was transferred during their brief billing ( unlike in other pigeons ) , and he therefore considered Audubon 's description partially based on analogy with other pigeons as well as imagination .
Nests were built immediately after pair formation and took two to four days to construct ; this process was highly synchronized within a colony . The female chose the nesting site by sitting on it and flicking its wings . The male then carefully selected nesting materials , typically twigs , and handed them to the female over her back . The male then went in search of more nesting material while the female constructed the nest beneath herself . Nests were built between 2 @.@ 0 and 20 @.@ 1 m ( 6 @.@ 6 and 65 @.@ 9 ft ) above the ground , though typically above 4 @.@ 0 m ( 13 @.@ 1 ft ) , and were made of 70 to 110 twigs woven together to create a loose , shallow bowl through which the egg could easily be seen . This bowl was then typically lined with finer twigs . The nests were about 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) wide , 6 @.@ 1 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) high , and 1 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) deep . Though the nest has been described as crude and flimsy compared to those of many other birds , remains of nests could be found at sites where nesting had taken place several years prior . Nearly every tree capable of supporting nests had them , often more than 50 per tree ; one hemlock was recorded as holding 317 nests . The nests were placed on strong branches close to the tree trunks . Some accounts state that ground under the nesting area looked as if it had been swept clean , due to all the twigs being collected at the same time , yet this area would also have been covered in dung . As both sexes took care of the nest , the pairs were monogamous for the duration of the nesting .
Generally , the eggs were laid during the first two weeks of April across the pigeon 's range . Each female laid its egg immediately or almost immediately after the nest was completed ; sometimes the pigeon was forced to lay it on the ground if the nest was not complete . The normal clutch size appears to have been a single egg , but there is some uncertainty about this , as two have also been reported from the same nests . Occasionally , a second female laid its egg in another female 's nest , resulting in two eggs being present . The egg was white and oval shaped and averaged 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) by 34 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 in ) in size . If the egg was lost , it was possible for the pigeon to lay a replacement egg within a week . A whole colony was known to re @-@ nest after a snowstorm forced them to abandon their original colony . The egg was incubated by both parents for 12 to 14 days , with the male incubating it from midmorning to midafternoon and the female incubating it for the rest of the time .
Upon hatching , the nestling ( or squab ) was blind and sparsely covered with yellow , hairlike down . The nestling developed quickly and within 14 days weighed as much as its parents . During this brooding period both parents took care of the nestling , with the male attending in the middle of the day and the female at other times . The nestlings were fed crop milk ( a substance similar to curd , produced in the crops of the parent birds ) exclusively for the first days after hatching . Adult food was gradually introduced after three to six days . After 13 to 15 days , the parents fed the nestling for a last time and then abandoned it , leaving the nesting area en masse . The nestling begged in the nest for a day or two , before climbing from the nest and fluttering to the ground , whereafter it moved around , avoided obstacles , and begged for food from nearby adults . It was another three or four days before it fledged . The entire nesting cycle lasted about 30 days . It is unknown whether colonies re @-@ nested after a successful nesting . The passenger pigeon sexually matured during its first year and bred the following spring .
= = = Predators and parasites = = =
Nesting colonies attracted large numbers of predators , including American minks , American weasels , American martens , and raccoons that preyed on eggs and nestlings , birds of prey , such as owls , hawks , and eagles that preyed on nestlings and adults , and wolves , foxes , bobcats , bears , and mountain lions that preyed on injured adults and fallen nestlings . Hawks of the genus Accipiter and falcons pursued and preyed upon pigeons in flight , which in turn executed complex aerial maneuvers to avoid them ; Cooper 's hawk was known as the " great pigeon hawk " due to its successes , and these hawks allegedly followed migrating passenger pigeons . While many predators were drawn to the flocks , individual pigeons were largely protected due to the sheer size of the flock , and overall little damage could be inflicted on the flock by predation . Despite the number of predators , nesting colonies were so large that they were estimated to have a 90 % success rate if not disturbed . After being abandoned and leaving the nest , the very fat juveniles were vulnerable to predators until they were able to fly . The sheer number of juveniles on the ground meant that only a small percentage of them were killed ; predator satiation may therefore be one of the reasons for the extremely social habits and communal breeding of the species .
Two parasites have been recorded on passenger pigeons . One species of phtilopterid louse , Columbicola extinctus , was originally thought to have lived on just passenger pigeons and to have become coextinct with them . This was proven inaccurate in 1999 when C. extinctus was rediscovered living on band @-@ tailed pigeons . This , and the fact that the related louse C. angustus is mainly found on cuckoo @-@ doves , further supports the relation between these pigeons , as the phylogeny of lice broadly mirrors that of their hosts . Another louse , Campanulotes defectus , was thought to have been unique to the passenger pigeon , but is now believed to have been a case of a contaminated specimen , as the species is considered to be the still @-@ extant Campanulotes flavus of Australia . There is no record of a wild pigeon dying of either disease or parasites .
= = Relationship with humans = =
The passenger pigeon played a religious role for some northern Native American tribes . The Wyandot people ( or Huron ) believed that every twelve years during the Feast of the Dead , the souls of the deceased changed into passenger pigeons , which were then hunted and eaten . Before hunting the juvenile pigeons , the Seneca people made an offering of wampum and brooches to the old passenger pigeons , these were placed in a small kettle or other receptacle by a smoky fire . The Ho @-@ Chunk people considered the passenger pigeon to be the bird of the chief , as they were served whenever the chieftain gave a feast . The Seneca people believed that a white pigeon was the chief of the passenger pigeon colony , and that a Council of Birds had decided that the pigeons had to give their bodies to the Seneca because they were the only birds that nested in colonies . The Seneca developed a pigeon dance as a way of showing their gratitude .
French explorer Jacques Cartier was the first European to report on passenger pigeons , during his voyage in 1534 . The bird was subsequently observed and noted by historical figures such as Samuel de Champlain and Cotton Mather . Most early accounts dwell on the vast number of pigeons , the resulting darkened skies , and the enormous amount of hunted birds ( 50 @,@ 000 birds were reportedly sold at a Boston market in 1771 ) . The early colonists thought that large flights of pigeons would be followed by ill fortune or sickness . When the pigeons wintered outside of their normal range , some believed that they would have " a sickly summer and autumn . " In the 18th and 19th centuries , various parts of the pigeon were thought to have medicinal properties . The blood was supposed to be good for eye disorders , the powdered stomach lining was used to treat dysentery , and the dung was used to treat a variety of ailments , including headaches , stomach pains , and lethargy . Though they did not last as long as the feathers of a goose , the feathers of the passenger pigeon were frequently used for bedding . Pigeon feather beds were so popular that for a time in Saint @-@ Jérôme , Quebec , every dowry included a bed and pillows made of pigeon feathers . In 1822 , one family in Chautauqua County , New York , killed 4 @,@ 000 pigeons in a day solely for this purpose .
The passenger pigeon was featured in the writings of many significant early naturalists , as well as accompanying illustrations . Mark Catesby 's 1731 illustration , the first published depiction of this bird , is somewhat crude , according to some later commentators . The original watercolor that the engraving is based on was bought by the British royal family in 1768 , along with the rest of Catesby 's watercolors . The naturalists Alexander Wilson and John James Audubon both witnessed large pigeon migrations first hand , and published detailed accounts wherein both attempted to deduce the total number of birds involved . The most famous and often reproduced depiction of the passenger pigeon is Audubon 's illustration ( handcolored aquatint ) in his book The Birds of America , published between 1827 and 1838 . Audubon 's image has been praised for its artistic qualities , but criticized for its supposed scientific inaccuracies . As Wallace Craig and R. W. Shufeldt ( among others ) pointed out , the birds are shown perched and billing one above the other , whereas they would instead have done this side by side , the male would be the one passing food to the female , and the male 's tail would not be spread . Craig and Shufeldt instead cited illustrations by American artist Louis Agassiz Fuertes and Japanese artist K. Hayashi as more accurate depictions of the bird . Illustrations of the passenger pigeon were often drawn after stuffed birds , and Charles R. Knight is the only " serious " artist known to have drawn the species from life . He did so on at least two occasions ; in 1903 he drew a bird possibly in one of the three aviaries with surviving birds , and some time before 1914 , he drew Martha , the last individual , in Cincinnati Zoo . The bird has been written about ( including in poems , songs , and fiction ) and illustrated by many notable writers and artists , and is depicted in art to this day , for example in Walton Ford 's 2002 painting Falling Bough , and National Medal of Arts winner John A. Ruthven 's 2014 mural in Cincinnati , which commemorates the 100th anniversary of Martha 's death . The passenger pigeon mural on the wall of a six @-@ story building in Cincinnati which can be seen in the 2014 documentary From Billions To None by David Mrazek and Joel Greenberg .
= = = Hunting = = =
The passenger pigeon was an important source of food for the people of North America . The indigenous peoples ate pigeons , and tribes near nesting colonies would sometimes move to live closer to them and eat the juveniles , killing them at night with long poles . Many Native Americans were careful not to disturb the adult pigeons , and instead ate only the juveniles as they were afraid that the adults might desert their nesting grounds ; in some tribes , disturbing the adult pigeons was considered a crime . Away from the nests , large nets were used to capture adult pigeons , sometimes up to 800 at a time . Low @-@ flying pigeons could be killed by throwing sticks or stones . At one site in Oklahoma , the pigeons leaving their roost every morning flew low enough that the Cherokee could throw clubs into their midst , which caused the lead pigeons to try to turn aside and in the process created a blockade that resulted in a large mass of flying , easily hit pigeons . Among the game birds , passenger pigeons were second only to the wild turkey ( Meleagris gallopavo ) in terms of importance for the Native Americans living in the southeastern United States . The bird 's fat was stored , often in large quantities , and used as butter . Archaeological evidence supports the idea that Native Americans ate the pigeons frequently prior to colonization .
After European colonization , the passenger pigeon was hunted more intensely and with more sophisticated methods than the more sustainable methods practiced by the natives . Yet it has also been suggested that the species was rare prior to 1492 , and that the subsequent increase in their numbers may be due to the decrease in the Native American population ( who , as well as hunting the birds , competed with them for mast ) caused by European immigration , and the supplementary food ( agricultural crops ) the immigrants provided . It was of particular value on the frontier , and some settlements counted on the pigeon to support their population . The flavor of the flesh of passenger pigeons varied depending on how they were prepared . In general , juveniles were thought to taste the best , followed by birds fattened in captivity and birds caught in September and October . It was common practice to fatten trapped pigeons before eating them or storing their bodies for winter . Dead pigeons were commonly stored by salting or pickling the bodies ; other times , only the breasts of the pigeons were kept , in which case they were typically smoked . In the early 19th century , commercial hunters began netting and shooting the birds to sell as food in city markets , and even as pig fodder . Once pigeon meat became popular , commercial hunting started on a prodigious scale .
Passenger pigeons were shot with such ease that many did not consider them to be a game bird , as an amateur hunter could easily bring down six with one shotgun blast ; a particularly good shot with both barrels of a shotgun at a roost could kill 61 birds . The birds were frequently shot either in flight during migration or immediately after , when they commonly perched in dead , exposed trees . Hunters only had to shoot toward the sky without aiming , and many pigeons would be brought down . The pigeons proved difficult to shoot head @-@ on , so hunters typically waited for the flocks to pass overhead before shooting them . Trenches were sometimes dug and filled with grain so that a hunter could shoot the pigeons along this trench . Hunters largely outnumbered trappers , and hunting passenger pigeons was a popular sport for young boys . In 1871 , a single seller of ammunition provided three tons of powder and 16 tons ( 32 @,@ 000 lb ) of shot during a nesting . In the latter half of the 19th century , thousands of passenger pigeons were captured for use in the sports shooting industry . The pigeons were used as living targets in shooting tournaments , such as " trap @-@ shooting " , the controlled release of birds from special traps . Competitions could also consist of people standing regularly spaced while trying to shoot down as many birds as possible in a passing flock . The pigeon was considered so numerous that 30 @,@ 000 birds had to be killed to claim the prize in one competition .
There were a wide variety of other methods used to capture and kill passenger pigeons . Nets were propped up to allow passenger pigeons entry , then closed by knocking loose the stick that supported the opening , trapping twenty or more pigeons inside . Tunnel nets were also used to great effect , and one particularly large net was capable of catching 3 @,@ 500 pigeons at a time . These nets were used by many farmers on their own property as well as by professional trappers . Food would be placed on the ground near the nets to attract the pigeons . Decoy or " Stool pigeons " ( sometimes blinded by having their eyelids sewn together ) were tied to a stool . When a flock of pigeons passed by , a chord would be pulled that made the stool pigeon flutter to the ground , making it seem as if it had found food , and the flock would be lured into the trap . Salt was also frequently used as bait , and many trappers set up near salt springs . At least one trapper used alcohol @-@ soaked grain as bait to intoxicate the birds and make them easier to kill . Another method of capture was to hunt at a nesting colony , particularly during the period of a few days after the adult pigeons abandoned their nestlings , but before the nestlings could fly . Some hunters used sticks to poke the nestlings out of the nest , while others shot the bottom of a nest with a blunt arrow to dislodge the pigeon . Others cut down a nesting tree in such a way that when it fell , it would also hit a second nesting tree and dislodge the pigeons within . In one case , 6 km2 ( 1 @,@ 500 acres ) of large trees were speedily cut down to get birds , and such methods were common . An extreme method , practiced only by particularly unscrupulous hunters , was to set fire to the base of a tree nested with pigeons ; the adults would flee and the juveniles would fall to the ground . Sulfur was sometimes burned beneath the nesting tree to suffocate the birds , which fell out of the tree in a weakened state .
By the mid @-@ 1800s , railroads had opened new opportunities for pigeon hunters . While previously it had proved too difficult to ship masses of pigeons to eastern cities , the access provided by the railroad permitted pigeon hunting to become commercialized . An extensive telegraph system was introduced in the 1860s , which improved communication across the United States , making it easier to spread information about the whereabouts of pigeon flocks . After being opened up to the railroads , the town of Plattsburg , New York is estimated to have shipped 1 @.@ 8 million pigeons to larger cities in 1851 alone at a price of 31 to 56 cents a dozen . By the late 1800s , the trade of passenger pigeons had become commercialized . Large commission houses employed trappers ( known as " pigeoners " ) to follow the flocks of pigeons year @-@ round . A single hunter is reported to have sent three million birds to eastern cities during his career . In 1874 , at least 600 people were employed as pigeon trappers , a number which grew to 1 @,@ 200 by 1881 . Pigeons were caught in such numbers that by 1876 , shipments of dead pigeons were unable to recoup the costs of the barrels and ice needed to ship them . The price of a barrel full of pigeons dropped to below fifty cents , due to overstocked markets . Passenger pigeons were instead kept alive so their meat would be fresh when the birds were killed , and sold once their market value had increased again . Thousands of birds were kept in large pens , though the bad conditions led many to die from lack of food and water , and by fretting ( gnawing ) themselves ; many rotted away before they could be sold .
Hunting of passenger pigeons was documented and depicted in contemporaneous newspapers , wherein various trapping methods and uses were featured . The most often reproduced of these illustrations was captioned " Winter sports in northern Louisiana : shooting wild pigeons " , and published in 1875 . Passenger pigeons were also seen as agricultural pests , since entire crops could be destroyed by feeding flocks . The bird was described as a " perfect scourge " by some farming communities , and hunters were employed to " wage warfare " on the birds to save grain , as shown in another newspaper illustration from 1867 captioned as " Shooting wild pigeons in Iowa " . When comparing these " pests " to the bison of the Great Plains , it is possible to infer that the valuable resource needed was not the species of animals but the agriculture which was consumed by said animal . The crops that were eaten were seen as marketable calories , proteins , and nutrients all grown for the wrong species .
= = = Decline and conservation attempts = = =
The notion that the species could be driven to extinction was alien to the early colonists , both because the number of birds did not appear to diminish , but also because the concept of extinction itself was yet to be defined . The bird seems to have been slowly pushed westwards since the arrival of Europeans , becoming scarce or absent in the east , though there were still millions of birds in the 1850s . The population must have been decreasing in numbers for many years , though this went unnoticed due to the apparent vast number of birds , which clouded their decline . In 1856 Bénédict Henry Révoil may have been one of the first writers to voice concern about the fate of the passenger pigeon , after witnessing a hunt in 1847 :
Everything leads to the belief that the pigeons , which cannot endure isolation and are forced to flee or to change their way of living according to the rate at which North America is populated by the European inflow , will simply end by disappearing from this continent , and , if the world does not end this before a century , I will wager ... that the amateur of ornithology will find no more wild pigeons , except those in the Museums of Natural History .
By the 1870s , the decrease in birds was noticeable , especially after the last large scale nestings and subsequent slaughters of millions of birds in 1874 and 1878 . By this time , large nestings only took place in the north , around the Great Lakes . The last large nesting was in Petoskey , Michigan , in 1878 ( following one in Pennsylvania a few days earlier ) , where 50 @,@ 000 birds were killed each day for nearly five months . The surviving adults attempted a second nesting at new sites , but were killed by professional hunters before they had a chance to raise any young . Scattered nestings are reported into the 1880s , but the birds were now wary , and commonly abandoned their nests if persecuted .
By the time of these last nestings , laws had already been enacted to protect the passenger pigeon , but these proved ineffective , as they were unclearly framed and hard to enforce . H. B. Roney , who had witnessed the Petoskey slaughter , led campaigns to protect the pigeon , but was met with resistance , and accusations that he was exaggerating the severity of the situation . Few offenders were prosecuted , mainly some poor trappers , but the large enterprises were not affected . In 1857 , a bill was brought forth to the Ohio State Legislature seeking protection for the passenger pigeon , yet a Select Committee of the Senate filed a report stating that the bird did not need protection , being " wonderfully prolific " , and dismissing the suggestion that the species could be destroyed . Public protests against trap @-@ shooting erupted in the 1870s , as the birds were badly treated before and after such contests . Conservationists were ineffective in stopping the slaughter . A bill was passed in the Michigan legislature making it illegal to net pigeons within 3 km ( 2 miles ) of a nesting area . In 1897 , a bill was introduced in the Michigan legislature asking for a 10 @-@ year closed season on passenger pigeons . Similar legal measures were passed and then disregarded in Pennsylvania . The gestures proved futile , and by the mid @-@ 1890s , the passenger pigeon had almost completely disappeared , and was probably extinct as a breeding bird in the wild . Small flocks are known to have existed at this point , since large numbers of birds were still being sold at markets . Thereafter , only small groups or individual birds were reported , many of which were shot on sight .
= = = Last survivors = = =
The last recorded nest and egg in the wild were collected in 1895 near Minneapolis . The last wild individual in Louisiana was discovered among a flock of mourning doves in 1896 , and subsequently shot . Many late sightings are thought to be false or due to confusion with mourning doves . The last fully authenticated record of a wild passenger pigeon was near Sargents , Pike County , Ohio , on March 22 or 24 , 1900 , when a female bird was killed by a boy named Press Clay Southworth with a BB gun . The boy had not recognized the bird as a passenger pigeon , but his parents identified it , and sent it to a taxidermist . The specimen , nicknamed " buttons " due to the buttons used instead of glass eyes , was donated to the Ohio Historical Society by the family in 1915 . Though this is the most often cited last wild specimen , in 2014 , writer Joel Greenberg pointed out two later records , one of which involves a male shot in 1902 in Indiana , that was stuffed but later destroyed . The reliability of later accounts are in question . US President Theodore Roosevelt claimed to have seen a bird in Michigan in 1907 . Ornithologist Alexander Wetmore claimed that he saw a pair flying near Independence , Kansas , in April 1905 . In 1910 , the American Ornithologists ' Union offered a reward of $ 3 @,@ 000 for discovering a nest – the equivalent of $ 76 @,@ 990 @.@ 05 in 2015 .
Most captive passenger pigeons were kept for exploitative purposes , but some were housed in zoos and aviaries . Audubon alone claimed to have brought 350 birds to England in 1830 , distributing them among various noblemen , and the species is also known to have been kept at London Zoo . Being common birds , these attracted little interest , until the species became rare in the 1890s . By the turn of the 20th century , the last known captive passenger pigeons were divided in three groups ; one in Milwaukee , one in Chicago , and one in Cincinnati . There are claims of a few further individuals having been kept in various places , but these accounts are not considered reliable today . The Milwaukee group was kept by David Whittaker , who began his collection in 1888 , and possessed fifteen birds some years later , all descended from a single pair .
The Chicago group was kept by Professor Charles Otis Whitman , whose collection began with passenger pigeons bought from Whittaker beginning in 1896 . He had an interest in studying pigeons , and kept his passenger pigeons with other pigeon species . Whitman brought his pigeons with him from Chicago to Massachusetts by railcar each summer . By 1897 , Whitman had bought all of Whittaker 's birds , and upon reaching a maximum of 19 individuals , he gave seven back to Whittaker in 1898 . Around this time , a series of photographs were taken of these birds ; 24 of the photos survive to this day . Some of these images have been reproduced in various media , copies of which are now kept at the Wisconsin Historical Society . It is unclear exactly where , when , and by whom these photos were taken , but some appear to have been taken in Chicago in 1896 , others in Massachusetts in 1898 , the latter by a J. G. Hubbard . By 1902 , Whitman owned sixteen birds . Many eggs were laid by his pigeons , but few hatched , and many hatchlings died . A newspaper inquiry was published that requested " fresh blood " to the flock which had now ceased breeding . By 1907 , he was down to two female passenger pigeons that died that winter , and was left with two infertile male hybrids , whose subsequent fate is unknown . By this time , only four ( all males ) of the birds Whitman had returned to Whittaker were alive , and these died between November 1908 and February 1909 .
The Cincinnati Zoo , one of the oldest zoos in the US , kept passenger pigeons from its beginning in 1875 . The zoo kept more than twenty individuals , in a ten @-@ by @-@ twelve @-@ foot cage . Passenger pigeons do not appear to have been kept at the zoo due to their rarity , but to enable guests to have a closer look at a native species . Recognizing the decline of the wild populations , Whitman and the Cincinnati Zoo consistently strove to breed the surviving birds , including attempts at making a rock dove foster passenger pigeon eggs . In 1902 , Whitman gave a female passenger pigeon to the zoo ; this was possibly the individual later known as Martha , which would become the last living member of the species . Other sources argue that Martha was hatched at the Cincinnati Zoo , had lived there for 25 years , and was the descendant of three pairs of passenger pigeons purchased by the zoo in 1877 . It is thought this individual was named Martha because her last cage mate was named George , thereby honoring George Washington and his wife Martha , though it has also been claimed she was named after the mother of a zookeeper 's friends .
In 1909 , Martha and her two male companions at the Cincinnati Zoo became the only known surviving passenger pigeons . One of these males died around April that year , followed by George , the remaining male , on July 10 , 1910 . It is unknown whether the remains of George were preserved . Martha soon became a celebrity due to her status as an endling , and offers of a $ 1 @,@ 000 reward for finding a mate for her brought even more visitors to see her . During her last four years in solitude ( her cage was 5 @.@ 4 by 6 m ( 18 by 20 ft ) ) , Martha became steadily slower and more immobile ; visitors would throw sand at her to make her move , and her cage was roped off in response . Martha died of old age on September 1 , 1914 , and was found lifeless on the floor of her cage . It was claimed that she died at 1 p.m. , but other sources suggest she died some hours later . Depending on the source , Martha was between 17 and 29 years old at the time of her death , although 29 is the generally accepted figure . At the time , it was suggested that Martha might have died from an apoplectic stroke , as she had suffered one a few weeks before dying . Her body was frozen into a block of ice and sent to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington , where it was skinned , dissected , photographed , and mounted . As she was molting when she died , she proved difficult to stuff , and previously shed feathers were added to the skin . Martha was on display for many years , but after a period in the museum vaults , she was put back on display at the Smithsonian 's National Museum of Natural History in 2015 . A memorial statue of Martha stands on the grounds of the Cincinnati Zoo , in front of the " Passenger Pigeon Memorial Hut , " formerly the aviary wherein Martha lived , now a National Historic Landmark . Incidentally , the last specimen of the extinct Carolina parakeet , named " Incus , " died in Martha 's cage in 1918 ; the stuffed remains of that bird are exhibited in the " Memorial Hut . "
= = = Extinction causes = = =
The main reasons for the extinction of the passenger pigeon were the massive scale of hunting , the rapid loss of habitat , and the extremely social lifestyle of the bird , which made it highly vulnerable to the former factors . Deforestation was driven by the need to free land for agriculture and expanding towns , but also due to the demand for lumber and fuel . About 728 @.@ 000 km2 ( 180 million acres ) were cleared for farming between 1850 and 1910 . Though there are still large woodland areas in eastern North America , which support a variety of wildlife , it was not enough to support the vast number of passenger pigeons needed to sustain the population . In contrast , very small populations of nearly extinct birds , such as the kakapo ( Strigops habroptilus ) and the takahē ( Porphyrio hochstetteri ) , have been enough to keep those species alive to the present . The combined effects of intense hunting and deforestation has been referred to as a " Blitzkrieg " against the passenger pigeon , and it has been labeled one of the greatest and most senseless human @-@ induced extinctions in history . As the flocks dwindled in size , the passenger pigeon population decreased below the threshold necessary to propagate the species .
The 2014 study that demonstrated natural fluctuations in population numbers prior to human arrival also showed that the species routinely recovered from lows in the population , and suggested that one of these lows may have coincided with the intensified exploitation by humans in the 1800s , a combination which would have led to the rapid extinction of the species . A similar scenario may also explain the rapid extinction of the Rocky Mountain locust ( Melanoplus spretus ) during the same period . It has also been suggested that after the population was thinned out , it would be harder for few or solitary birds to locate suitable feeding areas . In addition to the birds killed or driven away by hunting during breeding seasons , many nestlings were also orphaned before being able to fend for themselves . Other , less convincing contributing factors have been suggested at times , including mass drownings , Newcastle disease , and migrations to areas outside their original range .
The extinction of the passenger pigeon aroused public interest in the conservation movement , and resulted in new laws and practices which prevented many other species from becoming extinct . The rapid decline of the passenger pigeon has influenced later assessment methods of the extinction risk of endangered animal populations . The International Union for the Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has used the passenger pigeon as an example in cases where a species was declared " at risk " for extinction even though population numbers are high .
= = = Re @-@ creation of the species = = =
Today , more than 1 @,@ 532 passenger pigeon skins ( along with 16 skeletons ) are in existence , spread across many institutions all over the world . It has been suggested that the passenger pigeon should be revived when available technology allows it ( a concept which has been termed " de @-@ extinction " ) , using genetic material from such specimens . In 2003 , the Pyrenean ibex ( Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica , a subspecies of the Spanish ibex ) was the first extinct animal to be cloned back to life ; the clone lived for only seven minutes before dying of lung defects . A hindrance to cloning the passenger pigeon is the fact that the DNA of museum specimens has been contaminated and fragmented , due to exposure to heat and oxygen . American geneticist George M. Church has proposed that the passenger pigeon genome can be reconstructed by piecing together DNA fragments from different specimens . The next step would be to splice these genes
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into the stem cells of rock pigeons ( or band @-@ tailed pigeons ) , which would then be transformed into egg and sperm cells , and placed into the eggs of rock pigeons , resulting in rock pigeons bearing passenger pigeon sperm and eggs . The offspring of these would have passenger pigeon traits , and would be further bred to favor unique features of the extinct species .
The general idea of re @-@ creating extinct species has been criticized , since the large funds needed could be spent on conserving currently threatened species and habitats , and because conservation efforts might be viewed as less urgent . In the case of the passenger pigeon , since it was very social , it is unlikely that enough birds could be created for revival to be successful , and it is unclear whether there is enough appropriate habitat left for its reintroduction . Furthermore , the parent pigeons that would raise the cloned passenger pigeons would belong to a different species , with a different way of rearing young .
= Triturus =
Triturus is a genus of newts comprising the crested and the marbled newts , which are found from Great Britain through most of continental Europe to westernmost Siberia , Anatolia , and the Caspian Sea region . Their English names refer to their appearance : marbled newts have a green – black colour pattern , while the males of crested newts , which are dark brown with a yellow or orange underside , develop a conspicuous jagged seam on their back and tail during their breeding phase .
Crested and marbled newts live and breed in vegetation @-@ rich ponds or similar aquatic habitats for two to six months and usually spend the rest of the year in shady , protection @-@ rich land habitats close to their breeding sites . Males court females with a ritualised display , ending in the deposition of a spermatophore that is picked up by the female . After fertilisation , a female lays 200 – 400 eggs , folding them individually into leaves of water plants . Larvae develop over two to four months before metamorphosing into land @-@ dwelling juveniles .
Historically , most European newts were included in the genus , but taxonomists have split off the alpine newt ( Ichthyosaura ) , the small @-@ bodied newts ( Lissotriton ) and the banded newts ( Ommatotriton ) as separate genera . The closest relatives of Triturus are the European brook newts ( Calotriton ) . Two species of marbled newts and seven species of crested newts are accepted , of which the Anatolian crested newt was only described in 2016 . Their ranges are largely contiguous but where they do overlap , hybridisation may take place .
Although not immediately threatened , crested and marbled newts suffer from population declines , caused mainly by habitat loss and fragmentation . Both their aquatic breeding sites and the cover @-@ rich , natural landscapes upon which they depend during their terrestrial phase are affected . All species are legally protected in Europe , and some of their habitats have been designated as special reserves .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
The genus name Triturus was introduced in 1815 by the polymath Constantine Samuel Rafinesque , with the northern crested newt ( Triturus cristatus ) as type species . That species was originally described as Triton cristatus by Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti in 1768 , but Linnaeus had already used the name Triton for a genus of sea snails ten years before , making a new genus name for the newts necessary .
Triturus included most European newt species until the end of the 20th century , but was substantially revised after it was shown to be polyphyletic . Three separate genera now accommodate former members of the genus : the small @-@ bodied newts ( Lissotriton ) , the banded newts ( Ommatotriton ) , and the alpine newt ( Ichthyosaura ) . The monophyly of the genus Triturus in the strict sense is supported by molecular data and synapomorphies such as a genetic defect causing 50 % embryo mortality ( see below , Egg deposition and development ) .
As of 2016 , the genus contains nine accepted species :
Crested newts
Marbled newts
Both the crested and the marbled newts were long considered as single species , Triturus cristatus and T. marmoratus , respectively . Substantial genetic differences between subspecies were , however , noted and eventually led to their recognition as full species , with the crested newts often collectively referred to as " T. cristatus superspecies " . The Balkan and the Anatolian crested newt , the most recent species formally described ( 2013 and 2016 , respectively ) , were only recognised through genetic data ; together with the Southern crested newt , they form a cryptic species complex with no morphological differences known .
= = Description = =
= = = Common characteristics = = =
Triturus is a genus of rather large @-@ bodied newts . They typically have a total length of between 10 and 16 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 and 6 @.@ 3 in ) , with some crested newts of up to 20 cm ( 8 in ) described . Size depends on sex and the environment : females are slightly larger and have a proportionally longer tail than males in most species , and the Italian crested newt seems to be larger in colder parts of its range .
Crested newts are dark brown , with black spots on the sides , and white stippling in some species . Their belly is yellow to orange with black blotches , forming a pattern characteristic for individuals . Females and juveniles of some species have a yellow line running down their back and tail . During breeding phase , crested newts change in appearance , most markedly the males . These develop a skin seam running along their back and tail ; this crest is the namesake feature of the crested newts and can be up to 1 @.@ 5 cm high and very jagged in the northern crested newt . Another feature of males at breeding time is a silvery @-@ white band along the sides of the tail .
Marbled newts owe their name to their green – black , marbled colour pattern . In females , an orange @-@ red line runs down back and tail . The crest of male marbled newts is smaller and fleshier than that of the crested newts and not indented , but marbled newt males also have a whitish tail band at breeding time .
= = = Species identification = = =
Apart from the obvious colour differences between crested and marbled newts , species in the genus also have different body forms . They range from stocky with sturdy limbs in the Anatolian , Balkan and the southern crested newt as well as the marbled newts , to very slender with short legs in the Danube crested newt . These types were first noted by herpetologist Willy Wolterstorff , who used the ratio of forelimb length to distance between fore- and hindlimbs to distinguish subspecies of the crested newt ( now full species ) ; this index however sometimes leads to misidentifications . The number of rib @-@ bearing vertebrae in the skeleton was shown to be a better species indicator . It ranges from 12 in the marbled newts to 16 – 17 in the Danube crested newt and is usually observed through radiography on dead or sedated specimens .
The two marbled newts are readily distinguished by size and colouration . In contrast , separating crested newt species based on appearance is not straightforward , but most can be determined by a combination of body form , coloration , and male crest shape . The Anatolian , Balkan , and southern crested newt however are cryptic , morphologically indistinguishable species . Triturus newts occupy distinct geographical regions ( see Distribution ) , but hybrid forms occur at range borders between some species and have intermediate characteristics ( see Hybridisation and introgression ) .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
Like other newts , Triturus species develop in the water as larvae , and return to it each year for breeding . Adults spend one half to three quarters of the year on land , depending on the species , and thus depend on both suitable aquatic breeding sites and terrestrial habitats . After larval development in the first year , juveniles pass another year or two before reaching maturity ; in the north and at higher elevations , this can take longer . The larval and juvenile stages are the riskiest for the newts , while survival is higher in adults . Once the risky stages passed , adult newts usually attain an age of seven to nine years , although individuals of the northern crested newts have reached 17 years in the wild .
= = = Aquatic phase = = =
The aquatic habitats preferred by the newts are stagnant , mid- to large @-@ sized , unshaded water bodies with abundant underwater vegetation but without fish , which prey on larvae . Typical examples are larger ponds , which need not be of natural origin ; indeed , most ponds inhabited by the northern crested newt in the UK are human @-@ made . Examples of other suitable secondary habitats are ditches , channels , gravel pit lakes , garden ponds , or ( in the Italian crested newt ) rice paddies . The Danube crested newt is more adapted to flowing water and often breeds in river margins , oxbow lakes or flooded marshland , where it frequently co @-@ occurs with fish . Other newts that can be found in syntopy with Triturus species include the smooth , the palmate , the Carpathian , and the alpine newt .
Adult newts begin moving to their breeding sites in spring when temperatures stay above 4 – 5 ° C ( 39 – 41 ° F ) . This usually occurs in March for most species , but can be much earlier in the southern parts of the distribution range . Southern marbled newts mainly breed from January to early March and may already enter ponds in autumn . The time adults spend in water differs among species and correlates with body shape : while it is only about three months in the marbled newts , it is six months in the Danube crested newt , whose slender body is best adapted to swimming . Triturus newts in their aquatic phase are mostly nocturnal and , compared to the smaller newts of Lissotriton and Ichthyosaura , usually prefer the deeper parts of a water body , where they hide under vegetation . As with other newts , they occasionally have to move to the surface to breathe air . The aquatic phase serves not only for reproduction , but also offers the animals more abundant prey , and immature crested newts frequently return to the water in spring even if they do not breed .
= = = Terrestrial phase = = =
During their terrestrial phase , crested and marbled newts depend on a landscape that offers cover , invertebrate prey and humidity . The precise requirements of most species are still poorly known , as the newts are much more difficult to detect and observe on land . Deciduous woodlands or groves are in general preferred , but conifer woods are also accepted , especially in the far northern and southern ranges . The southern marbled newt is typically found in Mediterranean oak forests . In the absence of forests , other cover @-@ rich habitats , as for example hedgerows , scrub , swampy meadows , or quarries , can be inhabited . Within such habitats , the newts use hiding places such as logs , bark , planks , stone walls , or small mammal burrows ; several individuals may occupy such refuges at the same time . Since the newts in general stay very close to their aquatic breeding sites , the quality of the surrounding terrestrial habitat largely determines whether an otherwise suitable water body will be colonised .
Juveniles often disperse to new breeding sites , while the adults in general move back to the same breeding sites each year . The newts do not migrate very far : they may cover around 100 metres ( 110 yd ) in one night and rarely disperse much farther than one kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) . For orientation , the newts likely use a combination of cues including odour and the calls of other amphibians , and orientation by the night sky has been demonstrated in the marbled newt . Activity is highest on wet nights ; the newts usually stay hidden during daytime . There is often an increase in activity in late summer and autumn , when the newts likely move closer to their breeding sites . Over most of their range , they hibernate in winter , using mainly subterranean hiding places , where many individuals will often congregate . In their southern range , they may instead sometimes aestivate during the dry months of summer .
= = = Diet and predators = = =
Like other newts , Triturus species are carnivorous and feed mainly on invertebrates . During the land phase , prey include earthworms and other annelids , different insects , woodlice , and snails and slugs . During the breeding season , they prey on various aquatic invertebrates , and also tadpoles of other amphibians such as the common frog or common toad , and smaller newts . Larvae , depending on their size , eat small invertebrates and tadpoles , and also smaller larvae of their own species .
The larvae are themselves eaten by various animals such as carnivorous invertebrates and water birds , and are especially vulnerable to predatory fish . Adults generally avoid predators through their hidden lifestyle but are sometimes eaten by herons and other birds , snakes such as the grass snake , and mammals such as shrews , badgers and hedgehogs . They secrete the poison tetrodotoxin from their skin , albeit much less than for example the North American Pacific newts ( Taricha ) . The bright yellow or orange underside of crested newts is a warning coloration which can be presented in case of perceived danger . In such a posture , the newts typically roll up and secrete a milky substance .
= = Reproduction = =
= = = Courtship = = =
A complex courting ritual performed underwater characterises the crested and marbled newts . Males are territorial and use leks , or courtship arenas , small patches of clear ground where they display and attract females . When they encounter other males , they use the same postures as described below for courting to impress their counterpart . Occasionally , they even bite each other ; marbled newts seem more aggressive than crested newts . Males also frequently disturb the courting of other males and try to guide the female away from their rival . Pheromones are used to attract females , and once a male has found one he will pursue her and position himself in front of her . After this first orientation phase , courtship proceeds with display and spermatophore transfer .
Courtship display serves to emphasise the male 's body and crest size and to waft pheromones towards the female . A position characteristic for the large Triturus species is the " cat buckle " , where the male 's body is kinked and often rests only on the forelegs ( " hand stand " ) . He will also lean towards the female ( " lean @-@ in " ) , rock his body , and flap his tail towards her , sometimes lashing it violently ( " whiplash " ) . If the female shows interest , the ritual enters the third phase , where the male creeps away from her , his tail quivering . When the female touches his tail with her snout , he deposits a packet of sperm ( a spermatophore ) on the ground . The ritual ends with the male guiding the female over the spermatophore , which she then takes up with her cloaca . In the southern marbled newt , courtship is somewhat different from the larger species in that it does not seem to involve male " cat buckles " and " whiplashes " , but instead slower tail fanning and undulating of the tail tip ( presumably to mimic a prey animal and lure the female ) .
= = = Egg deposition and development = = =
Females usually engage with several males over a breeding season . The eggs are fertilised internally in the oviduct . The female deposits them individually on leaves of aquatic plants , such as water cress or floating sweetgrass , usually close to the surface , and , using her hindlegs , folds the leaf around the eggs as protection from predators and radiation . In the absence of suitable plants , the eggs may also be deposited on leaf litter , stones , or even plastic bags . In the northern crested newt , a female takes around five minutes for the deposition of one egg . Crested newt females usually lay around 200 eggs per season , while the marbled newt ( T. marmoratus ) can lay up to 400 . Triturus embryos are usually light @-@ coloured , 1 @.@ 8 – 2 mm in diameter with a 6 mm jelly capsule , which distinguishes them from eggs of other co @-@ existing newt species that are smaller and darker @-@ coloured . A genetic particularity in the genus causes 50 % of the embryos to die : their development is arrested when they do not possess two different variants of chromosome 1 ( i.e. , when they are homozygous for that chromosome ) .
Larvae hatch after two to five weeks , depending largely on temperature . In the first days after hatching , they live on their remaining embryonic yolk supply and are not able to swim , but attach to plants or the egg capsule with two balancers , adhesive organs on their head . After this period , they begin to ingest small invertebrates , and actively forage about ten days after hatching . As in all salamanders and newts , forelimbs — already present as stumps at hatching — develop first , followed later by the backlegs . Unlike smaller newts , Triturus larvae are mostly nektonic , swimming freely in the water column . Just before the transition to land , the larvae resorb their external gills ; they can at this stage reach a size of 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) in the larger species . Metamorphosis takes place two to four months after hatching , but the duration of all stages of larval development varies with temperature . Survival of larvae from hatching to metamorphosis has been estimated at a mean of roughly 4 % for the northern crested newt , which is comparable to other newts . In unfavourable conditions , larvae may delay their development and overwinter in water , although this seems to be less common than in the small @-@ bodied newts . Paedomophic adults , retaining their gills and staying aquatic , have occasionally been observed in several crested newt species .
= = Distribution = =
Crested and marbled newts are found in Eurasia , from Great Britain and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to West Siberia and the southern Caspian Sea region in the east , and reach north to central Fennoscandia . Overall , the species have contiguous , parapatric ranges ; only the northern crested newt and the marbled newt occur sympatrically in western France , and the southern crested newt has a disjunct , allopatric distribution in Crimea , the Caucasus , and south of the Caspian Sea .
The northern crested newt is the most widespread species , while the others are confined to smaller regions , e.g. the southwestern Iberian Peninsula in the southern marbled newt , and the Danube basin and some of its tributaries in the Danube crested newt . The Italian crested newt ( T. carnifex ) has been introduced outside its native range in some European countries and the Azores . In the northern Balkans , four species of crested newt occur in close vicinity , and may sometimes even co @-@ exist .
Triturus species usually live at low elevation ; the Danube crested newt for example is confined to lowlands up to 300 m ( 980 ft ) above sea level . However , they do occur at higher altitudes towards the south of their range : the Italian crested newt is found up to 1 @,@ 800 m ( 5 @,@ 900 ft ) in the Apennine Mountains , the southern crested newt up to 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 600 ft ) in the southern Caucausus , and the marbled newt up to around 2 @,@ 100 m ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) in central Spain .
= = Evolution = =
Molecular phylogenetic data helped clarify relationships within the genus Triturus . A 2011 phylogeny based on complete mitochondrial DNA resolved all divergences with high statistical support . The crested and the marbled newts are sister groups , and within the crested newts , the Balkan – Asian group with T. anatolicus , T. karelinii and T. ivanbureschi is sister to the remaining species , results consistent with other studies . The mitochondrial analysis also supports the northern ( T. cristatus ) and the Danube crested newt ( T. dobrogicus ) , as well as the Italian ( T. carnifex ) and the Macedonian crested newt ( T. macedonicus ) , respectively , as sister species , but analysis of nuclear DNA gave some conflicting results regarding those divergences .
A 24 @-@ million @-@ year @-@ old fossil belonging to Triturus , perhaps a marbled newt , shows that the genus already existed at that time and contradicts the earlier estimate of 8 @.@ 3 million years ago ( mya ) for the split between the crested and marbled newts and their sister genus , the European brook newts ( Calotriton ) . An age calibration study based on this and other fossils places that divergence much earlier , at around 39 mya in the Eocene , with an uncertainty range of 47 to 34 mya . Based on this estimation , authors have investigated diversification within the genus and related it to paleogeography : The crested and marbled newts split between 30 and 24 mya , and the two species of marbled newts have been separated for 4 @.@ 7 – 6 @.@ 8 million years .
The crested newts are believed to have originated in the Balkans and radiated in a brief time interval between 11 @.@ 5 and 8 mya : First , the Balkan – Asian group ( the Anatolian , Balkan and southern crested newt ) branched off from the other crested newts , probably in a vicariance event caused by the separation of the Balkan and Anatolian land masses . The origin of current @-@ day species is not fully understood so far , but one hypothesis suggests that ecological differences , notably in the adaptation to an aquatic lifestyle , may have evolved between populations and led to parapatric speciation . Alternatively , the complex geological history of the Balkan peninsula may have further separated populations there , with subsequent allopatric speciation and the spread of species into their current ranges .
= = = Glacial refugia and recolonisation = = =
At the onset of the Quaternary glacial cycles , around 2 @.@ 6 mya , the extant Triturus species had already emerged . They were thus affected by the cycles of expansion and retreat of cold , inhospitable regions , which shaped their distribution . A study using environmental niche modelling and phylogeography showed that during the Last Glacial Maximum , around 21 @,@ 000 years ago , crested and marbled newts likely survived in warmer refugia mainly in southern Europe . From there , they recolonised the northern parts after glacial retreat . The study also showed that species range boundaries shifted , with some species replacing others during recolonisation , for example the southern marbled newt which expanded northwards and replaced the marbled newt . Today 's most widespread species , the northern crested newt , was likely confined to a small refugial region in the Carpathian Basin during the last glaciation , and from there expanded its range north- , east- and westwards when the climate rewarmed .
= = = Hybridisation and introgression = = =
The northern crested newt and the marbled newt are the only species in the genus with a considerable range overlap ( in western France ) . In that area , they have patchy , mosaic @-@ like distributions and in general prefer different habitats . When they do occur in the same breeding ponds , they can form hybrids , which have intermediate characteristics . Individuals resulting from the cross of a crested newt male with a marbled newt female had mistakenly been described as distinct species Triton blasii de l 'Isle 1862 , and the reverse hybrids as Triton trouessarti Peracca 1886 . The first type is much rarer due to increased mortality of the larvae and consists only of males , while in the second , males have lower survival rates than females . Overall , viability is reduced in these hybrids and they rarely backcross with their parent species . Hybrids made up 3 – 7 % of the adult populations in different studies .
Other Triturus species only meet at narrow zones on their range borders . Hybridisation does occur in several of these contact zones , as shown by genetic data and intermediate forms , but is rare , supporting overall reproductive isolation . Backcrossing and introgression do however occur as shown by mitochondrial DNA analysis . In a case study in the Netherlands , genes of the introduced Italian crested newt were found to introgress into the gene pool of the native northern crested newt . The two marbled newt species can be found in proximity in a narrow area in central Portugal and Spain , but they usually breed in separate ponds , and individuals in that area could be clearly identified as one of the two species . Nevertheless , there is introgression , occurring in both directions at some parts of the contact zone , and only in the direction of the southern marbled newt where that species had historically replaced the marbled newt ( see also above , Glacial refugia and recolonisation ) .
= = Threats and conservation = =
Most of the crested and marbled newts are listed as species of " least concern " by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature , but population declines have been registered in all assessed species . The Danube crested newt and the southern marbled newt are considered " near threatened " because populations have declined significantly . Populations have been affected more heavily in some countries and species are listed in some national red lists . The Anatolian , Balkan and the Macedonian crested newt , recognised only recently , have not yet been evaluated separately for conservation status .
= = = Reasons for decline = = =
The major threat for crested and marbled newts is habitat loss . This concerns especially breeding sites , which are lost through the upscaling and intensification of agriculture , drainage , urban sprawl , and artificial flooding regimes ( affecting in particular the Danube crested newt ) . Especially in the southern ranges , exploitation of groundwater and decreasing spring rain , possibly caused by global warming , threaten breeding ponds . Aquatic habitats are also degraded through pollution with agricultural pesticides and fertiliser . Introduction of crayfish and predatory fish threatens larval development ; the Chinese sleeper has been a major concern in Eastern Europe . Exotic plants can also degrade habitats : the swamp stonecrop replaces natural vegetation and overshadows waterbodies in the United Kingdom , and its hard leaves are unsuitable for egg @-@ laying to crested newts .
Land habitats , equally important for newt populations , are lost through the replacement of natural forests by plantations or clear @-@ cutting ( especially in the northern range ) , and the conversion of structure @-@ rich landscapes into uniform farmland . Their limited dispersal makes the newts especially vulnerable to fragmentation , i.e. the loss of connections for exchange between suitable habitats . High concentrations of road salt have been found to be lethal to crested newts .
Other threats include illegal collection for pet trade , which concerns mainly the southern crested newt , and the northern crested newt in its eastern range . The possibility of hybridisation , especially in the crested newts , means that native species can be genetically polluted through the introduction of close species , as it is the case with the Italian crested newt introduced in the range of the northern crested newt . Warmer and wetter winters due to global warming may increase newt mortality by disturbing their hibernation and forcing them to expend more energy . Finally , the genus is potentially susceptible to the highly pathogenic fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans , introduced to Europe from Asia .
= = = Conservation measures = = =
The crested newts are listed in Berne Convention Appendix II as " strictly protected " , and the marbled newts in Appendix III as " protected " . They are also included in Annex II ( species requiring designation of special areas of conservation ; crested newts ) and IV ( species in need of strict protection ; all species ) of the EU habitats and species directive . As required by these frameworks , their capture , disturbance , killing or trade , as well as the destruction of their habitats , are prohibited in most European countries . The EU habitats directive is also the basis for the Natura 2000 protected areas , several of which have been designated for the crested newts .
Habitat protection and management is seen as the most important element for the conservation of Triturus newts . This includes preservation of natural water bodies , reduction of fertiliser and pesticide use , control or eradication of introduced predatory fish , and the connection of habitats through sufficiently wide corridors of uncultivated land . A network of aquatic habitats in proximity is important to sustain populations , and the creation of new breeding ponds is in general very effective as they are rapidly colonised when other habitats are nearby . In some cases , entire populations have been moved when threatened by development projects , but such translocations need to be carefully planned to be successful . Strict protection of the northern crested newt in the United Kingdom has created conflicts with local development projects ; at the same time , the charismatic crested newts are seen as flagship species , whose conservation also benefits a range of other amphibians .
= Catch Me If You Can =
Catch Me If You Can is a 2002 American biographical crime film , based on the life of Frank Abagnale , who , before his 19th birthday , successfully performed cons worth millions of dollars by posing as a Pan American World Airways pilot , a Georgia doctor , and a Louisiana parish prosecutor . His primary crime was check fraud ; he became so experienced that the FBI eventually turned to him for help in catching other check forgers . The film was directed by Steven Spielberg and stars Leonardo DiCaprio and Tom Hanks , with Christopher Walken , Martin Sheen , Nathalie Baye and Amy Adams in supporting roles .
Development for the film started in 1980 but did not progress until 1997 when the film rights to Abagnale 's book were sold to Spielberg 's DreamWorks . David Fincher , Gore Verbinski , Lasse Hallström , Miloš Forman , and Cameron Crowe had all been possible candidates for director before Spielberg decided to direct . Filming took place from February to May 2002 . The film was a financial and critical success , and the real Abagnale reacted positively to it .
= = Plot = =
In 1963 , teen @-@ aged Frank Abagnale ( Leonardo DiCaprio ) lives in New Rochelle , New York with his father Frank Abagnale , Sr. ( Christopher Walken ) , and French mother Paula ( Nathalie Baye ) . When Frank Sr. is denied a business loan at Chase Manhattan Bank due to unknown difficulties with the IRS , the family is forced to move from their large home to a small apartment . Paula carries on an affair with Jack ( James Brolin ) , a friend of her husband . Meanwhile , Frank poses as a substitute teacher in his French class . Frank 's parents file for divorce , and Frank runs away . When he runs out of money , he begins relying on confidence scams to get by . Soon , Frank 's cons increase and he even impersonates an airline pilot . He forges Pan Am payroll checks and succeeds in stealing over $ 2 @.@ 8 million .
Meanwhile , Carl Hanratty ( Tom Hanks ) , an FBI bank fraud agent , begins tracking Frank . Carl and Frank meet at a hotel , where Frank convinces Carl his name is Barry Allen of the Secret Service , and that he was also after the fraud . Frank leaves , Carl angrily realizing a minute too late that he has been fooled . Later , at Christmas , Carl is still at work when Frank calls him , attempting to apologize for duping Carl . Carl rejects his apology and tells him he will soon be caught , but laughs when he realizes Frank actually called him because he has no one else to talk to . Frank hangs up , and Carl continues to investigate , suddenly realizing ( thanks to a waiter ) that the name " Barry Allen " is from the Flash comic books and that Frank is actually a teenager .
Frank , meanwhile , has expanded his con to include the identities of a doctor and lawyer . While playing Dr. Frank Conners , he falls in love with Brenda ( Amy Adams ) . While asking her father 's permission to marry her , he admits the truth about himself and asks for help with the Louisiana State Bar exam . Carl tracks him to his engagement party and Frank is able to sneak out a bedroom window minutes before Carl bursts in . Before leaving , Frank makes Brenda promise to meet him in Miami two days later so they can elope . Frank sees her waiting for him two days later , but also notices plainclothes agents waiting to arrest him , realizing he has been set up and escapes on a flight to Europe .
Seven months later , Carl shows his boss that Frank has been forging checks all over western Europe and asks permission to go to Europe to look for him . When his boss refuses , Carl brings Frank 's checks to printing professionals who claim that the checks were printed in France . From an interview with Frank 's mother , Carl remembers that she was actually born in Montrichard , France . He goes there and locates Frank , and tells him that the French police will kill him if he does not go with Carl quietly . Frank assumes he is lying at first , but Carl promises Frank he would never lie to him , and Carl takes him outside , where the French police escort him to prison .
The scene then flashes forward to a plane returning Frank home from prison , where Carl informs him that his father has died . Grief @-@ stricken , Frank escapes from the plane and goes back to his old house , where he finds his mother with the man she left his father for , as well as a girl who Frank realizes is his half @-@ sister . Frank gives himself up and is sentenced to 12 years in prison , getting visits from time to time from Carl . When Frank points out how one of the checks Carl is carrying as evidence is fake , Carl convinces the FBI to offer Frank a deal by which he can live out the remainder of his sentence working for the bank fraud department of the FBI , which Frank accepts . While working at the FBI , Frank misses the thrill of the chase and even attempts to fly as an airline pilot again . He is cornered by Carl , who insists that Frank will return to the FBI job since no one is chasing him . On the following Monday , Carl is nervous that Frank has not yet arrived at work . However , Frank eventually arrives and they discuss their next case .
The ending credits reveal that Frank has been happily married for 26 years , has three sons , lives in the Midwest , is still good friends with Carl , has caught some of the world 's most elusive money forgers , and earns millions of dollars each year because of his work creating unforgeable checks .
= = Cast = =
Leonardo DiCaprio as Frank Abagnale , Jr . Before his 19th birthday , Frank successfully conned millions of dollars ’ worth of checks as a Pan Am pilot , doctor , and Louisiana parish prosecutor .
Tom Hanks as Carl Hanratty , an FBI agent who pursues Frank for most of the film . Hanratty is often teased by other agents who take check fraud as a joke . Hanratty is divorced , and his daughter and ex @-@ wife live in Chicago . In the end , Carl and Frank become great friends .
Christopher Walken as Frank Abagnale , Sr. , Frank 's father , and a World War II veteran . Frank , Sr. loses his wife Paula and most of his wealth after he committed tax evasion . Frank , Sr. dies after falling down a staircase in a train station .
Nathalie Baye as Paula Abagnale . Frank , Sr. meets her when she is 18 years old in Montrichard , France during World War II . Five weeks later , the couple marries . They divorce when Frank Jr. is 16 , leaving Paula to marry Jack Barnes , with whom she has a daughter .
Amy Adams as Brenda Strong . Before becoming a nurse , Brenda had an abortion . Her strict Lutheran parents disown her , until they meet Frank , Jr .
Martin Sheen as Roger Strong , Brenda 's father , and Carol 's husband . Roger is a well @-@ recognized district attorney in Louisiana and is not easily convinced that Frank , Jr. graduated from law school .
James Brolin as Jack Barnes , an associate of Frank , Sr. at the New Rochelle , New York Rotary Club . Barnes later carries on an affair with Paula , leading to the divorce of Frank Jr . ' s parents .
Nancy Lenehan as Carol Strong , Brenda 's mother and Roger 's wife . When thinking that Frank , Jr. is a doctor , lawyer and Lutheran , she is highly ecstatic for her daughter 's marriage .
Brian Howe , Frank John Hughes and Chris Ellis portray FBI agents . Jennifer Garner cameos as a call girl . Ellen Pompeo , Elizabeth Banks , and Kaitlin Doubleday have small roles . The real Frank Abagnale appears in a cameo as a French police officer arresting his character .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Frank Abagnale sold the film rights to his autobiography in 1980 . Executive Producer Michel Shane purchased the film rights in 1990 , for Paramount Pictures . By December 1997 , Barry Kemp purchased the film rights from Shane , bringing the project to DreamWorks , with Jeff Nathanson writing the script . By April 2000 , David Fincher was attached to direct over the course of a few months , but dropped out in favor of Panic Room . In July 2000 , Leonardo DiCaprio had entered discussions to star , with Gore Verbinski to direct . Steven Spielberg signed on as producer , and filming was set to begin in March 2001 .
= = = Casting = = =
Verbinski cast James Gandolfini as Carl Hanratty , Ed Harris as Frank Abagnale , Sr. , and Chloë Sevigny as Brenda Strong . Verbinski dropped out because of DiCaprio 's commitment on Gangs of New York . Lasse Hallström was in negotiations to direct by May 2001 , but dropped out in July 2001 . At this stage Harris and Sevigny left the film , but Gandolfini was still attached . Spielberg , co @-@ founder of DreamWorks , offered the job of director to Miloš Forman , and considered hiring Cameron Crowe . During this negotiation period , Spielberg began to consider directing the film himself , eventually dropping projects such as Big Fish and Memoirs of a Geisha . Spielberg officially committed to directing in August 2001 .
The search for Strong 's portrayer lasted months but Amy Adams was eventually cast . Spielberg " loved " her tape and producer Walter F. Parkes commented that she was " as fresh and honest as anyone we ’ d seen , " which was an important element in the role . Christopher Walken was cast as Frank Abagnale , Sr. following Parkes ’ suggestion . Martin Sheen played Roger Strong as he had " intimidating presence " . Spielberg wanted a French actress to portray Paula Abagnale to stay true to the facts . He asked for the help of Brian De Palma , who was living in Paris and he did tests with several actresses such as Nathalie Baye . Spielberg had seen Jennifer Garner on Alias and wanted her to play a small role in the film due to her busy schedule .
= = = Filming = = =
The original start date was January 2002 , but was pushed to February 7 in Los Angeles , California . Other locations included Burbank , Downey , New York , LA / Ontario International Airport ( which doubled for Miami International Airport ) , Quebec City and Montreal . The film was shot in 147 different locations in only 52 days . DiCaprio reflected , " Scenes that we thought would take three days took an afternoon " . Filming ran from April 25 – 30 in Park Avenue , just outside the Waldorf @-@ Astoria Hotel . Production moved to Orange , New Jersey and returned to Brooklyn for bank and courthouse scenes . Shooting also took place at the TWA Flight Center at John F. Kennedy International Airport . Quebec City was chosen for its European character and French feel . Place Royale , within Old Quebec , stands for Montrichard — the church in the background of the arrest scene is Notre @-@ Dame @-@ des @-@ Victoires . Filming ended on May 12 in Montreal .
= = Music = =
The film 's soundtrack was released on December 10 , 2002 by DreamWorks Records . The original score was composed by John Williams .
= = Fictions = =
Despite the various changes from real @-@ life events , Abagnale believed Spielberg was the only filmmaker who " could do this film justice " . However , Abagnale had little involvement with the film . In November 2001 , he had " never met nor spoken to Steven Spielberg and I have not read the script . I prefer not to . I understand that they now portray my father in a better light , as he really was . Steven Spielberg has told the screenplay writer ( Jeff Nathanson ) that he wants complete accuracy in the relationships and actual scams that I perpetrated " , Abagnale reported . " I hope in the end the movie will be entertaining , exciting , funny and bring home an important message about family , childhood and divorce " .
The real Abagnale never saw his father again after he ran away from home . Spielberg " wanted to continue to have that connection where Frank kept trying to please his father ; by making him proud of him ; by seeing him in the uniform , the Pan @-@ American uniform " . However , Abagnale praised the idea . " Even though I didn 't see my dad again , every night after living a brilliant day and meeting many women , and making much money , I 'd come back alone to a hotel room and I would just think of my mom and dad and fantasize about getting them back together again , and cry . It 's the justification of a fantasy . " Carl Hanratty ( portrayed by Tom Hanks ) is based on FBI agent Joseph Shea . In the shooting script the character was referred to as Joseph Shea , but was changed to Carl Hanratty for unknown reasons .
= = Themes = =
Catch Me if You Can deals with themes of broken homes and troubled childhoods . Spielberg 's parents divorced when he was a teenager , similar to Frank Abagnale 's situation . In the film , Carl Hanratty is also divorced from his wife , who lives with their daughter in Chicago . " Some of my films have had to do with broken homes and people on the run from their sad pasts " , Spielberg stated . " But there are those strands that got me to say : you know , there 's something also about me that I can say through the telling of this kind of lighthearted story " .
Spielberg also wanted to create a film that sympathized with a crook . He explained , " Frank was a 21st century genius working within the innocence of the mid ' 60s , when people were more trusting than they are now . I don 't think this is the kind of movie where somebody could say , ' I have a career plan . ' "
= = Release = =
Game Show Network aired the 1977 episode of the television game show To Tell the Truth that featured Frank Abagnale . Segments were shown on December 29 , 2002 and January 1 , 2003 as promotion . The marketing department was careful to market the film as " inspired by a true story " in order to avoid controversy similar to that surrounding A Beautiful Mind ( 2001 ) and The Hurricane ( 1999 ) , both of which deviated from history . The premiere took place at Westwood , Los Angeles , California on December 18 , 2002 .
= = = Box office = = =
Catch Me If You Can was released on December 25 , 2002 , earning slightly above $ 30 million in 3 @,@ 225 theaters during its opening weekend . The film went on to gross $ 164 @.@ 6 million in North America and $ 187 @.@ 5 million in foreign countries , coming at a worldwide total of $ 352 @.@ 1 million . The film was a financial success , recouping the $ 52 million budget six times over . Catch Me If You Can was the eleventh highest grossing film of 2002 . Minority Report ( also directed by Spielberg ) was tenth highest .
= = = Critical response = = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film has a rating of 96 % , based on 195 reviews , with the site 's critical consensus reading , " With help from a strong performance by Leonardo DiCaprio as real @-@ life wunderkind con artist Frank Abagnale , Steven Spielberg crafts a film that 's stylish , breezily entertaining , and surprisingly sweet . " On Metacritic the film has a score of 76 out of 100 , based on 38 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " .
Roger Ebert heavily praised DiCaprio 's performance , and concluded " This is not a major Spielberg film , although it is an effortlessly watchable one " . Mick LaSalle said it was " not Spielberg 's best movie , but one of his smoothest and maybe his friendliest . The colorful cinematography , smart performances and brisk tempo suggest a filmmaker subordinating every other impulse to the task of manufacturing pleasure . " Stephen Hunter believed DiCaprio shows " the range and ease and cleverness that Martin Scorsese so underutilized in Gangs of New York " .
James Berardinelli observed , " Catch Me if You Can never takes itself or its subjects too seriously , and contains more genuinely funny material than about 90 % of the so @-@ called ' comedies ' found in multiplexes these days " . In addition Berardinelli praised John Williams ' film score , which he felt was " more intimate and jazzy than his usual material , evoking ( intentionally ) Henry Mancini " . Peter Travers was one of few who gave the film a negative review . Travers considered Catch Me if You Can to be " bogged down over 140 minutes . A film that took off like a hare on speed ends like a winded tortoise . "
At the 75th Academy Awards , Christopher Walken and John Williams were nominated for Best Supporting Actor and Best Original Score . Walken won the same category at the 56th British Academy Film Awards , while Williams , costume designer Mary Zophres and screenwriter Jeff Nathanson received nominations . DiCaprio was nominated for the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Motion Picture – Drama . Williams also earned a Grammy Award nomination . Elements of the film were later parodied in The Simpsons episode " Catch ' Em If You Can " .
= = = Home media = = =
Catch Me If You Can was released on DVD on May 6 , 2003 and on Blu @-@ ray on December 4 , 2012 .
= = Musical adaptation = =
A musical adaptation of the same name premiered at the 5th Avenue Theatre in Seattle , Washington in July 2009 , starring Aaron Tveit and Norbert Leo Butz . It began previews on Broadway at the Neil Simon Theatre on March 11 , 2011 and officially opened April 10 , 2011 . The musical was nominated for four Tony Awards , including Best Musical .
= Kenesaw Mountain Landis =
Kenesaw Mountain Landis ( / ˈkɛnᵻsɔː ˈmaʊntᵻn ˈlændᵻs / ; November 20 , 1866 – November 25 , 1944 ) was an American jurist who served as a federal judge from 1905 to 1922 and as the first Commissioner of Baseball from 1920 until his death . He is remembered for his handling of the Black Sox scandal , in which he expelled eight members of the Chicago White Sox from organized baseball for conspiring to lose the 1919 World Series and repeatedly refused their reinstatement requests . His firm actions and iron rule over baseball in the near quarter @-@ century of his commissionership are generally credited with restoring public confidence in the game .
Landis was born in Millville , Ohio in 1866 , his name a spelling variation on the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain in the American Civil War , where his father was wounded in 1864 . Landis spent much of his youth in Indiana ; he left school at fifteen and worked in a series of positions in that state . His involvement in politics led to a civil service job . At age 21 , Landis applied to become a lawyer — there were then no educational or examination requirements for the Indiana bar . Following a year of unprofitable practice , he went to law school . After his graduation , he opened an office in Chicago , but left it when Walter Q. Gresham , the new United States Secretary of State , named him his personal secretary in 1893 . After Gresham 's death in 1895 , Landis refused an offer of an ambassadorship , and returned to Chicago to practice law and marry .
President Theodore Roosevelt appointed Landis a federal judge in 1905 . Landis received national attention in 1907 when he fined Standard Oil of Indiana more than $ 29 million for violating federal laws forbidding rebates on railroad freight tariffs . Though Landis was reversed on appeal , he was seen as a judge determined to rein in big business . During and after World War I , Landis , an ardent patriot , presided over several high @-@ profile trials of draft resisters and others whom he saw as opposing the war effort . He imposed heavy sentences on those who were convicted ; some of the convictions were reversed on appeal , and other sentences were commuted .
In 1920 , Judge Landis was a leading candidate when American League and National League team owners , embarrassed by the Black Sox scandal and other instances of players throwing games , sought someone to rule over baseball . Landis was given full power to act in the sport 's best interest , and used that power extensively over the next quarter @-@ century . Landis was widely praised for cleaning up the game , although some of his decisions in the Black Sox matter remain controversial : supporters of " Shoeless Joe " Jackson and Buck Weaver contend that he was overly harsh with those players . Others blame Landis for , in their view , delaying the racial integration of baseball . Landis was elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by a special vote shortly after he died in 1944 .
= = Early life and pre @-@ judicial career ( 1866 – 1905 ) = =
= = = Boyhood and early career ( 1866 – 1893 ) = = =
Kenesaw Mountain Landis was born in Millville , Ohio , the sixth child and fourth son of Abraham Hoch Landis , a physician , and Mary Kumler Landis , on November 20 , 1866 . The Landises descended from Swiss Mennonites who had emigrated to Alsace before coming to the United States . Abraham Landis had been wounded fighting on the Union side at the Battle of Kennesaw Mountain in Georgia , and when his parents proved unable to agree on a name for the new baby , Mary Landis proposed that they call him Kenesaw Mountain . At the time , both spellings of " Kenesaw " were used , but in the course of time , " Kennesaw Mountain " became the accepted spelling of the battle site .
Abraham Landis worked in Millville as a country physician . When Kenesaw was eight , the elder Landis moved his family to Delphi , Indiana and subsequently to Logansport , Indiana where the doctor purchased and ran several local farms — his war injury had caused him to scale back his medical practice . Two of Kenesaw 's four brothers , Charles Beary Landis and Frederick Landis , became members of Congress .
As " Kenny " , as he was sometimes known , grew , he did an increasing share of the farm work , later stating , " I did my share — and it was a substantial share — in taking care of the 13 acres ... I do not remember that I particularly liked to get up at 3 : 30 in the morning . " Kenesaw began his off @-@ farm career at age ten as a news delivery boy . He left school at 15 after an unsuccessful attempt to master algebra ; he then worked at the local general store . He left that job for a position as errand boy with the Vandalia Railroad . Landis applied for a job as a brakeman , but was
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much fulfill a set of essential skills before they are allowed to pass the class . The program is initially implemented in district elementary schools . For some classes , like English , essential skills may be demonstrated by receiving a passing grade on assigned essays or tests . In classes like mathematics , Essential Skills must be demonstrated by receiving a passing grade in specific skills on cumulative tests . In addition , WHS policy does not allow F or D grades . Any grade below a grade of C is considered a No Mark ( NM ) or a No Credit ( NC ) ; the class must then be repeated to get a passing grade . This plan attempts to prepare students for the California High School Exit Exam , or CAHSEE test , which they are expected to pass prior to graduation ; CAHSEE is provided to students during their second year . The test covers grade 6 – 10 language arts concepts , as well as pre @-@ algebraic and Algebra I mathematics .
Whitney High School offers a college preparatory @-@ based curriculum where students are required to take four years of language arts , three and a half years of social studies , three years of mathematics and science each , three years of physical education , and one year 's worth of foreign languages , technology and applied sciences , and visual and performing arts ( VAPA ) . One semester of health education and ten semesters ' worth of electives are also mandatory for graduation , in addition to twenty @-@ five hours of completed community service .
Whitney sports fifteen advanced placement classes , ranging from subjects in foreign language and core classes to VAPA electives , such as art .
Each class is managed by one of eleven academic departments . Nine departments will be experienced by students before the end of their senior year , as one or more of their classes are mandatory for graduation . The other two departments are specialized courses ; one involves the Culinary Arts , while the other involves a precollegiate form of ROTC . This system of Professional Learning Communities was designed by Illinois 's former Adlai E. Stevenson High School principal , Richard Du Four .
Whitney High School runs along the Response to Intervention guideline ; the RTI model implements a three @-@ tiered research @-@ based plan to catch students who are struggling in their schooling . The model implements a number of measures intended to assist students , including an intervention period , an AVID program , night and summer school programs , and Section 504 plans . Among the programs , the intervention periods are twenty minutes set before lunch that is intended for students who need to fulfill the academic requirements in which they are lacking . The AVID program pertains to students who are socially or economically disadvantaged .
Whitney students undergo a full eight @-@ class period school day extended over two individual days in a modified block schedule . Each year , as a result , students complete eight classes . Of the 320 possible credits , 250 credits are required for graduation .
At the end of the 2007 – 2008 school year , 48 @.@ 6 % of Whitney 's graduating seniors were qualified for entry into a University of California or California State University campus ; 39 @.@ 6 % were accepted into four @-@ year institutions . 12 % of the graduating class motioned directly for employment or joined the US military .
= = Demographics = =
1 @,@ 438 students attended Whitney High School during the 2007 – 08 school year ; of these students , there were 361 freshmen , 424 sophomores , 355 juniors , and 298 seniors . The student body is predominantly Caucasian ( 70 @.@ 51 % ) , where the largest minorities represented are Hispanics ( 9 @.@ 18 % ) and Asians ( 5 @.@ 35 % ) . 9 @.@ 6 % of the school 's students marked their race as either " mixed " or did not respond at all . 14 % of the student body reported themselves socio @-@ economically disadvantaged , 8 % reported themselves as having a disability , and 3 % of the school population reported themselves as ESL students . 96 @.@ 1 % of the Whitney student body graduated in its first school year ; in the 2005 – 06 school year , every student passed the requirements for graduation . The school 's first dropout students were in the 2006 – 07 school year ; 1 @.@ 5 % of the school 's students were part of that group .
Class sizes had increased in all core classes between the school 's founding in 2005 and the School Accountability Report Card for the 2007 – 08 school year , where an average 23 @.@ 1 English class size and an average 21 @.@ 9 mathematics class size had increased to , respectively , average class sizes of 25 @.@ 4 and 25 @.@ 0 .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
= = = Clubs and publications = = =
As of April of the 2010 – 2011 school year , Whitney High School runs forty @-@ seven clubs . Many of these clubs , including those pertaining to art , dance , music ( the school 's band and orchestra ) , foreign language , and the United States Air Force Junior Reserve Officers ' Training Corps , directly correspond to official classes that are run by the school itself . Others , including the California Scholarship Federation and National Honor Society , can be used as catalysts to fulfill the community service graduation requirement . The high school 's yearbook , known as Details , was awarded a Silver Crown Award at the 2009 Scholastic Awards Convention at Columbia University alongside Rocklin High School 's yearbook ; in addition , Whitney 's yearbook placed first in the 2006 National Student Press Association Best @-@ of @-@ Show 's Yearbook length 1 – 224 pages category . The school 's newspaper , known as The Roar , was founded in the spring of 2005 by the school 's Journalism I course ; the first issue was released in March of the following year .
Whitney High School 's student government is known as the Associated Student Body , or ASB . The association is responsible for organizing rallies , dances , and other schoolwide activities .
= = = Sports = = =
Whitney High School fields eleven boys ' sports teams and twelve girls ' sports teams . Nearly all sports have teams of both genders , although exceptions do exist : baseball and football are specific to males , while cheerleading , drill team , softball , and team tennis are specific to females . Whitney 's sports teams participate in the Pioneer Valley League , which includes six other high schools in El Dorado County , Placer County , Nevada County , and Sacramento County . Whitney 's football team won the Sac @-@ Joaquin Section championships in 2008 ; they were runners @-@ up to Oakdale High School the previous year and reached the championships again in 2009 . Likewise , the girls ' soccer team won the Sac @-@ Joaquin Section championships in 2009 . Nazir Rasooli was the champion of the 2009 Sac @-@ Joaquin Section Wrestling Championship , and was the first Whitney wrestler to qualify for the State championship .
= Operation Auca =
Operation Auca was an attempt by five Evangelical Christian missionaries from the United States to bring Christianity to the Huaorani people of the rain forest of Ecuador . The Huaorani , also known by the pejorative Aucas ( a modification of awqa , the Quechua word for " savages " ) , were an isolated tribe known for their violence , against both their own people and outsiders who entered their territory . With the intention of being the first Christians to evangelize the previously uncontacted Huaorani , the missionaries began making regular flights over Huaorani settlements in September 1955 , dropping gifts , which were reciprocated . After several months of exchanging gifts , on January 3 , 1956 , the missionaries established a camp at " Palm Beach " , a sandbar along the Curaray River , a few kilometers from Huaorani settlements . Their efforts came to an end on January 8 , 1956 , when all five — Jim Elliot , Nate Saint , Ed McCully , Peter Fleming , and Roger Youderian — were attacked and speared by a group of Huaorani warriors . The news of their deaths was broadcast around the world , and Life magazine covered the event with a photo essay .
The deaths of the men galvanized the missionary effort in the United States , sparking an outpouring of funding for evangelization efforts around the world . Their work is still frequently remembered in evangelical publications , and in 2006 was the subject of the film production End of the Spear . Several years after the death of the men , the widow of Jim Elliot , Elisabeth , and the sister of Nate Saint , Rachel , returned to Ecuador as missionaries with the Summer Institute of Linguistics ( now SIL International ) to live among the Huaorani . This eventually led to the conversion of many , including some of those involved in the killing . While largely eliminating tribal violence , their efforts exposed the tribe to increased influence from the outside .
= = Huaorani = =
The Huaorani around the time of Operation Auca were a small tribe occupying the jungle of Eastern Ecuador between the Napo and Curaray Rivers , an area of approximately 20 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 7 @,@ 700 mi ² ) . They numbered approximately 600 people , and were split into three groups , all mutually hostile — the Geketaidi , the Baïidi , and the Wepeidi . They lived on the gathering and cultivation of plant foods like manioc and plantains , as well as fishing and hunting with spear and blowgun . Family units consisted of a man and his wife or wives , their unmarried sons , their married daughters and sons @-@ in @-@ law , and their grandchildren . All of them would reside in a longhouse , which was separated by several kilometers from another longhouse in which close relatives lived . Marriage was always endogenous and typically between cousins , and arranged by the parents of the young people .
Before their first peaceful contact with outsiders ( cowodi ) in 1958 , the Huaorani fiercely defended their territory . Viewing all cowodi as cannibalistic predators , they killed rubber tappers around the turn of the 20th century and Shell Oil Company employees during the 1940s , in addition to any lowland Quechua or other outsiders who encroached on their land . Furthermore , they were prone to internal violence , often engaging in vengeance killing of other Huaorani . Raids were carried out in extreme anger by groups of men who attacked their victims ' longhouse by night and then fled . Attempts to build truces through gifts and exchange of spouses became more frequent as their numbers decreased and the tribes fragmented , but the cycle of violence continued .
= = Missionaries = =
Jim Elliot first heard of the Huaorani in 1950 from a former missionary to Ecuador , and afterwards indicated that God had called him to Ecuador to evangelize the Huaorani . He began corresponding with his friend Pete Fleming about his desire to minister in Ecuador , and in 1952 the two men set sail for Guayaquil as missionaries with the Plymouth Brethren . For six months they lived in Quito with the goal of learning Spanish . They then moved to Shandia , a Quechua mission station deep in the Ecuadorian jungle . There they worked under the supervision of a Christian Missions in Many Lands missionary , Wilfred Tidmarsh , and began exposing themselves to the culture and studying the Quechua language .
Another team member was Ed McCully , a man Jim Elliot had met and befriended while both attended Wheaton College . Following graduation , he married Marilou Hobolth and enrolled in a one @-@ year basic medical treatment program at the School of Missionary Medicine in Los Angeles . On December 10 , 1952 , McCully moved to Quito with his family as a Plymouth Brethren missionary , planning to soon join Elliot and Fleming in Shandia . In 1953 , however , the station in Shandia was wiped out by a flood , delaying their move until September of that year .
The team 's pilot , Nate Saint , had served in the military during World War II , receiving flight training as a member of the Army Air Corps . After being discharged in 1946 , he too studied at Wheaton College , but quit after a year and joined the Mission Aviation Fellowship in 1948 . He and his wife Marj traveled to Ecuador by the end of the year , and they settled at MAF headquarters in Shell Mera . Shortly after his arrival , Saint began transporting supplies and equipment to missionaries spread throughout the jungle . This work ultimately led to his meeting the other four missionaries , who he joined in Operation Auca .
Also on the team was Roger Youderian , a 32 @-@ year @-@ old missionary who had been working in Ecuador since 1953 . Under the mission board Gospel Missionary Union , he and his wife Barbara and daughter Beth settled in Macuma , a mission station in the southern jungle of Ecuador . There , he and his wife ministered to the Shuar people , learning their language and transcribing it . After working with them for about a year , Youderian and his family began ministering to a tribe related to the Shuar , the Achuar people . He worked with Nate Saint to provide important medical supplies ; but after a period of attempting to build relationships with them , he failed to see any positive effect and , growing depressed , considered returning to the United States . However , during this time Saint approached him about joining their team to meet the Huaorani , and he assented .
= = Initial contact = =
The first stage of Operation Auca began in September 1955 . Saint , McCully , Elliot , and fellow missionary Johnny Keenan decided to initiate contact with the Huaorani and began periodically searching for them by air . By the end of the month , they had identified several clearings in the jungle . Meanwhile , Elliot learned several phrases in the language of the Huaorani from Dayuma , a young Huaorani woman who had left her society and become friends with Rachel Saint , a missionary and the sister of Nate Saint . The missionaries hoped that by regularly giving gifts to the Huaorani and attempting to communicate with them in their language , they would be able to win them over as friends .
Because of the difficulty and risk of meeting the Huaorani on the ground , the missionaries chose to drop gifts to the Huaorani by fixed @-@ wing aircraft . Their drop technique , developed by Nate Saint , involved flying around the drop location in tight circles while lowering the gift from the plane on a rope . This kept the bundle in roughly the same position as it approached the ground . On October 6 , 1955 , Saint made the first drop , releasing a small kettle containing buttons and rock salt . The gift @-@ giving continued during the following weeks , with the missionaries dropping machetes , ribbons , clothing , pots , and various trinkets .
After several visits to the Auca village , which the missionaries called " Terminal City " , they observed that the Huaorani seemed excited to receive their gifts . Encouraged , they began using a loudspeaker to shout simple Huaorani phrases as they circled . After several more drops , in November the Huaorani began tying gifts for the missionaries to the line after removing the gifts the missionaries gave them . The men took this as a gesture of friendliness and developed plans for meeting the Huaorani on the ground . Saint soon identified a 200 @-@ yard ( 200 m ) sandbar along the Curaray River about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 km ) from Terminal City that could serve as a runway and camp site , and dubbed it " Palm Beach " .
= = Palm Beach = =
At this point , Pete Fleming had still not decided to participate in the operation , and Roger Youderian was still working in the jungle farther south . On December 23 , the Flemings , Saints , Elliots and McCullys together made plans to land at Palm Beach and build a camp on January 3 , 1956 . They agreed to take weapons , but decided that they would only be used to fire into the air to scare the Huaorani if they attacked . They built a sort of tree house that could be assembled upon arrival , and collected gifts , first aid equipment , and language notes .
By January 2 , Youderian had arrived and Fleming had confirmed his involvement , so the five met in Arajuno to prepare to leave the following day . After minor mechanical trouble with the plane , Saint and McCully took off at 8 : 02 a.m. on January 3 and successfully landed on the sandy beach along the Curaray River . Saint then flew Elliot and Youderian to the camp , and then made several more flights , carrying equipment . After the last delivery , he flew over a Huaorani settlement and , using a loudspeaker , told the Huaorani to visit the missionaries ' camp . He then returned to Arajuno , and the next day , he and Fleming flew out to Palm Beach .
= = = First visit = = =
On January 6 , after the Americans had spent several days of waiting and shouting basic Huaorani phrases into the jungle , the first Huaorani visitors arrived . A young man and two women emerged on the opposite river bank around 11 : 15 a.m. , and soon joined the missionaries at their encampment . The younger of the two women had come against the wishes of her family , and the man , named Nankiwi , who was romantically interested in her , followed . The older woman ( about thirty years old ) acted as a self @-@ appointed chaperone . The men gave them several gifts , including a model plane , and the visitors soon relaxed and began conversing freely , apparently not realizing that the men 's language skills were weak . Nankiwi , whom the missionaries nicknamed " George " , showed interest in their aircraft , so Saint took off with him aboard . They first completed a circuit around the camp , but Nankiwi appeared eager for a second trip , so they flew toward Terminal City . Upon reaching a familiar clearing , Nankiwi recognized his neighbors , and leaning out of the plane , wildly waved and shouted to them . Later that afternoon , the younger woman became restless , and though the missionaries offered their visitors sleeping quarters , Nankiwi and the young woman left the beach with little explanation . The older woman apparently had more interest in conversing with the missionaries , and remained there most of the night .
After seeing Nankiwi in the plane , a small group of Huaorani decided to make the trip to Palm Beach , and left the following morning , January 7 . On the way , they encountered Nankiwi and the girl , returning unescorted . The girl 's brother , Nampa , was furious at this , and to defuse the situation and divert attention from himself , Nankiwi claimed that the foreigners had attacked them on the beach , and in their haste to flee , they had been separated from their chaperone . Gikita , a senior member of the group whose experience with outsiders had taught him that they could not be trusted , recommended that they kill the foreigners . The return of the older woman and her account of the friendliness of the missionaries was not enough to dissuade them , and they soon continued toward the beach .
= = = Attack = = =
On January 8 the missionaries waited , expecting a larger group of Huaorani to arrive sometime that afternoon , if only to get plane rides . Saint made several trips over Huaorani settlements , and on the following morning he noted a group of Huaorani men traveling toward Palm Beach . He excitedly relayed this information to his wife over the radio at 12 : 30 p.m. , promising to make contact again at 4 : 30 p.m.
The Huaorani arrived at Palm Beach around 3 : 00 p.m. , and in order to divide the foreigners before attacking them , they sent three women to the other side of the river . One , Dawa , remained hidden in the jungle , but the other two showed themselves . Two of the missionaries waded into the water to greet them , but were attacked from behind by Nampa . Apparently attempting to scare him , Elliot , the first missionary to be speared , drew his pistol and began firing . One of these shots mildly injured Dawa , still hidden , and another grazed the missionary 's attacker after he was grabbed from behind by one of the women . Accounts differ on the effect of that bullet . Missionaries interpreted the testimonies of Dawa and Dayuma to mean that Nampa was killed months later while hunting , but others , including missionary anthropologist James Yost , came to believe that his death was a result of the bullet wound . Rachel Saint did not accept this , holding that eyewitnesses supported her position , but researcher Laura Rival , a critic of the expedition , suggests that it is now commonly believed among Huaorani that Nampa died of the wound . The other missionary in the river , Fleming , before being speared , desperately reiterated friendly overtures and asked the Huaorani why they were killing them . Meanwhile , the other Huaorani warriors , led by Gikita , attacked the three missionaries still on the beach , spearing Saint first , then McCully as he rushed to stop them . Youderian ran to the airplane to get to the radio , but he was speared as he picked up the microphone to report the attack . The Huaorani then threw the men 's bodies and their belongings in the river , and ripped the fabric from their aircraft . They then returned to their village and , anticipating retribution , burned it to the ground and fled into the jungle .
= = = Search = = =
At 4 : 30 p.m. , Marj Saint and Pete Fleming 's wife , Olive , were waiting for the call from Saint . Not receiving word at 4 : 30 p.m. immediately caused his wife Marj to worry , but Marj and Olive did not tell anyone about the lack of communication until that evening . ( To avoid interference , the entire mission had been kept a secret from all those not directly involved at the time , thus making the timing of this announcement more difficult . ) The next morning , January 9 , Johnny Keenan flew to the camp site , and at 9 : 30 a.m. he reported via radio to the wives that the plane was stripped of its fabric , and that the men were not there . The Commander in Chief of the Caribbean Command , Lieutenant General William K. Harrison , was contacted , and Quito @-@ based radio station HCJB released a news bulletin saying that five men were missing in Huaorani territory . Soon , aircraft from the United States Air Rescue Service in Panama were flying over the jungle , and a ground search party consisting of missionaries and military personnel was organized . The first two of the bodies were found on Wednesday , January 11 , and on Thursday , Ed McCully 's body was identified by a group of Quechuas . They took his watch as evidence of the finding but did not move his body from its location on the bank of the Curaray ; it later washed away . Two more bodies were found on January 12 . The searchers hoped that one of the unidentified bodies would be McCully , thinking that perhaps one of the men had escaped . However , on January 13 , all four of the bodies found were positively identified by watches and wedding rings , and McCully 's body was not among them , confirming that all five were dead . In the midst of a tropical storm , they were buried in a common grave at Palm Beach on January 14 by members of the ground search party .
= = Aftermath = =
Life magazine covered the deaths of the men with a photo essay , including photographs by Cornell Capa and some taken by the five men before their deaths . The ensuing worldwide publicity gave several missionary organizations significant more visibility , especially in the United States and Latin America . Most notable among these was the Summer Institute of Linguistics ( SIL ) , the organization for which both Elisabeth Elliot and Rachel Saint worked . Because of the martyrdom of her brother , Saint considered herself spiritually bonded to the Huaorani , believing that what she saw as his sacrifice for the Huaorani was symbolic of Christ 's death for the salvation of humanity . In 1957 , Saint and her Huaorani companion Dayuma toured across the United States and appeared on the television show This Is Your Life . The two also appeared in a Billy Graham crusade in New York City , contributing to Saint 's increasing popularity among evangelical Christians and generating significant monetary donations for SIL .
Saint and Elliot returned to Ecuador to work among the Huaorani ( 1958 @-@ 1960 ) , establishing a camp called Tihueno near a former Huaorani settlement . Rachel Saint and Dayuma became bonded in Huaorani eyes through their shared mourning and Rachel 's adoption as a sister of Dayuma , taking the name Nemo from the latter 's deceased youngest sister . The first Huaorani to settle there were primarily women and children from a Huaorani group called the Guiquetairi , but in 1968 an enemy Huaorani band known as the Baihuari joined them . Elliot had returned to the United States in the early 1960s , so Saint and Dayuma worked to alleviate the resulting conflict . They succeeded in securing cohabitation of the two groups by overseeing numerous cross @-@ band weddings , leading to an end of inter @-@ clan warfare but obscuring the cultural identity of each group .
Saint and Dayuma , in conjunction with SIL , negotiated the creation of an official Huaorani reservation in 1969 , consolidating the Huaorani and consequently opening up the area to commerce and oil exploration . By 1973 , over 500 people lived in Tihueno , of which more than half had arrived in the previous six years . The settlement relied on aid from SIL , and as a Christian community , followed rules foreign to Huaorani culture like prohibitions on killing and polygamy . By the early 1970s , SIL began to question whether their impact on the Huaorani was positive , so they sent James Yost , a staff anthropologist , to assess the situation . He found extensive economic dependence and increasing cultural assimilation , and as a result , SIL ended its support of the settlement in 1976 , leading to its disintegration and the dispersion of the Huaorani into the surrounding area . SIL had hoped that the Huaorani would return to the isolation in which they had lived twenty years prior , but instead they sought out contact with the outside world , forming villages of which many have been recognized by the Ecuadorian government .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Christian views = = =
Among evangelical Christians , the five men are commonly considered martyrs and missionary heroes . Books have been written about them by numerous biographers , most notably Elisabeth Elliot . Anniversaries of their deaths have been accompanied by stories in major Christian publications , and their story , as well as the subsequent acceptance of Christianity among the Huaorani , has been turned into several motion pictures .
Even so , Christians have noted with concern the disintegration of traditional Huaorani culture and westernization of the tribe , beginning with Nate Saint 's own journal entry in 1955 and continuing through today . However , many continue to view as positive both Operation Auca and the subsequent missionary efforts of Rachel Saint , mission organizations such as Mission Aviation Fellowship , Wycliffe Bible Translators , HCJB World Radio , Avant Ministries ( formerly Gospel Missionary Union ) , and others . Specifically , they note the decline in violence among tribe members , numerous conversions to Christianity , and growth of the local church .
= = = Anthropologist views = = =
Anthropologists generally have less favorable views of the missionary work begun by Operation Auca , viewing the intervention as the cause for the recent and widely recognized decline of Huaorani culture . Leading Huaorani researcher Laura Rival says that the work of the SIL " pacified " the Huaorani during the 1960s , and argues that missionary intervention caused significant changes in fundamental components of Huaorani society . Prohibitions of polygamy , violence , chanting , and dancing were directly contrary to cultural norms , and the relocation of Huaorani and subsequent intermarrying of previously hostile groups eroded cultural identity . Others are somewhat less negative — Brysk , after noting that the work of the missionaries opened the area to outside intervention and led to the deterioration of the culture , says that the SIL also informed the Huaorani of their legal rights and taught them how to protect their interests from developers . Boster goes even further , suggesting that the " pacification " of the Huaorani was a result of " active effort " by the Huaorani themselves , not the result of missionary imposition . He argues that Christianity served as a way for the Huaorani to escape the cycle of violence in their community , since it provided a motivation to abstain from killing .
= = = Film depictions = = =
There have been several screen depictions of Operation Auca . The 2004 documentary Beyond the Gates of Splendor featured interviews with some of the Huaorani and surviving family members of the missionaries . The 2006 drama film End of the Spear grossed over $ 12 million .
= Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006 =
Anna Vissi represented Greece in the Eurovision Song Contest 2006 with her song " Everything " . The Greek national broadcaster , Ellinikí Radiofonía Tileórasi ( ERT ) , internally selected Vissi to represent the country at the contest , which took place in Athens after Greece 's win at the 2005 contest with the song " My Number One " performed by Elena Paparizou . " Everything " , composed by Nikos Karvelas and written by Anna Vissi herself , was selected on March 14 , 2006 at a national final by a combination of a televoting / SMS vote ( 60 % ) and expert jury ( 40 % ) . At Eurovision , Vissi placed 9th , receiving 128 points .
= = Background = =
The Eurovision Song Contest 2006 marked Greece 's twenty @-@ seventh participation in the Contest since its first entry in 1974 . It won for the first time at the previous contest in 2005 with the song " My Number One " performed by Elena Paparizou , and had been placed third twice up to the Contest : in 2001 with the song " Die for You " performed by the duo Antique and in 2004 with " Shake It " performed by Sakis Rouvas . Following the introduction of semi @-@ finals for the 2004 contest , Greece has had a top ten placing each year . Greece 's least successful result was in 1998 when it placed twentieth with the song " Mia Krifi Evesthisia " by Thalassa , receiving only twelve points in total , all from Cyprus .
The Greek national broadcaster , Ellinikí Radiofonía Tileórasi ( ERT ) broadcasts the event in Greece each year and organizes the selection process for its entry . From 2001 to 2003 , ERT held a national final with several artists , but for 2004 and 2005 , it selected high @-@ profile artists internally and set up national finals to choose their song . ERT continued the internal selection of the artist for 2006 and subsequently held a national final to select the song .
= = Performer = =
As it had done in 2005 , ERT asked 2004 entrant Sakis Rouvas to represent Greece in the 2006 contest , but he once again denied . In an interview with Down Town magazine Rouvas recalled getting the proposal from the network in " either August or September " and considering it briefly ; however , he ultimately found there was no reason for him to go , especially when Greece was the reigning champion , making chances of winning little to none . Nevertheless , ERT still wanted Rouvas involved in some way and they asked him to host the competition , which he accepted . With the news leaked by the newspaper Ethnos , a public announcement was made on 1 November 2005 . Rouvas said of his decision " but when I received the proposal for the hosting of Eurovision I found it intriguing " and that it would challenge him . American television personality and actress Maria Menounos would eventually be announced as his female co @-@ host . The two presented all of the major Eurovision events , including the allocation draw , in addition to the semi @-@ final and final .
On August 6 , 2005 , MAD TV reported that Despina Vandi was " seriously considering " representing Greece in 2006 and would be or possibly already had been proposed to by ERT to be the Greek entrant . Vandi had been asked previously to represent the country at the 2005 contest , but declined , fearing a bad result while her international career was going well . A few months later on December 12 , 2005 , Star Channel announced that ERT would soon officially propose to a different artist , Anna Vissi , to be the representative . Vissi said in reply that she " never [ excludes ] a Eurovision Song Contest participation as long as everything is organized well " . She had participated in the contest twice before : in 1980 with " Autostop " for Greece and in 1982 for Cyprus with the song " Mono I Agapi " , placing 13th and 5th respectively . She had also attempted to take part in the contest on several other years , either failing to win against other artists or having deals not materialize . An official announcement was not made soon after as no agreement could be made at the time , but one month later on January 24 , 2006 , Vissi was officially announced as the artist for 2006 . A few days later in an interview with the press , she said " finally [ a decision is made ] , I want to go to Eurovision too much " . She said the reason that the final decision took so long to be announced was because she was still debating entering ; using opinion polls along with talking to her usual collaborators . It was also announced that Vissi would sing either four or five songs live at the national final to choose her song .
= = National final = =
The date of the final was set for March 14 , 2006 and took place at club Votanikos ; broadcast live as a television program titled Feel the Party . The show was hosted by Giorgos Capountzides and Zeta Makripoulia from the Greek television series Sto Para Pente and included a recap of Greece 's entries from 1974 to 2005 . Past entries such as " Mathima Solfege " , " Stop " , " I Anixi " , and " I Would Die for You " were shown on a large screen along with a video message by 2006 Eurovision host Maria Menounos , while Sakis Rouvas , Elena Paparizou , and Nana Mouskouri all sent personal messages via satellite . During the show , guest acts representing other countries partaking in Eurovision performed their entries and they included : Fabrizio Faniello of Malta with " I Do " , Sibel Tuzun of Turkey with " Süper Star " , Mihai Traistariu of Romania with " Tornerò " , Christine Guldbrandsen of Norway with " Alvedansen " , and Annet Artani of Cyprus with " Why Angels Cry " .
Four candidate songs were decided on for Vissi to sing at the national final by ERT : " Who Cares About Love " which was written and composed by Nikos Karvelas , " Everything " which was also composed by Karvelas , with lyrics by Anna Vissi , " Welcome to the Party " which was composed by Dimitris Kontopoulos with lyrics by Dimitris S , and " A Beautiful Night " which was written and composed by Pegasos ( Antonis and Dimitris Papavomvolakis ) . " Everything " is described as a ballad , while the three others are more upbeat .
The winning song was chosen by the public through televoting and a jury weighted at 60 % and 40 % of the result respectively . The jury panel was made up of Mimis Plessas , Antonis Andrikakis , Dimitris Starovas , Themos Anastasiadis , Christina Politi , Evangelia Piskera , Antonis Karatzikos , Rena Kapitsala , and a ninth vote was split between Sietse Bakker of ESCToday and Fotis Konstantopoulos of Oikotimes .
= = = Result of national final = = =
" Everything " was proclaimed the winner after receiving 47 @.@ 79 % of the total vote , representing over 200 @,@ 000 televotes . She received 55 @.@ 66 % of the vote from the viewers and 35 @.@ 98 % from the jury . " Welcome to the Party " placed second with 26 @.@ 32 % ( 27 @.@ 69 % from the viewers ; 24 @.@ 27 % from the jury ) , 13 @.@ 72 % ( 7 @.@ 25 % from the viewers ; 24 @.@ 43 % from the jury ) for " Who Cares About Love " in third place , and 12 @.@ 6 % ( 9 @.@ 39 % from the viewers ; 16 @.@ 32 % from the jury ) for " A Beautiful Night " which placed last . Vissi stated that she liked all four songs , and after seeing the results , pledged to sing " Everything " " from the heart and give all her best for Greece " .
= = Promotion = =
Before her appearance at the contest , Vissi went on a promotional tour , singing her song in several Eurovision countries . The first stop was Moscow on March 25 , 2006 , Greek Independence Day , and she attended a reception at the Greek embassy . She stayed for three days and gave seven television appearances , three newspaper interviews and posed for several magazines . Following Russia , Vissi traveled to Malta and then Cyprus where she performed at a large club in Nicosia . Cyprus was followed by Albania , where she appeared at the " Albania Awards Kult " , an awards show , and also gave a few interviews . The next stop was Serbia and Montenegro , followed by Romania . By the end of April , Vissi had visited Sweden where she gave several more interviews to the local press . Bosnia and Herzegovina was next at the beginning of May , followed by Belgium on the fourth . She met with Greek Orthodox Metropolitan Panteleimon of Belgium to whom she offered an autographed copy of her CD single " Everything " after having spoken to the media . Vissi then attended a reception at the Greek embassy before meeting up with Belgium entrant Kate Ryan with whom she visited a chocolate museum . After Belgium , Vissi returned to Greece for a break before leaving for Israel , the last stop on the tour , where she remained for ten days .
On April 25 , 2006 , Vissi re @-@ released her most recent album at the time , Nylon , as Nylon : Euro Edition to include the four tracks from the national final and to coincide with the ongoing international promotional tour . At the same time , " Welcome to the Party " had entered the American market , already being played on some radio stations .
= = At Eurovision = =
At a press conference on May 16 , Anna Vissi thanked her fans and God for everything that had been given to her . She also explained how important the competition was to her saying that she " really , really [ wants ] to win " and she also received several gifts from journalists and fans .
" Everything " was considered a favorite at the contest , placing in the top three in a majority of fan polls and first in online betting houses . British commentator for the semi @-@ final stated that " she 's massive in Greece , she 's even bigger than the country itself " . " None of the rehearsals were attended by so many people as Anna Vissi 's " , noted Sietse Bakker , one of the jury members from the national final , " not only a large amount of fans and journalists took seat in the arena [ ... ] but the president of Greek broadcaster ERT also entered the arena to see how ' his ' artist was doing " .
= = = Final = = =
As the winning country of the 2005 edition , Greece was automatically qualified for the final of the 2006 contest , and was drawn to present its song 16th on the night of the final , after the United Kingdom and before Finland .
At the final , held on May 20 , 2006 , Anna Vissi appeared on stage surrounded by a fog effect created by dry ice . She was alone on the large stage and wore an exclusive Jean Paul Gaultier black and white outfit with black leggings . By the end of the song , she was down on her knees singing . Her choreography for the final was arranged by Mia Michaels . Although considered a favorite , a ninth @-@ place finish was all Vissi could manage . She received 128 points , including the coveted " douze points " from Bulgaria and Cyprus .
The ninth @-@ place finish guaranteed Greece a place in the final of the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 .
= = After Eurovision = =
The day after the contest , Vissi could be seen crying in front of cameras while recounting her experience , but thanking the Greek public for all their love and support . She soon re @-@ released Nylon again as a dual disc with music videos , and also a remix of " Everything " by Valentino and Siganos . After Eurovision Vissi went on hiatus from the Greek music industry , performing a worldwide tour for the Greek diaspora in 2007 as well as recording English @-@ language material for her planned international album in Los Angeles , California with her then @-@ producer Greg Ladanyi . A court case also further postponed her Greek career . Since the second re @-@ release of Nylon in autumn 2006 , Vissi had not released any new material until October 29 , 2008 , when she released the song " To Parelthon Mou " ( my past ) as the lead soundtrack single for the Greek movie Bank Bang . On December 9 , 2008 she released the album Apagorevmeno ( 2008 ) which was certified double platinum in Greece under the new 2009 thresholds , denoting shipments of 24 thousand copies , one of her lowest selling albums and lowest of the 2000s . It was certified triple platinum in her native Cyprus . Her first album in the 2010s , Agapi Einai Esi , performed worse than its predecessor , being certified gold for shipments of six thousand copies and falling off of the charts after two months , while her concert attendances generally did not meet expectations , despite heavy promotion .
While Vissi 's popularity and commercial appeal had already begun declining by the early 2000s , as seen by the sales of albums such as Nylon — which although successful had relatively low sales compared to her other albums — Eurovision was considered to have had a detrimental affect to her career . The Greeks viewed the sudden departure and abstaining completely from the media as Vissi being ashamed about her result in the contest , furthered by Vissi 's own statements of the participation being a mistake . Although this was partially due to hardships faced by the Greek music industry including piracy , the financial crisis , and changing musical tastes , leading to a general decline of the laïko @-@ pop scene and image @-@ based singers , her career choices , such as the pursuit of an international career at a relatively advanced age , leading to several long absences from Greece and attempting to use Eurovision as a gateway , were thought to be major components . In an article about the " golden trio of Greek pop " consisting of Vissi , Despina Vandi , and Sakis Rouvas , Anna Vlavianou of To Vima considered Vissi to have " the most vociferous " decline of the group . Vlavianou interpreted her tears on the night :
" When America looked to big to be won , Anna Vissi turned towards Europe . She took part in Eurovision to conquer the summit of the Alps and lost Mount Olympus too . Her tears on the evening of the contest in 2006 , following her failure , showed that she was fully aware of her situation : not only had she not conquered the European audience , but she had lost the Greek one too . "
Vissi 's music rival Despina Vandi also became less prominent . While the supposed rivalry between the two was once a grand topic in the media , with speculation as to who would come out on top , the possible overexposure of the story and their subsequent absences allowed fellow laïko @-@ pop singer Elena Paparizou , fresh off of the momentum of her 2005 Eurovision win , to ultimately overshadow the two during the second half of the decade . While reviewing Apagorevmeno , Haris Simvoulidis of Avopolis felt that Vissi appeared to be attempting to catch up to her contemporaries , Paparizou and Peggy Zina . Vissi continued to make music and while her career never fully recovered to its previous state , she did continue to have some impact , being placed 15th in Forbes list of the most powerful and influential Greece celebrities in 2010 . Her time on hiatus in the late 2000s was filmed and used for a reality show called Oso Eho Foni in 2011 .
= Jim Wallhead =
Jim Wallhead ( born 14 March 1984 ) is an English professional mixed martial artist who competes in the Welterweight division . He has competed for BAMMA , Bellator , and M @-@ 1 Challenge .
Wallhead is a member of Team Rough House and Leicester Shootfighters . In addition to his training at Leicester Shootfighters , Wallhead also works as a coach . Wallhead joined Team Rough House after back @-@ to @-@ back losses at the beginning of his professional career and dropped his competing weight from Light Heavyweight and Middleweight to Welterweight .
= = Mixed martial arts career = =
= = = Background = = =
Wallhead comes from a judo background , where he holds a black belt . He was introduced to judo accidentally after being taken to a class that was believed to be a karate class . Wallhead was successful early in his judo career for the Beaumont Leys Judo club , before moving to a club in Coventry under Olympic silver medallist Neil Adams . Under Adams , Wallhead won three Under @-@ 21s British titles as well as placing 7th in the European youth Olympics .
Wallhead joined Team Rough House in 2005 , following back @-@ to @-@ back losses between May and July 2005 . Wallhead is still a member of Team Rough House to this date , alongside fighters such as Dan Hardy , Ross Pearson , Paul Daley and Andre Winner.Wallhead also trains Muay Thai with the former multi @-@ time Kickboxing champion Owen Comerie , who previously trained Dan Hardy . Wallhead works his strength and conditioning with Ollie Richardson at the Leicester Tigers Rugby Union training ground . Wallhead also trains Brazilian jiu @-@ jitsu under Victor Estima , he holds a Blue Belt under him .
= = = Early career = = =
Early in his career , Wallhead was associated with the Urban Combat Leicester team . He made his semi @-@ professional debut against Steve Matthews on 8 April 2005 , in a two @-@ round fight . This fight was fought at heavyweight , at the " Cage Warriors : Quest " event where Wallhead was able to defeat his opponent with a rear naked choke after 27 seconds of the first round .
Wallhead soon turned professional and on 30 April 2005 , he made his debut at Cage Warriors : Ultimate Force . Jim fought Leslee Ojugbana , utilising knee strikes from the clinch , whilst preventing Ojugbana from succeeding with takedown attempts . After one @-@ sided striking from Wallhead , Ojugbana gave up his back and Wallhead was able to pull off a rear naked choke for his debut win after just 64 seconds .
Wallhead competed just weeks later and made his second professional appearance against Boris Jonstomp at Cage Warriors : Strike Force . This fight was fought at the lower weight of middleweight and saw Wallhead succeed with judo throw attempts early in the fight . However , Wallhead 's ground game was not to the same standard at Jonstomp 's and he lost via first round submission ( neck crank ) after 4 : 20 .
This was followed up by his second consecutive loss , two months later at the Cage Warriors : Quest 2 event , at the hands of Chris Rice . Wallhead was TKOd 3 : 32 into the first round , resulting in a 1 – 2 record at the start of his professional MMA career . Following this loss , Wallhead joined Team Rough House after meeting Dan Hardy and receiving an invitation to join the team . Upon doing so , Wallhead dropped two weight categories to his current status as a welterweight .
= = = Early affiliation with Team Rough House = = =
In his welterweight debut and his first fight under Team Rough House affiliation , Wallhead was victorious . The fight took place at Cage Warriors : Strike Force 3 where Wallhead faced Greco @-@ Roman wrestler Steve Singh @-@ Sidhu . Though Wallhead had dropped to welterweight , he still had a considerable weight advantage over his opponent who weighed in at 3 @.@ 5 kg less than Wallhead . This perhaps was significant as Singh @-@ Sidhu 's strikes seemed to have little bearing on Wallhead , who was able to land takedowns and a standing choke . Midway through the first round , Singh @-@ Sidhu appeared to be backing away from Wallhead , who chased him down with punches and knees to the head . After a shin strike to the head , Singh @-@ Sidhu 's corner threw in the towel , resulting in a first round TKO victory for Wallhead .
In December 2005 , Wallhead fought Welshman Paul Jenkins . This was Wallhead 's first title fight in mixed martial arts , as they competed for the House of Pain Welterweight title in front of Jenkins ' home crowd of Cardiff , Wales . Wallhead won the fight via majority decision after five rounds , giving him the title . Just over two years to that day , Wallhead rematched Jenkins in a kickboxing bout ( thus not counting towards his pro @-@ MMA record ) ; this time in Wallhead 's hometown of Nottingham . Wallhead showed effective low kicks and combinations which earned him a unanimous decision victory .
After his third successive victory , with his win over Henning Svendsen in March 2006 , Wallhead made his first title defense of his House of Pain Welterweight title just two weeks later . His opponent was John Phillips who was making his second professional appearance . Wallhead defeated Phillips to retain the title , after a TKO victory due to elbows .
After going 4 – 0 under the tutelage of Team Rough House , Wallhead then faced Peter Angerer in May 2006 . Despite controlling the fight , Angerer defeated Wallhead via submission ( arm @-@ triangle choke ) . During the submission attempt , Wallhead 's arm was stuck , meaning he had to tap with his feet , earning the nickname " Scuba Steve " from his teammates .
= = = European and worldwide exposure = = =
Following his loss to Angerer , Wallhead entered the 2H2H 83 kg tournament in Holland , on just 72 hours notice , despite the tournament being at a higher weight than he was adjusted to . In the first round of the tournament , Wallhead defeated Camara Bouna via two @-@ round decision , before defeating Xander Nel in the final via TKO .
Wallhead then captured the Cage Gladiators British Welterweight Title , defeating the UFC veteran Jason Tan .
Returning to Cage Warriors , Wallhead faced the UFC @-@ bound Dennis Siver . Despite being on a three fight winning streak , Wallhead was submitted via armbar taking his record to 8 – 4 . Wallhead faced Lewis Barrow four months later and won via submission ( punches ) to begin a four fight win streak . Wallhead 's next three fights resulted in submission victories ; a victory via choke over Jordan James , an arm @-@ triangle choke victory over Soli Clichko and a rear naked choke victory over Steven Lynch .
Wallhead began to gain more recognition and exposure in the United States when his fight against Charles Blanchard was featured on Inside MMA on HDNet . Unfortunately for Wallhead , this fight resulted in a decision loss . Wallhead would later state : " I didn 't throw my hands enough in the first round when I was fresh and that 's my own fault . "
Wallhead then began to show improved boxing and knockout power in his next few fights , the first of which was against Tom Haddock in April 2008 who he defeated via submission due to punches .
Just under three months later , Wallhead faced off against Fabricio Nascimento . Wallhead kept the fight on their feet throughout , preventing Nascimento 's takedowns . Frustrated by Wallhead 's superior boxing , Nascimento visibly showed his disdain . Wallhead took the unanimous decision victory which was regarded as the most important victory he had claimed at that stage in his career .
Wallhead 's next fight came at M @-@ 1 Challenge UK in September 2008 and was intended to be against Jason Ball . However , Ball had to withdraw with a knee injury and was replaced by Igor Araújo . In preparation for his fight with Araújo , Wallhead temporarily joined Xtreme Couture Mixed Martial Arts in Las Vegas , Nevada to further polish his skills .
Araújo himself had just finished training at Xtreme Couture and entered the fight having won seven of his last eight fights . After just 79 seconds , Wallhead won via TKO due to punches - the fifth TKO victory of his career .
Wallhead then applied to become a castmember of The Ultimate Fighter : United States vs. United Kingdom . After passing the assessment and interview successfully , he was told he was " too experienced " for the show , though strangely , he was instead made into an " alternate " who would step up if another castmember withdrew with injury .
Wallhead would then have an eight @-@ month layoff . This was due to his signing with the debuting " British Fighting Championships " - an organisation aimed at combining domestic British MMA into one entity - that would eventually dissolve before its premiere broadcast . The knockout @-@ style tournament saw him drawn against the Brazilian Fabio Toldo . However , the BFC organisation would eventually dissolve and in May 2009 , the Ultimate Force organisation picked up the fight . The fight saw Wallhead continue to utilise his improved boxing after an early scare , where Toldo knocked Wallhead down . Wallhead would go on to defeat his opponent via knockout , which was described by one of Wallhead 's team mates as " one of the worst knockouts they 've seen " .
In September 2009 , Wallhead won the Clash of Warriors Welterweight title by defeating Marius Buzinskas .
In November 2009 , Wallhead scored arguably the most high profile win of his career when he defeated The Ultimate Fighter : United States vs. United Kingdom participant Che Mills at " Knuckleup At The Manor " in Newport , Wales . The fight , which was seen as " a clash between the UK ’ s two top unsigned welterweights , " was a close fight that was difficult to score for the judges . Mills was able to block Wallhead 's takedown attempts and get back up quickly when Wallhead was successful . In the first round , Wallhead was able to take Mills down and get into side mount , though Mills almost won the first round in the eyes of the judges after a late flurry of strikes . The second round saw Mills use foot stomps and elbows from the clinch , which prevented Wallhead from utilising his wrestling . In the final round , Wallhead continued with takedowns before hitting Mills with elbows . With 45 seconds of the fight remaining , Wallhead was able to cut Mills with his strikes .
Wallhead 's overall control , strategy and constant aggression led to him taking a unanimous decision .
= = = Bellator Fighting Championships = = =
Despite speculation about joining the UFC , in December 2009 , Wallhead was signed by the Bellator Fighting Championships to compete in their 2010 eight man , number 1 contender Welterweight Tournament , which began on 8 April 2010 .
Wallhead 's first appearance in the tournament was scheduled to be at Bellator 15 against the American Jacob McClintock .
However , on 20 April , just two days before his fight with McClintock , Wallhead was forced to withdraw from the Bellator tournament as he was grounded in England due to the 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull . Wallhead was replaced by Ryan Thomas .
A month later , Bellator CEO Bjorn Rebney stated that they were aiming to include Wallhead in the third season - despite the absence of a welterweight tournament - with a view to including him in the fourth season 's welterweight tournament .
In the meantime , Wallhead took a fight in Cage Warriors against Shaun Lomas and defeated him via rear naked choke in the first round . Due to an injury to Wallhead 's previous opponent , Lomas had to step in at short notice , meaning that Wallhead competed at middleweight for the first time in two years .
Bellator 's plans to include Wallhead in their third season were confirmed in September 2010 , when Wallhead signed to face Ryan Thomas on 14 October 2010 at Bellator 32 . Wallhead went on to defeat Thomas via unanimous decision ( 29 – 28 , 29 – 28 , 29 – 28 ) .
In the fourth season welterweight tournament opening round , Wallhead faced fellow judoka , Rick Hawn , losing via unanimous decision .
= = = BAMMA = = =
Wallhead made his BAMMA debut at BAMMA 7 against Frank Trigg . Trigg was set to face Tom ' Kong ' Watson for Watson 's middleweight title , but Watson suffered a back injury forcing his withdrawal and allowing Wallhead to step up as his replacement . In the opening round , Wallhead caught Trigg with a left hook which appeared to hurt him , before executing a successful takedown . He ended the first round landing ground @-@ and @-@ pound shots which opened up a cut on Trigg 's cheek . The second round saw Wallhead land the stronger strikes , but less often than Trigg . The final round was also close , though Wallhead once again managed to rock Trigg early in the round . The fight went to the judges , where Wallhead won via split decision ( 29 @-@ 28 , 28 @-@ 29 and 30 @-@ 27 ) .
He competed at BAMMA 8 in a welterweight bout against Joey Villasenor , winning via first round KO .
Wallhead faced off against UFC veteran Matt Veach in the main event of BAMMA 12 in Newcastle , England on 9 March 2013 . He won the fight via submission in the first round .
= = = Return to Bellator = = =
Wallhead returned to Bellator to compete in the season seven welterweight tournament . His opening round match was against Lyman Good . He lost the fight via unanimous decision .
= = = Back to BAMMA = = =
On 9 March 2013 he took on UFC veteran Matt Veach at BAMMA 12 , winning by first round submission due to Rear @-@ Naked Choke . Wallhead faced former TUF contestant Eddy Ellis at BAMMA 13 on 14 September 2013 . He lost the fight in a highly controversial decision after breaking Ellis ' jaw in the first round and stuffing many of his takedown attempts .
= = = KSW = = =
In mid @-@ 2015 , Wallhead signed with Poland @-@ based promotion Konfrontacja Sztuk Walki , and is currently expected to face Rafał Moks at KSW 32 : Road to Wembley in a welterweight bout on 31 October 2015 .
= = = WFCA = = =
On 9 April 2016 , Wallhead fought at WFCA 17 against Gennadiy Kovalev . He won the bout via unanimous decision
= = Mixed martial arts record = =
= = Titles and accomplishments = =
Judo
Three time Under @-@ 21 British Judo champion
Seventh place in the European Youth Olympics
Mixed Martial Arts
Former House of Pain Welterweight champion ( defended once , then relinquished )
2H2H 83 kg tournament winner
Former Cage Gladiators British Welterweight champion
Clash of Warriors Welterweight champion
= = Personal life = =
Wallhead has a son .
= Vision in White =
Vision In White is the first book of the Bride Quartet series of romance novels , written by Nora Roberts . It spent two weeks atop the New York Times Bestseller List and reached number 3 on the USA Today bestseller list , marking the first time one of Roberts ' books had become a bestseller in trade paperback format . A downloadable casual @-@ play computer game based on the book was introduced by I
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Charles Y. Harvey began work on Boy with Turtle at his studio in New York City , believing that this work was going to be his masterpiece . Almost immediately he began second guessing his design and feeling that it was inadequate . This negativity was a trait that he had shown many times in the past . Roughly a week after beginning the sculpture , Harvey began hearing voices commanding him to kill himself . A paper about restoring the sculpture written at Worcester Polytechnic Institute claims the voices he was hearing were coming from the partially carved sculpture itself . These voices set the date of Saturday January 27 , 1912 for Harvey to kill himself . On that date he laid down his tools , headed to Bronx Park with two razors , and slit his own throat along the west bank of the Bronx River .
After Harvey 's death , Sherry Fry , a fellow American Academy graduate , was invited to finish the work according to the original designs Harvey had laid out . Fry completed the sculpture , and it was delivered along with the basin to Worcester in 1912 . There had been much discussion about where to install the fountain . Central Square , just off the Worcester Common was chosen with only slight opposition from " market gardeners who had been using the east end of the Common for their summer outdoor market . " When it was installed in Central Square , There was no dedication ceremony or unveiling for the fountain . A news article on October 11 , 1912 stated that Worcester Mayor Philip O ’ Connell , " believes it will be well to have the fountain placed in use without ceremony . ” This lack of a ceremony is presumably due to Harvey 's suicide and the desire to not celebrate such an act .
By 1912 , the use of horse and buggy had fallen out of fashion , and the Burnside Fountain saw little use in its intended purpose . By 1939 citizens of Worcester were already calling for the fountain to be moved to a more suitable place where it could be of more use . It took until 1969 for the Burnside Fountain to be moved from Central Square . It was relocated to the Worcester Common and turned to face Salem Square . One year later , in May 1970 , the statue was ripped from its pedestal and stolen . It was returned later that same year , but it took until 1972 for the boy and turtle to be placed back on top of the basin . Another apparent theft attempt happened in 2004 when the bronze sculpture was toppled off its pedestal and left dangling off the basin . The city was quick to fix the statue this time , with it being righted and reattached within days .
In 2010 , the Burnside Fountain was named one of WAAF 's " Hill @-@ Man 's 25 Greatest Places in Massachusetts . " That same year , it was also nominated for " Worst Public Art in New England " by a regional Art blog . Around this same time a small group of volunteers began the " Turtle Boy Urban Gardeners , " a group dedicated to keeping the plantings around the Burnside Fountain presentable .
For the last few decades the Burnside Fountain has been in disrepair . A 1986 inventory of public memorials in Worcester , compiled by the municipal parks and recreation department , listed the fountains problems as " chipped stone , water system , bronze surface corrosion , rust staining , litter , " and the Smithsonian Art Inventories Catalog surveyed the fountain in September 1994 and listed its condition as " treatment urgent . " With the one @-@ hundredth anniversary of the Burnside Fountain coming in 2012 , there has been renewed interest in restoring the fountain . Restoration estimates run between USD $ 40 @,@ 000 to $ 60 @,@ 000 , which is more than the city is willing to spend . Probably because of this , there are no official plans to restore the fountain , as of June 2012 .
= = " Turtle Boy " = =
The statue that sits atop the Burnside Fountain is now commonly referred to as Turtle Boy . In the tradition of the Manneken Pis in Brussels , Turtle Boy has become an unofficial mascot for Worcester . Much of the local popularity of the statue is due to bawdy insinuations about how the boy and the turtle are portrayed . Anonymous members of the Worcester community sometimes dress the statue in festive clothes for holidays , local bands write crowd @-@ pleasing songs about it , and the statue has even graced postcards of the city .
The popularity of Turtle Boy began around the time it was installed in Central Square . In 1916 the Burnside Fountain 's boy and turtle appeared in The Cloud Bird , a children 's book by Margaret C. Getchell in which each chapter was about a Worcester landmark . In the eighth chapter , " The Adventurer in Armor , " a small girl finds a young , Peter Pan @-@ like faun who had agreed to hold back the turtle . They later go on an adventure upon the turtle 's back , but return at the end of the day . By the late 2000s " Turtle Boy " was a common term used to align events and objects with Worcester . A local music contest was named the " Turtle Boy Music Awards , " and the Wormtown Brewing Company in Worcester began selling a " Turtle Boy Blueberry Ale . "
Kristina Wilson , associate professor in the Department of Visual and Performing Arts at Worcester 's Clark University , asked people on campus what they thought of Turtle Boy . One person replied " Oh , that 's Worcester 's monument to bestiality . " Wilson said the sculpture is intended to portray " innocence , joy , and rebirth , " and that historically Charles Y. Harvey came from an artistic tradition in which " the human figure is the apex of beauty , and how well you can capture that is the demonstration of your artistic talents . " Regarding the artistic merit of the work , Wilson said : " It 's unfortunate , because it really does look like something untoward is going on . "
Mostly because of the ambiguity in what the Burnside Fountain is depicting , Turtle Boy pops up occasionally in social media . The sculpture also appeared on comedian Daniel Tosh 's Tosh.0 blog .
= Gisborough Priory =
Gisborough Priory is a ruined Augustinian priory in Guisborough in the borough of Redcar and Cleveland and ceremonial county of North Yorkshire , England . It was founded in 1119 as the Priory of St Mary by the Norman feudal magnate Robert de Brus , also an ancestor of the Scottish king , Robert the Bruce . It became one of the richest monastic foundations in England with grants from the crown and bequests from de Brus , other nobles and gentry and local people of more modest means . Much of the Romanesque Norman priory was destroyed in a fire in 1289 . It was rebuilt in the Gothic style on a grander scale over the following century . Its remains are regarded as among the finest surviving examples of early Gothic architecture in England .
The priory prospered until the Dissolution of the Monasteries in 1540 , when it was abolished along with England 's other monastic communities . The priory buildings were demolished and the stone re @-@ used in other buildings in Guisborough . The east end of the priory church was left standing with its great window forming a distinctive arch , a well @-@ known landmark used as a symbol for Guisborough . It became part of the estate of the Chaloner family , who acquired it in 1550 . The east window was preserved by them as part of a Romantic vista adjoining their seat , Gisborough Hall , from which the priory takes its idiosyncratically spelled name . It is owned by the Chaloners but is in the care of English Heritage as a scheduled monument .
Since the 19th century archaeological excavations have taken place in the priory grounds , though a substantial part of the site has not yet been investigated . In addition to the east window , surviving visible fragments of the complex include the lower courses of the west range , a vaulted undercroft , a gateway and a 14th @-@ century dovecote still in use today . The adjoining Priory Gardens , laid out by the Chaloners in the 18th century , are under restoration by a volunteer group . The priory ruins and gardens are open to the public throughout the year .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Guisborough was well @-@ established at the time of the priory 's founding ; the town 's name refers to the fortified place of a Scandinavian called Gigr , who may have taken over a site established by the Anglo @-@ Saxons or Romans who lived in the vicinity before the arrival of Vikings in the 8th and 9th centuries . A priest , church and mill were recorded in 1086 in the Domesday Book which refers to the town as " Ghigesburg " . Following the Norman Conquest , William the Conqueror gave lands in the area to the Count of Mortain . He passed them to his friend Robert de Brus , Lord of Skelton , one of the largest landowners in the north , owning more than 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 km2 ) in Yorkshire alone . William 's Harrying of the North left the region in a severely depressed and depopulated state . There were few monasteries north of the River Humber and opportunities existed for new agricultural and religious developments . The Augustinian order came to England at the start of the 12th century and established houses in England , including major ones at Bridlington , Nostell and Kirkham . They were communities of canons living under the rule of St. Augustine , wearing dark robes that earned them the name the " Black Canons " .
According to the priory 's founding charter , Robert de Brus " founded a certain Monastery of a religious order in Gysburne [ sic ] , to the honour of God , and the holy Virgin Mary " . He gave " to the same Church and the service of God in it , all Gysburne , with all things pertaining thereto it " . The gift included lands amounting to twenty carucates and two oxgangs ( roughly equivalent to about 2 @,@ 500 acres ( 10 km2 ) ) , churches , mills and other possessions , and grants from others . The charter started that the endowment was to provide " material for ever for their buildings , and all other necessities of their house " . The foundation was authorised by Pope Calixtus II and Thurstan , Archbishop of York . De Brus may have been emulating his peers in Yorkshire , who had founded monastic institutions for their religious obligations . The date of the foundation is unclear . The 14th @-@ century canon and historian Walter of Guisborough gives it as 1129 , but a charter of confirmation from Pope Calixtus dates to the period of his pontificate between 1119 – 24 . The priory may have had two foundation charters , a shorter one dating possibly to 1119 and a detailed one dating to 1129 that may have been the definitive document .
The rights and privileges of the prior and canons grew over the centuries added to by royal grants . Henry III granted the rights of soc and sac , thol and theam and infangtheof . He established a Monday market at Guisborough and the right to hold an annual three @-@ day fair to mark the feast of the Assumption ( 15 August ) . The proceeds and fees from these events supported the priory . The prior and canons were granted free warren in the lands around Guisborough and several nearby villages which was extended to more demesnes by Edward III , who permitted them to convert 80 acres ( 320 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land into a deer park ( now Park Wood ) . Henry IV gave them the twice @-@ yearly right of frankpledge , the right of waif and stray and the return of briefs and writs which gave the priory a steady income from rents , fines , licences and other fees . The canons of Guisborough owned 4 @,@ 000 sheep , mostly in Eskdale , in the 13th and 14th century .
The priory became known for its strict observance of the Augustinian rule and religious precepts . Its reputation for ducentes canonicam vitam ( " living a canonical life " ) attracted Saint Malachy from Ireland who , as Saint Bernard of Clairvaux had a long and close involvement with Gisborough . The canons were closely associated with the Cistercians who , like the Augustianians , had a reformist outlook . One Gisborough canon , William of Newminster , moved to the Cistercia 's Fountains Abbey to become its abbot . The priory was supported by the local people and records survive of numerous small grants , related to the almonry ( the place or chamber where alms were distributed to the poor ) and to support building work . The canons leased , bought and sold land and loanied money using property grants as collateral to benefit the priory 's building fund . As the priory became more wealthy , discipline among its canons slipped and the Archbishops of York found it necessary to take corrective action in the late 13th century . A number of canons were sent to Kirkham and Bridlington for correction and Gisborough in turn took in disobedient canons from other places . The priory also became embroiled in a dispute with a local landowner , Robert de Thweng , who raided its properties and tithe barns in 1232 under the alias of " Will Wither " , in the course of a dispute with the priory over the advowson of Kirkleatham parish church .
On 16 May 1289 , the priory suffered a catastrophic fire . According to an account by Walter of Guisborough , a plumber soldering the lead roof forgot to put out his fire , causing the roof timbers to catch fire and molten lead ran down into the church below . Much of the building was destroyed and many effects , costly books , chalices and vestments were lost . The canons sought to raise funds for rebuilding . They petitioned the king to grant them the advowsons of the parish churches of Barnham , Easington and Heslerton , and in 1309 and 1311 the Archbishop of York and the Bishop of Durham rewarded the priory 's donors with indulgences granting remission of temporal punishment for sins . Most of the nave and chancel was rebuilt with the support of the de Brus family , whose coat of arms was displayed on its buildings .
Rebuilding probably took around a century to complete . Work was slowed by high costs and civil unrest in the early 14th century , when Scottish raiders repeatedly plundered the north of England . The priory 's lands were reduced in value by the raids , diminishing its income . Its wealth was tapped by Archbishop Melton of York to make good his own losses in 1319 , and in 1320 it had to take in refugees from monastic houses that had been forced to disperse to escape the raiders . Probably as a consequence of the troubles , in 1328 the priory petitioned the king to be exempted from the " clerical tenth " ( a 10 % tax on clerical property ) and in 1344 it was granted permission to fortify its buildings . By 1380 its staff had diminished to 26 canons and two lay brothers .
The Yorkshire line of the de Brus family died out with the death of the childless Peter IV de Brus in 1272 but the priory was still patronised by the local nobility . The Fauconberg and Thweng families , who married Peter 's sisters Agnes and Lucia , took over the patronage which continued for several centuries . Many prominent local nobles were buried there , as was the Scottish Robert V de Brus , grandfather of King Robert the Bruce . At least nine patrons and their families were buried in the priory between 1295 and 1411 . The priory received substantial financial support from its patrons ; in 1381 William , Lord Latimer provided funds to complete the north nave and donated £ 333 6s 8d ( roughly equivalent to £ 1 @.@ 6 million today ) for a new belfry . He left the priory cattle from his manor at Ugthorpe , bequeathed a range of religious items , and made arrangements for his body to be interred there on his death .
= = = Dissolution and after = = =
In 1533 Henry VIII of England was excommunicated for divorcing Catherine of Aragon . The Act of Supremacy passed in 1534 declared Henry Supreme Head of the Church of England and the church 's estate in England became part of the king 's estate . In 1535 Henry ordered a comprehensive survey of the church 's property , the Valor Ecclesiasticus . It found that Gisborough Priory had an annual net value of £ 628.6s.8d. , which made it the fourth wealthiest monastic house in Yorkshire . In 1536 monasteries with less than £ 200 of annual income were suppressed , exempting the priory from the first wave of suppression .
A second survey carried out by the king 's commissioners , Thomas Legh and Richard Leyton , provided for the final suppression on charges of a lack of quality of religious life . Prior James Cockerell of Guisborough was forced to resign and was replaced by Robert Pursglove , who was loyal to the king . The priory 's dissolution was not welcomed by locals , who derived economic benefit from its presence – in 1536 , around 500 families depended on it for their livelihood . The strength of feeling was recorded in a letter from Lord Conyers and Sir John Bulmer to Thomas Cromwell : " On Sunday , 11th July [ 1539 ] , at Gysburn in Yorkshire , when the parish priest was declaring the articles [ of dissolution ] directed by the King to the Archbishop of York , one John Atkeynson alias Brotton came violently and took book forth of the priest 's hands , and pulled it in pieces . " Popular discontent sparked the Pilgrimage of Grace , in which Prior Cockerell was implicated . When the revolt failed , he was hanged at Tyburn with the Prior of Bridlington , the Abbot of Jervaulx and the former Abbot of Fountains .
The priory was formally dissolved on 8 April 1540 and surrendered to the king 's men on 22 December 1540 , making it one of the last monastic houses in England to be suppressed . A proposal to found a secular college there came to nothing and the priory buildings – with the exception of the gatehouses and the great east window – were demolished . On 21 November 1541 Thomas Legh was granted a lease " of the buildings with the site and precincts of the Priory to be then demolished and carried away . " Demolition was carried out by collapsing its central tower into the body of the church , crushing it in its fall and reducing it to rubble .
The site and lands were re @-@ let in 1550 to Sir Thomas Chaloner , who later purchased the property outright . The Chaloners occupied the former priors ' quarters in the west range before moving to their new mansion , Old Gisborough Hall , on Bow Street in the late @-@ 17th century . The priory remains were cleared and the fallen stonework looted or sold . The grounds were redeveloped as formal gardens within the grounds of Old Gisborough Hall . John Walker Ord , a local historian in the mid @-@ 19th century , described how the priory 's stonework could be seen in many buildings around Guisborough . He deplored the profane uses to which it had been put :
I have seen with my own eyes broken pillars and pedestals of this august pile desecrated to the vile uses of gateposts , stands for rainwater casks , and stepping @-@ stones over a common sewer . A richly ornamented doorway of the venerable priory forms the entrance to a privy . I have beheld with sorrow , shame , and indignation , the richly ornamented columns and carved architraves of God 's temple supporting the thatch of a pig @-@ house .
Some fragments of the priory travelled further afield . At Hardwick Hall near Sedgefield , a mock ruin was built incorporating sculptured stones brought from the priory . The priory 's wealth became the stuff of local legends , one of which claimed an underground passage led from the priory to a cave under the hills in which a raven stood guard over a chest of gold .
The priory 's lands around Guisborough were a source of wealth for the Chaloners . Around 1595 , Sir Thomas Chaloner 's son , also called Thomas , established England 's first alum works at Belman Bank south of the town . Alum was an important product with a variety of industrial uses . It was especially important to the cloth industry as a mordant ( a substance used to fix dyes on cloth ) . The supply of alum was controlled by a cartel controlled by the Papal States and Spain which were in conflict with England and exercised a virtual monopoly on the provision of alum to Christian Europe , as the import of cheaper Turkish alum was banned by Pope Paul II in the mid @-@ 15th century . Chaloner visited the Pope 's alum works at Tolfa near Rome and noticed the soil and vegetation around them resembled those of his estate at Guisborough . On his return he established alum works at Belman Bank with the aid of workmen smuggled from Rome , earning him a papal excommunication . John Walker Ord casts doubt on the story , noting an account published a few decades afterwards stated that the workmen came from France and does not mention Chaloner 's travels in Italy .
The only substantial part of the priory to survive was the eastern gable of the presbytery with its great east window . Its survival owed much to the rise of Romanticism in the 18th century . The portrayal of ruined buildings in idealised landscapes by J. M. W. Turner and his contemporaries inspired a fashion for the nobility and gentry to produce paintings of monasteries providing an incentive for landowners to preserve them as romantic ruins , rather than using them as quarries . Gisborough Priory 's east window was one of the first examples of a monastic ruin to be retained for its visual qualities . It was incorporated into the grounds of Old Gisborough Hall as a romantic ruin and the sill of the great window removed to ensure an uninterrupted view . Fittingly , given his role in inspiring the east window 's preservation , Turner himself sketched it in 1801 during a visit to Yorkshire .
East Lawn was laid out in front of the east window and was used for grand bazaars and fêtes until the early 20th century . A ha @-@ ha was installed behind to keep cattle out of the grounds . To the south of the priory buildings the Long Terrace ran almost the full length of the grounds . It afforded access to the ruins via a flight of steps flanked by two carved demi @-@ sea wolves , reflecting the coat of arms of the Chaloners . They were thought to be dragons by local people and the steps were referred to as the Dragon Steps .
Old Gisborough Hall was demolished around 1825 and the Chaloners built a mansion house , Gisborough Hall , about half a mile to the east in 1857 . In 1932 , Thomas Chaloner , 2nd Baron Gisborough transferred control of the priory to the Office of Works. which became the responsibility of the Ministry of Works , then the Department of the Environment and from 1984 , English Heritage . It remains the property of Lord Gisborough ; English Heritage is responsible for maintaining the ruins , while day @-@ to @-@ day running is managed by Redcar and Cleveland Borough Council .
According to folklore , the priory is haunted by the ghost of a monk in a black habit who returns annually to check that its buried treasure has not been disturbed . He is said to arrive at midnight on the year 's first new moon to lower a ghostly drawbridge spanning a vanished moat . In 1966 and 1967 a hundred people turned out to watch and allegedly managed to spot a cowled figure , but in 1968 the few spectators who turned up saw nothing .
= = Description of the priory buildings = =
Gisborough Priory is characterised by a few highly visible remains . The priory church survives in a fragmentary state , dominated by the east wall of the presbytery that stands to its full height . Several of the priory church 's column bases can also be seen , as can a number of excavated graves within the presbytery . Elsewhere on the site , the outline of the cloister is visible but is largely unexcavated , while the ruins of the west ( or cellarer 's ) range constitutes the largest area of other remains above ground . A ruined gatehouse and a still @-@ intact dovecote ( the latter off @-@ limits to visitors ) stand on the western edges of the site .
= = = Priory church = = =
The remains of the priory church are dominated by the eastern gable wall of the presbytery that still stands to its full height . Its great east window is regarded as one of the finest examples of late @-@ 13th @-@ century church architecture . The design is so close to that of the eastern arm of Ripon Cathedral , which was built around the same time , that it is thought to have been modelled on Ripon 's design . The window 's tracery has disappeared , as has its sill , but from the stubs and surviving fragments it can be deduced that it had seven major lights ( the glazed openings in the window ) . At its centre was a great circle of tracery filled with trefoiled lights . The main gable of the east wall is flanked by massive buttresses capped with gables and octagonal pinnacles . A similar pair of pinnacles top the main gable , flanking a window of unusual design ; a bracket projects from the lower lobe to support a statue ( no longer present ) , possibly of the Virgin Mary , to whom the priory was dedicated .
Little remains above ground of the rest of the priory , but much can be deduced from the surviving stonework . In its final form the priory church had a nave of eight bays and a quire and presbytery of nine bays , with a total length of 107 metres ( 351 ft ) . The survival of the east wall allows us to deduce that the ridge line of the roof stood 29 @.@ 6 metres ( 97 ft ) above ground . The presbytery 's arcades were supported by eight clustered shafts , the bases of which are still visible , with capitals carved with naturalistic foliage . The clerestory and triforium were combined into a single arch with the main arcade below . The presbytery 's high vault was executed in stone with bosses decorated in red and white paint and gold leaf , traces of which were still visible when several of the bosses were found in the 19th century . The eastern bay of the presbytery was divided into several chapels and the remnants of parclose screens are visible on the main aisle 's north and south responds . The main altar would have stood a short distance to the west , behind a tall screen .
At the angle of each aisle , a spiral staircase – still visible on each side of the surviving east wall – gave access to a passage inside the walls and to secondary stairs within the angles of the main gable enabling access to all parts of the building for maintenance and cleaning without requiring scaffolding . Nothing remains of the north or south transepts , which extended on the north side beyond the present boundary wall into the graveyard of St Nicholas 's Church .
Several burials ( presumably of high @-@ ranking benefactors and clergy ) were made within the priory and 19th @-@ century archaeologists found stone coffins during excavations . They are visible against the east wall , but their original location was not recorded . Two centrally placed grave slabs are visible below the east window . The priory once housed the Brus cenotaph , a memorial to its founders erected in 1521 . It was removed in 1540 and dismantled . Most of its parts were recovered and reassembled in the 19th century , and the reconstructed cenotaph is displayed in Saint Nicholas ' Church next to the ruins .
The priory church housed a shrine to the Virgin Mary which one of the most significant Marian shrines in the north , along with others at Walsingham , Lincoln , Scarborough , Jesmond and Carlisle . Although it was destroyed during the Reformation along with the priory , it was revived in 1949 by Father Arthur Mercer , Guisborough 's first Roman Catholic parish priest for 400 years , and is housed in the town 's St Paulinus Church .
= = = Ranges and cloister = = =
Fragments of other buildings associated with the priory can be seen on the site . There was a cloister measuring 36 @.@ 5 metres ( 120 ft ) square to the south of the priory church surrounded by domestic buildings or ranges . They replaced an earlier cloister and ranges destroyed in the fire of 1289 rebuilt to a new , larger , design . Processional doors on the cloister 's north wall gave access to the nave of the church . In 1854 , surviving arches and columns from the cloister were taken to London for display in the Crystal Palace where they provided the basis for a reconstruction of a medieval cloister in the " English National Art Court " section of the exhibition .
Fragments of the west range – the cellarer 's range – are extant . It was entered from the west by an outer parlour , projecting from the north end of the range , where members of the community received visitors . The prior lived on the upper floor which comprised a hall , chamber and chapel dedicated to Saint Hilda . The prior 's rooms were probably located above the outer parlour , as was the pattern at other monasteries , accessing the cloister and the outside world . The largest surviving fragment of the range comprises a cellarium or storehouse where supplies were kept . It is a vaulted undercroft of nine bays constructed from stone ashlar with its floor level below that of the cloister . It is relatively well @-@ preserved and believed to have been divided by timber partitions which were later replaced in stone .
Most of the refectory ( dining hall ) range to the south of the cloister and the dorter range to the east , which contained the chapter house and dormitory , have yet to be excavated . Only the western end of the refectory range has been excavated ; it presents a vaulted undercroft , three bays of which survive , above which the refectory was located on the first floor . A service passage survives between the kitchen and the refectory . The western part of the undercroft was used as a buttery in the late Middle Ages but would have had severely restricted headroom due to its raised floor .
= = = Outer buildings = = =
The priory buildings stood at the centre of a walled precinct arranged in two courts , inner and outer with gatehouses at the entrances to both ; the remains of the great gate of the inner court are extant but the outer gatehouse no longer survives . The gate comprised an outer porch , an inner gatehall and a porter 's lodge on the ground floor with chambers above the arch . It survived intact into the early 18th century but only the outer porch remains . The structure consists of a single large round @-@ headed archway on the outer side with two smaller arches of different sizes , both deeply rebated to accommodate doors , a few metres to the south . The larger arch was for wagons while pedestrians entered through the smaller arch . Little remains of the gatehall or the porter 's lodge ; the only remnants visible are the stub of its north wall and a latrine shaft .
The canons built an octagonal dovecote a short distance to the west of the west range . The dovecote is extant , though it cannot be visited and is not part of the priory grounds . Built in the 14th century , it was modified in the mid @-@ 18th century with the addition of a pyramidal roof tiled with Welsh slate and capped with an open @-@ sided timber cupola . The original nesting boxes have been removed and the dovecote is used as a garden store .
= = = Older buildings on the site = = =
Gisborough Priory was rebuilt three times ; the ruins visible today are principally those of the third rebuild . The site was occupied in Anglo @-@ Saxon times by at least one structure , possibly a timber @-@ framed church or boundary wall , indicated by a number of postholes . It is believed there was a Saxon settlement in the vicinity as late @-@ Saxon potsherds and an 8th @-@ century coin have been found buried under the remains of the priory 's west nave . The site was abandoned at some point and by the time the priory was built the land on which it stood was mostly under cultivation . Part of it was used as a graveyard in the early 12th century and an early Norman building was erected in the vicinity , possibly a temporary church .
The Norman priory , completed around 1180 , was relatively short and narrow . It was constructed in the Romanesque style with twin aisles either side of the nave and a single tower at the west end , aligned with the main axis of the church . It could be entered from the north , via an external door , and the south via the cloister . The existence of the northward door suggests it was used by a secular congregation , possibly the local nobility and patrons . A number of graves associated with the first priory have been found in the south aisle 's floor and against the north wall .
The priory was rebuilt around 1200 on a larger scale with the Romanesque church demolished to its first course of ashlar . The construction of the new church continued through much of the 13th century . The enlarged priory had twin towers at the west end flanking a large double doorway above which was a central rose window ; piped water was provided using lead pipes from the cloister , under the church to buildings or standpipes to the north or west of the priory . The main body of the church comprised a nave with two aisles , transepts and a choir . The aisles were laid with geometric coloured tiles adjoining the sandstone columns of the nave . The north aisle was divided into alcoves or private chapels where a number of people – probably local nobles and gentry – were buried . An unusual feature of the church was a well , sunk into the nave , possibly built in an effort to safeguard its water supplies .
The effects of the fire that destroyed the priory in 1289 can be seen in scorched paving between the surviving pillars . It was thought the church had been completely rebuilt , but excavations in the 1980s show that a substantial amount of the less damaged west end was reused which resulted in a distinct inconsistency between the two ends , which were constructed in different architectural styles . Rebuilding was a major task that took several generations and was probably not completed until the end of the 14th century . It is unclear how much of the second priory survived the fire . Where the priory was rebuilt , its builders reused as much as possible ; the core of the surviving eastern gable wall is full of fragments from the destroyed second priory .
= = = Priory Gardens and Monks ' Pond = = =
Land immediately south of the priory was used by the Chaloners for formal gardens attached to Old Gisborough Hall . In the early 18th century they planted an oval @-@ shaped double avenue of trees , the Monks ' Walk , where stonework recovered from mid @-@ 19th century excavations was deposited . In between the trees was a manicured lawn used to hold musical and theatrical productions . The Monks ' Walk fell into disuse and became overgrown but is under restoration by the Gisborough Priory Project .
In the late 19th century , Margaret Chaloner , wife of the first Lord Gisborough , laid out formal gardens of a typical late @-@ Victorian and Edwardian design with elaborate bedding schemes and gravelled paths . There was a rose garden and a sunken Italian garden with an ornamental pool at its centre . They were open to the public for a small fee and could be entered through a gateway on Bow Street . The gardens are now freely accessible .
Further east , off the Whitby Road , is the Monks ' Pond , the canons ' fish pond . It presents a dramatic vista in which the priory arch is reflected and has often been photographed and painted . In 1908 , the pond was the scene of an elaborate water tableau organised by Lady Gisborough to raise funds for the restoration of St Nicholas ' Church . The pond was home to a number of exceptionally large fish , but pollution in 2000 caused by a sewage leak led to the death of more than 5 @,@ 000 fish .
= = = Other properties owned by the priory = = =
The priory was responsible for St Leonard 's leper hospital at Hutton Lowcross to the south @-@ west of Guisborough . The hospital was probably founded in the 12th century and became a dependency of the priory in 1275 . It was last documented in 1339 . Its fate is unclear but it probably survived until the Dissolution in 1540 .
The priory may also have owned a cell at Scarth Wood at Whorlton . A grant issued by Stephen de Meynell in the reign of Henry I records the donation of the hamlet of Scarth to enable the priory to establish a cell for habitation by a single monk or canon . It is unclear whether the cell was built as Scarth is not mentioned in the priory 's deeds or in Henry VIII 's commissioners ' valuation of its property . Fragmentary building remains at Scarth are recorded as existing in the mid @-@ 18th century . They were cleared by the start of the 19th century so there is no trace of whatever might once have stood there or indication of what it might have been used for .
= = Excavations = =
In 1865 – 1867 Captain Thomas Chaloner and William Downing Bruce carried out the first major excavation by cutting a trench across the site . A number of features were discovered , including a stone coffin containing the skeleton of a tall man thought to be Robert de Brus , the remnants of a monumental shrine and painted roof bosses . Evidence of the 1289 fire was discovered in the form of pieces of fused metal – an amalgam of lead , silver and iron that had melted and penetrated the floor in the heat of the fire . The Office of Works carried out excavations in 1932 in conjunction with work to consolidate the walls and grounds so they could be opened to the public . Further work was carried out by Roy Gilyard Beer between 1947 – 54 for the Ministry of Works , which exposed more of the site and cleared material from the 19th century .
In 1985 – 86 Cleveland County Archaeology Section carried out a major excavation of the west end of the nave to consolidate an area of subsidence . Its cause was the collapse of an unrecorded burial vault . The excavations found more evidence of the fire of 1289 including scorched masonry , a shattered bell and broken grave @-@ slabs . The remains of 47 people – 21 men , 17 women , 6 children and 3 of undetermined gender – were discovered , some of whom had been buried with grave goods including a gold finger ring and jet crosses . Two chalices and patens were found alongside the remains of two priests . The skeletons were cremated and the ashes scattered in the Monks ' Walk in the Priory Gardens . A geophysical survey carried out to the west and east of the west range , indicated the existence of the remains of other monastic buildings which have yet to be excavated .
= = Priors = =
Between its establishment and its dissolution , 24 priors were recorded holding office at Gisborough Priory . Their names and dates of taking office or periods when they held office , where known , were as follows :
William de Brus ( 1119 – 45 ? )
Cuthbert ( 1146 – 54 )
Ralph ( 1174 ? – 80 )
Roald ( 1199- ? )
Lawrence ( 1211 – 12 )
Michael ( 1218 – 34 )
John ( 1239 – 51 , 1257 )
Simon ( date uncertain )
Ralph de Irton ( 1262 )
Adam de Newland ( 1280 )
William de Middleburgh ( 1281 )
Robert de Wilton ( 1320 – 1 )
John de Darlington ( 1346 )
John de Horeworth or Hurworth ( 1364 – 93 )
Walter de Thorp ( 1393 )
John de Helmesley ( 1408 )
John Thweng ( 1425 )
Richard Ayreton ( 1437 )
Richard de Hoton ( 1452 )
Thomas Darlington ( 1455 )
John Moreby ( 1475 )
John Whitby ( 1491 – 1505 )
John Moreby ( 1505 )
William Spires ( 1511 )
James Cockerill ( 1519 – 1534 ? )
Robert Pursglove ( 1537 , 1539 )
= John Collins Covell =
John Collins Covell ( December 19 , 1823 – June 4 , 1887 ) was a 19th @-@ century American educator and school administrator specializing in deaf education in the U.S. states of Virginia and West Virginia .
Born in 1823 in Rhode Island , Covell was the son of Episcopal minister Reverend Joseph S. Covell and the grandson of Rhode Island Governor John Collins . Covell attended Trinity College and graduated from the institution in 1847 . He was recommended as a candidate for Holy Orders in the Episcopal Diocese of Connecticut and received the orders of a deacon .
Covell accepted a teaching position in the Deaf Department of the Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind and relocated there in 1847 . Covell was made a vice @-@ principal of the institution and given charge of the entire Deaf Mute Department in 1852 . During the American Civil War , Covell entered the Confederate States Army with the rank of major and served on the staff of Brigadier General Henry A. Wise . Covell served on General Wise 's staff only briefly before returning to the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind to serve as its principal in 1862 , a position he held until 1872 . In 1874 , Covell was selected to serve as the principal of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . Under his leadership , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind experienced " unprecedented success " and its student body began to grow due to his initiatives . He served as the institution 's principal until his death in 1887 .
Covell was an active and prominent member of the Episcopal Diocese of West Virginia and was appointed the first churchwarden of Saint Stephen 's Episcopal Church in Romney . Covell played an instrumental role in the construction of the church through his donation of property for the building site and his financial contribution of the majority of its construction costs .
= = Early life and education = =
John Collins Covell was born on December 19 , 1823 , in Newport , Rhode Island , and was the son of Episcopal minister , Reverend Joseph S. Covell . Covell was named for his maternal grandfather , Rhode Island Governor John Collins . He spent his childhood in Princess Anne , Maryland , where he received his education from the common schools for eight years before attending an academy in Connecticut . Covell then worked as a store clerk for three years . Seeking to further his education , Covell attended Trinity College in Hartford , Connecticut , and graduated from the institution in 1847 . After graduating from Trinity College , Covell was recommended as a candidate for Holy Orders in the Episcopal Diocese of Connecticut and received the orders of a deacon in the Episcopal Church .
= = Educator and school administrator = =
= = = Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind = = =
Upon graduating from Trinity College , Covell accepted a teaching position in the Deaf Department of the Virginia School for the Deaf and the Blind in Staunton , Virginia and relocated there in September 1847 . Covell continued teaching until 1852 when he was made a vice @-@ principal of the institution and given charge of the entire Deaf Mute Department .
Following the outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 , Covell entered the Confederate States Army with the rank of major and served on the staff of Brigadier General Henry A. Wise . Covell served on General Wise 's staff only briefly before the state of Virginia recalled him to the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind in 1862 to become the institution 's principal . According to the National Conference of Superintendents and Principals of Institutions for Deaf Mutes in 1888 , the state of Virginia considered Covell 's services " of more value as manager of one of her noblest public institutions than as a soldier in the field . " While serving as principal , Covell continued to head and instruct in the school 's Deaf Mute Department . Covell remained principal of the Virginia School for the Deaf and Blind for nine years until his resignation from the institution in 1872 .
In an 1870 address entitled " The Nobility , Dignity , and Antiquity of the Sign Language " which Covell delivered at the Convention of American Instructors of the Deaf in Indianapolis , Indiana , he asserted that sign language would gain in popularity among hearing people and would be taught alongside philology as part of the basic curricula of universities . Over a century after Covell 's 1870 prediction , American Sign Language has been added to curricula of language departments in a growing number of American universities .
= = = West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind = = =
In June – July 1874 , Covell was selected by the Board of Regents of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind in Romney , West Virginia to serve as the institution 's principal , and he began his tenure there in August of that year . Upon his arrival , Covell found the schools " in a chaotic condition " with decreasing attendance , but the situation improved after Covell provided leadership , order , and a process of reorganization . Under his leadership , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind experienced " unprecedented success " and its student body began to grow due to Covell 's initiatives . Covell found that 12 out of West Virginia 's 54 counties had no representatives at the schools , so he urged the Board of Regents to canvass the state for students eligible to attend the institution . The board approved Covell 's recommendation , and the resulting investigation identified students in those counties , which validated Covell 's request . By the schools ' tenth anniversary in 1880 , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind 's attendance reached 120 , consisting of 87 " deaf @-@ mute " and 33 blind students . At his death in 1887 , the institution had grown from a student body of 60 pupils in 1874 to 130 .
Among his other reforms , Covell undertook to modernize the facilities of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind by urging the state to install gas lighting and to install plumbing for the purposes of providing tap water . In addition to the school 's infrastructure , Covell overhauled the school 's levels of comprehension in 1875 by introducing a classification system in which students were arranged in grades . Covell also introduced the tradition of publishing biennial reports , then annual reports , which have continued to be released every year since 1876 . In 1877 , at Covell 's recommendation , the schools ' board established the Department of Visible Speech in which deaf @-@ mute students were instructed in the manner of articulation and lip reading .
As an educator , Covell was described as " an instructor of rare ability , being well @-@ versed in literature , science , and the arts " and as " a gentleman of fine abilities and ripe experience " . He had great personal influence on his students and took an interest in their religious well @-@ being . Covell continued serving as principal of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind until his death from stomach cancer on Saturday , June 4 , 1887 , in Romney . Known for his excellence as an executive and administrative officer , all his affairs were found by the president of the school 's Board of Regents " to be finished , so that nothing remained to be done " on the day of his death .
Following his death , Covell was honored in 1888 at the National Conference of Superintendents and Principals of Institutions for Deaf Mutes in Jackson , Mississippi , by W. O. Connor , Principal of the Georgia School for the Deaf , who stated :
[ W ] e greatly deplore his [ Covell 's ] loss to the Institution over which he presided with such universal acceptability ; and that in his death we recognize the loss of a friend worthy of the fullest confidence , and an official of marked ability and adaptation to his duties , which he always performed with a faithfulness and efficiency unexcelled .
His obituary in The Churchman remarked of Covell :
[ W ] ith untiring zeal and fidelity , he has labored in the noble work of elevating and educating the deaf , dumb and the blind . He stood without an equal in methods entirely original .
= = Personal life = =
Covell married on December 24 , 1850 in Staunton , Virginia to Anita " Annie " E. Eskridge ( June 18 , 1810 – July 26 , 1895 ) . Covell is interred with his wife Annie at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney . He and his wife had five children together , including two daughters :
Covell was an active and prominent member of the Episcopal Diocese of West Virginia and belonged to Saint Stephen 's Episcopal Church in Romney . He was appointed the first churchwarden of Saint Stephen 's by Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of West Virginia , George William Peterkin . Covell played an instrumental role in the construction of a church for Saint Stephen 's in 1885 through his donation of property for the building site across the Northwestern Turnpike from the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind and through his financial contribution of the majority of the $ 1 @,@ 800 USD construction cost . Covell 's efforts were described in The Churchman as the " crowning work of his life . " Prior to the church 's construction , it is likely Covell that allowed Saint Stephen 's to utilize the chapel at the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind to hold their services . In addition to his affiliation with the Episcopal Church , Covell was a Mason of " high standing " and a member of the Romney Literary Society .
= No. 38 Squadron RAAF =
No. 38 Squadron is a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) transport unit . It was formed in 1943 and saw service during World War II transporting supplies and personnel between Australia and the combat zones in New Guinea and Borneo , using Douglas Dakota aircraft . Following the war , the squadron conducted regular courier flights between Australia and Japan in 1947 and 1948 . No. 38 Squadron was deployed to Singapore from 1950 to 1952 , supplying Commonwealth forces engaged in the Malayan Emergency and undertaking courier flights across Asia . In 1954 it became responsible for training RAAF personnel to operate Dakotas .
After being re @-@ equipped with de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 4 Caribous in 1964 , No. 38 Squadron served as the RAAF 's operational conversion unit for the type and also conducted transport tasks within Australia and its territories . Throughout Australia 's involvement in the Vietnam War , it prepared aircrew for operational service with No. 35 Squadron , and maintained a detachment in Papua New Guinea to provide pilots with experience flying in tropical conditions . A Caribou was deployed to Pakistan from 1975 to 1978 to support United Nations peacekeepers , and detachments were established within Australia during the 1980s to provide search and rescue capabilities and work with Australian Army units . From 1999 until 2001 , a detachment was deployed to East Timor as part of the Australian @-@ led peacekeeping force in the newly independent nation . No. 38 Squadron continued to operate Caribous after No. 35 Squadron was disbanded in 2000 , though the age of the aircraft increasingly affected its operations .
Following the retirement of the Caribous from service in 2009 , No. 3
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in favor of Japanese — even though Shōshi herself was a student of the language . The hostility may have affected Murasaki and her opinion of the court , and forced her to hide her knowledge of Chinese . Unlike Shōnagon , who was both ostentatious and flirtatious , as well as outspoken about her knowledge of Chinese , Murasaki seems to have been humble , an attitude which possibly impressed Michinaga . Although Murasaki used Chinese and incorporated it in her writing , she publicly rejected the language , a commendable attitude during a period of burgeoning Japanese culture .
Murasaki seems to have been unhappy with court life and was withdrawn and somber . No surviving records show that she entered poetry competitions ; she appears to have exchanged few poems or letters with other women during her service . In general , unlike Sei Shōnagon , Murasaki gives the impression in her diary that she disliked court life , the other ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting , and the drunken revelry . She did , however , become close friends with a lady @-@ in @-@ waiting named Lady Saishō , and she wrote of the winters that she enjoyed , " I love to see the snow here " .
According to Waley , Murasaki may not have been unhappy with court life in general but bored in Shōshi 's court . He speculates she would have preferred to serve with the Lady Senshi , whose household seems to have been less strict and more light @-@ hearted . In her diary , Murasaki wrote about Shōshi 's court , " [ she ] has gathered round her a number of very worthy young ladies ... Her Majesty is beginning to acquire more experience of life , and no longer judges others by the same rigid standards as before ; but meanwhile her Court has gained a reputation for extreme dullness " .
Murasaki disliked the men at court whom she thought to be drunken and stupid . However , some scholars , such as Waley , are certain she was involved romantically with Michinaga . At the least , Michinaga pursued her and pressured her strongly , and her flirtation with him is recorded in her diary as late as 1010 . Yet , she wrote to him in a poem , " You have neither read my book , nor won my love . " In her diary she records having to avoid advances from Michinaga — one night he snuck into her room , stealing a newly written chapter of Genji . However , Michinaga 's patronage was essential if she was to continue writing . Murasaki described his daughter 's court activities : the lavish ceremonies , the complicated courtships , the " complexities of the marriage system " , and in elaborate detail , the birth of Shōshi 's two sons .
It is likely that Murasaki enjoyed writing in solitude . She believed she did not fit well with the general atmosphere of the court , writing of herself : " I am wrapped up in the study of ancient stories ... living all the time in a poetical world of my own scarcely realizing the existence of other people .... But when they get to know me , they find to their extreme surprise that I am kind and gentle " . Inge says that she was too outspoken to make friends at court , and Mulhern thinks Murasaki 's court life was comparatively quiet compared to other court poets . Mulhern speculates that her remarks about Izumi were not so much directed at Izumi 's poetry but at her behavior , lack of morality and her court liaisons , of which Murasaki disapproved .
Rank was important in Heian court society and Murasaki would not have felt herself to have much , if anything , in common with the higher ranked and more powerful Fujiwaras . In her diary , she wrote of her life at court : " I realized that my branch of the family was a very humble one ; but the thought seldom troubled me , and I was in those days far indeed from the painful consciousness of inferiority which makes life at Court a continual torment to me . " A court position would have increased her social standing , but more importantly she gained a greater experience to write about . Court life , as she experienced it , is well reflected in the chapters of Genji written after she joined Shōshi . Her nickname , Murasaki , was most probably given at a court dinner in an incident she recorded in her diary : in c . 1008 the well @-@ known court poet Fujiwara no Kintō inquired after the " Young Murasaki " — an allusion to the character named Murasaki in Genji — which would have been considered a compliment from a male court poet to a female author .
= = Later life and death = =
When Emperor Ichijō died in 1011 , Shōshi retired from the Imperial Palace to live in a Fujiwara mansion in Biwa , most likely accompanied by Murasaki , who is recorded as being there with Shōshi in 1013 . George Aston explains that when Murasaki retired from court she was again associated with Ishiyama @-@ dera : " To this beautiful spot , it is said , Murasaki no Shikibu retired from court life to devote the remainder of her days to literature and religion . There are sceptics , however , Motoöri being one , who refuse to believe this story , pointing out ... that it is irreconcilable with known facts . On the other hand , the very chamber in the temple where the Genji was written is shown — with the ink @-@ slab which the author used , and a Buddhist Sutra in her handwriting , which , if they do not satisfy the critic , still are sufficient to carry conviction to the minds of ordinary visitors to the temple . "
Murasaki may have died in 1014 . Her father made a hasty return to Kyoto from his post at Echigo Province that year , possibly because of her death . Writing in A Bridge of Dreams : A Poetics of " The Tale of Genji " , Shirane mentions that 1014 is generally accepted as the date of Murasaki Shikibu 's death and 973 as the date of her birth , making her 41 when she died . Bowring considers 1014 to be speculative , and believes she may have lived with Shōshi until as late as 1025 . Waley agrees given that Murasaki may have attended ceremonies with Shōshi held for her son , Emperor Go @-@ Ichijō around 1025 .
Murasaki 's brother Nubonori died in around 1011 , which , combined with the death of his daughter , may have prompted her father to resign his post and take vows at Miidera temple where he died in 1029 . Murasaki 's daughter entered court service in 1025 as a wet nurse to the future Emperor Go @-@ Reizei ( 1025 – 68 ) . She went on to become a well @-@ known poet as Daini no Sanmi .
= = Works = =
Three works are attributed to Murasaki : The Tale of Genji , The Diary of Lady Murasaki and Poetic Memoirs , a collection of 128 poems . Her work is considered important because her writing reflects the creation and development of Japanese writing during a period when Japanese shifted from an unwritten vernacular to a written language . Until the 9th century , Japanese language texts were written in Chinese characters using the man 'yōgana writing system . A revolutionary achievement was the development of kana , a true Japanese script , in the mid @-@ to late 9th century . Japanese authors began to write prose in their own language , which led to genres such as tales ( monogatari ) and poetic journals ( Nikki Bungaku ) . Historian Edwin Reischauer writes that genres such as the monogatari were distinctly Japanese and that Genji , written in kana , " was the outstanding work of the period " .
= = = Diary and poetry = = =
Murasaki began her diary after she entered service at Shōshi 's court . Much of what we know about her and her experiences at court comes from the diary , which covers the period from about 1008 to 1010 . The long descriptive passages , some of which may have originated as letters , cover her relationships with the other ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting , Michinaga 's temperament , the birth of Shōshi 's sons — at Michinaga 's mansion rather than at the Imperial Palace — and the process of writing Genji , including descriptions of passing newly written chapters to calligraphers for transcriptions . Typical of contemporary court diaries written to honor patrons , Murasaki devotes half to the birth of Shōshi 's son Emperor Go @-@ Ichijō , an event of enormous importance to Michinaga : he had planned for it with his daughter 's marriage which made him grandfather and de facto regent to an emperor .
Poetic Memoirs is a collection of 128 poems Mulhern describes as " arranged in a biographical sequence " . The original set has been lost . According to custom , the verses would have been passed from person to person and often copied . Some appear written for a lover — possibly her husband before he died — but she may have merely followed tradition and written simple love poems . They contain biographical details : she mentions a sister who died , the visit to Echizen province with her father and that she wrote poetry for Shōshi . Murasaki 's poems were published in 1206 by Fujiwara no Teika , in what Mulhern believes to be the collection that is closest to the original form ; at around the same time Teika included a selection of Murasaki 's works in an imperial anthology , New Collections of Ancient and Modern Times .
= = = The Tale of Genji = = =
Murasaki is best known for her The Tale of Genji , a three @-@ part novel spanning 1100 pages and 54 chapters , which is thought to have taken a decade to complete . The earliest chapters were possibly written for a private patron either during her marriage or shortly after her husband 's death . She continued writing while at court and probably finished while still in service to Shōshi . She would have needed patronage to produce a work of such length . Michinaga provided her with costly paper and ink , and with calligraphers . The first handwritten volumes were probably assembled and bound by ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting .
In his The Pleasures of Japanese Literature , Keene claims Murasaki wrote the " supreme work of Japanese fiction " by drawing on traditions of waka court diaries , and earlier monogatari — written in a mixture of Chinese script and Japanese script — such as The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter or The Tales of Ise . She drew on and blended styles from Chinese histories , narrative poetry and contemporary Japanese prose . Adolphson writes that the juxtaposition of formal Chinese style with mundane subjects resulted in a sense of parody or satire , giving her a distinctive voice . Genji follows the traditional format of monogatari — telling a tale — particularly evident in its use of a narrator , but Keene claims Murasaki developed the genre far beyond its bounds , and by doing so created a form that is utterly modern . The story of the " shining prince " Genji is set in the late 9th to early 10th centuries , and Murasaki eliminated from it the elements of fairy tales and fantasy frequently found in earlier monogatari .
The themes in Genji are common to the period , and are defined by Shively as encapsulating " the tyranny of time and the inescapable sorrow of romantic love " . The main theme is that of the fragility of life , " the sorrow of human existence " , mono no aware — she used the term over a thousand times in Genji . Keene speculates that in her tale of the " shining prince " , Murasaki may have created for herself an idealistic escape from court life , which she found less than savory . In Prince Genji she formed a gifted , comely , refined , yet human and sympathetic protagonist . Keene writes that Genji gives a view into the Heian period ; for example love affairs flourished , although women typically remained unseen behind screens , curtains or fusuma .
Helen McCullough describes Murasaki 's writing as of universal appeal and believes The Tale of Genji " transcends both its genre and age . Its basic subject matter and setting — love at the Heian court — are those of the romance , and its cultural assumptions are those of the mid @-@ Heian period , but Murasaki Shikibu 's unique genius has made the work for many a powerful statement of human relationships , the impossibility of permanent happiness in love ... and the vital importance , in a world of sorrows , of sensitivity to the feelings of others . " Prince Genji recognizes in each of his lovers the inner beauty of the woman and the fragility of life , which according to Keene , makes him heroic . The story was popular : Emperor Ichijō had it read to him , even though it was written in Japanese . By 1021 all the chapters were known to be complete and the work was sought after in the provinces where it was scarce .
= = Legacy = =
Murasaki 's reputation and influence have not diminished since her lifetime when she , with other Heian women writers , was instrumental in developing Japanese into a written language . Her writing was required reading for court poets as early as the 12th century as her work began to be studied by scholars who generated authoritative versions and criticism . Within a century of her death she was highly regarded as a classical writer . In the 17th century , Murasaki 's work became emblematic of Confucian philosophy and women were encouraged to read her books . In 1673 Kumazawa Banzan argued that her writing was valuable for its sensitivity and depiction of emotions . He wrote in his Discursive Commentary on Genji that when " human feelings are not understood the harmony of the Five Human Relationships is lost . "
The Tale of Genji was copied and illustrated in various forms as early as a century after Murasaki 's death . The Genji Monogatari Emaki , is a late Heian era 12th @-@ century handscroll , consisting of four scrolls , 19 paintings , and 20 sheets of calligraphy . The illustrations , definitively dated to between 1110 and 1120 , have been tentatively attributed to Fujiwara no Takachika and the calligraphy to various well @-@ known contemporary calligraphers . The scroll is housed at the Gotoh Museum and the Tokugawa Art Museum .
Female virtue was tied to literary knowledge in the 17th century , leading to a demand for Murasaki or Genji inspired artifacts , known as genji @-@ e . Dowry sets decorated with scenes from Genji or illustrations of Murasaki became particularly popular for noblewomen : in the 17th century genji @-@ e symbolically imbued a bride with an increased level of cultural status ; by the 18th century they had come to symbolize marital success . In 1628 , Tokugawa Iemitsu 's daughter had a set of lacquer boxes made for her wedding ; Prince Toshitada received a pair of silk genji @-@ e screens , painted by Kanō Tan 'yū as a wedding gift in 1649 .
Murasaki became a popular subject of paintings and illustrations highlighting her as a virtuous woman and poet . She is often shown at her desk in Ishimyama Temple , staring at the moon for inspiration . Tosa Mitsuoki made her the subject of hanging scrolls in the 17th century . The Tale of Genji became a favorite subject of Japanese ukiyo @-@ e artists for centuries with artists such as Hiroshige , Kiyonaga , and Utamaro illustrating various editions of the novel . While early Genji art was considered symbolic of court culture , by the middle of the Edo period the mass @-@ produced ukiyo @-@ e prints made the illustrations accessible for the samurai classes and commoners .
In Envisioning the " Tale of Genji " Shirane observes that " The Tale of Genji has become many things to many different audiences through many different media over a thousand years ... unmatched by any other Japanese text or artifact . " The work and its author were popularized through its illustrations in various media : emaki ( illustrated handscrolls ) ; byōbu @-@ e ( screen paintings ) , ukiyo @-@ e ( woodblock prints ) ; films , comics , and in the modern period , manga . In her fictionalized account of Murasaki 's life , The Tale of Murasaki : A Novel , Liza Dalby has Murasaki involved in a romance during her travels with her father to Echizen Province .
The Tale of the Genji is recognized as an enduring classic . McCullough writes that Murasaki " is both the quintessential representative of a unique society and a writer who speaks to universal human concerns with a timeless voice . Japan has not seen another such genius . " Keene writes that The Tale of Genji continues to captivate , because , in the story , her characters and their concerns are universal . In the 1920s , when Waley 's translation was published , reviewers compared Genji to Austen , Proust , and Shakespeare . Mulhern says of Murasaki that she is similar to Shakespeare , who represented his Elizabethan England , in that she captured the essence of the Heian court and as a novelist " succeeded perhaps even beyond her own expectations . " Like Shakespeare , her work has been the subject of reams of criticism and many books .
Kyoto held a year @-@ long celebration commemorating the 1000th anniversary of Genji in 2008 , with poetry competitions , visits to the Tale of Genji Museum in Uji and Ishiyama @-@ dera ( where a life size rendition of Murasaki at her desk was displayed ) , and women dressing in traditional 12 @-@ layered Heian court Jūnihitoe and ankle @-@ length hair wigs . The author and her work inspired museum exhibits and Genji manga spin @-@ offs . The design on the reverse of the first 2000 yen note commemorated her and The Tale of Genji . A plant bearing purple berries has been named after her .
A Genji Album , only in the 1970s dated to 1510 , is housed at Harvard University . The album is considered the earliest of its kind and consists of 54 paintings by Tosa Mitsunobu and 54 sheets of calligraphy on shikishi paper in five colors , written by master calligraphers . The leaves are housed in a case dated to the Edo period , with a silk frontispiece painted by Tosa Mitsuoki , dated to around 1690 . The album contains Mitsuoki 's authentication slips for his ancestor 's 16th @-@ century paintings .
= = Gallery = =
= Great Fire of London =
The Great Fire of London was a major conflagration that swept through the central parts of the English city of London from Sunday , 2 September to Wednesday , 5 September 1666 . The fire gutted the medieval City of London inside the old Roman city wall . It threatened but did not reach the aristocratic district of Westminster , Charles II 's Palace of Whitehall , and most of the suburban slums . It consumed 13 @,@ 200 houses , 87 parish churches , St Paul 's Cathedral , and most of the buildings of the City authorities . It is estimated to have destroyed the homes of 70 @,@ 000 of the City 's 80 @,@ 000 inhabitants . The death toll is unknown but traditionally thought to have been small , as only six verified deaths were recorded . This reasoning has recently been challenged on the grounds that the deaths of poor and middle @-@ class people were not recorded , while the heat of the fire may have cremated many victims , leaving no recognisable remains . A melted piece of pottery on display at the Museum of London found by archaeologists in Pudding Lane , where the fire started , shows that the temperature reached 1700 ° C.
The Great Fire started at the bakery of Thomas Farriner ( or Farynor ) on Pudding Lane shortly after midnight on Sunday , 2 September and spread rapidly west across the City of London . The major firefighting technique of the time was to create firebreaks by means of demolition ; this , however , was critically delayed owing to the indecisiveness of Lord Mayor of London Sir Thomas Bloodworth . By the time that large @-@ scale demolitions were ordered on Sunday night , the wind had already fanned the bakery fire into a firestorm which defeated such measures . The fire pushed north on Monday into the heart of the City . Order in the streets broke down as rumours arose of suspicious foreigners setting fires . The fears of the homeless focused on the French and Dutch , England 's enemies in the ongoing Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War ; these substantial immigrant groups became victims of lynchings and street violence . On Tuesday , the fire spread over most of the City , destroying St Paul 's Cathedral and leaping the River Fleet to threaten Charles II 's court at Whitehall , while coordinated firefighting efforts were simultaneously mobilising . The battle to quench the fire is considered to have been won by two factors : the strong east winds died down , and the Tower of London garrison used gunpowder to create effective firebreaks to halt further spread eastward .
The social and economic problems created by the disaster were overwhelming . Evacuation from London and resettlement elsewhere were strongly encouraged by Charles II , who feared a London rebellion amongst the dispossessed refugees . Despite numerous radical proposals , London was reconstructed on essentially the same street plan used before the fire .
= = London in the 1660s = =
By the 1660s , London was by far the largest city in Britain , estimated at half a million inhabitants . John Evelyn compared London to the Baroque magnificence of Paris , calling it a " wooden , northern , and inartificial congestion of Houses , " and expressing alarm about the fire hazard posed by the wood and about the congestion . By " inartificial " , Evelyn meant unplanned and makeshift , the result of organic growth and unregulated urban sprawl . London had been a Roman settlement for four centuries and had become progressively more crowded inside its defensive city wall . It had also pushed outwards beyond the wall into squalid extramural slums such as Shoreditch , Holborn , and Southwark , and had reached far enough to include the independent City of Westminster .
By the late 17th century , the City proper — the area bounded by the City wall and the River Thames — was only a part of London , covering some 700 acres ( 2 @.@ 8 km2 ; 1 @.@ 1 sq mi ) , and home to about 80 @,@ 000 people , or one sixth of London 's inhabitants . The City was surrounded by a ring of inner suburbs where most Londoners lived . The City was then , as now , the commercial heart of the capital , and was the largest market and busiest port in England , dominated by the trading and manufacturing classes . The aristocracy shunned the City and lived either in the countryside beyond the slum suburbs , or in the exclusive Westminster district ( the modern West End ) , the site of Charles II 's court at Whitehall . Wealthy people preferred to live at a convenient distance from the traffic @-@ clogged , polluted , unhealthy City , especially after it was hit by a devastating outbreak of bubonic plague in the Plague Year of 1665 .
The relationship was often tense between the City and the Crown . The City of London had been a stronghold of republicanism during the Civil War ( 1642 – 1651 ) , and the wealthy and economically dynamic capital still had the potential to be a threat to Charles II , as had been demonstrated by several republican uprisings in London in the early 1660s . The City magistrates were of the generation that had fought in the Civil War , and could remember how Charles I 's grab for absolute power had led to that national trauma . They were determined to thwart any similar tendencies in his son , and when the Great Fire threatened the City , they refused the offers that Charles made of soldiers and other resources . Even in such an emergency , the idea of having the unpopular Royal troops ordered into the City was political dynamite . By the time that Charles took over command from the ineffectual Lord Mayor , the fire was already out of control .
= = = Fire hazards in the City = = =
The City was essentially medieval in its street plan , an overcrowded warren of narrow , winding , cobbled alleys . It had experienced several major fires before 1666 , the most recent in 1632 . Building with wood and roofing with thatch had been prohibited for centuries , but these cheap materials continued to be used . The only major stone @-@ built area was the wealthy centre of the City , where the mansions of the merchants and brokers stood on spacious lots , surrounded by an inner ring of overcrowded poorer parishes whose every inch of building space was used to accommodate the rapidly growing population . These parishes contained workplaces , many of which were fire hazards — foundries , smithies , glaziers — which were theoretically illegal in the City but tolerated in practice .
The human habitations were crowded to bursting point , intermingled with these sources of heat , sparks , and pollution , and their construction increased the fire risk . The typical six- or seven @-@ storey timbered London tenement houses had " jetties " ( projecting upper floors ) . They had a narrow footprint at ground level , but maximised their use of land by " encroaching " on the street , as a contemporary observer put it , with the gradually increasing size of their upper storeys . The fire hazard was well perceived when the top jetties all but met across the narrow alleys ; " as it does facilitate a conflagration , so does it also hinder the remedy " , wrote one observer — but " the covetousness of the citizens and connivancy [ corruption ] of Magistrates " worked in favour of jetties . In 1661 , Charles II issued a proclamation forbidding overhanging windows and jetties , but this was largely ignored by the local government . Charles 's next , sharper message in 1665 warned of the risk of fire from the narrowness of the streets and authorised both imprisonment of recalcitrant builders and demolition of dangerous buildings . It , too , had little impact .
The river front was important in the development of the Great Fire . The Thames offered water for firefighting and the chance of escape by boat , but the poorer districts along the riverfront had stores and cellars of combustibles which increased the fire risk . All along the wharves , the rickety wooden tenements and tar paper shacks of the poor were shoehorned amongst " old paper buildings and the most combustible matter of tarr , pitch , hemp , rosen , and flax which was all layd up thereabouts . " London was also full of black powder , especially along the river front . Much of it was left in the homes of private citizens from the days of the English Civil War , as the former members of Oliver Cromwell 's New Model Army still retained their muskets and the powder with which to load them . Five to six hundred tons of powder was stored in the Tower of London . The ship chandlers along the wharves also held large stocks , stored in wooden barrels .
= = = 17th century firefighting = = =
Fires were common in the crowded wood @-@ built city with its open fireplaces , candles , ovens , and stores of combustibles . There was no police or fire brigade to call , but London 's local militia , known as the Trained Bands , was available for general emergencies , at least in principle , and watching for fire was one of the jobs of the watch , a thousand watchmen or " bellmen " who patrolled the streets at night . Self @-@ reliant community procedures were in place for dealing with fires , and they were usually effective . Public @-@ spirited citizens would be alerted to a dangerous house fire by muffled peals on the church bells , and would congregate hastily to fight the fire .
The methods available for this relied on demolition and water . By law , the tower of every parish church had to hold equipment for these efforts : long ladders , leather buckets , axes , and " firehooks " for pulling down buildings ( see illustration right , see also pike pole ) . Sometimes taller buildings were levelled to the ground quickly and effectively by means of controlled gunpowder explosions . This drastic method of creating firebreaks was increasingly used towards the end of the Great Fire , and modern historians believe that it was what finally won the struggle .
= = Failures in fighting the fire = =
London Bridge was the only physical connection between the City and the south side of the river Thames and was itself covered with houses . It had been noted as a deathtrap in the fire of 1632 and , by dawn on Sunday , these houses were burning . Samuel Pepys observed the conflagration from the Tower of London and recorded great concern for friends living on the bridge . There were fears that the flames would cross London Bridge to threaten the borough of Southwark on the south bank , but this danger was averted by an open space between buildings on the bridge which acted as a firebreak . The 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) high Roman wall enclosing the City put the fleeing homeless at risk of being shut into the inferno . Once the river front was on fire and the escape route cut off by boat , the only exits were the eight gates in the wall . During the first couple of days , few people had any notion of fleeing the burning City altogether . They would remove what they could carry of their belongings to the nearest " safe house " , in many cases the parish church or the precincts of St Paul 's Cathedral , only to have to move again hours later . Some moved their belongings and themselves " four and five times " in a single day . The perception of a need to get beyond the walls only took root late on the Monday , and then there were near @-@ panic scenes at the narrow gates as distraught refugees tried to get out with their bundles , carts , horses , and wagons .
The crucial factor which frustrated firefighting efforts was the narrowness of the streets . Even under normal circumstances , the mix of carts , wagons , and pedestrians in the undersized alleys was subject to frequent traffic jams and gridlock . During the fire , the passages were additionally blocked by refugees camping in them amongst their rescued belongings , or escaping outwards , away from the centre of destruction , as demolition teams and fire engine crews struggled in vain to move in towards it .
Demolishing the houses downwind of a dangerous fire was often an effective way of containing the destruction by means of firehooks or explosives . This time , however , demolition was fatally delayed for hours by the Lord Mayor 's lack of leadership and failure to give the necessary orders . By the time that orders came directly from the King to " spare no houses " , the fire had devoured many more houses , and the demolition workers could no longer get through the crowded streets .
The use of water to extinguish the fire was also frustrated . In principle , water was available from a system of elm pipes which supplied 30 @,@ 000 houses via a high water tower at Cornhill , filled from the river at high tide , and also via a reservoir of Hertfordshire spring water in Islington . It was often possible to open a pipe near a burning building and connect it to a hose to play on a fire or fill buckets . Further , Pudding Lane was close to the river . Theoretically , all the lanes from the river up to the bakery and adjoining buildings should have been manned with double rows of firefighters passing full buckets up to the fire and empty buckets back down to the river . This did not happen , or at least was no longer happening by the time that Pepys viewed the fire from the river at mid @-@ morning on the Sunday . Pepys comments in his diary that nobody was trying to put it out , but instead they fled from it in fear , hurrying " to remove their goods , and leave all to the fire . " The flames crept towards the river front with little interference from the overwhelmed community and soon torched the flammable warehouses along the wharves . The resulting conflagration cut off the firefighters from the immediate water supply from the river and set alight the water wheels under London Bridge which pumped water to the Cornhill water tower ; the direct access to the river and the supply of piped water failed together .
London possessed advanced fire @-@ fighting technology in the form of fire engines , which had been used in earlier large @-@ scale fires . However , unlike the useful firehooks , these large pumps had rarely proved flexible or functional enough to make much difference . Only some of them had wheels ; others were mounted on wheelless sleds . They had to be brought a long way , tended to arrive too late , and had limited reach , with spouts but no delivery hoses . On this occasion , an unknown number of fire engines were either wheeled or dragged through the streets , some from across the City . The piped water had already failed which they were designed to use , but parts of the river bank could still be reached . Gangs of men tried desperately to manoeuvre the engines right up to the river to fill their reservoirs , and several of the engines toppled into the Thames . The heat from the flames by then was too great for the remaining engines to get within a useful distance ; they could not even get into Pudding Lane .
= = Development of the fire = =
The personal experiences of many Londoners during the fire are glimpsed in letters and memoirs . The two best @-@ known diarists of the Restoration are Samuel Pepys ( 1633 – 1703 ) and John Evelyn ( 1620 – 1706 ) , and both recorded the events and their own reactions day by day , and made great efforts to keep themselves informed of what was happening all over the City and beyond . For example , they both travelled out to the Moorfields park area north of the City on the Wednesday — the fourth day — to view the mighty encampment of distressed refugees there , which shocked them . Their diaries are the most important sources for all modern retellings of the disaster . Books on the fire by Tinniswood ( 2003 ) and Hanson ( 2001 ) also rely on the brief memoirs of William Taswell ( 1651 – 82 ) , who was a fourteen year @-@ old schoolboy at Westminster School in 1666 .
= = = Sunday Morning = = =
After two rainy summers in 1664 and 1665 , London had lain under an exceptional drought since November 1665 , and the wooden buildings were tinder @-@ dry after the long hot summer of 1666 . A fire broke out at Thomas Farriner 's bakery in Pudding Lane a little after midnight on Sunday 2 September . The family was trapped upstairs but managed to climb from an upstairs window to the house next door , except for a maidservant who was too frightened to try , who became the first victim . The neighbours tried to help douse the fire ; after an hour , the parish constables arrived and judged that the adjoining houses had better be demolished to prevent further spread . The householders protested , and Lord Mayor Sir Thomas Bloodworth was summoned , who alone had the authority to override their wishes .
When Bloodworth arrived , the flames were consuming the adjoining houses and creeping towards the paper warehouses and flammable stores on the river front . The more experienced firemen were clamouring for demolition , but Bloodworth refused on the grounds that most premises were rented and the owners could not be found . Bloodworth is generally thought to have been appointed to the office of Lord Mayor as a yes man , rather than by possessing requisite capabilities for the job . He panicked when faced with a sudden emergency and , when pressed , made the oft @-@ quoted remark , " Pish ! A woman could piss it out " , and left . After the City had been destroyed , Samuel Pepys looked back on the events and wrote in his diary on 7 September 1666 : " People do all the world over cry out of the simplicity [ the stupidity ] of my Lord Mayor in general ; and more particularly in this business of the fire , laying it all upon him . "
Pepys was a senior official in the Navy Office by then , and he ascended the Tower of London on Sunday morning to view the fire from a turret . He recorded in his diary that the eastern gale had turned it into a conflagration . It had burned down several churches and , he estimated , 300 houses and reached the river front . The houses on London Bridge were burning .
He took a boat to inspect the destruction around Pudding Lane at close range and describes a " lamentable " fire , " everybody endeavouring to remove their goods , and flinging into the river or bringing them into lighters that lay off ; poor people staying in their houses as long as till the very fire touched them , and then running into boats , or clambering from one pair of stairs by the water @-@ side to another . " Pepys continued westward on the river to the court at Whitehall , " where people come about me , and did give them an account dismayed them all , and word was carried in to the King . So I was called for , and did tell the King and Duke of Yorke what I saw , and that unless His Majesty did command houses to be pulled down nothing could stop the fire . They seemed much troubled , and the King commanded me to go to my Lord Mayor from him , and command him to spare no houses , but to pull down before the fire every way . " Charles ' brother James , Duke of York offered the use of the Royal Life Guards to help fight the fire .
Young schoolboy William Taswell had bolted from the early morning service in Westminster Abbey . He saw some refugees arrive in hired lighter boats near Westminster Stairs , a mile west of Pudding Lane , unclothed and covered only with blankets . The services of the lightermen had suddenly become extremely expensive , and only the luckiest refugees secured a place in a boat .
= = = Sunday Afternoon = = =
The fire spread quickly in the high wind and , by mid @-@ morning on Sunday , people abandoned attempts at extinguishing it and fled . The moving human mass and their bundles and carts made the lanes impassable for firemen and carriages . Pepys took a coach back into the city from Whitehall , but only reached St Paul 's Cathedral before he had to get out and walk . Pedestrians with handcarts and goods were still on the move away from the fire , heavily weighed down . The parish churches not directly threatened were filling up with furniture and valuables , which soon had to be moved further afield .
Pepys found Bloodworth trying to co @-@ ordinate the fire @-@ fighting efforts and near to collapse , " like a fainting woman " , crying out plaintively in response to the King 's message that he was pulling down houses . " But the fire overtakes us faster then [ sic ] we can do it . " Holding on to his civic dignity , he refused James 's offer of soldiers and then went home to bed . King Charles II sailed down from Whitehall in the Royal barge to inspect the scene . He found that houses were still not being pulled down , in spite of Bloodworth 's assurances to Pepys , and daringly overrode the authority of Bloodworth to order wholesale demolitions west of the fire zone . The delay rendered these measures largely futile , as the fire was already out of control .
By Sunday afternoon , 18 hours after the alarm was raised in Pudding Lane , the fire had become a raging firestorm that created its own weather . A tremendous uprush of hot air above the flames was driven by the chimney effect wherever constrictions narrowed the air current , such as the constricted space between jettied buildings , and this left a vacuum at ground level . The resulting strong inward winds did not tend to put the fire out , as might be thought ; instead , they supplied fresh oxygen to the flames , and the turbulence created by the uprush made the wind veer erratically both north and south of the main easterly direction of the gale which was still blowing .
Pepys went again on the river in the early evening with his wife and some friends , " and to the fire up and down , it still encreasing " . They ordered the boatman to go " so near the fire as we could for smoke ; and all over the Thames , with one 's face in the wind , you were almost burned with a shower of firedrops " . When the " firedrops " became unbearable , the party went on to an alehouse on the South Bank and stayed there till darkness came and they could see the fire on London Bridge and across the river , " as only one entire arch of fire from this to the other side of the bridge , and in a bow up the hill for an arch of above a mile long : it made me weep to see it " . Pepys described this arch of fire as " a bow with God 's arrow in it with a shining point " .
= = = Monday = = =
The fire was principally expanding north and west by dawn on Monday , 3 September , the turbulence of the fire storm pushing the flames both farther south and farther north than the day before . The spread to the south was mostly halted by the river , but it had torched the houses on London Bridge and was threatening to cross the bridge and endanger the borough of Southwark on the south bank of the river . Southwark was preserved by a pre @-@ existent firebreak on the bridge , a long gap between the buildings which had saved the south side of the Thames in the fire of 1632 and now did so again . Flying embers started a fire in Southwark but it was quickly stopped .
The fire 's spread to the north reached the financial heart of the City . The houses of the bankers in Lombard Street began to burn on Monday afternoon , prompting a rush to get their stacks of gold coins to safety before they melted away , so crucial to the wealth of the city and the nation . Several observers emphasise the despair and helplessness which seemed to seize Londoners on this second day , and the lack of efforts to save the wealthy , fashionable districts which were now menaced by the flames , such as the Royal Exchange — combined bourse and shopping centre – and the opulent consumer goods shops in Cheapside . The Royal Exchange caught fire in the late afternoon , and was a smoking shell within a few hours . John Evelyn , courtier and diarist , wrote :
Evelyn lived in Deptford , four miles ( 6 km ) outside the City , and so he did not see the early stages of the disaster . He went by coach to Southwark on Monday , joining many other upper @-@ class people , to see the view which Pepys had seen the day before of the burning City across the river . The conflagration was much larger now : " the whole City in dreadful flames near the water @-@ side ; all the houses from the Bridge , all Thames @-@ street , and upwards towards Cheapside , down to the Three Cranes , were now consumed " . In the evening , Evelyn reported that the river was covered with barges and boats making their escape piled with goods . He observed a great exodus of carts and pedestrians through the bottleneck City gates , making for the open fields to the north and east , " which for many miles were strewed with moveables of all sorts , and tents erecting to shelter both people and what goods they could get away . Oh , the miserable and calamitous spectacle ! "
= = = = Suspicion and Fear = = = =
Suspicion soon arose in the threatened city that the fire was no accident . The swirling winds carried sparks and burning flakes long distances to lodge on thatched roofs and in wooden gutters , causing seemingly unrelated house fires to break out far from their source and giving rise to rumours that fresh fires were being set on purpose . Foreigners were immediately suspects because of the current Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War . Fear and suspicion hardened into certainty on Monday , as reports circulated of imminent invasion and of foreign undercover agents seen casting " fireballs " into houses , or caught with hand grenades or matches . There was a wave of street violence . William Taswell saw a mob loot the shop of a French painter and level it to the ground , and watched in horror as a blacksmith walked up to a Frenchman in the street and hit him over the head with an iron bar .
The fears of terrorism received an extra boost from the disruption of communications and news as facilities were devoured by the fire . The General Letter Office in Threadneedle Street burned down early on Monday morning , through which post passed for the entire country . The London Gazette just managed to put out its Monday issue before the printer 's premises went up in flames ( this issue contained mainly society gossip , with a small note about a fire that had broken out on Sunday morning and " which continues still with great violence " ) . The whole nation depended on these communications , and the void which they left filled up with rumours .
There were also religious alarms of renewed Gunpowder Plots . Suspicions rose to panic and collective paranoia on Monday , and both the Trained Bands and the Coldstream Guards focused less on fire fighting and more on rounding up foreigners , Catholics , and any odd @-@ looking people , arresting them or rescuing them from mobs , or both together .
The inhabitants were growing desperate to remove their belongings from the City , especially the upper class . This provided a source of income for the able @-@ bodied poor , who hired out as porters ( sometimes simply making off with the goods ) , and it was especially profitable for the owners of carts and boats . Hiring a cart had cost a couple of shillings on the Saturday before the fire ; on Monday , it rose to as much as £ 40 , a fortune equivalent to more than £ 4 @,@ 000 in 2005 .
Seemingly every cart and boat owner within reach of London made their way towards the City to share in these opportunities , the carts jostling at the narrow gates with the panicked inhabitants trying to get out . The chaos at the gates was such that the magistrates ordered the gates shut on Monday afternoon , in the hope of turning the inhabitants ' attention from safeguarding their own possessions to fighting the fire : " that , no hopes of saving any things left , they might have more desperately endeavoured the quenching of the fire . " This headlong and unsuccessful measure was rescinded the next day .
Monday marked the beginning of organised action , even as order broke down in the streets , especially at the gates , and the fire raged unchecked . Bloodworth was responsible as Lord Mayor for co @-@ ordinating the fire @-@ fighting , but he had apparently left the City ; his name is not mentioned in any contemporaneous accounts of the Monday 's events . In this state of emergency , Charles again overrode the City authorities and put his brother James , Duke of York in charge of operations .
James set up command posts round the perimeter of the fire , press @-@ ganging into teams of well @-@ paid and well @-@ fed firemen any men of the lower classes found in the streets . Three courtiers were put in charge of each post , with authority from Charles himself to order demolitions . This visible gesture of solidarity from the Crown was intended to cut through the citizens ' misgivings about being held financially responsible for pulling down houses . James and his life guards rode up and down the streets all Monday , rescuing foreigners from the mob and attempting to keep order . " The Duke of York hath won the hearts of the people with his continual and indefatigable pains day and night in helping to quench the Fire , " wrote a witness in a letter on 8 September .
On Monday evening , hopes were dashed that the massive stone walls of Baynard 's Castle , Blackfriars would stay the course of the flames , the western counterpart of the Tower of London . This historic royal
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palace was completely consumed , burning all night .
A contemporary account said that King Charles in person worked manually , that day or later , to help throw water on flames and to help demolish buildings to make a firebreak .
= = = Tuesday = = =
Tuesday , 4 September was the day of greatest destruction . The Duke of York 's command post at Temple Bar , where Strand meets Fleet Street , was supposed to stop the fire 's westward advance towards the Palace of Whitehall . He hoped that the River Fleet would form a natural firebreak , making a stand with his firemen from the Fleet Bridge and down to the Thames . However , early on Tuesday morning , the flames jumped over the Fleet and outflanked them , driven by the unabated easterly gale , forcing them to run for it . There was consternation at the palace as the fire continued implacably westward ; " Oh , the confusion there was then at that court ! " wrote Evelyn .
Working to a plan at last , James 's firefighters had also created a large firebreak to the north of the conflagration . It contained the fire until late afternoon , when the flames leapt across and began to destroy the wide , affluent luxury shopping street of Cheapside .
Everybody had thought St. Paul 's Cathedral a safe refuge , with its thick stone walls and natural firebreak in the form of a wide , empty surrounding plaza . It had been crammed full of rescued goods and its crypt filled with the tightly packed stocks of the printers and booksellers in adjoining Paternoster Row . However , an enormous stroke of bad luck meant that the building was covered in wooden scaffolding , undergoing piecemeal restoration by a relatively unknown Christopher Wren . The scaffolding caught fire on Tuesday night . Leaving school , young William Taswell stood on Westminster Stairs a mile away and watched as the flames crept round the cathedral and the burning scaffolding ignited the timbered roof beams . Within half an hour , the lead roof was melting , and the books and papers in the crypt caught with a roar . " The stones of Paul 's flew like grenados , " reported Evelyn in his diary , " the melting lead running down the streets in a stream , and the very pavements glowing with fiery redness , so as no horse , nor man , was able to tread on them . " The cathedral was quickly a ruin .
During the day , the flames began to move eastward from the neighbourhood of Pudding Lane , straight against the prevailing east wind and towards Pepys 's home on Seething Lane and the Tower of London with its gunpowder stores . The garrison at the Tower took matters into their own hands after waiting all day for requested help from James 's official firemen who were busy in the west . They created firebreaks by blowing up houses on a large scale in the vicinity , halting the advance of the fire .
= = = Wednesday = = =
The wind dropped on Tuesday evening , and the firebreaks created by the garrison finally began to take effect on Wednesday 5 September . Stopping the fire caused much fire and demolition damage in the lawyers ' area called the Temple . Pepys walked all over the smouldering city , getting his feet hot , and climbed the steeple of Barking Church , from which he viewed the destroyed City , " the saddest sight of desolation that I ever saw . " There were many separate fires still burning themselves out , but the Great Fire was over .
Pepys visited Moorfields , a large public park immediately north of the City , and saw a great encampment of homeless refugees , " poor wretches carrying their good there , and every body keeping his goods together by themselves " . He noted that the price of bread had doubled in the environs of the park . Evelyn also went out to Moorfields , which was turning into the main point of assembly for the homeless , and was horrified at the numbers of distressed people filling it , some under tents , others in makeshift shacks : " Many [ were ] without a rag or any necessary utensils , bed or board ... reduced to extremest misery and poverty . " Evelyn was impressed by the pride of these distressed Londoners , " tho ' ready to perish for hunger and destitution , yet not asking one pennie for relief . "
Fears were as high as ever among the traumatised fire victims , fear of foreign arsonists and of a French and Dutch invasion . There was an outbreak of general panic on Wednesday night in the encampments at Parliament Hill , Moorfields , and Islington . A light in the sky over Fleet Street started a story that 50 @,@ 000 French and Dutch immigrants had risen , widely rumoured to have started the fire , and were marching towards Moorfields to finish what the fire had begun : to cut the men 's throats , rape the women , and steal their few possessions . Surging into the streets , the frightened mob fell on any foreigners whom they happened to encounter , and were only appeased , according to Evelyn , " with infinite pains and great difficulty " and pushed back into the fields by the Trained Bands , troops of Life Guards , and members of the court . The mood was now so volatile that Charles feared a full @-@ scale London rebellion against the monarchy . Food production and distribution had been disrupted to the point of non @-@ existence ; Charles announced that supplies of bread would be brought into the City every day , and safe markets set up round the perimeter . These markets were for buying and selling ; there was no question of distributing emergency aid .
= = Deaths and destruction = =
Only a few deaths from the fire are officially recorded , and deaths are traditionally believed to have been few . Porter gives the figure as eight and Tinniswood as " in single figures " , although he adds that some deaths must have gone unrecorded and that , besides direct deaths from burning and smoke inhalation , refugees also perished in the impromptu camps .
Hanson takes issue with the idea that there were only a few deaths , enumerating known deaths from hunger and exposure among survivors of the fire , " huddled in shacks or living among the ruins that had once been their homes " in the cold winter that followed , including , for instance , dramatist James Shirley and his wife . Hanson also maintains that " it stretches credulity to believe that the only papists or foreigners being beaten to death or lynched were the ones rescued by the Duke of York " , that official figures say very little about the fate of the undocumented poor , and that the heat at the heart of the firestorms was far greater than an ordinary house fire , and was enough to consume bodies fully or leave only a few skeletal fragments .
The fire was fed not merely by wood , fabrics , and thatch , Hanson points out , but also by the oil , pitch , coal , tallow , fats , sugar , alcohol , turpentine , and gunpowder stored in the riverside district . It melted the imported steel lying along the wharves ( melting point between 1 @,@ 250 and 1 @,@ 480 ° C ( 2 @,@ 300 and 2 @,@ 700 ° F ) ) and the great iron chains and locks on the City gates ( melting point between 1 @,@ 100 and 1 @,@ 650 ° C ( 2 @,@ 000 and 3000 ° F ) ) . Nor would anonymous bone fragments have been of much interest to the hungry people sifting through the tens of thousands of tons of rubble and debris after the fire , looking for valuables , or to the workmen clearing away the rubble later during the rebuilding . Hanson appeals to common sense and " the experience of every other major urban fire down the centuries " , emphasising that the fire attacked the rotting tenements of the poor with furious speed , surely trapping at the very least " the old , the very young , the halt and the lame " and burying the dust and ashes of their bones under the rubble of cellars , producing a death toll not of four or eight , but of " several hundred and quite possibly several thousand . "
The material destruction has been computed at 13 @,@ 500 houses , 87 parish churches , 44 Company Halls , the Royal Exchange , the Custom House , St Paul 's Cathedral , the Bridewell Palace and other City prisons , the General Letter Office , and the three western city gates — Ludgate , Newgate , and Aldersgate . The monetary value of the loss , first estimated at £ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in the currency of the time , was later reduced to an uncertain £ 10 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( over £ 1 billion in 2005 pounds ) . Evelyn believed that he saw as many as " 200 @,@ 000 people of all ranks and stations dispersed , and lying along their heaps of what they could save " in the fields towards Islington and Highgate .
= = Aftermath = =
An example of the urge to identify scapegoats for the fire is the acceptance of the confession of a simple @-@ minded French watchmaker named Robert Hubert , who claimed that he was an agent of the Pope and had started the Great Fire in Westminster . He later changed his story to say that he had started the fire at the bakery in Pudding Lane . Hubert was convicted , despite some misgivings about his fitness to plead , and hanged at Tyburn on 28 September 1666 . After his death , it became apparent that he had been on board a ship in the North Sea , and had not arrived in London until two days after the fire started . These allegations that Catholics had started the fire were exploited as powerful political propaganda by opponents of pro @-@ Catholic Charles II 's court , mostly during the Popish Plot and the exclusion crisis later in his reign .
Abroad in the Netherlands , the Great Fire of London was seen as a divine retribution for Holmes 's Bonfire , the burning by the English of a Dutch town during the Second Anglo @-@ Dutch War .
In the chaos and unrest after the fire , Charles II feared another London rebellion . He encouraged the homeless to move away from London and settle elsewhere , immediately issuing a proclamation that " all Cities and Towns whatsoever shall without any contradiction receive the said distressed persons and permit them the free exercise of their manual trades . " A special Fire Court was set up to deal with disputes between tenants and landlords and decide who should rebuild , based on ability to pay . The Court was in session from February 1667 to September 1672 . Cases were heard and a verdict usually given within a day ; without the Fire Court , lengthy legal wrangles would have seriously delayed the rebuilding which was so necessary if London was to recover .
Radical rebuilding schemes poured in for the gutted City and were encouraged by Charles . If it had been rebuilt under some of these plans , London would have rivalled Paris in Baroque magnificence ( see Evelyn 's plan on the right ) . The Crown and the City authorities attempted to establish " to whom all the houses and ground did in truth belong " to negotiate with their owners about compensation for the large @-@ scale remodelling that these plans entailed , but that unrealistic idea had to be abandoned . Exhortations to bring workmen and measure the plots on which the houses had stood were mostly ignored by people worried about day @-@ to @-@ day survival , as well as by those who had left the capital ; for one thing , with the shortage of labour following the fire , it was impossible to secure workmen for the purpose . Apart from Wren and Evelyn , it is known that Robert Hooke , Valentine Knight , and Richard Newcourt proposed rebuilding plans .
With the complexities of ownership unresolved , none of the grand Baroque schemes could be realised for a City of piazzas and avenues ; there was nobody to negotiate with , and no means of calculating how much compensation should be paid . Instead , much of the old street plan was recreated in the new City , with improvements in hygiene and fire safety : wider streets , open and accessible wharves along the length of the Thames , with no houses obstructing access to the river , and , most importantly , buildings constructed of brick and stone , not wood . New public buildings were created on their predecessors ' sites ; perhaps the most famous is St Paul 's Cathedral and its smaller cousins , Christopher Wren 's 50 new churches .
On Charles ' initiative , a Monument to the Great Fire of London was erected near Pudding Lane , designed by Christopher Wren and Robert Hooke , standing 61 metres ( 200 ft ) tall and known simply as " The Monument " . It is a familiar London landmark which has given its name to a tube station . In 1668 , accusations against the Catholics were added to the inscription on the Monument which read , in part :
The inscription remained in place until 1830 and the passage of the Catholic Emancipation Act , aside from the four years of James II 's rule from 1685 to 1689 .
Another monument marks the spot where the fire stopped : the Golden Boy of Pye Corner in Smithfield . According to the inscription , it was evidence of God 's wrath on the City of London for the sin of gluttony that the fire started at Pudding Lane and stopped at Pye Corner .
The Great Plague epidemic of 1665 is believed to have killed a sixth of London 's inhabitants , or 80 @,@ 000 people , and it is sometimes suggested that the fire saved lives in the long run by burning down so much unsanitary housing with their rats and their fleas which transmitted the plague , as plague epidemics did not recur in London after the fire . Historians disagree as to whether the fire played a part in preventing subsequent major outbreaks . The Museum of London website claims that there was a connection , while historian Roy Porter points out that the fire left the most insalubrious parts of London untouched , the slum suburbs .
Following the Fire , the thoroughfares of Queen Street and King Street were newly laid out , cutting across more ancient thoroughfares in the City , creating a new route up from the Thames to the Guildhall ; they were the only notable new streets following the fire 's destruction of much of the City .
= = In culture = =
William Harrison Ainsworth 's novel Old St Paul 's is set during the events of the fire .
The Great Fire was released on ITV television in 2014 . It was shown in four episodes . It constructs a fictional scenario involving the Pudding Lane baker 's family in an alleged popish plot .
The round " London 's Burning " is said to be about the Great Fire . However , the first notation of a song in this theme dates from 1580 as " Scotland 's Burning " .
= Widerøe Flight 839 =
Widerøe Flight 839 , also known as the Værøy Accident ( Norwegian : Værøy @-@ ulykken ) , was a crash into water of a de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 @-@ 300 Twin Otter just after take @-@ off from Værøy Airport in Norway . The incident occurred on 12 April 1990 at 14 : 44 , and killed all five people on board . The cause of the accident were strong winds that exceeded the structure 's tolerance , causing the tail rudder and tailplane to crack so the plane became uncontrollable . Impact occurred 63 seconds after take @-@ off and 8 seconds after the crack . The aircraft crashed into the water , and a search was conducted for several days to find the wreck .
Uneven and strong winds had given the airport low regularity , and prior to take @-@ off , wind speeds of 57 knots ( 106 km / h ) had been recorded.The accident caused the airport to be permanently closed , and replaced by Værøy Heliport . The incident was investigated by the Accident Investigation Board Norway , who published their conclusions in 1991 . Three years later , a new investigation was conducted , after an engineer had stated that the cause of the accident could instead have been fatigue . The second investigation came to the same conclusion as the first and all involved parties have since supported the causes made in the initial report .
= = Accident = =
Widerøe Flight 839 was a scheduled flight from Værøy Airport to Bodø Airport operated with a de Havilland Canada DHC @-@ 6 @-@ 300 Twin Otter . The aircraft had registration LN @-@ BNS and serial number 536 , and was delivered to Widerøe on 27 April 1977 . It was insured with Norsk Flyforsikringspool . The aircraft left Bodø Airport at 13 : 36 as Flight 838 to Røst Airport , where it landed at 14 : 04 . It continued to Værøy as Flight 839 , leaving Røst at 14 : 14 . During this flight the crew received information that the wind at the east end of the runway was from 270 ° , varying from 18 to 26 knots ( 33 to 48 km / h ) — a moderate gale . When the plane landed at 14 : 30 , the tower had stated that the wind was from 270 ° and max 23 knots ( 43 km / h ) . The crew commented on the wind after landing , and stated that the wind blew from all directions . At Værøy Airport , three passengers disembarked , two passengers boarded and the plane fueled . There was also a passenger in transit from Røst to Bodø , so the total ridership was three passengers , plus the two pilots . Take @-@ off weight was 4 @,@ 548 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 10 @,@ 028 lb ) , including 640 kg ( 1 @,@ 410 lb ) of fuel .
The aircraft taxied to runway 25 . During the departure briefing , the captain decided not to follow the company 's standard procedure and have a climb at 320 ° instead of 280 ° . Maximum measured wind had been recorded at 57 knots ( 106 km / h ) while the aircraft had been parked . The aircraft asked for clearance at 14 : 42 : 10 ; this was granted , and the air control informed that the wind at the west end was between 210 ° and 290 ° , varying from 18 to 34 knots ( 33 to 63 km / h ) . The eastern wind was not communicated to the aircraft , but was 270 ° , varying from 20 to 40 knots ( 37 to 74 km / h ) . The take @-@ off started at 14 : 42 : 43 and the aircraft was airborne after having passed half the runway . Witnesses described that the aircraft after take @-@ off climbed quickly , but then started falling , and then climbed quickly again . It then entered clouds west of the airport . During climb , the captain wanted to keep the flaps at 10 ° , contradictory to standard procedure that involved decreasing the flaps . At 14 : 43 : 09 , a rattling sound was registered on the cockpit voice recorder ( CVR ) . Thirty @-@ five seconds later , sounds from unsynchronized propellers were registered . The co @-@ pilot indicates that the flight was in difficulty . Eight seconds later , at 14 : 43 : 52 , the CVR stopped recording . At 14 : 43 : 54 , the control tower at Værøy registered a distress signal , that lasted four seconds , followed by a loud bang . The aircraft was then repeatedly called by radio . At 14 : 50 , Bodø Air Traffic Control Center was contacted .
The Joint Rescue Coordination Centre of Northern Norway in Bodø dispatched two helicopters and two ships , but one helicopter and one ship had to return due to the bad weather that soon had increased to a hurricane . At 16 : 45 , parts of the aircraft were found 3 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 6 @.@ 5 km ) northwest of Værøy Airport . After the weather improved , one rescue ship , four fishing vessels and one Westland Sea King were used to find the wreck . On 13 April , twelve ships and two helicopters were being used , and several parts from the wreck were found . This allowed the searching crew to use divers search for the wreck . The aircraft was found on 15 April , 2 @,@ 300 metres ( 7 @,@ 500 ft ) from the airport . Eighty percent of the wreck was found within an area of 300 by 400 m ( 980 by 1 @,@ 310 ft ) and at about 10 m ( 33 ft ) depth .
The deceased were Captain Idar Nils Persen ( 40 ) , Co @-@ pilot Arnt Vidar Grønneflåta ( 31 ) , and passengers Stig Myrvoll ( 25 ) , Frank Bakkeli ( 27 ) and Runa Dagny Søraa ( 23 ) . All passengers died immediately upon impact , but the Captain 's body was never found .
= = Cause = =
The runway at Værøy Airport , that runs east – west , ran parallel to a mountain to the south that is about 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) tall . Prior to construction , Widerøe had performed test flights in the area , and these had concluded with unacceptable wind conditions , particularly from the south over the mountain . From 31 October 1988 , Widerøe introduced self @-@ imposed restrictions on landing at Værøy . Aircraft were not allowed to land or take off if the wind came from 090 ° – 240 ° ( though south ) if the wind speed exceeded 20 knots ( 37 km / h ) , including gusts . Additional restrictions were introduced following an incident on 18 January 1989 ; these were again modified on 1 November 1989 . Flight 839 took off within the permitted limits of these restrictions . However , Twin Otters were not to operate on the ground during winds that exceeded 50 knots ( 93 km / h ) , and since the aircraft started taxiing following a report of wind speeds of 57 knots ( 106 km / h ) , this was a breach of procedure . The wind also changed direction immediately after take @-@ off .
The aircraft had not had any mechanical or technical errors or problems prior to take @-@ off . The turbulence and wind shear caused a crack in either the tail rudder , the tailplane , or both . This was caused by strong winds acting on both sides of the structure , due to shifting winds . These structural failures caused the aircraft to crash . Out of the 63 seconds from take @-@ off to impact , the aircraft was under control for the first 55 seconds ; only during the last 8 seconds did the crew not have control over the aircraft .
The Accident Investigation Board Norway stated in its report that the crew should not have landed with the amounts of wind that were reported , and that they definitively should not have taken off . However , since the wind came from the west , which by pilots was reported to cause less fewer problems than from other directions , they may have decided to ignore the wind exceeding the permitted values . In particular , the Accident Investigation Board criticized the choice of taxiing in 57 knots ( 106 km / h ) , 7 knots ( 13 km / h ) above the permitted wind speed for ground operation and far over the permitted levels for take @-@ off from the airport . The board commented that although it was common to cancel flights to Værøy , no flights had been canceled after the plane had landed , instead being canceled prior to landing . The board commented that the flight being the last before Easter , it may have influenced the pilots ' sense of duty towards getting the passengers to their destinations . This may have been aggravated by the very low regularity that was at Værøy . The board also commented that pilots did not trust the wind data they received , since they often experienced it to be incorrect and that the wind could vary considerably within the airport . While the plane was at the ground , it had been raining . Pilots at Værøy often experienced that weather was better between rain showers , and there were indications that the captain wanted to take @-@ off before the next rain shower hit .
The Accident Investigation Board concluded :
The cause of the accident is that the plane during climb was subject to wind that succeeded the planes construction criteria . This caused a crack in the tail rudder / tailplane causing the plane to become uncontrollable . "
= = Aftermath = =
= = = New airport = = =
Værøy Airport had opened on 1 July 1986 as part of the regional airport network in Northern Norway operated by Widerøe . Prior to this , Værøy and Røst had been served by helicopters using a heliport ; that had replaced previous services with seaplanes . All services to the airport were suspended immediately after the incident . On 7 May , Widerøe stated that they would not use Værøy Airport , and that they would decline the concession to operate to Værøy if the island community did not receive a new airport . They commented that the restrictions caused by the wind forced the airline to terminate up to half the departures . The chairman of the Widerøe 's Pilots ' Union , Cpt . Helge Høvik , stated the same day that the airline might have to lower the number of calls at some other regional airports , namely Mosjøen Airport , Kjærstad , Mo i Rana Airport , Røssvold , Sandnessjøen Airport , Stokka and Sandane Airport , Anda . Høvik stated that he felt that many of the airports were located in the wrong place , for instance at the bottom of valleys , on top of hills and between mountains . Widerøe stated that there was not a safety problem at any other regional airports .
The report from the Accident Investigation Board was highly critical to the Norwegian Civil Aviation Administration , stating that the airport should never have been built where it was and that it was " clearly unsuitable for regular traffic " . It stated that the administration had overlooked comments from meteorologists and test flights in the area that had concluded that the wind conditions in the area were not suitable for an airport . The commission that wrote the report and conducted the investigation , stated that the Civil Aviation Administration had not proceeded correctly while planning the airport — they had chosen Nordlandet early as a location and ignored negative comments . After the Norwegian Meteorological Institute had made a favorable report about the weather in the area , the administration had failed to conduct the necessary test flights to test the wind conditions , since this was not determined in the initial recommendation . The commission also commented that the safety division had been critical to the localization of the airport , but had withdrawn their disputes following pressure from higher ranks in the administration . The commission also criticized the Civil Aviation Administration for not conducting investigations following the reports of low regularity and the incidents in 1988 and 1989 .
No aircraft has ever taken off from Værøy Airport after the accident , except in June 1992 , when a Cessna 172 brought 3 skydivers from Bodø Skydiving Club ( Bodø Fallskjermklubb ) to the island , accompanied by a Piper Cherokee 140 from Bodø Flyklubb and an experimental plane . The Cessna made 2 landings and take @-@ offs , and dropped the skydivers over the runway at approx . 8000 feet . The Piper and experimental craft made at least one landing and take @-@ off each , during a public show held close to the airport . In 1992 , the Norwegian Ministry of Transport and Communications decided to permanently close the airport , after it had been temporarily closed since the accident . In 1995 , Værøy Heliport was opened further south on the island , and Helikopter Service was awarded the public service obligation to operate the route . The helicopter service sometimes uses the closed airport as a reserve airport during bad weather .
= = = Second investigation = = =
In an article published in the newspaper Fremover ( Narvik , Norway ) , in May 1994 , the English aviation engineer Hugh Tyrer stated that the cause of the accident was probably due to fatigue in the end piece of the transfer mechanism to the elevator . The end piece was in such a state that it would have failed sooner or later in ordinary use . Following this discovery in the wreck , Widerøe had grounded all their Twin Otters and checked these pieces , but without finding any other defect parts. de Havilland Canada had also sent an alert to all operators of the Twin Otter to check the component , and had canceled the contract with the subcontractor . On 800 operating Twin Otters , 86 end pieces were replaced shortly after the accident , although none had fatigue similar to that of LN @-@ BNS . The commission 's chair , Ragnar Rygnestad , stated that they had not considered the end piece to be part of the cause of the accident , and that they therefore had not stress @-@ tested it or the elevator to see what forces were needed to cause a crack . Rygnestad stated that the board knew about the fatigue . He also said that he had no problems with the opening of a new inquiry . Widerøe stated that they trusted the report from the Accident Investigation Board .
Member of parliament , Inge Myrvoll , and president of the Norwegian Airline Pilots Association , Cpt.Peter Helland , both stated that the Accident Investigation Board should make a new inquiry about the accident . Cpt . Helland stated that the report 's credibility was weakened due to the influence de Havilland Canada had during the process . On 10 June , the commission reopened the case , after having held meetings with Tyrer . The commission stated that there was disagreement as to if the tail rudder and tail plane or the end piece had cracked first , which would be crucial in determining the cause of the accident . Among the inquiries would be to re @-@ investigate the tape of cockpit sound with new technology . The Accident Investigation Board used the National Aerospace Laboratory in the Netherlands to conduct tests on the end pieces . The report from the National Aerospace Laboratory was published on 23 March 1995 , and supported the conclusion in the commissions report . The journalist Oddvar Kristoffersen in Fremover won the SKUP Award for 1994 for his work related to uncovering the controversy . The pilots ' union in Widerøe was initially critical of the report , but by July it stated that it supported the conclusion . In addition , Det Norske Veritas withdrew its critical comments concerning the commission . With this , all officially involved parties supported the report .
= SECR K and SR K1 classes =
The SECR K class was a type of 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotive designed in 1914 by Richard Maunsell for express passenger duties on the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) , which operated between London and south @-@ east England . The Southern Railway ( SR ) K1 class was a three @-@ cylinder variant of the K class , designed in 1925 to suit a narrower loading gauge . They were among the first non @-@ Great Western Railway ( GWR ) types to use and improve upon the basic design principles of power and standardisation established by GWR Chief Mechanical Engineer ( CME ) George Jackson Churchward . The locomotives were based on the GWR 4300 class , improved by the Midland Railway 's ideals of simplicity and ease of maintenance .
The K class was designed to be mechanically similar to the SECR N class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 mixed @-@ traffic locomotives . The class was the earliest large @-@ scale use of the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 wheel arrangement in Britain . Production began towards the end of the First World War , and the prototype rolled out of Ashford Works three years after design work was completed due to wartime production constraints . The class replaced obsolete 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 passenger locomotives in an SECR fleet standardisation programme .
Twenty @-@ one locomotives were built : twenty K class ( two cylinders ) and one K1 class ( three cylinders ) , the first in 1917 and the remainder between 1925 and 1926 . They operated over the Eastern section of the Southern Railway network and were given the names of rivers , being referred as the River class from 1925 . Crews referred to the K and K1 classes as " Rolling Rivers " because of their instability when travelling at speed . They were rebuilt as 2 @-@ cylinder SR U class and 3 @-@ cylinder SR U1 class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s ( respectively ) following a railway accident at Sevenoaks , Kent in 1927 . They continued in service with British Railways ( BR ) until the last was withdrawn in 1966 . One K class rebuild ( No. 31806 ) is preserved on the Swanage Railway in Dorset and as of 2016 is operational .
= = Background = =
Three factors dictated the type of locomotive that could operate on the South Eastern and Chatham Railway ( SECR ) : the heavy passenger train loadings ; the poor track quality ; and the weak , lightly built bridges . On the lines of the former London , Chatham and Dover Railway ( LCDR ) – inherited by the SECR in 1899 – beach pebbles had been used for ballast instead of conventional ballast , which has irregular shapes that lock together to keep the track in place . These economies in construction meant that only locomotives with low axle loadings could operate safely over the track . The SECR was therefore unable to follow a coherent strategy to reduce the number of locomotive types inherited from the two constituent railways . Despite increased passenger and freight traffic between London Charing Cross and the Kentish coast during the first decades of the 20th century , the Operating Department had to use mismatched classes of underpowered and obsolete 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 and 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 locomotives , which could operate within the restrictions imposed by the infrastructure . This resulted in frequent double @-@ heading , adding to operational costs .
Richard Maunsell was appointed CME of the SECR in 1913 , following the enforced retirement of Harry Wainwright , who had left a range of competent but unspectacular locomotive classes that struggled to cope with the increased train lengths and loadings . Maunsell reviewed the situation and planned to introduce six standard classes – using only two boiler designs – which would work the entire traffic of the railway . The first of these was the N class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 , which gave the SECR a capable mixed @-@ traffic locomotive . For the express passenger design that could cope with the heavy boat trains , Maunsell wanted to enlarge the existing L class 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 with Walschaerts valve gear and an enlarged superheater , but this design would have resulted in a too heavy axle loading . Maunsell 's newly recruited assistants , G.H. Pearson and Harold Holcroft from the Great Western Railway at Swindon and James Clayton from the Midland Railway at Derby , had recently been involved in the design of large passenger tank engines and persuaded him to use the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 wheel arrangement , which would allow the class to operate at high speeds on the poor @-@ quality track in north Kent .
= = Design and construction = =
The 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 wheel arrangement was not in common use in Great Britain at this time , as many railway companies operated routes that required locomotives with greater fuel capacity , or short branch lines that necessitated smaller locomotives . The 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank engine design had only been used once before for standard gauge locomotives in Britain , on the Great Central Railway 's 1B class freight locomotives of 1914 . However , the configuration was ideal for the SECR , because of its shorter mainlines , and allowed for a long wheelbase with a leading axle to permit greater stability at speed on track curves . The tightness of the curves on the former LCDR mainlines had constrained the size of locomotives operating on the SECR , as they had been hastily erected during the nineteenth century to compete with those of the South Eastern Railway ( SER ) . The longer locomotive could also accommodate a larger boiler than a 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 , giving sufficient power to avoid double @-@ heading of locomotives on heavier trains .
The K class design used a " Bissel bogie " leading axle and a plain trailing bogie . The trailing bogie permitted the use of a large coal bunker that was capable of sustaining the locomotive over the run between London Charing Cross and Dover Marine , and side water tanks of 2 @,@ 000 imp gal ( 9 @,@ 100 l ; 2 @,@ 400 US gal ) capacity were used , negating the need for a tender . The coupled wheelbase between the rear and centre driving wheels was reduced from that used on the mechanically identical N class to 7 ft 9 in ( 2 @.@ 362 m ) to accommodate the bogie . The cab was fully enclosed , although the set of four small front spectacle plates ( the windows on the front face of the cab for forward visibility ) were the same as those used on the N class .
The K class was designed by Maunsell 's team in 1914 as part of his proposed standardisation programme following the N class , but the designs were not shown to the railway directors until early 1915 to enable all six designs to be shown at once . The design incorporated the principles of power and reliability established by George Churchward , using a Belpaire firebox that sloped downwards towards the cab instead of a round @-@ topped version , a regulator located in the smokebox , long @-@ travel valves for free running at high speeds , a sharply tapered and domeless boiler , and a right @-@ hand driving position . The inclusion of these features is attributed to Holcroft , Maunsell 's personal assistant , who had worked on the GWR 4300 class and the N class . James Clayton , Maunsell 's Chief Locomotive Draughtsman , brought simpler and more functional Midland Railway influences to the design , such as the shape of the cab and the drumhead @-@ type smokebox , which sat on a saddle that was of wider diameter than the fully lagged and clad boiler . The latter was fitted with Ross pop safety valves and pressed to 200 psi ( 1 @.@ 38 MPa ) .
Other innovations by Maunsell 's team included greater superheating surface area , locating the boiler water top feed inside a dome @-@ like cover with external clackboxes and water feed pipes mounted on either side , outside Walschaerts valve gear , and parts that could be shared with similar locomotive classes to reduce maintenance costs . The firebox was narrower towards the rear and featured a continuously sloping grate , whilst the ashpan was fitted with front and rear damper doors , the latter adjusted to clear the rear driving axle . The lower part of the coal bunker incorporated a water tank of 760 imp gal ( 3 @,@ 500 l ; 910 US gal ) capacity . This was connected to two 620 imp gal ( 2 @,@ 800 l ; 740 US gal ) side tanks by two rectangular pipes on either side of the locomotive that also formed supports for the cab footplate .
= = = K class = = =
In January 1915 Maunsell received authority to build six examples , but , as with the N class , production was delayed due to the use of the Ashford works for wartime armaments manufacture . Assembly began in 1917 and the first , No. 790 , emerged in July of that year . It was based at Bricklayers Arms depot , preceding the earlier N class design into service by one month . Further construction was deferred until after Ashford had caught up with the maintenance backlog caused by the war .
Ten more locomotives were ordered by the SECR from Ashford works in June 1920 , and to speed delivery the construction of frames , cylinders and side tanks was subcontracted to the Royal Arsenal at Woolwich . However , further severe delays at Ashford caused by the backlog of repair work meant that the boilers had to be supplied by the North British Locomotive Company . Construction of these locomotives had not begun by 1 January 1923 , when the Railways Act 1921 merged the SECR with other railways in southern England to form the Southern Railway .
Maunsell was appointed CME of the newly formed Southern Railway in 1923 , and inherited the 1920 SECR order for ten K class locomotives . The order was still outstanding in 1924 , although most of the component parts had been made . On 14 January 1925 , Maunsell ordered No. 790 to be overhauled and trialled on the Central section . As the locomotive proved suitable for the operating conditions of this section , the Southern Railway 's Locomotive Committee proceeded with the assembly of the K class parts using outside contractors . Nine sets of parts ( Nos. A791 – A799 ) were conveyed to Armstrong Whitworth for assembly and the finished locomotives delivered in May and June 1925 . These were dual @-@ fitted with vacuum and Westinghouse ( air ) brakes for use with the former London , Brighton and South Coast Railway ( LBSCR ) rolling stock on the Central section . Other differences from the prototype included the relocation of the regulator to the dome and an increase in superheater area . The tenth set of parts was retained by Ashford and used for the first member of the K1 class later that year .
In May 1925 Maunsell ordered a further ten locomotives from Brighton works ( Nos. A800 – A809 ) , which only had vacuum brakes for the SECR stock on the Eastern section . They were delivered between July and December 1926 . This group had modified suspension on the bogie and leading axle , in an attempt to address complaints from the crews of rough riding experienced with earlier members of the class . A further 20 members of the class were ordered in March 1926 ( ten each from Ashford and Brighton works ) , despite strong reservations expressed by the Operating Department concerning " the wisdom or desirability of placing so many large passenger tanks in service " . These were allocated the numbers A610 – A629 , and work had begun on building the frames and cylinders when the order was cancelled following an accident at Sevenoaks in 1927 involving locomotive No . A800 . These numbers were later allocated to the first production batch of U class locomotives .
= = = K1 class = = =
In August 1919 , a proposal was put to the SECR ’ s Locomotive , Carriage and Wagon Committee for 2 and 3 @-@ cylinder tank engines of 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 0 wheel arrangement for heavy shunting of freight wagons . They were to use the same boiler as the K and N classes and the general layout was similar to designs used by the GWR in South Wales . Nothing came of this proposal because of other commitments and the absorption of the SECR into the Southern Railway . In 1922 , Holcroft suggested that 3 @-@ cylinder 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender locomotives with 6 ft ( 1 @,@ 830 mm ) driving wheels should be built instead of tank locomotives . Despite the benefit of a greater operational range , Holcroft 's immediate superior , Clayton , refused to pass this suggestion on to Maunsell . The 3 @-@ cylinder principle was therefore applied to the K class .
At the Southern Railway ’ s January 1925 Locomotive Committee meeting , when it was decided to use outside contractors to build the K class , Maunsell received authority to retain one set of parts at Ashford works to construct a prototype 3 @-@ cylinder 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank . The modification was based upon that used on N class No. 822 to produce a 3 @-@ cylinder locomotive in 1922 , although it retained the 6 ft ( 1 @,@ 830 mm ) driving wheels and shorter wheelbase of the K class . The modification was the inclusion of an additional ( inside ) cylinder between the frames , and a crank axle was fitted to the middle driving wheels . The axle was connected to the inside cylinder assembly by a connecting rod inclined at 1 in 8 to clear the front driving axle . This arrangement was supplemented by two smaller @-@ diameter outside cylinders with 16 in ( 406 mm ) bore ( compared to the 19 in ( 483 mm ) cylinders of the K class ) , and a greater chimney diameter . The resulting prototype 3 @-@ cylinder " K1 " was narrower than the K class and hence could work on routes with restricted loading gauge . As with No. 822 , this locomotive used Holcroft 's derivative of the Gresley conjugated valve gear to drive the inside cylinder . To accommodate this , the boiler had to be raised by 3 in ( 76 mm ) above the inside gear , raising the centre of gravity on the locomotive .
The main visual difference between the K and K1 classes was at the front end : the K1 incorporated a vertical metal cover above the front buffer beam to protect the third cylinder and associated Holcroft valve gear assembly from the elements . It also featured a new cab design with redesigned single front spectacle plates , and a pair of substantially constructed steps were fitted behind both outside cylinders to provide access to the running plate . The lack of a middle cylinder on the K class locomotives had allowed the provision of a footplate that curved from the buffers to the water tanks . The K1 prototype emerged from Ashford works as No . A890 , and underwent trials from 1 December 1925 before entering regular service . Only one locomotive of the K1 class was built ; plans to build a further ten ( Nos. A891 @-@ A900 ) alongside a batch of five N1 class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s were cancelled after the Sevenoaks accident in August 1927 . Following rebuilding as a 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender locomotive in 1928 , No . A890 was reclassified U1 and was the forerunner of twenty more basically similar locomotives built in 1931 .
= = = K and K1 class construction history = = =
= = = Naming the locomotives = = =
For details of K and K1 class locomotive names , see : List of SECR K and SR K1 class locomotives
The K class prototype operated without a name until 1925 , when the Southern Railway 's publicity department decided to name all express passenger locomotives . The locomotives constructed from 1925 were named after rivers found within the Southern Railway 's operating area , and the class became known collectively as the River class . The first @-@ completed Southern Railway K class No . A791 was named River Adur whilst the former SECR prototype was given the name River Avon ; names were also allocated to the cancelled 1926 batch of locomotives . The K1 class locomotive No . A890 was named River Frome . The names were displayed on a rectangular brass nameplate fitted to the water tank sides .
= = Operational details = =
The K class was intended to haul the SECR 's Kent expresses , and was trialled between Charing Cross , Tonbridge , Canterbury East and Folkestone East . A trial non @-@ stop run between Cannon Street and Folkestone Harbour by No. 790 pulling a train of 300 long tons ( 305 t ) had proved the water capacity of the side tanks to be insufficient for such runs . No. 790 was also tested on fast Cannon Street , Redhill and Tonbridge trains during the spring of 1922 , although rough riding between the latter two stations meant slower speeds over that part of route on subsequent runs .
The Southern Railway 's motive power re @-@ organisation following the Grouping of 1923 expanded the class for operations over the Central section . The Westinghouse @-@ fitted Armstrong Whitworth batch was used on the air @-@ braked Eastbourne and Brighton expresses and regular passenger service trains to Portsmouth . The vacuum @-@ braked Brighton batch was run @-@ in on the Portsmouth route in preparation for operating the Redhill – Reading line , the class regularly hauling the daily Birkenhead – Dover through train . The K1 was mainly rostered to haul the early evening express from Cannon Street to Dover Marine .
= = = Performance of the tank locomotives = = =
The K class proved successful on well @-@ maintained track . It was capable of high speeds on express passenger duties , although their use was limited by the lower storage capacity of tank locomotives , which meant the K and K1 classes were prone to water shortages on the long Kent Coast routes , and precluded them from working many of the former London and South Western Railway ( LSWR ) routes west of London . The need to save weight meant that compromises were made in some aspects of the design . The boiler size was constrained by the SECR ’ s axle @-@ loading restrictions , with the result that the design ’ s full steaming potential was not realised . The failure to capitalise upon a larger boiler would also affect Maunsell ’ s subsequent 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 classes , as they were given the same boiler despite their lower axle @-@ loadings .
On the Southern Railway 's Central and Eastern sections , crews complained that the locomotives rolled heavily and unpredictably on the cheaply laid track of the former SECR and LBSCR networks , leading to their nickname , " Rolling Rivers " . The rolling was in part caused by the type of coil suspension and steadying springs used on the Bissel truck and bogie axles , which caused adverse springing on poor track . These were modified in later batches , with limited success . The rough @-@ riding was also attributed to the frames , which were of insubstantial construction to save weight . The bracing proved incapable of counteracting the stresses applied to the frames when travelling at speed and caused excessive vibration on the footplate at higher outputs .
The K1 prototype was slightly faster and more powerful than the K class , and gave a smoother ride at low speeds . It was also found to have a wider route availability due to the smaller outside cylinders . However , the Holcroft valve gear proved to be difficult to maintain in everyday service . This locomotive was also noted for particularly poor riding characteristics at high speed , derailing twice in 1927 . The first derailment occurred at Borough Green & Wrotham , near Maidstone on 31 March , when the flanges of the lead coupled wheel mounted the rails at 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) . The second derailment was at Bearsted on 20 August , when the lead driving wheel mounted and completely dropped off the rails at 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , derailing the train and causing serious damage to the track . These derailments were attributed to the slightly higher centre of gravity of the boiler on the K1 . Although the official reports of these accidents blamed the poor quality of the track , a group of directors sought to have both classes banned from use on passenger services , but were overruled by the Southern Railway 's Chairman of the Board of Directors , Everard Baring on grounds of cost .
= = = Accidents and incidents = = =
In March 1927 , locomotive No. 890 River Frome was hauling a train which derailed at Wrotham , Kent .
On 2 August 1927 , Locomotive No. 800 River Cray was derailed at Maidstone , Kent .
On 20 August 1927 , locomotive No. 890 River Frome was hauling a passenger train which was derailed at Bearsted , Kent . The cause was attributed to track defects . The locomotive was repaired and re @-@ entered service on 23 August . It was involved in a serious accident the next day .
= = = = Sevenoaks disaster = = = =
The K and K1 classes suffered from stability problems when travelling at speed over points and curves . The locomotive would initially roll ( briefly lean heavily ) to one side , followed by several further rolls of gradually reducing amplitude , combined with a side @-@ slipping movement that caused the driving wheels to mount the rails . Several minor derailments of members of the class were followed by the serious derailment of No . A800 River Cray at Sevenoaks , Kent , in August 1927 , caused by a combination of a surge in the water tanks and the flanges of the locomotive 's lead driving wheels mounting the rail at speed due to poor quality track @-@ work . The locomotive was hauling a Cannon Street to Deal express with a Pullman carriage when the leading driving wheels derailed at 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) over catch points in a cutting . Several carriages were flung against a road bridge , injuring 40 and killing 13 passengers .
In the days following the accident , two K and K1 class engines were trialled on the London and North Eastern Railway 's ( LNER ) Great Northern mainline under the supervision of that company 's CME , Nigel Gresley , to gain an unbiased review of their riding qualities . Locomotives No . A803 ( K ) and No . A890 ( K1 ) , and King Arthur class No . E782 , were tested on the well @-@ maintained LNER line between Huntingdon and St. Neots in October 1927 , where few problems were found with locomotive stability . On runs between Kings Cross and Potters Bar with the LNER 's dynamometer car , No . A890 was recorded at a top speed of 83 miles per hour ( 134 km / h ) and A803 at 79 miles per hour ( 127 km / h ) , with no problems in riding . When these engines returned from the LNER , the Southern Railway 's General Manager , Sir Herbert Walker ordered further trials to be led by Sir John Aspinall on the Western section main line near Woking . These were terminated by the Southern Railway 's Operating Department , as the riding of the locomotives at speeds near 80 miles per hour ( 130 km / h ) rendered the locomotives unsafe . The instability of No . A890 at speed was attributed to the helical springs on the Bissel truck and bogie .
The 1928 accident inquiry did not attach blame to the Southern Railway for track maintenance or locomotive performance issues , and noted that the prototype had run for eight years over the same stretch of line without complaint . However , it identified the Brighton batch and No . A890 as being more susceptible to rolling on sharp curves with weak rail joints , although the entire class operated without incident on the former LBSCR network . The management of the Southern Railway realised that to have any success in operating the K class tanks on other parts of the network , vast stretches of track would require upgrading . With the prospect of storing 20 locomotives whilst the necessary upgrading took place , the management recommended the class be fully withdrawn from service . To recoup the expense of constructing the engines , Maunsell was given permission to rebuild them to the new SR U class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 tender engine design in 1928 . This decision also reduced the adverse publicity generated by the accident . However , many of the components discarded during the rebuilding process would later be re @-@ used on another 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotive designed to haul heavy freight on short trips : the 3 @-@ cylinder W class of 1932 .
= = Rebuilding = =
The rebuilding of the class as tender locomotives was cheaper than relaying track , particularly as in most respects the class had performed well . Rebuilding took place at Ashford , Brighton and Eastleigh railway works between March and December 1928 , where the water tanks , rear bogie and coal bunker were removed . The straight @-@ sided 3 @,@ 500 @-@ imperial @-@ gallon ( 15 @,@ 900 l ) variant of Maunsell tender was attached , allowing a greater operational range for the locomotives . The rear bogies were later used on the SR W class 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4 tank locomotives ( the only subsequent use of this wheel arrangement by the Southern Railway , and their use was restricted to freight operations around London ) . The solitary K1 class locomotive was rebuilt in June 1928 , and so became the three @-@ cylinder prototype of the SR U1 class . The Holcroft valve gear was later replaced with a third set of Walschaerts valve gear in February 1932 , thus reducing maintenance . None of the rebuilds retained their names .
= = = Performance of the rebuilt locomotives and withdrawal = = =
As members of the U and U1 classes , rebuilds were used mainly on mixed @-@ traffic as well as secondary passenger duties on lines between the main routes . They were used all over the Southern Railway network , but were little @-@ used over the steep track gradients west of Exeter . The smaller @-@ wheeled N class was preferred amongst crews for the same duties , as high @-@ speed running was rare away from the main lines in the West Country . Heavier passenger work was allocated to Bulleid 's Unrebuilt Light Pacifics , which were within weight restrictions in this area . The 21 rebuilt locomotives entered British Railways service in 1948 . From 1955 a few were given replacement frames at overhaul : these had a shallower curve between the front buffer beam and the smokebox .
Withdrawals took place between 1962 and 1966 , by which time many of the rebuilds were based at Guildford shed . Work was taken over by Oliver Bulleid 's Light Pacifics , and the electrification of much of the former Southern Railway network was imminent , making all the 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0s surplus to requirements from 1963 . The final rebuild was withdrawn from service in June 1966 .
= = Livery and numbering = =
= = = SECR and Southern Railway = = =
The K class prototype was painted in an unlined dark grey livery with white lettering and numbering . This Maunsell grey livery was introduced by the SECR as a wartime economy measure . On Grouping in 1923 , the SR replaced the liveries of the constituent companies with a standard sage green livery ( the colour being that previously used by Urie on the LSWR ) with black and white lining , primrose yellow numbering and " Southern " on the tender . From 1925 , the K and K1 classes were repainted in a darker olive green livery , introduced by Maunsell , with plain white lining and primrose yellow markings . When rebuilt into the U and U1 classes , the locomotives were repainted in the olive green livery with " Southern " added to the tender tank . This was carried into the Second World War when labour shortages meant that many U class locomotives were painted in plain black , with the result that by 1945 all the class were running in black .
The class prototype was initially numbered 790 , with the rest following consecutively with a prefix " A " to denote a locomotive designed for the former SECR . The system of prefixes had been adopted by the SR to distinguish between locomotives with identical numbers acquired from different companies , and the K1 class became No . A890 when built in 1925 . This system was replaced from 1928 by a renumbering of all locomotives into one sequence , in which the K class rebuilds became Nos. 1790 – 1809 , and the K1 class rebuild became No. 1890 .
= = = Rebuilds in British Railways service = = =
The K and K1 classes were absorbed by British Railways as part of the U and U1 classes in 1948 , which were given the BR power classification 4MT ( mixed @-@ traffic ) in 1950 . This was later revised to 4P3F in the light of operational experience on freight trains . The locomotives at first retained their Southern Railway livery , with " British Railways " added to the tender when repaints were due . From 1949 to 1955 , the U and U1 class locomotives were gradually repainted in the British Railways mixed @-@ traffic lined black livery with red , cream and grey lining and the British Railways crest on the tender . Numbers were changed to the British Railways standard numbering system : the series 31790 – 31809 was allocated to the K class rebuilds , and 3
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that they had infringed SAS 's copyright in part by implementing the same functionality . This case was referred from the United Kingdom 's High Court of Justice to the European Court of Justice on 11 August 2010 . In May 2012 , the European Court of Justice ruled in favor of World Programming , finding that " the functionality of a computer program and the programming language cannot be protected by copyright . "
A free version was introduced for students in 2010 . SAS Social Media Analytics , a tool for social media monitoring , engagement and sentiment analysis , was also released that year . SAS Rapid Predictive Modeler ( RPM ) , which creates basic analytical models using Microsoft Excel , was introduced that same year . JMP 9 in 2010 added a new interface for using the R programming language from JMP and an add @-@ in for Excel . The following year , a High Performance Computing appliance was made available in a partnership with Teradata and EMC Greenplum . In 2011 , the company released Enterprise Miner 7 @.@ 1 . The company introduced 27 data management products from October 2013 to October 2014 and updates to 160 others . At the 2015 SAS Global Forum , it announced several new products that were specialized for different industries , as well as new training software .
= = Software products = =
As of 2011 SAS 's largest set of products is its line for customer intelligence . Numerous SAS modules for web , social media and marketing analytics may be used to profile customers and prospects , predict their behaviors and manage and optimize communications . SAS also provides the SAS Fraud Framework . The framework 's primary functionality is to monitor transactions across different applications , networks and partners and use analytics to identify anomalies that are indicative of fraud . SAS Enterprise GRC ( Governance , Risk and Compliance ) provides risk modeling , scenario analysis and other functions in order to manage and visualize risk , compliance and corporate policies . There is also a SAS Enterprise Risk Management product @-@ set designed primarily for banks and financial services organizations .
SAS ' products for monitoring and managing the operations of IT systems are collectively referred to as SAS IT Management Solutions . SAS collects data from various IT assets on performance and utilization , then creates reports and analyses . SAS ' Performance Management products consolidate and provide graphical displays for key performance indicators ( KPIs ) at the employee , department and organizational level . The SAS Supply Chain Intelligence product suite is offered for supply chain needs , such as forecasting product demand , managing distribution and inventory and optimizing pricing . There is also a " SAS for Sustainability Management " set of software to forecast environmental , social and economic effects and identify causal relationships between operations and an impact on the environmental or ecosystem .
SAS has product sets for specific industries , such as government , retail , telecommunications and aerospace and for marketing optimization or high @-@ performance computing .
= = = Comparison to other products = = =
In a 2005 article for the Journal of Marriage and Family comparing statistical packages from SAS and its competitors Stata and SPSS , Alan C. Acock wrote that SAS programs provide " extraordinary range of data analysis and data management tasks , " but were difficult to use and learn . SPSS and Stata , meanwhile , were both easier to learn ( with better documentation ) but had less capable analytic abilities , though these could be expanded with paid ( in SPSS ) or free ( in Stata ) add @-@ ons . Acock concluded that SAS was best for power users , while occasional users would benefit most from SPSS and Stata . A comparison by the University of California , Los Angeles , gave similar results .
Competitors such as Revolution Analytics and Alpine Data Labs advertise their products as considerably cheaper than SAS ' . In a 2011 comparison , Doug Henschen of InformationWeek found that start @-@ up fees for the three are similar , though he admitted that the starting fees were not necessarily the best basis for comparison . SAS ' business model is not weighted as heavily on initial fees for its programs , instead focusing on revenue from annual subscription fees .
= = Adoption = =
According to IDC , SAS is the largest market @-@ share holder in " advanced analytics " with 35 @.@ 4 percent of the market as of 2013 . It is the fifth largest market @-@ share holder for business intelligence ( BI ) software with a 6 @.@ 9 % share and the largest independent vendor . It competes in the BI market against conglomerates , such as SAP BusinessObjects , IBM Cognos , SPSS Modeler , Oracle Hyperion , and Microsoft BI . SAS has been named in the Gartner Leader 's Quadrant for Data Integration Tools and for Business Intelligence and Analytical Platforms . A study published in 2011 in BMC Health Services Research found that SAS was used in 42 @.@ 6 percent of data analyses in health service research , based on a sample of 1 @,@ 139 articles drawn from three journals .
= The Voice Within =
" The Voice Within " is a song recorded by American singer Christina Aguilera for her fourth studio album , Stripped ( 2002 ) . The song was written by Aguilera and Glen Ballard , with production handled by Ballard . It is a piano @-@ driven ballad that talks about trusting oneself and one 's instincts . " The Voice Within " was released as the fifth and final single from Stripped on October 27 , 2003 by RCA Records .
Upon its release , " The Voice Within " received mainly positive reviews from music critics , who called it an inspirational ballad and praised Aguilera 's strong vocals on the track . Some likened the song to works by Celine Dion and Mariah Carey . Commercially , " The Voice Within " achieved moderate success on charts worldwide , peaking within the top ten of charts in several countries including Australia , Ireland , Switzerland and the United Kingdom , and it reached number 33 on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
An accompanying music video for " The Voice Within " was directed by David LaChapelle . It was filmed in black and white as a one shot . The video was nominated for three MTV Video Music Awards at the 2004 ceremony . In support of Stripped , Aguilera performed the track on her two major concert tours : Justified and Stripped Tour ( 2002 – 03 ) and The Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) . " The Voice Within " has been covered on several television talent shows .
= = Recording and composition = =
" The Voice Within " was written by Christina Aguilera and Glen Ballard , and was produced by Ballard . The track was recorded by Scott Campbell at The Record Plant in Hollywood , Los Angeles , California and at NRG Recording Studios in North Hollywood , LA , CA , while it was mixed by Peter Mokran . Bass was performed by Mike Elizondo , while Matt Chamberlain played drums . Ballard also played guitar with John Goux , and played keyboards with Randy Kerber . Musically , " The Voice Within " is a piano @-@ driven ballad . Composed in the key of G major , it has a moderately slow tempo of 66 beats per minute . Aguilera 's vocal range on the track spans from the low @-@ note of D3 to the high @-@ note of F ♯ 5 . Her vocals on the song were been described as strong and powerful by critics . Lyrically , " The Voice Within " is an inspirational song that says that one should trust one 's heart and own mind , and find inner strength . The motivational lyrics include , " When there 's no @-@ one else , look inside yourself , like your oldest friend just trust the voice within " . As recalled by Aguilera , " I wrote this song when I was 20 , 21 , and it was a time in my life when you 're being pushed and pulled in so many directions . "
= = Release and reception = =
" The Voice Within " was released to US contemporary hit and adult contemporary radio stations on October 27 , 2003 as the fifth and final single from Stripped by RCA Records . It was also available for Maxi single sales in stores .
= = = Critical = = =
Upon its release , " The Voice Within " received generally favorable reviews from music critics . Chuck Taylor of Billboard praised the " breathtaking and organically flowing " melody , noting that " Aguilera delivers what is perhaps her most assured vocal yet , punching through the clouds and taking her place as a fist @-@ shaking member of the heavenly choir . " Taylor also highlighted that the track " is an inspired recording and a showcase for all that this artist can accomplish when she lets the voice precede that offputting image . " Josh Kun from Spin labelled it a " swoony Celine @-@ for @-@ teens ballad " . Sal Cinquemani for Slant Magazine gave the song a very positive review , naming it an " inspirational " ballad and praised her powerful vocals . CD Universe also praised Aguilera 's " rich , throaty style " vocals on the track and compared the song to works by Mariah Carey . Sputnikmusic 's critic Amanda Murray commented that the song is " tacky " yet " powerful all the same " . Rachel McRady of Wetpaint complimented the song 's inspiration melody , declaring that it " basically reduces us to tears every time we hear it " .
= = = Commercial = = =
On November 29 , 2003 , " The Voice Within " made it chart debut on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart at number 62 , becoming the week 's " Hot Shot Debut " . On the chart issue dated December 6 , 2003 , the single jumped to number 57 . During the following week , the song rose to number 46 . In its fourth week charting , it charted at number 36 . Finally , it reached its peak at number 33 on January 10 , 2004 . The song became Aguilera 's eleventh top @-@ forty hit on the chart , and remained on the Hot 100 for a total of 16 weeks . It also charted at number 11 on the Pop Songs chart , number 16 on the Adult Contemporary chart , and number 33 on the Adult Pop Songs chart . The song reached number ten on the Canadian Hot 100 chart . Throughout Europe , " The Voice Within " achieved moderate success on charts , reaching the top ten on many of them . It was also a top @-@ ten song in Australia , peaking at number eight in the country , making the fifth single from the album to reach the top @-@ ten . In Switzerland , " The Voice Within " was Stripped 's highest charting @-@ single along with the lead @-@ single " Dirrty " , peaking at number three .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Music video = =
The song 's music video was directed by David LaChapelle , who previously directed the music videos for " Dirrty " ( 2002 ) and " Can 't Hold Us Down " ( 2003 ) . He explained to MTV News that the video 's concept , " There 's all kinds of connotations to the word ' stripped . ' I wanted to strip it down to one take . Just her and this incredible voice . And really not have anything that is going to overshadow that . She 's trying to grow as an artist and along the way she 's taking all kinds of risks and a lot of times people let those things overshadow her ability and her talent . I wanted to bring it all back as a sort of bookend to this album " . The video begins with a close @-@ up scene of Aguilera and zooms out to her wearing a slip and sitting in an abandoned prop room . In one continuous black and white shot , Aguilera walks through several rooms , exits the building , and finally lays on a light box . The video was filmed at a deserted theater in downtown Los Angeles . It was inspired by neorealist works . The video was nominated for three 2004 MTV Video Music Awards : Best Female Video , Viewer 's Choice , and Best Cinematography .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Aguilera performed " The Voice Within " for the first time during the Justified & Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) , a tour held in support of Aguilera 's Stripped and Justin Timberlake 's album Justified ( 2002 ) . During the tour 's late 2003 extension , The Stripped Tour , Aguilera also performed the track . The performance is included in the video release Stripped Live in the U.K. ( 2004 ) . Aguilera included the song on her setlist at a concert in Kuala Lumpur in 2014 . In 2016 , Aguilera also performed the track during her set at the 15th edition of Mawazine Festival .
On October 3 , 2005 , Roxane LeBrasse covered " The Voice Within " during the top nine show of the third season of Australian singing contest Australian Idol . Despite being well received by judges , she was eliminated that night . On March 28 , 2006 , Katharine McPhee performed the track live on the 24th show of the fifth season of American Idol , which resulted McPhee as one of the bottom two . Simon Cowell compared McPhee 's abilities to those of Aguilera , commenting that her performance was almost as good as the original singer . " The Voice Within " was also covered by Meliz Serman on the 2006 TV series How Do You Solve a Problem like Maria ? . In 2009 , British girl group The Nolans performed " The Voice Within " live during there I 'm in the Mood Again Tour , which was held to support their 2009 comeback album I 'm in the Mood Again .
Hong Kong singer G.E.M. recorded a cover version of the song , which is included in her album My Secret Limited Edition ( 2010 ) . The same year , " The Voice Within " was also performed by Jessica Robinson on Over the Rainbow . On May 26 , 2012 , contestant Ruth Brown performed the song live during the semi @-@ finals of the first season of The Voice UK , which left tears on her eyes . Brown revealed that the song was personal to her because she had a hard time at school . Judge Sir Tom Jones complimented her performance , " The story of the song means a lot to her , I think this girl is stronger than even she realises it herself " , " You didn ’ t just sing it , you lived it " . On June 8 , 2013 , eleven @-@ year @-@ old Ariksandra Libantino sang " The Voice Within " during the final round of the seventh series of Britain 's Got Talent . The song was also played during the first season of Ghost Whisperer on an episode entitled " The Vanishing " . Chris Mann and Jacquie Lee , both contestants and team members of Aguilera 's team on The Voice , performed the track during the second and fifth seasons , respectively .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording places
Recorded at The Record Plant in Hollywood , Los Angeles , California and NRG Recording Studios in North Hollywood , Los Angeles , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Stripped , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Priscilla Duffield =
Priscilla Duffield ( April 8 , 1918 – July 21 , 2009 ) worked on the Manhattan Project during World War II . She was secretary to Ernest O. Lawrence at the Radiation Laboratory , and to J. Robert Oppenheimer at the Los Alamos Laboratory . After the war she was executive assistant to directors of Scripps Institute of Oceanography and the National Accelerator Laboratory .
A graduate of the University of California , from which she obtained a degree in political science , Priscilla Greene started working for Lawrence in February 1942 , and then for Oppenheimer later that year . She arrived in Santa Fe , New Mexico , on March 1943 , and established the Los Alamos Laboratory 's office . She became the office manager at Los Alamos , greeting visitors , answering the telephone , making travel arrangements , arranging security passes and accommodation , and taking notes of telephone calls . In September 1943 , she married Robert Duffield , a chemist working at the Los Alamos laboratory , and changed her surname from Greene to Duffield .
In the post @-@ war years , Duffield was secretary and executive assistant to Roger Revelle , the director of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . In November 1967 , she became secretary and executive assistant to Robert R. Wilson , the founding director of the National Accelerator Laboratory , and once again she helped establish a new scientific laboratory on a new site . In later life she moved to Colorado , where she served on the board of the Uncompahgre Medical Clinic .
= = Early life = =
Priscilla Greene was born in Berkeley , California , on April 8 , 1918 , and grew up in Corning , California . She entered the University of California , from which she obtained a degree in political science . After graduation , she studied and travelled in New York and Europe before returning to Berkeley , where she got a job as secretary to Ernest O. Lawrence , the director of the Radiation Laboratory at the University of California , in February 1942 , replacing Helen Griggs , who had left to marry Glenn Seaborg .
= = Manhattan Project = =
When J. Robert Oppenheimer began working on the nuclear weapon design for the Manhattan Project during World War II , Lawrence loaned Greene part @-@ time to take dictation and do general secretarial work for Oppenheimer , while still working full @-@ time for himself . " When Robert returned from travel and told me that he had just been to a beautiful place , all I could say is , ' take me too ! ' " she later recalled . Lawrence reluctantly let her go . She immediately started working for Oppenheimer full @-@ time , taking over the disused office of a physics professor who was absent on leave in November 1942 .
Greene arrived in Santa Fe , New Mexico , on March 18 , 1943 with Oppenheimer 's son Peter and his nurse . She found Los Alamos , New Mexico , " a pretty appalling place . It was windy , dusty , cold , snowy ... and nothing was finished . " " Everything was put together amazingly fast ... ( but ) it was nothing spectacular . There were unfinished buildings , mud and trucks everywhere . " Since there was no telephone line to Los Alamos , the office was initially established at 109 East Palace in Santa Fe . There was no purchasing system in place either , so she bought a typewriter in Santa Fe with her own money . She would spend the rest of the war trying to get reimbursed for it .
When the office moved to Los Alamos , Greene became the office manager , greeting visitors and answering the telephone . She would listen in on all of Oppenheimer 's calls and take notes , except when the director of the Manhattan Project , Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , told her to get off the line . She typed Oppenheimer 's correspondence . Numerous typed documents would end with " JRO : pg " . She handled travel arrangements , security passes and accommodation . Alex Wellersten noted that :
While Oppenheimer gets much credit for keeping the entire bomb project in his head , it was actually Greene who managed the director ’ s office and kept it organized ; it was Greene who took notes on phone conversations and managed the correspondence with far @-@ flung sites ; it was Greene who helped Oppenheimer , a man who had never managed anything in his life , stay on top of the innumerable tasks assigned to him .
Greene married Robert Duffield , a chemist working on the project , in a ceremony at Dorothy McKibbin 's house on September 5 , 1943 . McKibben had a local judge conduct the ceremony , but due to the project 's security , he was not allowed to know the surnames of the couple . Nor was any family allowed to attend , although Greene 's brother DeMotte , whom she had recruited to work on the project as a technician , was on hand to give the bride away , and guests included Robert Serber , Robert R. Wilson , Harold Agnew and Katherine Oppenheimer . Three weeks later everyone assembled there again for the wedding of her bridesmaid , Marjorie Hall , to Hugh Bradner .
When Duffield became pregnant , she wanted to quit working , but the demands of the project were so great that Oppenheimer kept refusing her requests . He eventually recruited Anne Wilson from Groves 's office as her replacement .
= = Later life = =
After the war , Duffield became secretary and executive assistant to Roger Revelle , the director of the Scripps Institution of Oceanography . On November 6 , 1967 , she became secretary and executive assistant to Robert R. Wilson , the founding director of the National Accelerator Laboratory , and served in that capacity until December 31 , 1972 . Duffield likened this job to working for Oppenheimer at Los Alamos :
" There was the same close feeling of a group of people in a strange land , ... a group of people who were isolated from the rest of the world and trying to do something special . " Duffield said that moving to the Weston site evoked memories of the esprit de corps at Los Alamos , and " that did really make it a frontier . " She also recalled The feeling of independence and adventure in those early days on the Weston site . " We had a flagpole and a big fancy colorful tent was put alongside the house " As she explained , " It was a place to sit and have a meeting : but it also " was a symbol . " And at both labs , " everyone did sort of everything — there was a crisis every day . " Duffield emphasized : " Bob managed to give people the feeling of tremendous urgency , of getting the thing done and getting it done fast and getting it done cheap . " Later , secretary Barb ( Rozic ) Kristen recalled that many new employees considered it hard to know just what to do in those early days , but Duffield , unlike everyone else , knew exactly what was needed and how to get things done .
Duffield moved to Norwood , Colorado , where she served on the board of the Uncompahgre Medical Clinic . She died of natural causes at her home there on July 21 , 2009 . She was survived by her daughters Deborah and Libby . Her husband Robert died in 2000 .
= Hurricane John ( 1994 ) =
Hurricane John , also known as Typhoon John , formed during the 1994 Pacific hurricane season and became both the longest @-@ lasting and the farthest @-@ traveling tropical cyclone ever observed . John formed during the El Niño of 1994 – 95 and peaked as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale , the highest categorization for hurricanes .
Over the course of its existence , it followed a 7 @,@ 165 @-@ mile ( 13 @,@ 280 @-@ km ) path from the eastern Pacific to the western Pacific and back to the central Pacific , lasting 31 days in total . Because it existed in both the eastern and western Pacific , John was one of a small number of tropical cyclones to be designated as both a hurricane and a typhoon . Despite lasting for a full month , John barely affected land at all , bringing only minimal effects to the Hawaiian Islands and the United States military base on Johnston Atoll . Its remnants later affected Alaska .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane John were thought by the United States National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to be from a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on July 25 , 1994 . The wave subsequently moved across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean without distinction , before it crossed Central America and moved into the Eastern Pacific Ocean on or around August 8 . Upon entering the Eastern Pacific the wave gradually developed , before the NHC initiated advisories on the system and designated it as Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E during August 11 . The system was at this time moving westwards and located around 345 miles ( 555 km ) to the south @-@ southeast of Acapulco , Mexico . Conditions were not ideal for development , but it quickly developed banding features and well @-@ defined outflow , and was upgraded to a tropical storm and named John later that day .
A strong ridge of high pressure over the northeastern Pacific Ocean forced John westward , where upper level wind shear kept John a tropical storm . Intensity fluctuated considerably , however , as shear levels varied . More than once , shear cleared away most of the clouds above John and nearly caused it to weaken to a tropical depression . However , after eight days of slow westward movement across the Pacific Ocean , shear lessened greatly on August 19 , and John intensified significantly and was designated as a hurricane at 1700 PDT . During an eighteen @-@ hour period between August 19 and August 20 , John further strengthened from a weak Category 1 hurricane to a major Category 3 hurricane . Around 1100 PDT on August 20 , it crossed into the central Pacific , the first of three basin crosses John would make .
After entering the central Pacific , John left the area monitored by the NHC and was instead monitored by the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) . As it moved slowly westward , Hurricane John continued to strengthen considerably in an increasingly favorable environment well south of the Hawaiian Islands ; on 22 August John was designated a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale ( the highest classification for hurricanes ) and later that day ( by Hawaii Standard Time ) reached its peak winds of 175 miles per hour ( 280 km / h ) . Also on August 22 ( by Hawaii Standard Time ) , John made its closest approach to the Hawaiian Islands , 345 miles ( 500 km ) to the south . John had threatened to turn north and affect the islands days before , but the ridge of high pressure that typically shields the islands from hurricanes kept John on its southerly path . Nonetheless , heavy rains and wind from the outer bands of John affected the islands .
With the Hawaiian Islands behind it , John began a slow turn to the north , taking near @-@ direct aim at Johnston Atoll , a small group of islands populated only by a United States military base . The storm slowly weakened from its peak as a Category 5 hurricane in the face of increasing shear , dropping down to a Category 1 hurricane with 90 miles per hour ( 145 km / h ) maximum winds . On August 25 local time , John made its closest approach to the Johnston Atoll only 15 miles ( 24 km ) to the north . On Johnston Atoll , sustained winds were reported up to 60 miles per hour ( 95 km / h ) , the equivalent of a strong tropical storm , and gusts up to 75 miles per hour ( 120 km / h ) were recorded .
Clearing Johnston Atoll , John turned to the northwest and began strengthening again as shear decreased . On August 27 local time , John reached a secondary peak strength of 135 miles per hour ( 210 km / h ) , and shortly thereafter it crossed the International Date Line at approximately 22 ° N and came under the surveillance of the Guam branch of the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) . By crossing into the western Pacific , John also became a typhoon and was referred to as Typhoon John during its time in the western Pacific . Immediately after crossing the Date Line , John again weakened and its forward motion stalled . By September 1 , John had weakened to a tropical storm and was nearly motionless just west of the Date Line . There , John lingered for six days while performing a multi @-@ day counterclockwise loop . On September 7 , a trough moved into the area and quickly moved John to the northeast . John crossed the Date Line again on September 8 and reentered the central Pacific .
After reentering the central Pacific , John briefly reached a tertiary peak strength of 90 miles per hour ( 145 km / h ) , a strong Category 1 hurricane , well to the north of Midway Island . However , the trough was rapidly pulling apart John 's structure , and the cold waters of the northern central Pacific were not conducive to a tropical cyclone . On September 10 , the 120th advisory was released on the system , finally declaring John to have become extratropical approximately 1000 miles ( 1600 km ) south of Unalaska Island .
= = Forecasting difficulties = =
During John 's time in the Western North Pacific , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) had particular difficulty in forecasting and even estimating the strength of John . John weakened considerably after entering the Western North Pacific , and , before estimates were later revised , four consecutive advisories were issued that declared John a tropical depression . Each of these advisories called for imminent dissipation . As John persisted and did not dissipate as the JTWC had predicted , it was upgraded to a minimal tropical storm in the next advisory . At the same time , however , two separate ship reports indicated that John had sustained winds of at least 55 knots ( 100 km / h , 65 mph ) , far stronger than the advisory strength of 35 knots ( 65 km / h , 40 mph ) . John would go on to restrengthen into a strong Category 1 hurricane after reentering the Central North Pacific , defying all JTWC predictions . After later reanalysis , the JTWC raised the estimated wind speeds of John for every advisory from 1200 UTC September 1 to its final advisory exactly a week later by at least 5 knots ( 9 km / h , 6 mph ) and as much as 25 knots ( 46 km / h , 29 mph ) .
= = Records = =
Its 31 @-@ day existence made John the longest @-@ lasting tropical cyclone recorded in both the Pacific Ocean and worldwide , surpassing both Hurricane Tina 's previous record in the Pacific of 24 days in the 1992 season and the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane 's previous world record of 28 days in the 1899 Atlantic season . In addition , despite its slow movement throughout much of its path , John was the farthest @-@ traveling tropical cyclone in both Pacific Ocean and worldwide , with a distance traveled of 7 @,@ 165 miles ( 13 @,@ 280 km ) , out @-@ distancing previous record holders Hurricane Fico in the Pacific of 4 @,@ 700 miles ( 8 @,@ 700 km ) in the 1978 season and Hurricane Faith worldwide of 6 @,@ 850 miles ( 12 @,@ 700 km ) in the 1966 Atlantic season .
Pressure readings from John 's peak are not consistently available as the CPHC did not monitor pressures at the time , but Air Force Reserve aircraft did measure a surface pressure of 929 mbar ( hPa ) , making John one of the most intense hurricanes recorded in the central Pacific ; both Hurricane Emilia and Hurricane Gilma recorded a lower pressure in the central Pacific earlier in the 1994 season , but with lower wind speeds . ( Intensity is measured by minimum central pressure , which correlates with but is not directly linked to wind speeds ) . John was also only the fourth Category 5 hurricane recorded in the central Pacific ( the first was Hurricane Patsy in 1959 , the second was Hurricane Emilia and the third one was Hurricane Gilma , both earlier in 1994 ) , and possessed the highest recorded wind speed in a central Pacific hurricane , 175 mph ( 280 km / h ) . Since 1994 , only one Category 5 hurricane , Hurricane Ioke , has formed in or entered into the Central Pacific ; Ioke , like Emilia and Gilma , had a lower central pressure but lower wind speeds than John . However , John 's pressure record is incomplete ; the 929 mbar reading was only measured when the winds were 160 mph ; there is no pressure reading when it had winds of 175 mph , so it could have been stronger than Emilia , Gilma or Ioke . Also , John was the first hurricane formed in the eastern Pacific that become a typhoon , a feat only matched by Hurricane Genevieve in 2014 .
Additionally , John was only the fourth of seven tropical cyclones to exist in all three tropical cyclone basins in the Pacific Ocean . The others were Typhoon Georgette and hurricanes Enrique , Li , Dora , Jimena and Genevieve in 1986 , 1991 , earlier in 1994 , 1999 , 2003 and 2014 , respectively . Also , was the sixth of nine tropical cyclones to enter the central Pacific from the western Pacific . Typhoon June , hurricanes Patsy and Skip and tropical storms Virginia and Carmen in 1958 , 1959 , 1985 , 1968 and 1980 , respectively , had done so previously , and only Tropical Depression 17W , and tropical storms Wene and Omeka in 1996 , 2000 and 2010 , respectively , did so later . Finally , John was one of only six tropical cyclones to cross the Date Line twice , alongside Typhoon June , hurricanes Patsy and Skip , Tropical Storm Carmen and Tropical Depression 17W .
= = Impact = =
John affected both the Hawaiian Islands and Johnston Atoll , but only lightly . While John passed over 345 miles ( 550 km ) to the south of Hawaiʻi , the islands did experience strengthened trade winds and rough surf along the southeast- and south @-@ facing shores , and , as John moved westward , on west @-@ facing shores as well . The waves , ranging from 6 to 10 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) in height , flooded beach parks in Kailua @-@ Kona . Additionally , heavy rains on the Big Island of Hawaiʻi caused minor , localized flooding and some short @-@ term road closures . No deaths , injuries or significant damages were reported in Hawaiʻi .
Although John passed within 25 km ( 16 mi ) of Johnston Atoll , it had weakened greatly to a Category 1 system by closest approach . Prior to the storm 's arrival , waves between 20 and 30 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 and 9 @.@ 1 m ) were reported on the island . Additionally , in the Northern Hemisphere , the strongest winds and heaviest rain lie to the north of a tropical cyclone , so the atoll , which lay to the south of the storm 's path , was spared the brunt of the storm . Nonetheless , the 1 @,@ 100 @-@ man personnel for the United States military base on Johnston Atoll had been evacuated to Honolulu as a precaution while John approached . Damage to structures was considerable , but the size of the island and relative functionality of the base led to low damage ; monetary losses were estimated at close to $ 15 million ( 1994 US $ ) .
The remnants of John moved through the Aleutian Islands , producing a wind gust of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) in Unalaska . The storm brought a plume of warm air , and two stations recorded a high temperature of 66 ° F ( 19 ° C ) .
= Remixed & Revisited =
Remixed & Revisited is a remix album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released on November 24 , 2003 by Maverick Records and Warner Bros. Records . The album contains four songs , in remixed form , from her 2003 ninth studio album American Life and a previously unreleased song , " Your Honesty , " originally written for her 1994 sixth studio album Bedtime Stories . The other tracks included are the live performance of " Like a Virgin " and " Hollywood " on the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards — which ended with Madonna kissing co @-@ performers Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera — and a remix of 1985 single " Into the Groove " . The release peaked at number 115 on the Billboard 200 in the United States . It received mixed reviews from critics ; " Your Honesty " was generally the only song to receive praise . The remix album also marked the closing release under her contract with Maverick Records .
= = Conception = =
In 2003 , Madonna planned to release a special commemorative box set to celebrate her twentieth anniversary in the music business and the release of her first studio album , Madonna , in 1983 . The plan for the box set was eventually cancelled and Remixed & Revisited was conceived in its place . The compilation contains remixed versions of four songs from American Life and a previously unreleased song called " Your Honesty " ; co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Dallas Austin , the track is from Madonna 's sixth studio album Bedtime Stories era ( 1994 ) . " Nobody Knows Me " was remixed by performance artist Mount Sims , Headcleanr mixed " American Life " and " Love Profusion " . DJ Jason Nevins remixed " Nothing Fails " , while " Into the Hollywood Groove " was created by The Passengerz . On December 9 , 2003 , Warner Music France released a box set version containing both the remix collection and the original album American Life in a cardboard sleeve entitled Édition Spéciale 2CDs : American Life + Remixed & Revisited .
= = = 2003 MTV VMA performance = = =
The medley track " Like a Virgin / Hollywood " was performed during the opening of the 2003 MTV Video Music Awards on August 27 , 2003 , where Madonna was joined by Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera , and Missy Elliott . The performance started with Spears appearing on stage on top of a giant wedding cake while wearing a wedding gown and veil ; she sang the first few lines of " Like a Virgin " before Aguilera appeared from behind the cake and joined her . Madonna then emerged from the cake wearing a black coat and a hat and started singing " Hollywood " before proceeding to kiss Spears and Aguilera on the lips . Missy Elliott came out from a wedding chapel to sing her song " Work It " halfway through the performance . The kiss generated strong reaction from the media . Feminist author Camille Paglia described the moment as great ; she noted that the kiss was like Madonna saying to Spears , " I 'm passing the torch to you . " However , according to her , Spears could not take advantage of the kiss as later her career and lifestyle came under immense media scrutiny and criticism . Paglia said that " literally from that kiss , from that moment onward , Britney has spiraled out of control . It ’ s like Madonna gave her the kiss of death ! " Madonna commented on the kiss ; " I am the mommy pop star and she is the baby pop star . And I am kissing her to pass my energy on to her . " This performance was listed by Blender magazine as one of the twenty @-@ five sexiest music moments on television history . MTV listed the performance as the number @-@ one opening moments in the history of MTV Video Music Awards .
= = Commercial reception = =
In the United States , Remixed & Revisited debuted at number 115 on the Billboard 200 , selling 22 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It also debuted and peaked at number 128 on the Top Comprehensive Albums chart . According to Nielsen SoundScan , the EP has sold 114 @,@ 000 copies as of August 2005 in the United States . The Nevins ' mix of " Nothing Fails " charted on the Canadian Singles Chart at seven and topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart . It also debuted on the album charts of Belgium , in Flanders and Wallonia , and Switzerland . The album charted in Italy as a song , reaching a peak of number two . It also charted in Finland and Denmark as an EP on the singles charts .
= = Critical response = =
Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic felt that the presence of a " strong hook and a strong sense of fun " was missing from the compilation , except for the song " Your Honesty " , which he declared as the best track despite feeling its beats to be a little outdated . He compared the work of the remixers as " as subtle as a jackhammer , whether it 's on the metallic @-@ flaked " American Life " by Headcleanr or the ' 90s @-@ retro Nevins mix of " Nothing Fails " . On all these mixes , Madonna sounds as if she 's out of step with the music of 2003 " . Erlewine also compared Spears ' vocals with that of Madonna 's during her early days and Aguilera 's with that of Cher 's . Nathan Brackett of Rolling Stone commented that the release " improves upon American Life 's standout single " Love Profusion " , but the rest botches an opportunity to revive interest on its parent album " . Fabian from Daily Breeze commented that Remixed & Revisited " is an amusing collection of novelties . " Sarah Crompton from Boston Herald proclaimed the album to be " more fun than her full @-@ length 2003 offering American Life . " The Malay Mail said that the remixes from the album are for " true blue Madonna fans . "
A writer for The Miami Herald was negative towards the release saying that " Madonna 's latest misstep is this pointless Remixed & Revisited seven @-@ track EP in which she tries to resell five songs from her recent American Life CD to an audience who deserve far better efforts from the queen , than this . " Ricardo Baca from The Denver Post compared Madonna to actress Drew Barrymore on the cover of the EP , feeling that the singer looked foolish and that the tracks were weal attempts at " spicing up " the already non @-@ commercial songs from American Life . Kevin C. Johnson from St. Louis Post @-@ Dispatch said that with the remixes , Madonna " put some life " back into the songs of American Life , complementing " Your Honesty " and wondering why it was left from the Bedtime Stories sessions . Keith Caulfield of Billboard was impressed with " Your Honesty " and the remixes of " Love Profusion " and " Nobody Knows Me " . He said , " Die @-@ hard fans , even those unenamored of American Life will dig this EP . " In his book The Essential Rock Discography , Martin Charles Strong called the release as " equally dispensable as its parent album " .
= = Track listing = =
Additional notes
^ a signifies an additional producer
^ b signifies a remixer and additional producer
^ c signifies a co @-@ producer
^ d signifies an editor
^ e signifies an remixer
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits and personnel as per Remixed & Revisited Allmusic credits .
= = Charts = =
= Telopea truncata =
Telopea truncata , commonly known as the Tasmanian waratah , is a plant in the family Proteaceae . It is endemic to Tasmania where it is found on moist acidic soils at altitudes of 600 to 1200 m ( 2000 – 4000 ft ) . Telopea truncata is a component of alpine eucalypt forest , rainforest and scrub communities . It grows as a multistemmed shrub to a height of 3 metres ( 10 ft ) , or occasionally as a small tree to 10 m ( 35 ft ) high , with red flower heads , known as inflorescences , appearing over the Tasmanian summer ( November to February ) and bearing 10 to 35 individual flowers . Yellow @-@ flowered forms are occasionally seen , but do not form a population distinct from the rest of the species .
Collected by French botanist Jacques Labillardière in 1792 – 93 , Telopea truncata was first scientifically described in 1805 . Genetic analysis revealed that the Tasmanian waratah is the most distinctive of the five waratah species . It can be cultivated in temperate climates , requiring soils with good drainage and ample moisture in part @-@ shaded or sunny positions . Several commercially available cultivars that are hybrids of T. truncata with the New South Wales waratah ( T. speciosissima ) and Gippsland waratah ( T. oreades ) have been developed .
= = Description = =
The Tasmanian waratah is a large erect shrub up to 3 metres ( 10 ft ) in height with several stems , although it sometimes grows as a single @-@ stemmed tree to 10 m ( 35 ft ) high . Unlike the New South Wales waratah ( T. speciosissima ) , which has a few stems topped with flowers , the stems of the Tasmanian waratah branch freely , with numerous smaller branches topped with flower heads . Younger branches and flower heads frequently have a coating of brownish hairs . The narrow adult leaves are 3 – 14 cm ( 1 1 ⁄ 8 – 5 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long and 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 2 cm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 7 ⁄ 8 in ) across and have a rough texture . Spathulate ( spoon @-@ shaped ) to obovate in shape , they have smooth , slightly down @-@ curved margins . The undersurface of the leaves is hairy . Occasional lobed leaves are seen .
Flowering occurs from October to January , and is related to altitude : plants at lower elevations flower earlier than ones higher up . The flower heads , known as inflorescences , are terminal — that is , they arise on the ends of small branches — and are surrounded by small inconspicuous hairy bracts . This sets T. truncata apart from all other waratah species , which have hairless bracts . In the shape of a flattened raceme , the flower heads are 3 @.@ 5 – 6 cm ( 1 3 ⁄ 8 – 2 3 ⁄ 8 in ) in diameter and composed of 10 to 35 individual flowers . They are most commonly bright red , though scattered yellow @-@ flowered plants occur . These were described as forma lutea but are mere colour variations and not genetically distinct . Yellow @-@ flowered plants have both red- and yellow @-@ flowered progeny . Anthesis is basipetal ; that is , the flowers at the base ( edges ) of the flower head open first . The flower is composed of a 2 cm @-@ long perianth on a 1 cm @-@ long stalk , with a pronounced kink in the style above the ovary ; all other waratah species have gently incurving styles . Anatomically , the individual flower bears a sessile anther ( that is , it lacks a filament ) , which lies next to the stigma at the end of the style . The ovary lies at the base of the style and atop a stalk known as the gynophore , and it is from here that the seed pod then develops . Meanwhile , a crescent @-@ shaped nectary lies at the base of the gynophore .
After flowering , the curved leathery to woody follicles develop . Hanging downwards on wooden stalks , these are roughly oblong in shape , and measure around 5 cm ( 2 in ) long . They split longitudinally to release the winged seeds , which are ripe around March . There are around 16 seeds , which are arranged in two rows . Wooden structures known as lamellae separate the seeds from each other and the follicle walls .
= = Taxonomy and evolution = =
While exploring Van Diemen 's Land ( Tasmania ) in 1792 – 3 , French botanist Jacques Labillardière collected specimens of what he later formally described as Embothrium truncatum in his 1805 work Novae Hollandiae Plantarum Specimen . The specific epithet is the Latin adjective truncatus , meaning " truncated " or " ending abruptly " , referring to the end of the seed wing . This characteristic is not specific to the Tasmanian waratah ; all members of the subtribe Embothriinae have truncate seed wings . Embothrium was a wastebasket taxon at the time , and Robert Brown proposed placing the species in a new genus , Telopea , in a talk he gave in 1809 , publishing the new name Telopea truncata in 1810 . Richard Salisbury had attended the talk and controversially published the species as Hylogyne australis , or southern hylogyne , in Joseph Knight 's 1809 book On the cultivation of the plants belonging to the natural order of Proteeae , thus claiming precedence over Brown 's formal 1810 description . Salisbury was involved in disputes with several prominent naturalists of the time , and his preemption of Brown was seen as unethical , so his names were largely ignored by his contemporaries in favor of Brown 's .
James Ross described a new species of waratah , Telopea tasmaniana , in his Hobart Town Almanack in 1835 , but it is now considered a synonym of T. truncata . In 1891 , German botanist Otto Kuntze published Revisio generum plantarum , his response to what he perceived as a lack of method in existing nomenclatural practice . He revived the genus Hylogyne on the grounds of priority , and correctly made the new combination Hylogyne truncata for T. truncata . However , Kuntze 's revisionary program was not accepted by the majority of botanists . Ultimately , the genus Telopea was nomenclaturally conserved over Hylogyne by the International Botanical Congress of 1905 .
Telopea truncata is one , and possibly the most distinctive , of five species from southeastern Australia which make up the genus Telopea . It is the earliest offshoot of a lineage that gives rise to the Gippsland waratah ( T. oreades ) and Monga waratah ( T. mongaensis ) of southeastern mainland Australia . The perianths of T. truncata are of a single shade of red , whereas those of its mainland relatives are coloured with two distinct shades of red — the surfaces facing the centre of the flower head are a much brighter red than those facing away .
The genus is classified in the subtribe Embothriinae of the Proteaceae , along with the tree waratahs ( Alloxylon ) from eastern Australia and New Caledonia , and the South American genera Oreocallis and Embothrium . Almost all of these species have red terminal flowers , and hence the subtribe 's origin and floral appearance most likely pre @-@ dated the splitting of Gondwana into Australia , Antarctica , and South America over 60 million years ago . Propylipollis ambiguus ( formerly Triporopollenites ambiguus ) is the oldest identifiable member of the Embothriinae . It is known only from pollen deposits , and was originally described from Eocene deposits in Victoria . The fossil pollen closely resembles that of T. truncata , Alloxylon pinnatum and Oreocallis grandiflora . Fossil remains of Telopea truncata have been recovered from early to middle Pleistocene strata at Regatta Point in western Tasmania . The leaves are small , and these beds housed a subalpine plant community in what is now lowland terrain . Leaves identical to ( and classified as ) Telopea truncata have been recovered from early Oligocene deposits around Lake Cethana near Sheffield .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The species is found in central , southern , and western Tasmania and is absent from warmer , dryer areas . It grows on moist acidic soils in wet sclerophyll forest or subalpine scrub at altitudes of 600 to 1200 m ( 2000 – 4000 ft ) . It is an understory component of subalpine forest stands of alpine ash ( Eucalyptus delegatensis ) and alpine yellow gum ( E. subcrenulata ) , as well as Athrotaxis selaginoides – Nothofagus gunnii short rainforest , Athrotaxis selaginoides rainforest , Leptospermum @-@ with @-@ rainforest scrub , the tall Nothofagus – Atherosperma rainforest and Nothofagus – Phyllocladus short rainforest . It is occasionally found in the Leptospermum scoparium – Acacia mucronata forest community of western Tasmania .
= = Ecology = =
The prominent position and striking colour of the flowers of T. truncata and many of its relatives within the subtribe Embothriinae in both Australia and South America strongly suggest it is adapted to pollination by birds , and has been for over 60 million years . The flower heads produce abundant nectar , which is fed upon by many bird species . The Tasmanian waratah has a swollen woody base largely under the soil known as a lignotuber , which stores energy and nutrients as a resource for rapid growth after a bushfire .
Like most Proteaceae , T. truncata has fine proteoid roots that arise from larger roots . These are roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . They are particularly efficient at absorbing nutrients from nutrient @-@ poor soils , including the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia . Waratah seeds are often eaten — and destroyed — by animals and do not travel far ( just several metres ) from the parent plants .
= = Cultivation = =
The flowers of the Tasmanian waratah provide ample nectar and hence are a food source for bird visitors to the garden . The species can be propagated by seed , though seedlings may succumb to damping off . Growing in a natural shady location delays flowering by two to four weeks , while growing in a cooler conditions ( due either to latitude or altitude ) can delay flowering by up to six weeks . Pruning flower heads can promote subsequent growth of leaves and branches . It grows best in a cool climate with ample water and good drainage , and has done well in cultivation in England . The Royal Horticultural Society gave it an Award of
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, Jewish homes and businesses attacked and destroyed , thousands of Jews were arrested , and some Jews were stoned or beaten to death . Reports from Germany of these events affected Tippett profoundly , and became the inspiration for his first large @-@ scale dramatic work .
= = Creation = =
= = = Libretto = = =
Having found his subject , Tippett sought advice on the preparation of the text from T. S. Eliot , whom he had met recently through a mutual friend , Francis Morley . The musicologist Michael Steinberg comments that , given his anti @-@ Semitism , Eliot may have been an inappropriate choice of collaborator , though Tippett considered the poet his spiritual and artistic mentor , and felt that his counsel would be crucial . Tippett writes : " I plucked up courage and asked him if he would write it . Eliot said he would consider the matter as long as I provided him with a precise scheme of musical sections and an exact indication of the numbers and kinds of words for each stage " . When Tippett produced his detailed draft , Eliot advised the composer to write his own libretto , suggesting that his own superior poetry would either distract attention from the music , or otherwise would be " swallowed up by it " . Either way , there would be a mismatch . Tippett accepted this advice ; henceforth , he records , he always wrote his own texts .
Tippett resolved that his work would be an oratorio rather than an opera . He chose the title from Ein Kind unserer Zeit , a contemporary protest novel by the Austro @-@ Hungarian writer , Ödön von Horváth . The text that Tippett prepared follows the three @-@ part structure used in Handel 's Messiah , in which Part I is prophetic and preparatory , Part II narrative and epic , Part III meditative and metaphysical . In A Child of Our Time the general condition of oppression is defined in the first part , the narrative elements are confined to the second part , while the third part contains interpretation and reflection on a possible healing . Tippett perceived the work as a general depiction of man 's inhumanity to man , and wanted Grynszpan 's tragedy to stand for the oppressed everywhere . To preserve the universality of the work , Tippett avoids all use of proper names for people and places : thus , Paris is " a great city " , Grynszpan becomes " the boy " , the soprano is " the boy 's mother " , vom Rath is " the official " .
Commentators have identified numerous works as textual influences , including Eliot 's Murder in the Cathedral and Ash Wednesday , Goethe 's Faust and Wilfred Owen 's poem " The Seed " . Tippett 's biographer Ian Kemp equates the ending of the oratorio to the closing pages of Part I of John Bunyan 's Pilgrim 's Progress , in which Christian and Hopeful end their journey by crossing a deep and wide river to reach their heavenly home . The influence of Jungian themes is evident in the recurrent images of darkness and light , and the recognition and balancing of opposites . In a recent analysis of the work , Richard Rodda finds A Child of Our Time " rooted in the essential dialectic of human life that Tippett so prized in Jung 's philosophy — winter / spring , darkness / light , evil / good , reason / pity , dreams / reality , loneliness / fellowship , the man of destiny / the child of our time ... "
= = = Composition = = =
Tippett completed his Jungian psychoanalysis on 31 August 1939 . Three days later , on the day that Britain declared war on Germany , he began composing A Child of Our Time . His grounding in the traditions of European music guided him instinctively towards the Passions of Bach as his basic musical model . Thus the building blocks of the work are familiar : recitatives , arias , choruses and ensembles , with a male soloist acting as a narrator and the chorus as full participants in the action . Tippett also introduced two other formal number types : the operatic scena and the orchestral interlude , the latter allowing time for reflection on significant events . Tippett wished to punctuate his work with an equivalent to the congregation chorales which recur in Bach 's Passions ; however , he wanted his work to speak to atheists , agnostics and Jews as well as to Christians . He considered briefly whether folk @-@ songs , or even Jewish hymns , could provide an alternative , but rejected these because he felt that , like the chorales , they lacked universality . A solution was suggested to him when he heard on the radio a rendering of the spiritual " Steal away " . In particular he was struck by the power of the words " The trumpet sounds within @-@ a my soul " . This led him to recognise spirituals as carrying an emotional significance far beyond their origin as slave songs in 19th @-@ century America and as representing the oppressed everywhere .
Having found his substitute for the chorales , Tippett wrote off to America for a collection of spirituals . When this arrived , " I saw that there was one for every key situation in the oratorio " . He chose five : " Steal Away " ; " Nobody Knows the Trouble I See , Lord " ; " Go Down , Moses " ; " O , By and By " ; and " Deep River " . The first , fourth and fifth of these are placed at the ends of the oratorio 's three parts , " Deep River " as the finale expressing , according to Tippett , the hope of a fresh spring after a long , dark winter . Kenneth Gloag , in his detailed analysis of the oratorio , writes : " As well as constructing the pathway through the dramatic narrative , the five spirituals also combine to provide moments of focus and repose ... giving shape to both the musical and literary dimensions of the work " . Tippett felt that the work encapsulated all his current political , moral and psychological preoccupations .
= = Synopsis and structure = =
According to Tippett 's description , " Part I of the work deals with the general state of oppression in our time . Part II presents the particular story of a young man 's attempt to seek justice by violence and the catastrophic consequences ; and Part III considers the moral to be drawn , if any . " He later extended his summary to the following :
Part I : The general state of affairs in the world today as it affects all individuals , minorities , classes or races that are felt to be outside the ruling conventions . Man at odds with his Shadow ( i.e. the dark side of personality ) .
Part II : The " Child of Our Time " appears , enmeshed in the drama of his personal fate and the elemental social forces of our day . The drama is because the forces which drive the young man prove stronger than the good advice of his uncle and aunt , as it always was and always will be .
Part III : The significance of this drama and the possible healing that would come from Man 's acceptance of his Shadow in relation to his Light .
= = Conscientious objector = =
After the outbreak of war in September 1939 , Tippett joined the Peace Pledge Union — with which he had been informally associated since 1935 — and applied for registration as a conscientious objector , although his case was not considered by the tribunal until February 1942 . In October 1940 he became director of music at Morley College , where the previous April he had conducted the South London Orchestra in the premiere of his Concerto for Double String Orchestra . After completing the composition of A Child of Our Time in 1941 , Tippett worked on other projects , feeling that the oratorio 's pacifist message was out of touch with the prevailing national mood . Walter Goehr , who conducted the Morley College orchestra , advised delaying its first performance until a more propitious time . In February 1942 Tippett was assigned by the tribunal to non @-@ combative military duties . Following his appeal , this was changed to service either with Air Raid Precautions ( ARP ) , with the fire service or on the land . He felt obliged to refuse these directions , and as a result was sentenced in June 1943 to three months ' imprisonment , of which he served two months before his early release for good behaviour .
= = Performance history and reception = =
= = = Premiere = = =
After his release from prison in August 1943 , with encouragement from Britten and the youthful music critic John Amis , Tippett began to make arrangements for the oratorio 's first performance . Goehr agreed to conduct , but overrode the composer 's initial view that Morley College 's orchestra could handle the work and insisted that professionals were needed . Tippett records that " somehow or other the money was scraped together to engage the London Philharmonic Orchestra " . Morley College Choir 's choral forces were augmented by the London Regional Civil Defence Choir . Britten 's connection with Sadler 's Wells Opera brought three soloists to the project : Joan Cross ( soprano ) , Peter Pears ( tenor ) , and Roderick Lloyd ( bass ) . The fourth singer , Margaret MacArthur ( alto ) , came from Morley College . The premiere was arranged for 19 March 1944 , at London 's Adelphi Theatre . Before this event Amis introduced the work in an article for the February 1944 issue of The Musical Times , in which he predicted a noteworthy musical occasion : " The general style of the oratorio is simple and direct , and the music will , I think , have an immediate effect on both audience and performers " .
Later writers would state that A Child of Our Time placed Tippett in the first rank of the composers of his generation , and most of the early reviews were favourable . Among these , The Times 's critic called the work " strikingly original in conception and execution " , and wrote that Tippett had succeeded quite remarkably in writing an effective tract for the times . A second Times review , written a few days after the premiere , suggested that the oratorio had articulated a key contemporary question : " How is the conflict of the inevitable with the intolerable to be resolved ? " It pointed to the hope expressed in the final spiritual , " Deep River " , and concluded that despite some weak passages the work created a successful partnership between art and philosophy . William Glock in The Observer was laudatory : " The most moving and important work by an English composer for many years " . Glock found that the spirituals suited the themes of the oratorio perfectly , and had been arranged " with a profound sense of beauty " .
In The Musical Times Edwin Evans praised Tippett 's text : " simple and direct ... he has wisely resisted any temptation to use quasi @-@ biblical or ' Pilgrim 's Progress ' language . " Evans was uncertain whether the music was truly reflective of the words : " ... the emotion seemed singularly cool under the provocations described in the text " . Unlike Glock , Evans was unconvinced by the case for the inclusion of the spirituals : " [ T ] he peculiar poignancy they have in their traditional form tends to evaporate in their new environment " . Eric Blom , in Music & Letters , thought the idea of using spirituals " brilliant " , and the analogy with Bach 's chorales convincing . Blom was less enthusiastic about the text , which he found " very terse and bald – rather poor , really " — though he thought this preferable to the pomposities such as those that characterise libretti written for Handel . In his autobiography , Tippett makes only muted references to the premiere , noting that the event " had some mixed reviews " , but in a letter to his friend Francesca Allinson he professed himself delighted with the breadth of response to the work : " It 's got over not only to the ordinary listeners but even to the intellectuals like [ Mátyás ] Seiber , who has written to me of some of the ' lovely texture of some of the numbers ' " .
= = = Early performances = = =
The generally positive reception of the premiere persuaded Arthur Bliss , then serving as the BBC 's director of music , to arrange a broadcast performance of the work . This took place on 10 January 1945 shortly after which , in February , Tippett conducted the work at the Royal Albert Hall . The radio broadcast had been heard by Howard Hartog , a music writer and publisher who just after the war was in Occupied Germany , attempting to re @-@ establish the North German Radio Symphony Orchestra in Hamburg . As part of this endeavour he decided to mount a performance of A Child of Our Time , with Hans Schmidt @-@ Isserstedt conducting . Because of his pacifism and record as a conscientious objector , Tippett was not allowed into the occupied zone and thus missed the performance . However , in 1947 he was able to travel to Budapest where his friend , the Hungarian composer Mátyás Seiber , had organised a performance by Hungarian Radio . The local singers ' problems with the English text meant that the work was sung in Hungarian , which Tippett , who conducted , described as " a very odd experience " .
In the early 1950s Tippett attended a performance of the oratorio at the Radio Hall in Brussels , after which members of the audience expressed to him their gratitude for the work which , they said , exactly represented their wartime experiences . In December 1952 he travelled to Turin for a radio performance , conducted by Herbert von Karajan and with operatic stars Elisabeth Schwarzkopf and Nicolai Gedda among the soloists . He records that during the rehearsals the bass soloist , Mario Petri , had problems singing his recitatives , and that despite some coaching from the composer , was still " at sea " during the performance . Karajan asked Tippett if he would object to an extra interval in Part II , to which Tippett replied that he would mind very much . Karajan nevertheless imposed the break , thus presenting a four @-@ part version of the work .
= = = Wider audience = = =
In May 1962 A Child of Our Time received its Israel premiere in Tel Aviv . Tippett says that this performance was delayed because for a while there were local objections to the word " Jesus " in the text . When it came about , among the audience was Herschel Grynszpan 's father who , Tippett wrote , was " manifestly touched by the work his son 's precipitate action 25 years earlier had inspired . " The performance , by the Kol Yisrael Orchestra with the Tel Aviv Chamber Choir , was acclaimed by the audience of 3000 , but received mixed reviews from the press . The Times report noted contrasting opinions from two leading Israeli newspapers . The correspondent for Haaretz had expressed disappointment : " Every tone is unoriginal , and the work repeats old effects in a most conventional manner " . Conversely , according to the Times report , HaBoker 's critic had " found that the composition had moved everyone to the depths of his soul ... no Jewish composer had ever written anything so sublime on the theme of the Holocaust . "
Despite its successes in Europe A Child of Our Time did not reach the United States until 1965 , when it was performed during the Aspen Music Festival , with the composer present . In his memoirs Tippett mentions another performance on that American tour , at a women 's college in Baltimore , in which the male chorus and soloists were black Catholic ordinands from a local seminary . The first significant American presentations of the work came a decade later : at Cleveland in 1977 where Prince Charles , who was visiting , delayed his departure so that he could attend , and at Carnegie Hall , New York , where Colin Davis conducted the Boston Symphony Orchestra and the Tanglewood Festival Chorus . Reviewing this performance for The New York Times , Donal Henahan was unconvinced that the work 's " sincerity and unimpeachable intentions add [ ed ] up to important music " . The spirituals were sung with passion and fervour , but the rest was " reminiscent of a familiar pious sermon " in which the words were only intermittently intelligible . Meanwhile , the work had achieved its African debut , where in 1975 Tippett observed a performance with an improvised orchestra which incorporated the Zambian Police Band . The Zambian president , Kenneth Kaunda , was present , and entertained the composer afterwards .
= = = Later performances = = =
In October 1999 , in the year following Tippett 's death , A Child of Our Time received a belated New York Philharmonic premiere , at the Avery Fisher Hall . The New York Times reviewer , Paul Griffiths , expressed some astonishment that this was the orchestra 's first attempt at the work . As part of the celebrations for the centenary of the composer 's birth in January 2005 , English National Opera staged a dramatised performance of the work , directed by Jonathan Kent — coincidentally , the first performance fell in the week of the 60th anniversary of the liberation of the death camps at Auschwitz . Anna Picard , writing in The Independent , recognised the work 's sincerity but found the dramatisation of its pacifist message wholly inappropriate : " Do we really need to see a dozen well @-@ fed actors and singers stripped and led into a smoking pit in order to understand the Holocaust ? " Anthony Holden in The Observer was more positive , commenting that " If you must stage a work intended for concert performance ... it is hard to imagine a more effective version than Kent 's , shot through with heavy symbolism of which Tippett would surely have approved . " Nevertheless , Holden found the overall result " super @-@ solemn , lurching between the over @-@ literalistic and the portentous " . The 2005 Holocaust Days of Remembrance ( 1 – 8 May ) were marked at the Kennedy Center in Washington DC by a special performance of A Child of Our time , in which the Washington Chorus was directed by Robert Shafer . The piece was performed at the BBC Proms 2016 on 23rd July by the BBC National Orchestra and Chorus of Wales .
A Child of Our Time has survived periods of indifference , particularly in America , to be ranked alongside Britten 's War Requiem as one of the most frequently performed large @-@ scale choral works of the post @-@ Second World War period . According to Meirion Bowen , Tippett 's long @-@ time companion and a champion of his music , the work 's particular quality is its universal message , with which audiences all over the world have identified . In his notes accompanying the performance at the 2010 Grant Park Music Festival in Chicago , Richard E. Rodda summarises the work 's continuing appeal : " [ I ] t deals with issues as timeless as civilization itself — man 's inhumanity to man , the place of the individual who confronts ruthless power ... the need for learning the lessons of history and for compassion and understanding and honesty and equality in our dealings with each other , whatever our differences may be . Tippett 's Child still speaks profoundly to us in our own deeply troubled time " .
= = Music = =
Kemp describes Tippett 's central problem in composing A Child of Our Time as integrating the language of the spirituals with his own musical style . Tippett was , in Kemp 's view , entirely successful in this respect ; " O by and by " , he says , sounds as if it could almost have been composed by Tippett . To assist the process of integration the composer had obtained recordings of American singing groups , especially the Hall Johnson Choir , which provided him with a three @-@ part model for determining the relationships between solo voices and chorus in the spirituals : chorus , soloists , chorus . Tippett 's instructions in the score specify that " the spirituals should not be thought of as congregational hymns , but as integral parts of the Oratorio ; nor should they be sentimentalised but sung with a strong underlying beat and slightly ' swung ' " .
The brief orchestral prelude to Part I introduces the two contrasting moods which pervade the entire work . Kemp likens the opening " snarling trumpet triad " to " a descent into Hades " , but it is answered immediately by a gently mournful phrase in the strings . In general the eight numbers which comprise this first part each have , says Gloag , their own distinct texture and harmonic identity , often in a disjunctive relationship with each other , although the second and third numbers are connected by an orchestral " interludium " . From among the diverse musical features Steinberg draws attention to rhythms in the chorus " When Shall The Usurer 's City Cease " that illustrate Tippett 's knowledge of and feel for the English madrigal . What Kemp describes as " one of the supreme moments in Tippett 's music " occurs towards the end of the Part , as the soprano 's aria melts into the spiritual " Steal away " : " a [ transition ] so poignant as to set off that instant shock of recognition that floods the eyes with emotion ... although the soprano continues to grieve in a floating melisma , the spiritual comes as a relief as well as a release " .
Because of its large number ( 17 ) of generally short components , Part II is the most diffuse of the three parts , texturally and harmonically . The narrative is driven largely by alternating choruses and comments from the Narrator , with two brief operatic scenas in which the four soloists participate . Kemp finds in one of the choruses an allusion to " Sei gegrüsset " from Bach 's St John Passion , and hears traces of Elgar in the soprano 's solo " O my son ! " which begins the first scena . The narrative climax is reached with the " Spiritual of Anger " : " Go Down , Moses " , which Tippett arranges in the form of a chorale . This is followed by three short meditations from tenor , soprano and alto soloists , before a possible redemption is glimpsed in the spiritual which ends the Part , " O by and by " , with a soprano descant which Steinberg describes as " ecstatic " . Part III consists of only five numbers , each rather more extensive than most of those in the earlier sections of the oratorio . The Part has , on the whole , a greater unity than its predecessors . The musical and emotional climax to the whole work is the penultimate ensemble : " I Would Know my Shadow and my Light " . Kemp writes : " The whole work has been leading to this moment ... the ensemble flows into a rapturous wordless benediction [ before ] a modulation leads into ' Deep River ' " . In this final spiritual , for the first time the full vocal and instrumental resources are deployed . The oratorio ends quietly , on an extended pianissimo " Lord " .
The total vocal and instrumental resources required for the oratorio are a SATB chorus with soprano , alto , tenor and bass soloists , and an orchestra comprising two flutes , two oboes , English horn , two clarinets , two bassoons , contrabassoon , four horns , three trumpets , three trombones , timpani , cymbals and strings . According to the vocal score , the approximate duration of the work is 66 minutes .
= = Recordings = =
The first recording of A Child of Our Time was issued in 1958 , and remained the only available version for 17 years . Sir Colin Davis made the first of his three recordings of the work in 1975 . Tippett himself , at the age of 86 , conducted a recording of the work with the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra and Chorus in 1991 .
= Tyldesley =
Tyldesley ( / ˈtɪlzliː / or / ˈtɪlsliː / ) is a town in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan in Greater Manchester , England . It is north of Chat Moss near the foothills of the West Pennine Moors , 7 @.@ 7 miles ( 12 @.@ 4 km ) east @-@ southeast of Wigan and 8 @.@ 9 miles ( 14 @.@ 3 km ) west @-@ northwest of Manchester . At the United Kingdom Census 2001 , Tyldesley including the outlying areas of Astley , Shakerley , Mosley Common and New Manchester , had a population of 34 @,@ 000 . In 2011 the Tyldesley ward of Wigan Council had a population of 14 @,@ 341 .
Historically in Lancashire , Tyldesley and its surroundings have provided evidence for the remains of a Roman road passing through the township on its ancient course between Coccium ( Wigan ) and Mamucium ( Manchester ) . Following the Anglo @-@ Saxon invasion of Britain , Tyldesley was part of the manor of Warrington , until the Norman conquest of England , when the settlement constituted a township called Tyldesley @-@ with @-@ Shakerley in the ancient parish of Leigh .
The factory system , and textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution , triggered a process of population growth and urbanisation such that by the early @-@ 20th century it was said that the newly emerged mill town was " eminently characteristic of an industrial district whose natural features have been almost entirely swept away to give place to factories , iron foundries , and collieries " . After industrial activity declined in the late @-@ 20th century , land reclamation and post @-@ war residential developments have altered the landscape and encouraged economic activity along Elliott Street — Tyldesley 's central commercial area and main thoroughfare .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Tyldesley meaning " Tilwald 's clearing " is derived from the Old English ( OE ) personal name Tilwald ( or Tīlwald ) and leăh a " wood , clearing " , suggesting what is now open land was once covered with forest . The name was recorded as Tildesleiha in 1210 . Alternative spellings include Tildeslei , Tildeslege , Tildeslegh and Tildesley . Tyldesley is situated at the edge of the Lancashire Plain north of Chat Moss and the Banks is a sandstone ridge where the foothills of the Pennines begin and gave the town its early name of Tildsley Banks . The land rises from 100 feet ( 30 m ) at the foot of the banks to 250 feet ( 76 m ) at the highest point . Tyldesley is pronounced " Til @-@ slee " , and locally known as " Bongs " . In local pronunciation " Banks " was corrupted to " Bongs " . The old name for Mosley Common was the " Hurst " or " Tyldesleyhurst " , the suffix " hyrst " means a wooded hill ( OE ) .
= = = Earliest history = = =
The remains of a Roman road serving camps at Coccium ( Wigan ) and Mamucium ( Manchester ) passed through the area . It ran from Keeper Delph in Boothstown crossing Mort Lane north west of Cleworth Hall and south of Shakerley Old Hall . The road continued towards the Valley at Atherton where coins have been found , and on towards Gibfield and Wigan .
In 1947 , two urns containing about 550 Roman bronze coins , minted between AD 259 and AD 278 , were found near the old Tyldesley – Worsley border . The coins are in the British Museum . After the end of Roman rule in Britain and into the history of Anglo @-@ Saxon England , nothing was written about Tyldesley . Evidence for the presence of Saxons is provided by place names incorporating the Old English suffix leah , such as Tyldesley , Shakerley , and Astley .
= = = Manor houses = = =
The manor house was Astley Hall which , in 1212 , was home to Hugh Tyldesley , Lord of the Manors of Astley and Tyldesley . It is just inside the Tyldesley boundary but has been associated with Astley since the death of Henry Tyldesley in 1301 , when the manor was divided among three sons . The Tyldesleys had a " reputation for lawlessness and who had frequent disputes with their neighbours " . One exception was Hugh Tyldesley , Hugh the Pious , who endowed Cockersand Abbey with land in Shakerley before his death in 1226 . The moated New Hall in the Park of Tyldesley , close to the old manor house was in existence before 1422 when it belonged to Thomas Tyldesley .
The new manor , known as the Garrett , was owned by John Tyldesley in 1505 . The timber @-@ framed Garrett Hall remained with the Tyldesleys until 1652 when Lambert Tyldesley died leaving no heir . The new owners , the Stanleys , leased it to tenant farmers . In 1732 it was sold to Thomas Clowes who also leased the property to tenants . In 1829 the estate was bought by the Bridgewater Trustees .
The township had several other significant houses . Generations of the Shakerley family lived in Shakerley Old Hall , close to the Shakerley Brook and Roman road . In medieval times they paid rent to Cockersand Abbey and dues of " one pair of white gloves at the feast of Easter " to Adam Tyldesley . Chaddock Hall was home to a family of yeomen farmers . Its name was variously recorded as Chaydok , Chaidoke and Chaidok , the last syllable probably meaning " oak " . It was surrounded by a hamlet in the east of the township . The Chaddocks , like the Tyldesleys and Shakerleys , had a reputation for lawlessness .
The tenants of the Tyldesley , Shakerley and Chaddock lands were summoned for military service . Archers from Chaddock fought at Crécy in 1346 and at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415 . In 1360 , William Chaddock was described as an archer on foot , " potens de corpore et bonis " . A muster roll described Hugh Tyldesley as an archer on horseback and Hugh Chaddock and Richard Tyldesley were foot @-@ archers drawing daily pay for service from 22 July to 21 October 1391 .
Cleworth Hall , recorded as Cluworth in 1333 , was part of the Tyldesley lands on higher ground north of the high road . It passed to Nicholas Starkie of Huntroyde by his marriage to Anne Parr in 1578 and in 1594 was associated with witchcraft . Two children , John and Anne Starkie became " possessed of evil spirits " . A well @-@ known " conjurer " or wise man , Edmund Hartley , was asked to cure them , which he apparently did before demanding money which was refused . Hartley threatened trouble and Starkie denounced him and Hartley was taken for trial to Lancaster Castle in 1597 where he was tried and found guilty of witchcraft . He was hanged , twice , as the rope broke at the first attempt .
= = = Banks Estate = = =
In the early 18th century Tyldesley was a collection of cottages and farms around the halls scattered across the township with no church or inn . Thomas Johnson , a Bolton merchant bought the Banks Estate in 1728 , land from the Stanleys of Garrett Hall in 1742 and Davenports in the west of the township in 1752 . He died in 1764 leaving his estate to his grandson with the same name . Thomas " Squire " Johnson developed the town of Tildsley Banks . His name lives on in Squires Lane and Johnson Street . The last quarter of the 18th century marked the beginning of a building boom and the grid plan of the town centre is from this date .
John Aikin described the area in 1795 in his book A Description of the Countryside from 30 to 40 Miles around Manchester :
The Banks of Tildesley , in the Parish of Leigh , are about one mile and a half in length , and command a most beautiful prospect into seven counties : the springs remarkably clear and most excellently adapted to the purposes of bleaching . The land is rich , but mostly in meadow and pastures , for milk , butter , and the noted Leigh cheese . The estate had , in the year 1780 , only two farm houses and eight or nine cottages , but now contains 162 houses , a neat chapel , and 976 inhabitants , who employ 325 looms in the cotton Manufactories ...
Tyldesley 's first inns were the Flaming Castle built in 1778 and the Green Dragon of 1781 . Fulwell House in Squires Lane was built in 1792 and occupied by local industrialists but was demolished in 1935 . Towards the end of the 18th century rows of two @-@ storey brick terraced houses were built at the west end of the town to house workers who had migrated there to work in the new factories .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
Until the Industrial Revolution , Tyldesley was rural , agriculture and cottage spinning and weaving , mainly muslin and fustian , were the chief occupations before 1800 . Silk weaving became an important cottage industry after 1827 when silk was brought from Manchester .
In 1772 Thomas Johnson opened the " Little Factory " for carding and spinning cotton . " The Great Leviathon " powered a steam @-@ driven mill for woollen spinning on Factory Street in 1792 . More cotton mills were built close to the Hindsford and Shakerley Brooks which provided water for steam power . In 1823 , after a strike for increased wages and lockout by the millowners at New Mills , owned by J & G Jones in Factory Street , the workforce was sacked and new hands hired to replace them . The scab labourers , knobsticks had to be protected from assault by the dismissed workers . Joseph Wilson built Hope Mill in James Street . By 1838 James Burton owned most of the town 's mills . He lived in Charles Street surrounded by his workers ' houses . His company owned 74 cottages and 57 cellars , a house in Elliot Street and the King 's Arms public house . Burton died in 1868 . In 1883 a fire at Burton 's mills caused £ 15 @,@ 000 damage ( equivalent to £ 1 @.@ 4 million in 2016 ) and by 1920 his mills were demolished . Caleb Wright owned Barnfield Mills which had a workforce of about 800 . The last of his mills , Barnfield No 6 on Shuttle Street , was built in 1894 on the site of Resolution Mill which was destroyed by fire in 1891 . Barnfield No 6 was a concrete @-@ floored multi @-@ storey mill for spinning , powered by an external engine house via a rope race . The mill was demolished in the 1990s and the site is occupied by a supermarket .
Coal had been got in Shakerley since at least 1429 when a dispute was recorded between the Shakerleys and the Tyldesleys over the stealing of " seacoals " . Shakerley Colliery on Shakerley Common was in existence in 1798 . Shakerley was a centre for making nails , but was in decline by 1800 .
After the railway was completed in 1864 , coal mining became the dominant industry and the town was surrounded by collieries for more than 100 years until the industry declined after the Second World War . Bridgewater Collieries , Tyldesley Coal Company , Shakerley Collieries and Astley and Tyldesley Collieries were among the local mine owners . Gin Pit Colliery closed in 1955 , Cleworth Hall in 1963 , Nook two years later , and Mosley Common in 1968 . Tyldesley Miners Association , established in 1862 , built the Miner 's Hall in 1893 and the Astley and Tyldesley Miner 's Club opened at Gin Pit in 1927 .
The worst mining disaster in the town occurred at Yew Tree Colliery on 11 December 1858 when an explosion of firedamp caused by a safety lamp cost 25 lives , the youngest victim was 11 , and the oldest , 35 years of age . Some of the victims are buried in the churchyard at St George 's Church . Another explosion on 6 March 1877 at Great Boys Colliery cost eight lives and on 2 October 1883 , six men died when the cage rope broke at Nelson Colliery in Shakerley . On 1 October 1895 five men including the colliery manager and undermanager died at Shakerley Colliery after an explosion of firedamp .
Grundy 's Foundry was another important employer . Its founder , John Grundy invented a warm air heating system that was used in churches and halls . He built a foundry close to the railway in Lower Elliot Street .
Industry declined after the Second World War and subsequent land reclamation and new housing developments have changed the face of the town , but its centre retains the atmosphere of a bustling market town , with a refurbished market square . The steep terraces branching off the main streets give the town a distinctive character .
= = Governance = =
Historically , Tyldesley formed part of the Hundred of West Derby , a judicial division of southwest Lancashire . Tyldesley cum Shakerley was one of the six townships or vills that made up and predated the ancient parish of Leigh . It was the largest of the townships at 2 @,@ 610 acres ( 1 @,@ 060 ha ) : Tyldesley having an area of 1 @,@ 970 acres ( 800 ha ) and Shakerley 520 acres ( 210 ha ) .
Under the terms of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 the townships formed part of the Leigh Poor Law Union comprising an area covering the whole of the ancient parish of Leigh and part of Winwick , established on 26 January 1837 . A workhouse in Tyldesley was replaced by Leigh Union workhouse at Atherleigh in the 1850s . Tyldesley was constituted a civil parish in 1866 . In 1863 the Local Government Act 1858 was adopted and the township was governed by a local board of health . The first Tyldesley Local Board was formed after elections on 24 October 1863 . Among those elected were mill owners , Caleb Wright and Oliver Burton , and colliery owners , William Ramsden and George Green , a mixture of Tories and Liberals . The Local Board took over the gas works in 1865 , built the first swimming baths and opened Tyldesley Cemetery in 1876 and built sewage works at Morleys Hall in Astley in 1884 . The local board offices were in Lower Elliot Street , where it had a fire station and depot . Under the Public Health Act 1875 the local board gained additional powers as an urban sanitary district and under the Local Government Act 1894 Tyldesley @-@ with @-@ Shakerley became an urban district with an elected council . Tyldesley Town Hall , originally the township 's Liberal Club , opened in 1881 , and was taken over by Tyldesley Urban District Council as its headquarters in 1924 . Tyldesley UDC opened Tyldesley Park in 1902 , the Carnegie Library officially opened in 1909 , and after World War I council housing was built at Sale Lane and Mosley Common and after World War II in Shakerley .
In 1933 , Lancashire County Council reorganised districts in the county , with reference to the Local Government Act 1929 . A new Tyldesley Urban District was formed by amalgamating Tyldesley with Shakerley Urban District and the civil parish of Astley from the abolished Leigh Rural District . The urban district was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , when the area became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , a local government district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester .
Tyldesley is an electoral ward of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan electing three councillors to the 75 @-@ member metropolitan borough council , Wigan 's local authority . As of 2015 , two ward councillors represent the Labour Party and one is an Independent .
The Boundary Commission recommended Tyldesley should be part of the Leigh constituency at the 2010 general election . At the 2010 General Election , Andy Burnham retained the Leigh seat for the Labour party with 24 @,@ 295 votes and a majority of 15 @,@ 011 , representing 51 @.@ 3 % of the vote . Burnham was re @-@ elected MP for the Leigh constituency in 2015 with 24 @,@ 312 votes which was 53 @.@ 9 % of the total vote cast .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 30 ′ 59 ″ N 2 ° 28 ′ 0 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 5166 ° , − 2 @.@ 4668 ° ) , and 170 miles ( 274 km ) northwest of central London , Tyldesley is situated 7 @.@ 7 miles ( 12 @.@ 4 km ) east @-@ southeast of Wigan and 8 @.@ 9 miles ( 14 @.@ 3 km ) west @-@ northwest of the city of Manchester , and at the eastern end of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan . Tyldesley and Shakerley cover 2 @,@ 490 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 010 ha ) Topographically Tyldesley is situated the edge of the Lancashire Plain just to the north of Chat Moss and the Banks of Tyldesley are where the foothills of the Pennines begin . The land rises from about 100 ft ( 30 m ) at the foot of the banks to 250 ft ( 76 m ) at the highest point . The banks , a sandstone escarpment with the scarp slope facing south and the gentler dip to the north , are about one and a half miles long . The underlying rocks are the coal measures of the Manchester Coalfield covered with boulder clay . Streams drain the area including the Shakerley and Hindsford Brooks which flow towards the Glaze Brook a tributary of the River Mersey .
Heavily industrialised during the 19th century , Tyldesley has become a residential area since the demise of the coal industry and closure of its cotton mills . The main road through Tyldesley is the A577 which runs on the high ground along the ridge on which the town centre is situated .
= = Demography = =
At the 2001 UK census , Tyldesley had a population of 34 @,@ 022 and a population density of 13 @,@ 789 inhabitants per square mile ( 5 @,@ 324 / km2 ) , with a female @-@ to @-@ male ratio of 100 to 97 @.@ 4 . Of those over 16 years old , 27 @.@ 3 % were single ( never married ) , 47 @.@ 8 % married and 8 @.@ 2 % divorced . Although the proportion of divorced people was similar to that of Wigan and England , the rates of those who were single and married were significantly different from the national and Wigan averages ( Wigan : 42 @.@ 4 % single , 36 @.@ 6 % married ; England : 44 @.@ 3 % single , 34 @.@ 7 % married ) . Tyldesley 's 13 @,@ 621 households included 24 @.@ 0 % one @-@ person , 46 @.@ 1 % married couples living together , 10 @.@ 2 % were co @-@ habiting couples , and 9 @.@ 0 % single parents with their children . Of those aged 16 – 74 , 27 @.@ 0 % had no academic qualifications , lower than 28 @.@ 9 % in all of England and much lower than the 35 @.@ 3 % for the Wigan borough .
= = = Population change = = =
In 2001 Wigan Council 's Tyldesley ward had a population of 13 @,@ 459 . In 2011 the ward population had increased to 14 @,@ 341 .
= = Economy = =
According to the United Kingdom Census 2001 , the industry of employment of residents aged 16 – 74 was 18 @.@ 1 % retail and wholesale , 16 @.@ 5 % manufacturing , 12 @.@ 1 % property and business services , 10 @.@ 9 % health and social work , 7 @.@ 4 % education , 7 @.@ 1 % transport and communications , 7 @.@ 6 % construction , 5 @.@ 8 % public administration , 5 @.@ 0 % finance , 4 @.@ 1 % hotels and restaurants , 0 @.@ 8 % energy and water supply , 0 @.@ 5 % agriculture , 0 @.@ 1 % mining , and 4 @.@ 2 % other . Compared with national figures , the town had a relatively low percentage working in agriculture . The census recorded the economic activity of residents aged 16 – 74 , 2 @.@ 6 % students were with jobs , 3 @.@ 2 % students without jobs , 4 @.@ 7 % looking after home or family , 6 @.@ 7 % permanently sick or disabled , and 2 @.@ 1 % economically inactive for other reasons .
The main concentrations of employment are at Chaddock Lane between Astley and Mosley Common and at Parr Brow to the north of Mosley Common .
= = Landmarks = =
For many years Tyldesley 's landscape was dominated by factory chimneys and pit headgear . Since the closure of the mines and demolition of the factories , St George 's Church — one of the few structures in the town built of stone , with a spire rising to 150 feet ( 46 m ) in height — and Top Chapel in the Market Square have become the chief landmarks ; both are Grade II listed
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. In Manila , the archbishop described the deal to the king of Spain in a missive dated 28 July 1619 :
" The Governor was extremely friendly with the Japanese , and provided them with his protection . As they had many expensive things to buy , they decided to lend their ship . The ship was immediately furbished for combat . The Governor eventually bought the ship , because it turned out that it was of excellent and sturdy construction , and available ships were dramatically few . In favour of your Majesty , the price paid was reasonable . " ( Document 243 )
During his stay in the Philippines , Hasekura purchased numerous goods for Date Masamune , and built a ship , as he explained in a letter he wrote to his son . He finally returned to Japan in August 1620 , reaching the harbour of Nagasaki .
= = Return to Japan = =
By the time Hasekura came back , Japan had changed quite drastically : an effort to eradicate Christianity had been under way since 1614 , Tokugawa Ieyasu had died in 1616 and been replaced by his more xenophobic son Tokugawa Hidetada , and Japan was moving towards the " Sakoku " policy of isolation . Because news of these persecutions arrived in Europe during Hasekura 's embassy , European rulers – especially the King of Spain – became very reluctant to respond favorably to Hasekura 's trade and missionary proposals .
Hasekura reported his travels to Date Masamune upon his arrival in Sendai . It is recorded that he remitted a portrait of Pope Paul V , a portrait of himself in prayer ( shown above ) , and a set of Ceylonese and Indonesian daggers acquired in the Philippines , all preserved today in the Sendai City Museum . The " Records of the House of Masamune " describe his report in a rather succinct manner , ending with a rather cryptic expression of surprise bordering on the outrage ( " 奇怪最多シ " ) at Hasekura 's discourse :
" Rokuemon went to the country of the Southern Barbarians , he paid his respects to the king Paolo , he stayed there for several years , and now he sailed back from Luzon . He brought paintings of the king of the Southern Barbarians , and a painting of himself , which he remitted . Many of his descriptions of the Southern Barbarian countries , and the meaning of Rokuemon 's declarations were surprising and extraordinary . "
= = = Interdiction of Christianity in Sendai = = =
The direct effect of Hasekura 's return to Sendai was the interdiction of Christianity in the Sendai fief two days later :
" Two days after the return of Rokuemon to Sendai , a three @-@ point edict against the Christian was promulgated : first , that all Christians were ordered to abandon their faith , in accordance with the rule of the Shogun , and for those who did not , they would be exiled if they were nobles , and killed if they were citizens , peasants or servants . Second , that a reward would be given for the denunciation of hidden Christians . Third that propagators of the Christian faith should leave the Sendai fief , or else , abandon their religion " ( November 1620 letter of father Angelis , Japan @-@ China archives of the Jesuits in Rome , quoted in Gonoi 's " Hasekura Tsunenaga " , p231 )
What Hasekura said or did to bring about such a result is unknown . As later events tend to indicate that he and his descendants remained faithful Christians , Hasekura may have made an enthusiastic – and to a certain extent , disturbing – account of the greatness and might of Western countries and the Christian religion . He may also have encouraged an alliance between the Church and Date Masamune to take over the country ( an idea advertized by the Franciscans while in Rome ) , which , in 1620 Japan , would have been a totally unrealistic proposition . Lastly , hopes of trade with Spain evaporated when Hasekura communicated that the Spanish King would not enter an agreement as long as persecutions were occurring in the rest of the country .
Date Masamune , heretofore very tolerant of Christianity for his desire to destroy Bakufu and He was aiming at governing the whole country , in spite of the Bakufu 's prohibition in the land it directly controlled , thus suddenly chose to distance himself from the Western faith . The first executions of Christians started 40 days later . The anti @-@ Christian measures taken by Date Masumune were however comparatively mild , and Japanese and Western Christians repeatedly claimed that he only took them to appease the Shogun :
" Date Masumune , out of fear of the Shogun , ordered the persecution of Christianity in his territory , and created several martyrs . " ( Letter of 17 prominent Japanese Christians from Sendai , to the Pope , 29 September 1621 ) .
One month after Hasekura 's return , Date Masamune wrote a letter to the Shogun Tokugawa Hidetada , in which he makes a very clear effort to evade responsibility for the embassy , explaining in detail how it was organized with the approval , and even the collaboration , of the Shogun :
" When I sent a ship to the Southern Barbarian countries several years ago , upon the advice of Mukai Shogen , I also dispatched the Southern Barbarian named Sotelo , who had resided for several years in Edo . At that time , your highness also gave messages for the Southern Barbarians , as well as presents , such as folding screens and sets of armour . " ( 18 October 1620 , quoted in Gonoi , p . 234 ) .
Spain was by far the most threatening power for Japan at that time ( with a colony and an army in the nearby Philippines ) . Hasekura 's eyewitness accounts of Spanish power and colonial methods in Nueva España ( Mexico ) may have precipitated the Shogun Tokugawa Hidetada 's decision to sever trade relations with Spain in 1623 , and diplomatic relations in 1624 , although other events such as the smuggling of Spanish priests into Japan and a failed Spanish embassy also contributed to the decision .
= = = Death = = =
What became of Hasekura is unknown and accounts of his last years are numerous . Contemporary Christian commentators could only rely on hearsay , with some rumours stating that he abandoned Christianity , others that he was martyred for his faith , and others that he practiced Christianity in secret . The fate of his descendants and servants , who were later executed for being Christians , would suggest that Hasekura remained strongly Christian himself , and transmitted his faith to the members of his family .
Sotelo , who returned to Japan but was caught and finally burnt at the stake in 1624 , gave before his execution an account of Hasekura returning to Japan as a hero who propagated the Christian faith :
" My other colleague , the ambassador Philippus Faxecura , after he reached his aforementioned king ( Date Masamune ) , was greatly honored by him , and sent to his own estate , to rest after such a long and tiring journey , where he made his wife , children , servants , and many other vassals into Christians , and advised other nobles who were his kith and kin to accept the faith , which they indeed did . While he was engaged in these and other pious works , a full year after his return , having provided much instruction and a great example , with much preparation , he piously passed on , leaving for his children by a special inheritance the propagation of the faith in his estate , and the protection of the religious ( i.e. " members of religious orders " ) in that kingdom . The King and all the nobles were greatly saddened by his passing , but especially the Christians and Religious , who knew very well the virtue and religious zeal of this man . This is what I heard by letters from the very Religious who administered the sacraments to him , and who had been present at his death , as well as from others . " ( Luis Sotelo , De ecclesiae Iaponicae statu relatio ) .
Hasekura also did bring back to Japan several Catholic artifacts , but he did not give them to his ruler , and instead kept them in his own estate .
Hasekura Tsunenaga died of illness ( according to Japanese as well as Christian sources ) in 1622 , but the location of his grave is not known for certain . Three graves are claimed as Hasekura 's . The most likely is in the outskirts of Osato town ( 大郷町 ) in Miyagi . Another is visible in the Buddhist temple of Enfukuji ( 円長山円福寺 ) in Miyagi . Another is clearly marked ( along with a memorial to PSotelo ) in the cemetery of in the Kitayama neighborhood at Komyo Temple ( 光明寺 ) .
= = = Execution of his descendants and servants = = =
Hasekura had a son , named Rokuemon Tsuneyori . Two of his son 's servants , Yogoemon ( 与五右衛門 ) and his wife , were convicted of being Christian but refused to recant their faith under torture ( reverse hanging , called " Tsurushi " , 釣殺し ) and as a result died in August 1637 ( as the lives of Christians were spared if they recanted , these executions indicate that they were steadfast and refused to deny their faith ) . In 1637 , Rokuemon Tsuneyori himself also came under suspicion of Christianity after being denounced by someone from Edo , but escaped questioning because he was the master of the Zen temple of Komyoji ( 光明寺 ) . In 1640 , two other servants of Tsuneyori , Tarozaemon ( 太郎左衛門 , 71 ) , who had followed Hasekura to Rome , and his wife ( 59 ) , were convicted of being Christians , and , also refusing to recant their faith under torture , died . Tsuneyori was held responsible this time and decapitated the same day , at the age of 42 , for having failed to denounce Christians under his roof , although it remained unconfirmed whether he was himself Christian or not . Also , two Christian priests , the Dominican Pedro Vazquez and Joan Bautista Paulo , had given his name under torture . Tsuneyori 's younger brother , Tsunemichi , was convicted as a Christian , but managed to flee and disappear . But Tsunenobu ( 常信 ) who is the son of Tsuneyori , who is the grand son of Tsunenaga Hasekura , survived , and then the first to 10th head of Hasekura Family had lived in Osato @-@ city , Miyagi prefecture , furthermore the 11th to the present 13th head of them Tsunetaka Hasekura has lived in Wakabayashi @-@ ward , Sendai @-@ city , Miyagi prefecture . The 13th head actively works in Both Miyagi prefecture and Akita prefecture .
The privileges of the Hasekura family were abolished at this point by the Sendai fief , and their property and belongings seized . It is at this time , in 1640 , that Hasekura 's Christian artifacts were confiscated , and they were kept in custody in Sendai until they were rediscovered at the end of the 19th century .
Altogether , around fifty Christian artifacts were found in Hasekura 's estate in 1640 , such as crosses , rosaries , religious gowns and religious paintings . The artifacts were seized and stored by the Date fief . An inventory was made again in 1840 describing the items as belonging to Hasekura Tsunenaga . Nineteen books were also mentioned in the inventory , but they have been lost since . The artifacts are today preserved in the Sendai City Museum and other museum in Sendai .
= = Re @-@ discovery = =
The very existence of the travels of Hasekura was forgotten in Japan until the reopening of the country after the Sakoku policy of isolation . In 1873 , a Japanese embassy to Europe ( the Iwakura mission ) headed by Iwakura Tomomi heard for the first time of the travels of Hasekura when shown documents during their visit to Venice in Italy .
= = = Hasekura today = = =
Today , there are statues of Hasekura Tsunenaga in the outskirts of Acapulco in Mexico , at the entrance of Havana Bay in Cuba , in Coria del Río in Spain , in the Church of Civitavecchia in Italy , in Tsukinoura , near Ishinomaki and two in Osato town in Miyagi .
Approximately 700 inhabitants of Coria del Río bear the surname Japón ( originally Hasekura de Japón ) , identifying them as descendants of the members of Hasekura Tsunenaga 's delegation .
A theme park describing the embassy and displaying a replica of the San Juan Bautista was established in the harbour of Ishinomaki , from which Hasekura initially departed on his voyage .
Today there stands a statue of Hasekura in a park in Manila , the Philippines .
Shusaku Endo wrote a 1980 novel , titled The Samurai , a fictitious account relating the travels of Hasekura .
The 1991 film Journey of Honor ( aka Kabuto , aka Shogun Mayeda ) starring Sho Kosugi was loosely based on Hasekura 's expedition and recounts the adventures of a samurai journey from Japan to Spain .
A 2005 animation film produced in Spain and titled Gisaku relates the adventures of a young Japanese samurai named Yohei who visited Spain in the 17th century , in a story loosely taking its inspiration from the travels of Hasekura . Yohei survived in hiding to the present day due to magical powers ( " After centuries of lethargy , he awakes in a World he does not know " ) , and accomplishes many adventures in modern Europe as a superhero .
= = Timeline and itinerary = =
= New Jersey Route 87 =
Route 87 is a state highway located in Atlantic County in the U.S. state of New Jersey . It runs 1 @.@ 70 mi ( 2 @.@ 74 km ) , heading north from Atlantic City at an intersection with U.S. Route 30 ( Absecon Boulevard ) to Brigantine , where it terminates at the end of the Justice Vincent S. Haneman Memorial Bridge over the Absecon Channel , continuing as County Route 638 ( Brigantine Boulevard ) . In Atlantic City , the route runs through the Marina District , which contains a few casinos , along Huron Avenue and Brigantine Boulevard . Here , Route 87 intersects with Route 187 ( Brigantine Boulevard ) and the Atlantic City @-@ Brigantine Connector , the latter providing a limited @-@ access route between Route 87 and the Atlantic City Expressway . Route 87 is the only road to and from Brigantine .
What is now Route 87 was initially proposed as Route S4A in 1927 , a spur from Route 4 ( now U.S. Route 9 ) in Tuckerton , Ocean County , south through Brigantine to Atlantic City . The portion of this route south of Little Beach was to be built by Atlantic County ; however , the state took over plans of building the road in 1938 . Despite this , Route S4A was never completed between Brigantine and Little Beach , and the portion of the road that existed in Ocean County was removed from the state highway system by 1941 . In 1945 , Route S56 , a spur of Route 56 ( now U.S. Route 30 ) , was proposed to run from Atlantic City to Brigantine along Brigantine Boulevard . Route 87 was created on its current alignment in 1953 as an unsigned route , replacing Route S4A and the proposed Route S56 . Previously , Route 87 split into two alignments in Atlantic City along Huron Avenue and Brigantine Boulevard ; the Brigantine Boulevard alignment eventually became Route 187 .
= = Route description = =
Route 87 begins at an intersection with U.S. Route 30 in Atlantic City , heading to the northeast on Huron Avenue , an undivided road with two northbound lanes and three southbound lanes . Immediately after beginning , it passes under the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector and comes to a ramp that provides access from southbound Route 87 to the southbound connector . From here , the route widens to seven lanes , with two northbound lanes and five southbound lanes . It passes by the Borgata casino , with a ramp from the casino to the northbound direction . The road becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway and passes under a ramp from the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector to the Borgata before heading under northbound direction of the connector . Here , a ramp from the connector provides access to Route 87 . A short distance later , the route comes to the northern terminus of Route 187 and turns north to follow Brigantine Boulevard , which is a four @-@ lane divided highway .
The route passes to the west of the Golden Nugget casino and comes to a ramp that provides access from northbound Route 87 to both the Trump Marina and Harrah 's Atlantic City casinos before passing under the northbound Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector again . Immediately after , the route has a ramp from the southbound direction that provides access to the connector and westbound U.S. Route 30 . The northbound Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector parallels Route 87 to the east as it turns northeast and comes to a right @-@ in / right @-@ out in the southbound direction that serves both Harrah 's and Borgata . From here , the route passes to the southeast of Harrah 's . The northbound Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector merges onto northbound Route 87 before the route comes to a ramp that provides access to the northbound direction of the route from Harrah 's . Past here , the route crosses over the Absecon Channel on the Justice Vincent S. Haneman Memorial Bridge and runs along the border of Atlantic City to the northwest and Brigantine to the southeast . After crossing the Absecon Channel , the route arrives on Brigantine Island and passes through wetlands , with U @-@ turn ramps in both directions . A short distance later , Route 87 ends and County Route 638 continues along Brigantine Boulevard through Brigantine .
= = History = =
In 1927 , a spur of Route 4 , Route S4A , was proposed as a route running from Route 4 ( now U.S. Route 9 ) in Tuckerton in Ocean County south to Little Beach . In 1929 , this route was to continue south through Brigantine to Atlantic City , with the portion south of Little Beach to be built by Atlantic County . The state of New Jersey took over the proposed extension of Route S4A from Little Beach to Atlantic City in 1938 . However , the portion of this route between Brigantine and the Atlantic / Ocean County line was never built , and the portion of road that existed in Ocean County was removed from the state highway system by 1941 . In 1945 , another route called Route S56 , a spur of Route 56 ( now U.S. Route 30 ) , was proposed to run north along Brigantine Boulevard ( present @-@ day Route 187 and Route 87 ) from Atlantic City to Brigantine . In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 87 was designated as an unsigned route along the former alignment of Route S4A and the proposed Route S56 between U.S. Route 30 in Atlantic City and Brigantine . Following the 1953 renumbering , the southern portion of Route 87 in Atlantic City split into two alignments , with one following Huron Avenue and the other following Brigantine Boulevard . Eventually , the alignment of Route 87 along Brigantine Boulevard between U.S. Route 30 and Huron Avenue became Route 187 . In 2001 , the Atlantic City – Brigantine Connector was completed , linking Route 87 , the casinos in the Marina District , and Brigantine with the Atlantic City Expressway .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Atlantic County .
= Phan Xích Long =
Phan Xích Long , also known as Hồng Long , born Phan Phát Sanh ( 1893 – 1916 ) , was a 20th @-@ century Vietnamese mystic and geomancer who claimed to be the Emperor of Vietnam . He attempted to exploit religion as a cover for his own political ambitions , having started his own ostensibly religious organisation . Claiming to be a descendant of Emperor Hàm Nghi , Long staged a ceremony to crown himself , before trying to seize power in 1913 by launching an armed uprising against the colonial rule of French Indochina . His supporters launched an attack on Saigon in March 1913 , drinking potions that purportedly made them invisible and planting bombs at several locations . The insurrection against the French colonial administration failed when none of the bombs detonated and the supposedly invisible supporters were apprehended .
The French authorities imprisoned Long and many of his supporters , who openly admitted their aim of overthrowing French authorities at the trial . During the 1916 Cochinchina uprisings against French rule , many of Long 's supporters attempted to break him out of jail . The French easily repelled the attack on the jail , decimating Long 's movement . Following the attempted breakout , Long and his key supporters were put to death . Many of the remnants of his support base went on to join what later became the Cao Đài , a major religious sect in Vietnam .
= = Early career = =
Long was born in 1893 in southern Vietnam as Phan Phát Sanh . His place of birth is disputed ; the historians R. B. Smith and Hue @-@ Tam Ho Tai say that he was from Cholon , the Chinese business district of Saigon , while Oscar Chapuis records Tan An as his place of birth . Sanh 's father was a police officer. and it has been speculated that the family were of Chinese descent . He started as a servant in a French family , before travelling to the That Son ( Seven Mountains ) region in the far south of Vietnam , a region that was known as a hotbed of mysticism . There Long trained in mysticism . As a youth , Sanh travelled from Vietnam to Siam , earning his living as a fortune @-@ teller and geomancer .
In mid @-@ 1911 , Sanh formed a secret society on the unverified pretense that he was a descendant of Hàm Nghi , the boy emperor of the 1880s . Led by Tôn Thất Thuyết and Phan Đình Phùng — two high @-@ ranking mandarins — Hàm Nghi 's Cần Vương movement battled against French colonisation in the decade leading up to 1895 . Their objective was to expel the French authorities and establish Ham Nghi as the emperor of an independent Vietnam . This failed , and the French exiled the boy emperor to Algeria , replacing him with his brother Đồng Khánh . From then on , the French retained the monarchy of the Nguyễn Dynasty , exiling any emperors who rose against colonial rule and replacing them with more cooperative relatives . Sanh also claimed descent from the Lê Dynasty , which ruled Vietnam in the 15th and 16th centuries . He was a strong warrior , further presenting himself as the founder of China 's Ming Dynasty .
At the time of Sanh 's activities in the 1910s , there were two members of the Nguyễn Dynasty who commanded respect among Vietnamese monarchists . The first was the boy emperor Duy Tân , who was himself deported in 1916 after staging an uprising . Duy Tan 's grandfather , Emperor Dục Đức , was the adopted son of the childless Emperor Tự Đức , the last independent emperor of Vietnam . The second figure who was seen by Vietnamese as a possible leader of an independent monarchy was Prince Cường Để . Cường Để was a direct descendant of Emperor Gia Long , who had established the Nguyễn Dynasty and unified Vietnam in its modern state . Cường Để was a prominent anti @-@ colonial activist who lived in exile in Japan .
Sanh 's two main assistants were Nguyen Huu Tri and Nguyen Van Hiep , whom he met at Tân Châu in Châu Đốc Province ( now in An Giang Province ) . The trio agreed to plot an uprising against the French under the cover of a religious sect . The genesis of their cooperation is unclear , but it may have started before mid @-@ 1911 . Tri and Hiep were said to have been in awe when Sanh produced a golden plaque that read " heir to the throne " . The men agreed that the geographical foci of their movement would be in Cholon and Tan An in Vietnam and Kampot in Cambodia . The trio decided to model their actions on an uprising that had occurred in Kampot in 1909 . On that occasion , a group of Cambodians of Chinese descent had marched into the town wearing white robes , claiming to be followers of a Battambang @-@ based Cambodian prince who would overthrow French rule and lead them to independence . After the formation of the sect , Sanh temporarily moved abroad , spending time in Siam and Cambodia . During this time , he learned sorcery and magic , supplementing his mystical training with a military education . He learned pyrotechnics for the purpose of making fireworks and bombs .
= = Coronation = =
Sanh returned to southern Vietnam , and began dressing as a Buddhist monk . He travelled through the six provinces of the Mekong Delta region . His associates Hiep and Tri found an elderly man from Cholon in Saigon , and presented the senior citizen to the populace as a " living Buddha " . After some local elders objected to their activities , they moved to the centre of Cholon . The old man took up residence with Sanh , and peasants and tradespeople soon began flocking to their makeshift temple , located in a house in Cholon 's Thuan Kieu Street . As their temple was located in a prominent commercial area , the group began to collect more funds . The donors made offerings of gold and silver , with some individual donations being worth as much as 1 @,@ 500 piastres . When the " living Buddha " unexpectedly died in February 1912 , he was interred in the family shrine of a notable follower . Sanh 's strategists declared that before the old man had died , he named Sanh as the rightful Emperor of Vietnam . In the meantime , the old man 's remains became the object of veneration , providing further cover for political plotting and fundraising when visitors came to pay their respects . After the completion of the funeral rites , Sanh and his followers staged an impromptu coronation ceremony at Battambang in October 1912 . Sanh took on the name Phan Xích Long and was also known as Hồng Long , both of which mean " red dragon " .
Vast crowds of locals began flocking to pay homage to Long , vowing to contribute labour and finance in an effort to expel the French from Vietnam and install Long as the independent monarch . By this time , Long was claiming to have received a letter from Cuong De , which supposedly confirmed his royal descent . Long 's followers spared no expense in decorating Long with royal accoutrements . They made a medallion inscribed " Phan Xích Long Hòang Đế " ( Emperor Phan Xích Long ) and a royal seal with a dragon 's head with the words " Đại Minh Quốc , Phan Xích Long Hòang Đế , Thiên tử " ( Greater Ming State , Emperor Phan Xích Long , Son of Heaven ) . The words " Đại Minh " were interpreted as either having arbitrarily been copied from local Chinese Vietnamese secret society slogans , or as a strategic ploy to invoke the names of the Ming Dynasty to appeal to the Chinese who had emigrated to Vietnam after the fall of the Ming . Long 's supporters produced a sword with the inscription " Tiên đả hôn quân , hậu đả loạn thần " ( First strike the debauched king , next the traitorous officials ) and a ring inscribed " Dân Công " ( Popular Tribute ) . From then on , Long presented himself as the emperor and signed documents under the royal title .
Long 's strategy of proclaiming himself as a royal descendent or claiming to have supernatural powers in order to rally support for political ends was not new ; it has been repeatedly used throughout Vietnamese history . In 1516 , a man calling himself Trần Cảo rebelled against the Lê Dynasty , claiming to be a descendant of the deposed Trần Dynasty and a reincarnation of Indra . During the 19th century , there was a Buddhist revival and many people masqueraded as monks claiming to have supernatural powers . These false monks were frequently able to start new religious movements and secret societies based on millenarianism . Quickly gathering large numbers of disciples , they staged rebellions against Vietnamese imperial and French colonial armies alike . However , these uprisings were typically incoherent and caused minimal disruption to the ruling authorities . On the other hand , the French were often troubled by resistance movements in southern Vietnam that were led by more conventionally motivated nationalist militants , such as the guerrilla outfits of Trương Định and Nguyễn Trung Trực .
= = Military buildup = =
During the time he spent in Battambang for the coronation , Long organised the construction of a pagoda in the town , and in December , he unsuccessfully applied for a land concession . After the coronation , Long was taken to the That Son region in Châu Đốc , in the far south of the Mekong Delta . There the peasants built a temple for him . They used a small restaurant in a nearby village as a reception centre for the temple , as the temple was increasingly used as a military base , where fighters , weaponry and munitions were being assembled for an uprising . In the village of Tan Thanh , a local leader recruited his peasants for Long 's revolt . The village chieftain predicted that a new Vietnamese monarch would descend from the sky at Cholon in March 1913 , and that only the royalists would survive this miracle .
Such proclamations were repeated across southern Vietnam and in Cambodia , and notices were posted in Saigon , Phnom Penh , the road between the cities , and in many community venues in rural communities . Long 's supporters presented them in the form of a royal edict on wooden blocks , declaring their intention to attack French military installations . They called on the people to rise up and topple French rule and said that supernatural forces would aid the independence fighters , saying that an unnamed monk would arrive from the mountains to lead them . At the time , southern Vietnam was beset by heavy corvée labour demands , especially with large @-@ scale roadworks in progress . This meant that the peasants had less time to tend to their farmland , and revolts and strikes had been common . The simmering discontent is seen as a reason for Long 's ability to gather such levels of support in a short time . Long 's supporters called on merchants to flee and convert their colonial bank notes into solid copper cash . Word of the planned revolt spread quickly , leading to a substantial depreciation in the currency .
Long took the lead in preparing the explosives , telling his followers that his experience as a fortuneteller , mystic and natural healer made him an expert . The bombs were made from cannon shot , carbon , sulphur and saltpeter , which were then wrapped together .
= = Failed uprising = =
On March 22 , the French arrested Long in the coastal town of Phan Thiết , some 160 kilometres to the east of Saigon . His activities and proclamations had attracted the attention of French colonial officials , and just days before , the Resident of Kampot visited the Battambang temple and spotted the collection of white robes , which were similarly styled to the uniforms worn during the 1909 uprising . However , Long 's disciples were unaware that he had been arrested and continued with their plot . After nightfall on March 23 , the bombs were taken into Saigon and placed at strategic points , with proclamation notices being erected in close proximity . None of the bombs successfully detonated . One source says that the bombs failed because the French authorities had defused all of them after uncovering the conspiracy .
On March 28 , the second phase of the operation started when several hundred rebels marched into Saigon dressed all in white , armed with only sticks and spears . Before the march , they had ingested potions that purportedly made them invisible . However , the French military were able to capture more than 80 of the supposedly invisible rebels during demonstrations against French rule . The police raided the homes of several people who were known to be involved with Long 's plot , resulting in more arrests . They captured most of Long 's main supporters , rendering the organisation impotent . However , Tri managed to escape .
= = Trial and imprisonment = =
Those involved were taken before a tribunal in November 1913 , where the leaders freely stated their intentions of overthrowing the French colonial regime . Of the 111 people arrested , the tribunal convicted 104 , of whom 63 received prison sentences . During the trial , some community leaders wrote to the Governor @-@ General of Indochina , blaming French oppression of the populace through corvee labour and the confiscation of land , for the discontent that led to the uprising . The prosecutor also criticised the way in which colonial authorities operated .
Ernest Outrey , the French Governor of Cochinchina , the southern region of Vietnam , was known for his support of colonial enterprise and rigid rule of the colony . He was unmoved by claims that the uprising had been fuelled by a sense of injustice . He said
Individually , the leaders of the movement have no personal motive to invoke in order to justify their xenophobic sentiments . Some of them are men who have remained imbued with the ancient order of things predating French conquest and who have adamantly remained within the tradition and ideas of the past ; others are fanatics , who are persuaded that they are devoted to a noble cause .
The governor went on to excoriate the French press for their criticism of colonial policy , claiming that they boosted the morale of anti @-@ colonial activists . The prosecutor thought that because Long 's movement was affiliated with the Việt Nam Quang Phục Hội ( VNQPH ) , an exiled monarchist organisation led by the leading anti @-@ colonial activist Phan Bội Châu , and Cường Để . The suspicion was based on the fact that the VNQPH had printed their own currency and circulated them into Vietnam at the same time that Long 's monetary policy had led to a depreciation . Cường Để had also secretly re @-@ entered southern Vietnam and had been travelling through the countryside when Long 's uprising was launched in March . The prosecutor claimed that activists from northern and central Vietnam , the main source of the VNQPH 's followers , were behind the plot . The defendants denied this , asserting that most of the participants were " illiterate peasants " , while the VNQPH were dominated by members of the scholar @-@ gentry .
The French intended to deport Long to French Guiana , but the outbreak of World War I in 1914 interrupted their plans . As a result , Long remained in Saigon Central Prison , serving his life sentence with hard labour . The French were unaware that Long was still in contact with his supporters .
= = Attempted jailbreak and execution = =
Over time , resentment against French rule rose again , due to World War I. The colonial authorities had forced each village to send a quota of men to serve on the Western Front . In Vietnam , rumours circulated , claiming that France was close to defeat . Believing that the colonial hold had been weakened by the strain of war in Europe , Vietnamese nationalists were buoyed . In February 1916 , uprisings broke out in southern Vietnam , with rebels demanding the restoration of an independent monarchy . One of their many objectives was to secure Long 's release by breaking down Saigon prison , and this was the most noted incident during the tumult .
Attacks on prisons were not uncommon in French Indochina , as rebels often viewed the prisoners as a source of reinforcements . Georges Coulet , regarded as French Indochina 's leading scholar on anti @-@ French religious movements , said that " The attack on Saigon Central Prison was not simply an attempt to release the pseudo @-@ Emperor , Phan Xich Long , but was intended to deliver all prisoners " .
Before daybreak on February 15 , 1916 , between 100 and 300 Vietnamese wearing white headbands , white trousers and black tops , armed with sticks , farm implements and knives , sailed along the Arroyo Chinoise waterway and disembarked near the centre of Saigon . They had pretended to be working the transport industry , delivering fruit , vegetables and building materials . The plan was that this advance party would give signals to a larger party of rebels , who were waiting on the outskirts of Saigon with the majority of the weapons , to move into the city for the main part of the uprising .
The advance party then attempted to proceed to the Central Prison to forcibly release Long , shouting " Let 's free big Brother [ Long ] " . Long had provided his followers with a detailed strategy from his prison cell , and the attack was led by a Cholon gang leader named Nguyen Van Truoc ( also known as Tu Mat ) with Tri 's assistance . Truoc was the leader of a powerful underworld gang that was linked to the Heaven and Earth Society .
The French had anticipated the trouble , and police , whose presence had been increased along the waterways , arrived quickly , dispersing Long 's followers with ease . Although some of the disciples reached the prison , none managed to breach its defenses . Ten of Long 's men were killed , whereas only one sentry perished . The French arrested 65 rebels on the spot , including Tri . Of these , 38 were sentenced to death . Long was sentenced to death for his participation in the uprising , and he was executed on February 22 , 1916 . The French Governor @-@ General of Indochina wrote to the French Minister of Colonies , describing the incident as " a serious attempt to put in execution a vast plot that has been prepared carefully and for a long time by a secret society which grouped together with professional bandits all the enemies of our domination " . The colonial authorities commissioned the publication of poems , which praised French rule and warned the populace against insurrections .
Similar events occurred across southern Vietnam , and in one case in Bến Tre , another self @-@ proclaimed mystic launched an uprising that was similar to Long 's 1913 effort . In all , riots or uprisings broke out in 13 of the 20 provinces of Cochinchina . The French declared a state of emergency and continued their crackdown against Long 's followers and other rebels , making a further 1 @,@ 660 arrests , which resulted in 261 incarcerations .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
The damage inflicted on Long 's organisation led many of his followers to disperse and join a group that has now developed into the Cao Đài politico @-@ religious sect based in Tây Ninh . Nevertheless , Long 's uprising was significant because of its abnormal roots . It was the first uprising led by a self @-@ styled religious leader whose support base came about due to man @-@ made discontent . Prior to Long , peasant uprisings with religious themes had always been preceded by floods , outbreaks of disease , famine , crop failure or other natural phenomena , as sections of the rural populace attributed such disasters to the wrath of the heavens and sought help from leaders who purported to have supernatural powers .
Long 's demise did not end the sequence of self @-@ proclaimed mystics who raised armies and engaged in politics . During the interwar period , a sorcerer named Chem Keo claimed to be Long 's reincarnation . During World War II , Huỳnh Phú Sổ claimed to be a living Buddha and quickly gathered more than a million supporters . He raised a large peasant army and battled both the French and the communist Viet Minh independence movement , before being killed by the latter . In another case in 1939 , a Taoist attempted to demonstrate that he was immune to French bullets . Furthermore , in the years immediately after World War II , the Cao Đài 's numbers swelled to 1 @.@ 5 million .
Phan Xich Long is a quickly developing street at the junction of Districts 1 , Binh Thanh , and Phu Nhuan .
= Dig Me Out =
Dig Me Out is the third studio album by the American rock band Sleater @-@ Kinney , released on April 8 , 1997 by Kill Rock Stars . The album was produced by John Goodmanson and recorded from December 1996 to January 1997 at John and Stu 's Place in Seattle , Washington . Dig Me Out marked the debut of Janet Weiss , who is the band 's longest serving and current drummer . The music on the record was influenced by traditional rock and roll bands , while the lyrics deal with issues of heartbreak and survival .
Two singles were released in support of the album : " One More Hour " and " Little Babies " . The title track " Dig Me Out " peaked at number six on the KEXP Top 90 @.@ 3 Album Chart in 1997 without being released as a single . The album received substantial acclaim from music critics , who praised the album 's energy and feminist lyrics . Dig Me Out is included on several publications ' best album lists . In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked it number 272 on its list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time .
= = Background and recording = =
Dig Me Out is the follow @-@ up to Sleater @-@ Kinney 's highly acclaimed second album Call the Doctor , released in 1996 by the queercore independent record label Chainsaw Records . Call the Doctor confirmed the band 's reputation as one of the major musical acts from the Pacific Northwest , rebelling against gender roles , consumerism , and indie rock 's male @-@ dominated hierarchy . After the release of Call the Doctor , drummer Janet Weiss of Quasi joined the band . Previously , the band had had a number of temporary drummers , including Misty Farrell , Lora Macfarlane , and Toni Gogin . Weiss would eventually become Sleater @-@ Kinney 's longest serving and current drummer . For its third album , Sleater @-@ Kinney worked again with producer John Goodmanson . The band left Chainsaw Records and decided to release the album through Kill Rock Stars , another independent record label which singer and guitarist Corin Tucker thought had better resources to ensure the band 's distribution . Goodmanson also remarked that Kill Rock Stars afforded the band a generous amount of studio time for an independent label , stating that Call the Doctor only took four days to record while Dig Me Out was recorded over the period of eight days .
Dig Me Out was written in nearly two months and recorded from December 1996 to January 1997 at John and Stu 's Place in Seattle , Washington . During the recording sessions , recording the vocal interplay between Tucker and co @-@ vocalist and guitarist Carrie Brownstein involved some difficulties . However , the producer took care and prevented favoring one voice over the other . As Goodmanson recalls : " We always used different mikes for the lead vocal and for the second vocal , or different kinds of processing to make those things really distinct . To make it so you can hear both things at once " . Goodmanson also noted that the fact that the band features no bass player was an advantage for the album 's production . He explained : " The awesome thing about having no bass player is you can make the guitars sound as big as you want . Usually you have to clear all that room out for the bass , so you can hear the bass line . With no bass there , you can just go for giant guitar sounds that you wouldn 't normally be able to go for " .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Musically , Dig Me Out was considered rockier than its predecessor . Weiss ' drumming style was influenced by traditional rock and roll bands such as The Rolling Stones , The Beatles , and The Kinks , as well as numerous blues rock musicians such as Lightnin ' Hopkins , Muddy Waters , Billy Boy Arnold , and Bessie Smith , among others . Both Tucker and Brownstein remarked that Weiss became an essential part of the band 's sound . According to Tucker , " Musically , she 's completed our band . She 's become the bottom end and the solidness that we 've really wanted for our songwriting " . In addition to playing drums , Weiss provides hand claps and tambourine in " Turn It On " . Dig Me Out also contains more guitar and vocal interplay by Tucker and Brownstein than Call the Doctor . As Brownstein explains , " If you were to separate our guitar parts I don 't necessarily think they would fully stand on their own . Our songs [ ... ] aren 't really complete until the other person has put their part over it , and their vocals " .
The lyrical themes on Dig Me Out deal with issues of heartbreak and survival . The song " One More Hour " is about the breakup of Tucker and Brownstein 's romantic relationship . Before the release of the album , Spin magazine published a controversial article discussing Tucker and Brownstein 's personal relationship without their permission . Brownstein felt that " it was a complete invasion of privacy . My parents didn 't know Corin and I were going out . They didn 't know I had ever dated a woman before . It was horrible . I was pissed at Spin , really mad . Luckily my parents are great people , but God forbid I would have some family that would disown me over something like that . And I would have totally held Spin responsible for that . " The song features a lot of vocal interplay by Tucker and Brownstein . Chris Nelson of Addicted to Noise noted that " one can almost hear Tucker crying in the studio as she wails , ' I needed it ' , while behind her Brownstein offers her attempts at consolation " . In her 2015 memoir Hunger Makes Me A Modern Girl , Brownstein also states that almost all the songs on Dig Me Out are about either her or Tucker 's future husband , Lance Bangs .
Like its predecessor , Dig Me Out also features songs that show frustration with sexism and gender stereotypes . " Little Babies " is a protest against the traditional maternity role , while the title song " Dig Me Out " exposes a woman in a dominant role . The album 's title was inspired by the fact that the band had to literally dig out the recording studio after a heavy snowstorm that took place in Winter 1996 in Seattle . Musically , the song " Words and Guitar " was said to " [ leap ] and [ skit ] with the just @-@ released repression of early Talking Heads " , while " Dance Song ' 97 " was said to " sport Devo @-@ esque keyboards of a distinctly ' 80s vintage " . Jenn Pelly of Pitchfork Media described " Heart Factory " as a song that " roars over synthetic emotions of the Prozac Nation . "
= = Release = =
Dig Me Out was released on April 8 , 1997 by Kill Rock Stars . The album cover is an homage to The Kinks ' 1965 album The Kink Kontroversy . After the release , the band went on a tour to promote the album ; a performance of " Words and Guitar " at El Rey Theatre , Los Angeles is featured in the documentary film Songs for Cassavetes by Justin Mitchell . As of July 1999 , the album has sold 64 @,@ 000 copies in the U.S. according to Nielsen SoundScan . As of February 2015 , Dig Me Out has sold 130 @,@ 000 copies . Two songs from the album , " One More Hour " and " Little Babies " , were released as singles by Matador Records on June 1 , 1998 and September 7 , 1998 respectively . The first single features the song " I Wanna Be Your Joey Ramone " from Call the Doctor as the B @-@ side , while the second single features " I 'm Not Waiting " , also from their previous album . The compact disc version of " One More Hour " includes a third song , " Don 't Think You Wanna " , which was originally released on the band 's debut album Sleater @-@ Kinney . The song " Dig Me Out " peaked at number six on the KEXP Top 90 @.@ 3 Album Chart in 1997 without being released as a single .
= = Critical reception = =
Dig Me Out received substantial acclaim from music critics . Randall Roberts , writing for CMJ New Music Monthly , described the album as a " hum of life wholly transcending gender and genre , filled with the kind of excitement and singular voice that made punk rock glorious in its infancy [ ... ] Dig Me Out is a monster " . Sara Scribner of Los Angeles Times praised Tucker 's emotional vocal delivery , writing that " she 's obsessed with finding honest emotions within the cold machinery of the human heart . " Ann Powers stated similar pros and highlighted Brownstein 's energetic guitar playing , noting that the band " now [ delivers ] the punch their words describe . " She also gave high marks to the album 's feminist lyrics , commenting " If [ Sleater @-@ Kinney ] wanna be our Simone de Beauvoir , Dig Me Out proves they 're up to it . " Similarly , Matt Diehl of Rolling Stone said that " while the Spice Girls prattle on about ' girl power ' , Sleater @-@ Kinney remain the real socket for that energy " .
AllMusic reviewer Jason Ankeny credited the band for expanding their musical boundaries with a more confident and mature sound . Wook Kim of Entertainment Weekly praised Tucker and Brownstein 's " interlocking " vocals and called the record a " fine example of state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art punk " . In The Village Voice , critic Robert Christgau praised the union and teamwork of the band , stating that " they 're so confident of their ability to please that they just can 't stop . And this confidence is collective : Corin and Carrie chorus @-@ trade like the two @-@ headed girl , dashing and high @-@ stepping around on Janet Weiss 's shoulders . What a ride " . He referred to the album as one of his " favorite albums of the year , easy " . In a retrospective review , Anthony Carew of About.com remarked that Dig Me Out took Sleater @-@ Kinney " from the cult corner of the Pacific Northwest to international acclaim " .
Dig Me Out is frequently included on several publications ' best album lists . The album appeared at number four in The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop critics ' poll for 1997 . In 1999 , Dig Me Out was ranked number 21 on Spin 's list of The 90 Greatest Albums of the ' 90s . In 2001 , Spin placed it at number 19 on its list of " 50 Most Essential Punk Records " . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 272 on Rolling Stone 's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . In 2005 , the album was ranked number 24 in Spin 's " 100 Greatest Albums , 1985 – 2005 " . In 2012 , Spin also ranked it at number 74 on their " 125 Best Albums of the Past 25 Years " , stating that " Dig Me Out captures the noise of a soul @-@ filled body shaking itself awake , and that 's an experience that bridges any gender divide . " In 2008 , the song " Dig Me Out " was ranked number 44 in Rolling Stone 's " 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time " . In 2011 , the album was placed at number 71 by Slant Magazine on its list of " The 100 Best Albums of the 1990s " . The album was also included in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die .
= = Track listing = =
All music composed by Sleater @-@ Kinney .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
= Electra Heart =
Electra Heart is the second studio album by Welsh singer and songwriter Marina Diamandis , professionally known as Marina and the Diamonds . It was released on 27 April 2012 by 679 Artists and Atlantic Records . Diamandis collaborated with producers including Liam Howe , Greg Kurstin , Dr. Luke , Diplo , and StarGate during its recording , and subsequently transitioned from the new wave musical styles seen throughout her debut studio album The Family Jewels ( 2010 ) . Their efforts resulted in a concept album inspired by electropop music , a distinct departure from her earlier projects ; its lyrical content is united by the topics of love and identity . Diamandis created the title character " Electra Heart " to represent female stereotypes in popular American culture .
Music critics were divided in their opinions of Electra Heart , expressing ambivalence towards Diamandis ' shift in musical style and its overall production . The record debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 21 @,@ 358 copies . In doing so , it became Diamandis ' first chart @-@ topping record there , although it was then distinguished as the lowest @-@ selling number @-@ one record of the 21st century in the country . The album was eventually certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for exceeding shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units . Electra Heart performed moderately on international record charts , including a peak position at number 31 on the US Billboard 200 , and became Diamandis ' highest @-@ charting project in the United States at the time .
Electra Heart was supported by three singles , all of which were supplemented by music videos . " Primadonna " was released as the lead single from the record on 20 March 2012 , and peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart . Follow @-@ up singles " Power & Control " and " How to Be a Heartbreaker " were respectively released on 20 July and 7 December , and reached numbers 193 and 88 in the United Kingdom . The record was additionally promoted by Diamandis ' headlining The Lonely Hearts Club Tour , which visited Europe and North America from May 2012 through May 2013 .
= = Background and production = =
After returning from the United States after the launch of her debut studio album The Family Jewels ( 2010 ) , Diamandis considered creating a character which would become the centerpiece of her follow @-@ up project . She commented that she was inspired by the " Tumblr generation " to photograph herself in several places across the United States , appearing as a different persona in each picture to mimick the anonymity of the " mini @-@ stars of the internet " . The final product became " a cold , ruthless character who wasn 't vulnerable " , which she later named " Electra Heart " and detailed as a tool to represent a combination of elements associated with the American Dream and Greek tragedy , and added that visuals would merge the differing concepts into a cohesive idea .
Diamandis first announced Electra Heart in August 2011 ; it was initially planned to become a three @-@ piece project inspired by American culture in the 1970s , although it eventually evolved into her second studio album . Diamandis originally planned to release the record as a " side project " under an entity separate from Marina and the Diamonds , although her management disapproved . The track " Living Dead " was the first recorded during its production , and approximately 22 songs were recorded for potential inclusion on the album . She later commented that the record was dedicated to " dysfunctional love " , elaborating that " rejection is a universally embarrassing topic and Electra Heart is my response to that . " Diamandis stated that Electra Heart was influenced by Madonna , Marilyn Monroe , and the French queen Marie Antoinette ; she described Madonna as being " fearless " and felt that she showcased a desire to be a successful artist beyond fame and wealth . Diamandis told Glamour that Britney Spears influenced a " double @-@ sided " theme for the record of both " innocence " and " darkness " . She described the final product as being " a bit cringe " and reflective of her personal experiences , although noted that its promotional campaign would be " pink and fluffy " .
= = Composition = =
Heavily inspired by electropop musical styles , Electra Heart has been described as a concept album detailing " female identity " and " a recent breakup " . It represents a musical departure from Diamandis ' debut studio album The Family Jewels ( 2010 ) , which incorporated a new wave and indie rock @-@ influenced sonority . She later commented that the album was specifically designed as a pop record to allow her to establish a greater prominence in the contemporary music industry . The title character " Electra Heart " portrays four female archetypes in the album : " Teen Idle " , " Primadonna " , " Homewrecker " , and " Su @-@ Barbie @-@ A " . Their presences on each track are not clearly defined , although Diamandis acknowledged that they are more apparent on the visual aspects of the album .
Alexis Petridis from The Guardian compared the lyrical content used throughout the pop punk @-@ inspired opener " Bubblegum Bitch " to " the self @-@ fulfilling I @-@ will @-@ be @-@ huge prophecy " that was developed in The Fame by Lady Gaga . The following track " Primadonna " is a pop number that contains a " surging beat " and an " anti @-@ chorus structure " , which according to James Christopher Monger from AllMusic blends styles reminiscent of Swedish recording artist Lykke Li and the British band Coldplay . " Lies " takes influence from elements of dubstep music . Michael Cragg from BBC Music felt that it allowed Diamandis to " deal directly with her emotions " , and opined that contributions from producer Diplo gave the song " extra gloom wobble sadness " . Cragg classified " Homewrecker " as a " vampy " track which blends verses centred around spoken @-@ word vocals with a " stompy " refrain where Diamandis declares " I broke a million hearts just for fun " , while Christopher Will from the Pennsylvania State University @-@ sponsored Blue Robot recognised elements of house music . Cragg further opined that " Starring Role " was " heart @-@ rending in its simplicity " , and noticed prominent piano and drum instrumentation throughout the recording .
Monger saw the sixth track " The State of Dreaming " as a solemn offering from the record for its intellectual lyrical content , which he described as one of several tracks that " reveal the lonely rebel , defiantly eating lunch alone , secretly wishing for acceptance . " " Power & Control " was detailed as an electropop track by Emily Mackay from The Quietus , while Laura Snapes from Pitchfork Media commented that Diamandis repeatedly delivers the lyrics " I am weak " with an " increasingly ephemeral voice " as it progresses . Snapes also felt that " Living Dead " was a more " vulnerable moment " from Electra Heart , and compared it to the " snappy [ and ] taut " works of English duo Soft Cell . Monger recognised inspiration from American recording artist Lana Del Rey in " Teen Idle " and felt that it represented " the feral blood of an army of disenfranchised high @-@ school loners coming into their own " . Bradley Stern from MuuMuse suggested that " The Valley of the Dolls " drew inspiration from the 1967 film of the same name , and described " Hypocrates " as a " sparkling guitar @-@ pop tune " that takes stylistic influences from 1960s pop music and details the power struggle between romantic partners . Electra Heart closes with its 12th track " Fear and Loathing " , which experiments with electronic music styles ; Petridis made particular note of its minimal production , which according to him , places emphasis on Diamandis ' " coolly enunciated and slightly folky " vocals .
= = Release and promotion = =
On 1 March , Diamandis unveiled the album artwork for the standard version of Electra Heart , which depicts a blonde Diamandis wearing several hair rollers . The singer later revealed that because of the dye , her hair started to fall out , so she got a boy 's haircut and wore a wig . Becky Bain from Idolator complimented its " retro film stock look " and opined that it " is just a snapshot from some 1970s exploitation movie " , while Bradley Stern from MuuMuse jokingly referenced the album track " Homewrecker " when stating that she " looks like a proper Suzy Homemaker ! ( Or should I say Suzy Homewrecker ? ) " The artwork for the deluxe version features the same picture of Diamandis , although it is tinted purple . The track listing for the standard version was confirmed on 1 March , while the track listing for the deluxe version was announced on 5 March . A limited edition box set of Electra Heart contained the deluxe version of the record , four photo art cards , a ring , perspex , necklace , and pocket mirror .
= = = Music videos = = =
Diamandis released 11 music videos through YouTube during the promotional campaign for Electra Heart . She claimed that their production led her record label into bankruptcy , but stated that they would be released and " finish this era the way I want to . " The first , titled " Part 1 : Fear and Loathing " , was released on 8 August 2011 , and sees Diamandis cutting her long brown hair and singing the track on a balcony during the nighttime . It was followed by " Part 2 : Radioactive " on 22 August , which depicts a blonde @-@ wigged Diamandis travelling across the United States with her romantic interest . The track was released through the iTunes Store on 23 September , and peaked at number 25 on the UK Singles Chart on 15 October . The black @-@ and @-@ white clip " Part 3 : The Archetypes " shows the close @-@ up of a blonde Diamandis while the introduction of " The State of Dreaming " is played ; it introduced the archetypes "
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housewife " , " beauty queen " , " homewrecker " , and " idle teen " on 15 December . " Part 4 : Primadonna " served as the music video for the lead single from the record on 12 March 2012 .
Uploaded on 18 May , the black @-@ and @-@ white " Part 5 : Su @-@ Barbie @-@ A " is set to the introduction of " Valley of the Dolls " with overlapped commentary mentioning " Quick @-@ Curl Barbie " and " Mod @-@ Hair Ken " ; it depicts Diamandis standing on the porch of a house with her back to the front door . It was followed by " Part 6 : Power & Control " on 30 May , where Diamandis is seen engaging in a series of mind games with her romantic interest . Diamandis alleged that Atlantic Records delayed the premiere of " Part 7 : How to Be a Heartbreaker " because they felt she was " ugly " in the clip ; it was made publicly available on 28 September , and sees Diamandis interacting with several shirtless men in a community shower . " Part 8 : E.V.O.L. " introduced the previously @-@ unreleased track " E.V.O.L " on 14 February 2013 . The black @-@ and @-@ white visual shows a brown @-@ wigged Diamandis looking about a room with white @-@ tiled walls .
" Part 9 : The State of Dreaming " , premiered on 2 March , presents Diamandis lying on a bed while " alternating between sad eyes and a big smile " . It begins with a black @-@ and @-@ white filter , although transitions into color after the first minute . It was followed by " Part 10 : Lies " on 17 July , and employs a similar black @-@ and @-@ white to color technique . Diamandis is first seen looking into the camera wearing little makeup , and is later shown walking into the woods and sitting at a dinner table in the rain . The final music video " Part 11 : Electra Heart " introduced the previously @-@ unreleased title track ; the clip itself contains footage from the earlier music videos . It symbolically ended the promotional era for Electra Heart , with Diamandis having tweeted " Goodbye , Electra Heart ! " on 8 August , the same day the video was released .
= = = Singles = = =
Inspired by the six @-@ single promotional campaign for Teenage Dream ( 2010 ) by Katy Perry , Diamandis planned to release six singles from Electra Heart , however , three tracks were released before she finished promoting the album . " Primadonna " was announced as the lead single from the record on 13 March 2012 , and was released through the iTunes Store in the United States on 20 March . Robert Copsey from Digital Spy spoke favourably of the track , complimenting its overall production and Diamandis ' portrayal of its female archetype . It peaked at number 11 on the UK Singles Chart , becoming Diamandis ' fifth song to enter the top 40 in the United Kingdom . " Power & Control " was released through the iTunes Store in the United Kingdom on 20 July 2012 and served as the second single from Electra Heart . It peaked at number 193 on the UK Singles Chart . In July 2012 , it was announced that " How to Be a Heartbreaker " would be released as the second single in the United States and the third single in the United Kingdom . Diamandis commented that she had written the track while Electra Heart was being pressed in the United Kingdom , and consequently missed the cut @-@ off for initial inclusion on the record ; however , it was featured in the revised track listing for the American version . The song was released through the iTunes Store on 7 December 2012 , and peaked at number 88 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = = Tour = = =
In February 2012 , Diamandis announced the launch of her headlining The Lonely Hearts Club Tour . It ran alongside the Mylo Xyloto Tour headlined by Coldplay , for which Diamandis served as the supporting act . The Lonely Hearts Club Tour was initially scheduled to begin on 4 May at the Manchester Cathedral in Manchester , although it was delayed after Diamandis sustained a vocal cord injury , and ultimately began on 18 June at The Waterfront in Norwich . The American leg of the tour began on 10 July at The Fonda Theatre in Los Angeles , while the tour itself ended on 29 May 2013 after a performance at the Rumsey Playfield in New York City .
= = Critical reception = =
At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Electra Heart received an average score of 57 , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " , based on 16 reviews . Writing for AllMusic , James Christopher Monger compared the record to the works of American recording artists Kesha and Lady Gaga , and favourably summarised it as " a brooding , sexy , desperate , overwrought , and infectious record that 's both aware and unashamed of its contrivance . " Michael Cragg reviewed the album on behalf of BBC Music ; he felt that the recurring concept of failed romance established " a strange dichotomy " that created a sense of cohesiveness , and elaborated that it " [ pulls ] you sharply into her world . " He considered the second half of the disc to be mildly disappointing , although concluded that this was excusable because the overall record " [ balances ] the ironic and the heartfelt , the quirky and the mainstream , the real and the fake with remarkable aplomb . " Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly complimented Diamandis for her ability to " rival Katy Perry for catchy hooks , command with the swagger of Gwen Stefani , and even come close to the ethereal vocal exhilaration of Florence Welch . " Stack opined that Electra Heart was a healthy combination of up @-@ tempo recordings and genuinely @-@ delivered ballads , and placed additional praise on the female archetypes explored throughout the album .
The Guardian writer Alexis Petridis was confident that " there 's clearly an interesting pop star " emerging from Diamandis , but suggested that her creativity was restricted by the heavy integration of alter egos and an implied determination for commercial success , which he commented failed to reflect Diamandis ' inventiveness . Simon Price from The Independent accepted that the record was " too professional to be truly terrible " , although noted that Diamandis ' revamped public image as a " British Katy Perry " lacked ingenuity . NME columnist Priya Elan summarised the album as an " expensive @-@ sounding failure " that suffered from its lack of decisiveness . Writing for Pitchfork Media , Laura Snapes questioned the decision of creating the " Electra Heart " character for the record , and suggested that it was unnecessary . She elaborated that " duller and more unbearable " tracks were unavoidable , and expressed particular disappointment because she thought that Electra Heart could have become " one of the year 's most acclaimed pop albums . " Representing The Observer , Kitty Empire assumed that Diamandis ' collaborations with Dr. Luke and Greg Kurstin were evidence of " a big label push " . She compared the disc to the works of Perry and Britney Spears , although felt that Lana Del Rey was more successful in embodying the themes of " love , identity , femininity and America " than Diamandis ' generic production values allowed . Emily Mackay from The Quietus criticised the songs ' titles for being lacklustre , which she sarcastically stated caused listeners " physical pain " , and was disappointed that the character " Electra Heart " was a scapegoat for expressing " all the worst parts of Marina Diamandis that she didn 't want to become . " The harshest review came from the magazine Clash , with George Boorman writing , " ' Electra heart ' is an ingloriously languid statement of Marina 's demise , the final stamp of disapproval on her flailing excuse of a musical career . There is actually a song called ' Bubblegum Bitch ' on this album . ' nuff said . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Electra Heart debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 21 @,@ 358 copies . It became Diamandis ' first chart @-@ topping album in the United Kingdom , although it was additionally distinguished as the lowest @-@ selling number @-@ one record of the 21st century in the country . It was later surpassed by Write It on Your Skin ( 2012 ) by Newton Faulkner , which debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart with first @-@ week sales of 16 @,@ 647 copies . On 15 April 2016 , Electra Heart was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry for exceeding shipments of 100 @,@ 000 units in the United Kingdom . The record additionally reached number one on both the Irish Albums Chart and the Scottish Albums Chart ; it was recognised with a gold certification in the former territory .
Electra Heart performed moderately on additional record charts in Europe . The record peaked at number 11 on the Swiss Hitparade , and reached number 17 on the German Media Control Charts . It charted at number 25 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 , number 30 on the Norwegian VG @-@ lista , and number 41 on the Swedish Sverigetopplistan . The album reached the lower ends of the Dutch MegaCharts and the Belgian Ultratop in Wallonia , respectively peaking at numbers 92 and 132 in each region . However , it reached number 31 on the Official New Zealand Music Chart and number 32 on the Australian ARIA Charts in Oceania .
Electra Heart debuted at number 31 on the US Billboard 200 , and reached number two on the Billboard Dance / Electronic Albums component chart . It has sold 129 @,@ 000 copies in the US as of March 2015 . Elsewhere in North America , the record peaked at number 50 on the Canadian Albums Chart . In August 2012 , Diamandis commented that she believed consumers in the United Kingdom had misinterpreted her comical effort with a perceived abandonment of her original musical inspiration , thus resulting in a relative underperformance in the country . In contrast , she felt that her American audience was more receptive of Electra Heart and her evolving public image .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Electra Heart .
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies a co @-@ producer
^ [ b ] signifies a remixer
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Electra Heart .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Myxobolus cerebralis =
Myxobolus cerebralis is a myxosporean parasite of salmonids ( salmon , trout , and their allies ) that causes whirling disease in farmed salmon and trout and also in wild fish populations . It was first described in rainbow trout in Germany a century ago , but its range has spread and it has appeared in most of Europe ( including Russia ) , the United States , South Africa and other countries . In the 1980s , M. cerebralis was found to require a tubificid oligochaete ( a kind of segmented worm ) to complete its life cycle . The parasite infects its hosts with its cells after piercing them with polar filaments ejected from nematocyst @-@ like capsules .
Whirling disease afflicts juvenile fish ( fingerlings and fry ) and causes skeletal deformation and neurological damage . Fish " whirl " forward in an awkward , corkscrew @-@ like pattern instead of swimming normally , find feeding difficult , and are more vulnerable to predators . The mortality rate is high for fingerlings , up to 90 % of infected populations , and those that do survive are deformed by the parasites residing in their cartilage and bone . They act as a reservoir for the parasite , which is released into water following the fish 's death . M. cerebralis is one of the most economically important myxozoans in fish , as well as one of the most pathogenic . It was the first myxosporean whose pathology and symptoms were described scienti
t | first = M. A. | last2 = Granath | first2 = W. O. Jr . | year = 2003 | title = Whirling disease and salmonid fish : life cycle , biology , and disease | journal = Journal of Parasitology | volume = 89 | issue = 4 | pages = 658 – 667 | doi = 10 @.@ 1645 / ge @-@ 82r | jstor = 3285855 } } < / ref > The parasite is not transmissible to humans .
= = Taxonomy = =
The taxonomy and naming of both M. cerebralis , and of myxozoans in general , have complicated histories . It was originally thought to infect fish brains ( hence the specific epithet cerebralis ) and nervous systems , though it soon was found to primarily infect cartilage and skeletal tissue . Attempts to change the name to Myxobolus chondrophagus , which would more accurately describe the organism , failed because of nomenclature rules . Later , the organisms previously called Triactinomyxon dubium and T. gyrosalmo ( class Actinosporea ) were found to be , in fact , triactinomyxon stages of M. cerebralis , the life cycle of which was expanded to include the triactinomyxon stage . Similarly , other actinosporeans were folded into the life cycles of various myxosporeans .
Today , the myxozoans , previously thought to be multicellular protozoans , are considered animals by many scientists , though their status has not officially changed . Recent molecular studies suggest they are related to Bilateria or Cnidaria , with Cnidaria being closer morphologically because both groups have extrusive filaments , . Bilateria are somewhat closer in some genetic studies . A study in 2015 confirms they are cnidarians .
= = Morphology = =
M. cerebralis has many diverse stages ranging from single cells to relatively large spores , not all of which have been studied in detail .
= = = Triactinomyxon stage = = =
The stages that infect fish , called triactinomyxon spores , are made of a single style that is about 150 micrometers ( µm ) long and three processes or " tails " , each about 200 micrometers long . A sporoplasm packet at the end of the style contains 64 germ cells surrounded by a cellular envelope . There are also three polar capsules , each of which contains a coiled polar filament between 170 and 180 µm long . Polar filaments in both this stage and in the myxospore stage ( see picture above ) rapidly shoot into the body of the host , creating an opening through which the sporoplasm can enter .
= = = Sporoplasm stage = = =
Upon contact with fish hosts and firing of the polar capsules , the sporoplasm contained within the central style of the triactinomyxon migrates into the epithelium or gut lining . Firstly , this sporoplasm undergoes mitosis to produce more amoeboid cells , which migrate into deeper tissue layers , to reach the cerebral cartilage .
= = = Myxosporean stage = = =
Myxospores , which develop from sporogonic cell stages inside fish hosts , are lenticular . They have a diameter of about 10 micrometers and are made of six cells . Two of these cells form polar capsules , two merge to form a binucleate sporoplasm , and two form protective valves . Myxospores are infective to oligochaetes , and are found among the remains of digested fish cartilage . They are often difficult to distinguish from related species because of morphological similarities across genera . Though M. cerebralis is the only myxosporean ever found in salmonid cartilage , other visually similar species may be present in the skin , nervous system , or muscle .
= = Life cycle = =
Myxobolus cerebralis has a two @-@ host life cycle involving a salmonid fish and a tubificid oligochaete . So far , the only worm known to be susceptible to M. cerebralis infection is Tubifex tubifex , though what scientists currently call T. tubifex may in fact be more than one species . First , myxospores are ingested by tubificid worms . In the gut lumen of the worm , the spores extrude their polar capsules and attach to the gut epithelium by polar filaments . The shell valves then open along the suture line and the binucleate germ cell penetrates between the intestinal epithelial cells of the worm . This cell multiplies , producing many amoeboid cells by an asexual cell fission process called merogony . As a result of the multiplication process , the intercellular space of the epithelial cells in more than 10 neighbouring worm segments may become infected .
Around 60 – 90 days postinfection , sexual cell stages of the parasite undergo sporogenesis , and develop into pansporocysts , each of which contains eight triactinomyxon @-@ stage spores . These spores are released from the oligochaete anus into the water . Alternatively , a fish can become infected by eating an infected oligochaete . Infected tubificids can release triactinomyxons for at least a year . The triactinomyxon spores are carried by the water currents , where they can infect a salmonid through the skin . Penetration of the fish by these spores takes only a few seconds . Within five minutes , a sac of germ cells called a sporoplasm has entered the fish epidermis , and within a few hours , the sporoplasm splits into individual cells that will spread through the fish .
Within the fish , both intracellular and extracellular stages reproduce in its cartilage by asexual endogeny , meaning new cells grow from within old cells . The final stage within the fish is the creation of the myxospore , which is formed by sporogony . They are released into the environment when the fish decomposes or is eaten . Some recent research indicates some fish may expel viable myxospores while still alive .
Myxospores are extremely tough : " it was shown that Myxobolus cerebralis spores can tolerate freezing at − 20 ° C for at least 3 months , aging in mud at 13 ° C for at least 5 months , and passage through the guts of northern pike Esox lucius or mallards Anas platyrhynchos without loss of infectivity " to worms . Triactinomyxons are much shorter @-@ lived , surviving 34 days or less , depending on temperature .
= = Pathology = =
M. cerebralis infections have been reported from a wide range of salmonid species : eight species of " Atlantic " salmonids , Salmo ; four species of " Pacific " salmonids , Oncorhynchus ; four species of char , Salvelinus ; the grayling , Thymallus thymallus ; and the huchen , Hucho hucho . M. cerebralis causes damage to its fish hosts through attachment of triactinomyxon spores and the migrations of various stages through tissues and along nerves , as well as by digesting cartilage . The fish 's tail may darken , but aside from lesions on cartilage , internal organs generally appear healthy . Other symptoms include skeletal deformities and " whirling " behavior ( tail @-@ chasing ) in young fish , which was thought to have been caused by a loss of equilibrium , but is actually caused by damage to the spinal cord and lower brain stem . Experiments have shown that fish can kill Myxobolus in their skin ( possibly using antibodies ) , but that the fish do not attack the parasites once they have migrated to the central nervous system . This response varies from species to species .
In T. tubifex , the release of triactinomyxon spores from the intestinal wall damages the worm 's mucosa ; this may happen thousands of times in a single worm , and is believed to impair nutrient absorption . Also , fish infected with worms have lower body mass and may be discolored . Spores are released from the worm almost exclusively when the temperature is between 10 ° C and 15 ° C , so fish in warmer or cooler waters are less likely to be infected , and infection rates vary seasonally .
= = = Susceptibility = = =
Fish size , age , concentration of triactinomyxon spores , and water temperature all affect infection rates in fish , as does the species of the fish in question . The disease has the most impact on fish less than five months old because their skeletons have not ossified . This makes young fish more susceptible to deformities and provides M. cerebralis more cartilage on which to feed . In one study of seven species of many strains , brook trout and rainbow trout ( except one strain ) were far more heavily affected by M. cerebralis after two hours of exposure than other species were , while bull trout , Chinook salmon , brown trout , and Arctic grayling were least severely affected . While brown trout may harbor the parasite , they typically do not show any symptoms , and this species may have been M. cerebralis ' original host . This lack of symptoms in brown trout meant that the parasite was not discovered until after nonnative rainbow trout were introduced in Europe .
= = = Diagnosis = = =
Moderate or heavy clinical infection of fish with whirling disease can be presumptively diagnosed on the basis of changes in behavior and appearance about 35 to 80 days after initial infection , though " injury or deficiency in dietary tryptophan and ascorbic acid can evoke similar signs " , so conclusive diagnosis may require finding myxospores in the fish 's cartilage . In heavy infections , only examining cartilage microscopically may be needed to find spores . In less severe infections , the most common test involves digestion of the cranial cartilage with the proteases pepsin and trypsin ( pepsin @-@ trypsin digest — PTD ) before looking for spores . The head and other tissues can be further examined using histopathology to confirm whether the location and morphology of the spores matches what is known for M. cerebralis . Serological identification of spores in tissue sections using an antibody raised against the spores is also possible . Parasite identity can also be confirmed using the polymerase chain reaction to amplify the 415 base pair 18S rRNA gene from M. cerebralis . Fish should be screened at the life stage most susceptible to the parasites , with particular focus on fish in aquaculture units .
= = Impact = =
Although originally a mild pathogen of Salmo trutta in central Europe and other salmonids in northeast Asia , the spread of the rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss ) has greatly increased the impact of this parasite . Having no innate immunity to M. cerebralis , rainbow trout are particularly susceptible , and can release so many spores that even more resistant species in the same area , such as S. trutta , can become overloaded with parasites and incur 80 % – 90 % mortalities . Where M. cerebralis has become well @-@ established , it has caused decline or even elimination of whole cohorts of fish .
= = = Impact in Europe = = =
The impact of M. cerebralis in Europe is somewhat lessened because the species is endemic to this region , giving native fish stocks a degree of immunity . Rainbow trout , the most susceptible species to this parasite , are not native to Europe ; successfully reproducing feral populations are rare , so few wild rainbow trout are young enough to be susceptible to infection . On the other hand , they are widely reared for restocking sport @-@ fishing waters and for aquaculture , where this parasite has its greatest impact . Hatching and rearing methods designed to prevent infection of rainbow trout fry have proved successful in Europe . These techniques include hatching eggs in spore @-@ free water and rearing fry to the " ossification " stage in tanks or raceways . These methods give particular attention to the quality of water sources to guard against spore introduction during water exchanges . Fry are moved to earthen ponds only when they are considered to be clinically resistant to the parasite , after skeletal ossification occurs .
= = = Impact in New Zealand = = =
M. cerebralis was first found in New Zealand in 1971 . The parasite has only been found in rivers in the South Island , away from the most important aquaculture sites . Additionally , salmonid species commercially aquacultured in New Zealand have low susceptibility to whirling disease , and the parasite has also not been shown to affect native salmonids . An important indirect effect of the parasites presence is quarantine restriction placed on exports of salmon products to Australia .
= = = Impact in the United States = = =
M. cerebralis was first recorded in North America in 1956 in Pennsylvania , having been introduced via infected trout imported from Europe , and has spread steadily south and westwards . Until the 1990s , whirling disease was considered a manageable problem affecting rainbow trout in hatcheries . However , it has recently become established in natural waters of the Rocky Mountain states ( Colorado , Wyoming , Utah , Montana , Idaho , New Mexico ) , where it is causing heavy mortalities in several sportfishing rivers . Some streams in the western United States have lost 90 % of their trout . In addition , whirling disease threatens recreational fishing , which is important for the tourism industry , a key component of the economies of some U.S. western states . For example , " the Montana Whirling Disease Task Force estimated trout fishing generated US $ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in recreational expenditures in Montana alone " . Making matters worse , some of the fish species that M. cerebralis infects ( bull trout , cutthroat trout , and steelhead ) are already threatened or endangered , and the parasite could worsen their already precarious situations . For reasons that are poorly understood , but probably have to do with environmental conditions , the impact on infected fish has been greatest in Colorado and Montana , and least in California , Michigan , and New York .
= = Prevention and control = =
Some biologists have attempted to disarm triactinomyxon spores by making them fire prematurely . In the laboratory , only extreme acidity or basicity , moderate to high concentrations of salts , or electric current caused premature filament discharge ; neurochemicals , cnidarian chemosensitizers , and trout mucus were ineffective , as were anesthetized or dead fish . If spores could be disarmed , they would be unable to infect fish , but further research is needed to find an effective treatment .
Some strains of fish are more resistant than others , even within species ; using resistant strains may help reduce the incidence and severity of whirling disease in aquaculture . There is also some circumstantial evidence that fish populations can develop resistance to the disease over time . Additionally , aquaculturists may avoid M. cerebralis infections by not using earthen ponds for raising young fish ; this keeps them away from possibly infected tubificids and makes it easier to eliminate spores and oligochaetes through filtration , chlorination , and ultraviolet bombardment . To minimise tubificid populations , techniques include periodic disinfection of the hatchery or aquaculture ponds , and the rearing of small trout indoors in pathogen @-@ free water . Smooth @-@ faced concrete or plastic @-@ lined raceways that are kept clean and free of contaminated water keep aquaculture facilities free of the disease .
Lastly , some drugs , such as furazolidone , furoxone , benomyl , fumagillin , proguanil and clamoxyquine , have been shown to impede spore development , which reduces infection rates . For example , one study showed that feeding fumagillin to O. mykiss reduced the number of infected fish from between 73 % and 100 % to between 10 % and 20 % . Unfortunately , this treatment is considered unsuitable for wild trout populations , and no drug treatment has ever been shown to be effective in the studies required for United States Food and Drug Administration approval .
Recreational and sports fishers can help to prevent the spread of the parasite by not transporting fish from one body of water to another , not disposing of fish bones or entrails in any body of water , and ensuring boots and shoes are clean before moving between different bodies of water . Federal , state , provincial , and local regulations on the use of bait should be followed .
= Mwng =
Mwng ( pronounced [ ˈmʊŋ ] ; English : Mane ) is the fourth studio album by Welsh rock band the Super Furry Animals , and the first by the group to have lyrics written entirely in the Welsh language . Mwng was released on 15 May 2000 on the band 's own record label , Placid Casual , following the demise of their former label Creation . The album includes the single " Ysbeidiau Heulog " , and reached number 11 on the UK Albums Chart following its release — the first Welsh @-@ language album to reach the top 20 . This success led to Mwng being mentioned in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom by Elfyn Llwyd , who described the record as a celebration of a " new wave of confidence in the Welsh nation " .
The Super Furry Animals had attempted to make a hit record with a commercial sound with their previous release , 1999 's Guerrilla . The record 's singles failed to hit the top 10 of the UK Singles Chart , so the band decided to go on " pop strike " . The group had written several Welsh @-@ language songs during sessions for Guerrilla , and opted to release them as a coherent album rather than issue " token Welsh songs " as b @-@ sides — reasoning that , if their English pop songs were not going to be played on the radio they may as well release Welsh pop songs that would not get played on the radio . Singer Gruff Rhys stated that , although the decision to release a Welsh language album was not an explicitly political statement , he does feel the record is a " stand against globalisation " . Recording largely took place at Ofn Studios , Llanfaelog , Anglesey in 1999 , with the band sharing production duties with Gorwel Owen . The " lo @-@ fi " album cost just £ 6 @,@ 000 to make , in contrast with the " excessive expense " of Guerrilla , and was recorded almost entirely live .
Mwng is an understated rock record inspired by the band 's love of " Anglo @-@ American pop culture of the 60s , 70s and 80s . " The album has a " wintery persona " that is best summed up by the track " Ymaelodi  'r Ymylon " . Rhys feels that the record marks the first time the band managed to escape their influences and clearly establish their own sound . The album 's lyrics deal with a diverse set of subjects , such as the death of rural communities , old school teachers , and Sarn Helen ( a Roman road built in Wales ) . Rhys has stated that many of Mwng 's songs are highly personal reflections on what were difficult years for him . Rhys has also expressed the belief that the album is accessible to non @-@ Welsh speakers , as they can pick up on the mood of the songs even if they cannot understand the lyrics . Critical reception was generally positive , although some reviewers criticised the album for its " bare @-@ boned production " . Mwng was included in both the Melody Maker and NME " Best album of 2000 " lists , with the latter calling the record the band 's best release .
= = Origins and recording = =
The Super Furry Animals made a conscious decision to make a commercial @-@ sounding " pop jukebox " record with 1999 's Guerrilla . The band had written the album 's intended singles with the hope that they would become " radio hits " , and were disappointed with the limited success they received : the first single , " Northern Lites " , charted just outside the Top 10 of the UK Singles Chart at number 11 , while subsequent releases " Fire in My Heart " and " Do or Die " reached numbers 25 and 20 , respectively . The band blamed their record label , Creation , for the relative failure of the singles — particularly " Northern Lites " , which they felt " could have been bigger " if the label had produced a better music video and conducted a more successful marketing campaign . As a result , the group became tired of playing " chart games " and went on " pop strike " , deciding to release music just " for the joy of it " , with no agenda .
The Super Furry Animals had written several Welsh language songs while they were working on Guerrilla and decided that , rather than releasing " token Welsh songs " as b @-@ sides and album tracks , they would issue them together as a coherent record . These tracks would be augmented by " Dacw Hi " , a song written by Rhys in 1987 that he had never " had a chance to do before " , and a cover of the track " Y Teimlad " , which the group wanted to record because of their admiration for Welsh language band Datblygu ( who originally wrote and recorded the song in 1984 ) . According to Rhys , the Super Furry Animals reasoned that , if their English language pop songs were not getting played on the radio , they may as well make a Welsh language album featuring songs that would not be played on the radio . Rhys has said that , although the decision to release a Welsh language album was not " an explicitly political statement " , he does see Mwng as a " stand against globalisation " , railing against " advanced capitalism " and the lack of interest shown in minority cultures by large companies who " just want to make money " . Rhys has also stated that his boredom with writing songs in English inspired him to write Mwng , and that it is a very personal album , rather than a celebration of Welsh culture .
The " lo @-@ fi " Mwng was recorded over two weeks in late 1999 , and — in contrast with the " excessive expense " of Guerilla — cost just £ 6 @,@ 000 to make . The band chose Gorwel Owen as co @-@ producer , having previously worked with him on their first two albums , 1996 's Fuzzy Logic and 1997 's Radiator . The majority of Mwng was recorded with Owen at Ofn Studios in Llanfaelog , Wales . According to Rhys , the band had to play in separate rooms to avoid the sound of one instrument bleeding onto the track of another during recording due to Ofn 's small size . " Y Gwyneb Iau " and " Ysbeidiau Heulog " were recorded at Famous Studios in Cardiff , and were engineered by Greg Haver , while " Y Teimlad " was recorded at Real World Studios , Box , Wiltshire , and was engineered by Michael Brennan , Jr . " Sarn Helen " was recorded and engineered by keyboardist Cian Ciaran in his living room . Overdubs for all songs were added at Ofn with Owen , who also mixed the album at the studio along with the Super Furry Animals . Songs were recorded almost entirely live , with the band wanting to make a " really immediate record " as a reaction against the drawn out recording sessions for Guerilla and 1997 's Radiator , which had taken several months and proved frustrating for the group . The version of " Nythod Cacwn " that appears on the album is the original demo , with Rhys on drums . The band felt that , although the demo did not sound very professional , there was a warmth to it that would be impossible to recreate were the group to record the song again . The album 's title translates into English as " Mane " . According to Rhys , the band did not have the mane of a particular animal in mind , but felt it could be " an extension of a Super Furry Animal " .
= = Musical style = =
Mwng is a " lo @-@ fi " , raw , and understated record of rock songs , " stripped of the bleeps and squelches " that appear on the Super Furry Animals ' other releases . Although the album 's lyrics are in Welsh , singer Rhys has said that " musically there 's nothing Welsh about it at all " , going on to state that the record 's only real Welsh influences are Datblygu ( the writers of " Y Teimlad " ) and Meic Stevens . Instead , the record is a tribute to the band 's obsession with " Anglo @-@ American pop culture of the 60s , 70s and 80s " , and is an album that " can be understood on a musical level anywhere in the Westernised world " regardless of whether or not the listener can understand the lyrics .
Bassist Guto Pryce said that he feels Mwng " sounds like an album " rather than a collection of individual songs , due to the fact it was recorded live and over a short period of time . According to Rhys , Mwng marks a refining of the group 's sound , with the band having " sieved off " their influences to truly sound like the Super Furry Animals for the first time . Rhys has said that , although keyboardist Cian Ciaran did not explore " digital frontiers " on the album , he was still able to " deconstruct songs " , even when playing the harmonium . The band had previously thought of the saxophone as " the instrument of Satan " , but actually used one on this record for the first time , reasoning that it was appropriate as Mwng is a " darkish album " . Rhys described the album as the band 's " monochrome " record , stating that it is " less dressed up " than their other releases , and that it is a " good introduction to [ the group 's ] songwriting . "
Rhys said that " if there 's a song that sums up the album in terms of mood " , perhaps it is " Ymaelodi  'r Ymylon " , typifying its " wintery persona " . The track has been described by Rhys as a celebration of the band 's love of The Beach Boys , Love , and Ennio Morricone , featuring layered vocal harmonies . " Pan Ddaw 'r Wawr " features a " wheezing harmonium " and " perishing trumpet swirl " , and has been compared to the music of XTC , Ennio Morricone , and " psychedelic @-@ era " Rolling Stones . According to Rhys , the music of " Sarn Helen " was written to provide the soundtrack to a fictional journey , " cruising down the A5 to Rome in a two @-@ door chariot " . The song has been called " evil personified " and dark , and has been likened to the sound of " an approaching Roman army " . The " folky " , eerily melancholic " Nythod Cacwn " has been compared to the Tori Amos single " Cornflake Girl " . " Y Gwyneb Iau " has been described as a " brass @-@ soaked " cross between the music of Herb Alpert and The Doors , featuring " maudlin horns and military beats " , while Rhys has said that the song is a combination of Nick Drake , Gladys Knight , and The Velvet Underground 's third album . " Ysbeidiau Heulog " and the album 's opening track , " Drygioni " , have been singled out as the only songs on Mwng that are " distinctly cheery " . Both display glam rock influences and have been compared to Roxy Music , with Rhys describing " Ysbeidiau Heulog " as " old time pop music " with vocal harmonies that are a tribute to late 1960s groups such as the West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band and Os Mutantes .
= = Lyrical themes = =
Lyrically , the album deals with subjects as diverse as " isolated communities , old school teachers and Roman roads " , but maintains a " warped coherency " . According to Rhys , Mwng 's lyrics — which he considers to be some of his best — were written " very simply " and convey simple messages . The singer made an effort to be economical with his words , not communicating a lot of information with them . Rhys feels that the album is accessible to non @-@ Welsh speakers , citing his own experience of listening to Nirvana : " If I listen to a Nirvana record I don 't understand most of their lyrics cos he 's just screaming away , but I just understand the frustration and the passion in his voice . I think equally people can get off on this record by just hitting on the mood of the song , or connecting to the mood of the song . "
Several of the songs on Mwng feature quite solemn , personal lyrics , which reflect on a difficult few years for Rhys . The single , " Ysbeidiau Heulog " , is about " looking back at a bad time which had the odd good moment " , while " Pan Ddaw 'r Wawr " deals with the death of rural communities . The singer claims to have wept — rather than sung — the album 's last track , " Gwreiddiau Dwfn " / " Mawrth Oer Ar y Blaned Neifion " , which features lyrics " so bleak it 's almost comic " about " being rooted to a sad piece of land [ ... ] being doomed to live somewhere and that 's all you have and that 's what you 're stuck with " . Rhys has described Datblygu 's " Y Teimlad " as being about " not knowing what love is or what love means . " " Drygioni " is a song about " sleaze [ ... ] about good versus evil , and a person 's need for both " , and " Y Gwyneb Iau " is a " moody song about war " whose title is a Welsh insult that translates into English as " Liverface " . In contrast , " Nythod Cacwn " is a comedic song , based on an incident involving drummer Dafydd Ieuan being chased by bees after he disturbed a beehive while attempting to build a bonfire on a beach . It features lyrics that were " made up on the spot " by Rhys . " Dacw Hi " is inspired by one of Rhys 's former teachers who claimed she had eyes in the back of her head . " Sarn Helen " is about the decline of the Roman road of the same name that was built between North and South Wales . " Ymaelodi  'r Ymylon " is partly inspired by the ostracisation the band felt from some areas of the Welsh musical community due to their decision to sing in English on earlier albums . The track 's lyrics feature the old Welsh idiom " y cythraul canu " , which means " the demon in music " and refers to the friction this can create between people .
= = Release and legacy = =
The Super Furry Animals had originally intended to issue Mwng in March 2000 , but the release was delayed due to the demise of the band 's UK record label , Creation . The group have variously stated that Creation originally planned to issue Mwng , but allowed the group to buy the rights from them for around £ 6 @,@ 000 , and that the company " didn 't want to take " the record in the first place . The band decided to put the album out on their own label , Placid Casual , as they were worried that a label that did not understand the group might do something " horrific " , such as putting a Welsh flag on the cover . The " Mwng " logo on the cover is based on the logo for Mixmag
Mwng was eventually released on 15 May 2000 in the United Kingdom on CD , cassette , and vinyl , and reached number 11 in the UK Albums Chart . In the United States , Mwng was released on 20 June 2000 by Flydaddy , with a bonus CD entitled Mwng Bach ( pronounced [ ˈmʊŋ ˈbɑːχ ] ; English : Little Mane ) featuring five Welsh language tracks : " Sali Mali " , from the 1995 EP Moog Droog , and four songs which had originally been released in the UK as B @-@ sides . This two @-@ disc version of Mwng was reissued in the US in 2005 by XL Recordings / Beggars Banquet US . " Ysbeidiau Heulog " was released as the only single from the album , and failed to chart inside the UK Singles Top 75 . Although the Super Furry Animals had " no commercial expectations " for the album , Mwng became the first Welsh @-@ language record to reach the Top 20 of the UK album charts , and has frequently been called the biggest @-@ selling Welsh language album of all time . As a result of the record 's success , Mwng was mentioned in the House of Commons of the United Kingdom by Plaid Cymru 's Elfyn Llwyd , who called on his fellow politicians to congratulate the band on their " chart topping new album " and recognise Mwng as a celebration of a " new wave of confidence in the Welsh nation " . Rhys dismissed Llwyd 's statement , saying that the record is very personal and has " bugger all to do with a celebration " .
In 2015 , fifteen years since its release , Domino Records bought the rights to re @-@ issue Mwng , as the album 's original pressing had long since discontinued . Like the American release , the CD edition also came with the bonus Mwng Bach disc , which has been expanded to include live recordings and radio sessions .
= = Critical reception = =
Mwng received generally positive reviews from critics , with a score of 84 on Metacritic denoting " universal acclaim " . Allmusic called the album " terrific " , and stated that the band 's decision to release an all @-@ Welsh record was courageous and proof that they are " the great eccentric band of [ their ] time " . Drowned in Sound called the album " a poignant , dark , curling , bundle of songs " , but expressed sadness that the band 's usual " skewed play on words " are missed by all but Welsh speakers . In contrast , Rolling Stone said that the album 's " tight arrangements of melodic bliss " manage to cross the " Welsh @-@ language barrier . " Yahoo ! Music stated that Mwng cemented the Super Furry Animals ' position as " figureheads of futuristic rock . " The review went on to state that Mwng is " a theoretically disorientating and complex , but triumphantly audacious , experience " , and said that initial reservations about not being able to understand the lyrics were lost when it became clear that Rhys was always " unintelligible [ ... ] on record anyway " .
Matt LeMay , reviewing Mwng on its initial release for Pitchfork , described the album as being not as " fully realised or inventive " as 1999 's Guerrilla and said that , although the record highlights Rhys 's talents for songwriting , the lack of any " electronic wizardry " from keyboard player Ciaran is disappointing . LeMay went on to state , however , that Mwng is " still [ ... ] a damned enjoyable listen " , and said that the record " couples cultural pride with unforgettable melodies in a way few bands have ever attempted " . On the album 's re @-@ release in 2005 , Pitchfork writer Marc Hogan stated that Mwng 's " sinuous pop melodies and organic arrangements " make for an " exciting discovery " , despite the lack of the band 's " usual studio wizardry " . Q said that , while tracks such as " Ymaelodi  'r Ymylon " and " Y Gwyneb Iau " are " strangely charming , chiming pop music with a twist " , Mwng is hampered by its " bare @-@ boned production " . Mojo , however , described the album as a " sensuous sonic journey " with an " organic , woody , mystical atmosphere " that compares favourably with the overly @-@ produced sounds of the band 's previous records . The magazine went on to suggest the album 's only flaw is that it " manages to lose its way for a while [ ... ] in the middle " , thanks to the poor sequencing of its tracks .
Nude as the News stated that , although the record is " more reserved " than the band 's previous releases , it " conjures up images of the Welsh winter in which the songs were recorded " and fits in with the group 's " unique vision . " Melody Maker described the album as a " sad , beautiful record " , but expressed concern that the Super Furry Animals had moved away from the pop of Guerilla and called on them to deliver another release in the vein of the band 's 1996 single " The Man Don 't Give a Fuck " . Nevertheless , Mwng was ranked number 24 in the magazine 's " Albums of the year 2000 " feature . Website SonicNet described the record as a slightly retro album that sees the Super Furry Animals " refashion the past into the present " . Art Sperl , writing for Rock 's Backpages in December 2000 , stated that although the album " [ gathers ] from the past " , the band 's influences are channelled " into a truly organic maverick pop " . NME described Mwng as an antidote to the " preservative pumped @-@ junk " music that they felt was prevalent at the time of the album 's release , and placed it at number nine in their album of the year list for 2000 , calling it the group 's best record . The magazine also described the album as the most accessible Super Furry Animals release , despite its Welsh @-@ language lyrics . Rhys has stated that he considers Mwng to be a " really pure record " .
Accolades
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Super Furry Animals except where noted .
= = Personnel = =
= = Album chart position = =
= Mersea Fort =
Mersea Fort , also known as Cudmore Grove Blockhouse , was an artillery fort established by Henry VIII on the East Mersea coast in 1543 . It formed part of the King 's Device programme to protect against invasion from France and the Holy Roman Empire , and defended the River Colne that led to the town of Colchester . It was triangular in shape , with earthwork walls and three bastions to hold artillery . It was demobilised in 1552 , but was brought back into use several times over the next century and saw service during the Second English Civil War of 1648 . The fort hosted an admiralty court to oversea the local oyster trade , until the dilapidation of the site forced the court to move to the Moot Hall in Colchester in the middle of the 18th century . A new gun battery was built at the fort during the Napoleonic Wars , but the fortification then fell into decline and was extensively damaged by the construction of a sea wall along the coast . The remains of the earthworks were excavated by archaeologists between 2002 and 2003 .
= = History = =
= = = 16th – 17th centuries = = =
Mersea Fort was built as a consequence of international tensions between England , France and the Holy Roman Empire in the final years of the reign of King Henry VIII . Traditionally the Crown had left coastal defences to local lords and communities , only taking a modest role in building and maintaining fortifications , and while France and the Empire remained in conflict , maritime raids were common but an actual invasion of England seemed unlikely . Modest defences based around simple blockhouses and towers existed in the south @-@ west and along the Sussex coast , with a few more impressive works in the north of England , but in general the fortifications were limited in scale .
In 1533 , Henry broke with Pope Paul III over the annulment of his long @-@ standing marriage to Catherine of Aragon . Catherine was the aunt of Charles V , the Holy Roman Emperor , who took the annulment as a personal insult . This resulted in France and the Empire declaring an alliance against Henry in 1538 , and the Pope encouraging the two countries to attack England . An invasion of England appeared certain . In response , Henry issued an order , called a " device " , in 1539 , giving instructions for the " defence of the realm in time of invasion " and the construction of forts along the English coastline .
The county of Essex was not a priority for new investment , but the town of Harwich was reinforced in 1539 and further new fortifications , including Mersea Fort , were built along the coast in 1543 , under the direction of Richard Lee and Richard Cawarden , at an estimated total cost of £ 2 @,@ 717 . The fort was positioned on salt marshland on the south side of the River Colne , and would have protected the entrance to the estuary , working together with the new blockhouses built at St Osyth and Brightlingsea . Mersea was triangular , with earthwork walls between approximately 300 feet ( 91 m ) long , further protected by " maunds " , round baskets filled with earth , and a defensive ditch with a drawbridge . On each of the three corners was a circular bastion housing up to four guns . Buildings in the courtyard would have housed the garrison , which comprised a captain , a lieutenant , two soldiers , a porter and between three and six artillery gunners . There was a nearby jetty , probably for use by the fort .
In 1552 the fort was decommissioned , but was subsequently recommissioned by Mary I. In addition to the fort 's military role , it hosted a court to oversee the oysterfields along the East Mersea coast , which were particularly lucrative but at risk of overfishing . In 1566 , Colchester introduced new rules to govern the oyster trade , which were enforced by an admiralty court , held when necessary in Mersea Fort ; the location was chosen so as to demonstrate the town 's authority all the way up to the top of the estuary . A survey in 1586 showed the fort had been abandoned by the military once again : the defences were in a poor state , the guns ' barrels were clogged with dirt and the site had been occupied by an elderly woman . It was brought back into use in 1588 and 1631 to defend against first the Spanish Armada and then the Dunkirker privateers .
= = = = English Civil War and Interregnum = = = =
During the First English Civil War between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament , Mersea Fort saw no action ; after the victory of Parliament in 1646 , the fort 's garrison was demobilised . Conflict flared again in 1648 with the outbreak of the Second English Civil War , and Colchester was taken by the Royalists . The town was immediately besieged by General Thomas Fairfax , who quickly seized Mersea Fort , which controlled the supply route by river into Colchester , before the Royalists could do so . The fort had contained five pieces of artillery : two culverins , two sakers and one drake . A Royalist raiding party of 300 soldiers was sent to recapture the fort , but without success .
Mersea Fort was placed under the command of Captain William Burrell . Guns and ammunition were kept there in case of a fresh rebellion , with a garrison of 36 men , which was temporarily reinforced by an additional squadron of horsemen and 50 foot soldiers in July 1650 . Repairs were made from 1651 onwards , and new accommodation was constructed for the fort 's gunners . After an invasion scare in 1655 , Mersea was temporarily used to imprison Royalists suspected of planning an insurgency against Oliver Cromwell 's Commonwealth government . The fort was then demobilised by Cromwell as part of his efforts to reduce defence costs ; Burrell was ordered to dismantle the fort but the order was never carried out , partially because of the practical difficulties and because of opposition from the owner of the land . The admiralty court continued to be held in the fort , although it proved much harder to enforce the fishery rules because of the political turmoil .
= = = 18th – 21st centuries = = =
By the 18th century , Mersea Fort was in ruins . The fishery rules were reinforced by fresh legislation in 1758 , which created a court of conservancy to oversea the oyster stocks . Officially , this court was supposed to sit at the fort , but rather than using the now dilapidated earthworks , it began to meet in Colchester 's Moot Hall . Instead , a ceremony began to take place each year at the Mersea Stone , near to the fort , involving local dignitaries and extensive eating and drinking . The fort was recommissioned during the Napoleonic Wars at the start of the 19th century , and a new gun battery was constructed overlooking the sea , equipped with six 24 @-@ pounder ( 10 @.@ 9 kg ) guns . After this the fort was abandoned once again . A sea wall was built along the coast early in the century , cutting through the south @-@ east side of the fort . The legislation on oysters was reformed by Parliament in 1870 , which disbanded the previous court structure and severed the historic link with Mersea Fort . A defensive pill @-@ box was constructed at the castle during the Second World War .
In the 21st century , the remains of the site are protected under UK law as a scheduled monument . The site was surveyed in 1982 and excavations were carried out between 2002 and 2003 , analysing surviving timber structures that had been exposed by coastal erosion .
= Robert of Melun =
Robert of Melun ( c . 1100 – 27 February 1167 ) was an English scholastic Christian theologian who taught in France , and later became Bishop of Hereford in England . He studied under Peter Abelard in Paris before teaching there and at Melun , which gave him his surname . His students included John of Salisbury , Roger of Worcester , William of Tyre , and possibly Thomas Becket . Robert was involved in the Council of Reims in 1148 , which condemned the teachings of Gilbert de la Porrée . Three of his theological works survive , and show him to have been strictly orthodox .
Robert returned to England in 1160 , and was appointed Bishop of Hereford in 1163 . King Henry II of England appointed him to the see , or bishopric , and was influenced by in his decision by Pope Alexander II and Thomas Becket . Following his consecration , Robert became involved in the dispute between Becket and the king , during which he generally took the king 's side . He also served as a papal and a royal judge .
= = Early life = =
Robert was born in England , probably in about 1100 . Nothing else is known of his background . He owed his name to the place where he taught , Melun in France . Robert studied under Peter Abelard and Hugh of St. Victor at the University of Paris , where in 1137 he succeeded Abelard as a teacher in the school on Mont Ste @-@ Geneviève . John of Salisbury and William of Tyre were among his pupils in Paris . King Henry II of England 's cousin , Roger of Worcester , later the Bishop of Worcester , was another of Robert 's students . He probably also taught Thomas Becket , later Archbishop of Canterbury , although this is not certain .
Robert went to Melun in 1142 to direct a school , but returned to Paris in 1147 . He took part in the condemnation of Gilbert de la Porrée at the Council of Rheims in 1148 , working with Peter Lombard to secure Porrée 's recantation . A small consistory court was held after the ending of the council 's deliberations , and was attended by Bernard of Clairvaux and Suger of St Denis , along with Robert and Peter . This court forced Porrée to repudiate his views on the Trinity . A fellow scholar , Herbert of Bosham , described Robert as a great teacher , who " sent forth from himself , like rays of his light , a great and learned host of students " .
= = Appointment to Hereford = =
After teaching as a master of arts in Paris for over forty years , Robert was recalled to England by King Henry II in 1160 , and was appointed Bishop of Hereford in 1163 . He was consecrated at Canterbury on 22 December by Archbishop Thomas Becket . Becket had been prominent among those recommending Robert for the vacancy at Hereford ; one of Becket 's later biographers said that Becket urged the king to find benefices for Englishmen living abroad . There is some evidence that Pope Alexander III had a hand in Robert 's election , as Becket in 1166 reminded Robert and Roger of Worcester that they both owed their episcopates to Alexander .
Little evidence of Robert 's activities survives from his time as bishop , although it is known that he acted as a papal judge @-@ delegate in 1165 . Five dosuments survive from his time at Hereford , as well as confirmations of gifts by previous bishops to Llanthony Priory , which he augmented with another grant of tithes . He also served as a royal judge .
= = Role in the Becket dispute = =
In 1163 , a conflict arose between the king and the new Archbishop of Canterbury , Thomas Becket , over the rights of the king in the English church . At a council held at Westminster in October 1163 , the king and Becket contended over the question , with the bishops supporting Becket against the king . Robert was involved in the conflict not only as a bishop @-@ elect , but as an envoy to Becket from the pope , as he accompanied Philip of Aumone , a French abbot , who was sent by Alexander to Becket in after the Council of Westminster to urge Becket not to inflame the situation . Robert went with Philip , probably because it was hoped he would be able to influence Becket .
Robert was present in January 1164 when the king summoned a council of the barons and the bishops to Clarendon , where the king demanded that both groups swear to uphold the royal rights of Henry 's grandfather , King Henry I , without any reservations or conditions . Although Becket at first attempted to resist , he eventually submitted , and then forced the other bishops to swear also . In October 1164 , Becket was accused of denying justice to a royal vassal , tried at a council held at Northampton , and was found guilty although he did not accept the sentence . During the trial , Robert attempted to moderate Becket 's behaviour , by persuading him from having his archiepiscopal cross , a symbol of spiritual authority , carried in front of him when he entered the court , which would have been an insult to the king . Shortly after the trial , Robert interceded with the king to order that no injury be done to Becket , who went into voluntary exile .
Early in Becket 's exile , Robert received a papal censure for not doing more to support Becket . In summer 1165 , Robert accompanied Gilbert Foliot , the Bishop of London , on a papal mission to King Henry , to convey to the king Pope Alexander 's complaints about the king 's behaviour . The king had been preventing his subjects from visiting or appealing to the papacy , and Alexander wished to protest against that , as well
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= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Cauliflower Alley Club
Women 's Wrestling Award ( 2011 )
Great Lakes Wrestling Association
GLWA Women 's Championship ( 1 time , first )
Ladies Major League Wrestling
LMLW International Championship ( 1 time )
Universal Wrestling Federation
UWF Women 's World Championship ( 1 time )
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
= Confederate government of Kentucky =
The Confederate government of Kentucky was a shadow government established for the Commonwealth of Kentucky by a self @-@ constituted group of Confederate sympathizers during the American Civil War . The shadow government never replaced the elected government in Frankfort , which had strong Union sympathies . Neither was it able to gain the whole support of Kentucky 's citizens ; its jurisdiction extended only as far as Confederate battle lines in the Commonwealth . Nevertheless , the provisional government was recognized by the Confederate States of America , and Kentucky was admitted to the Confederacy on December 10 , 1861 . Kentucky was represented by the central star on the Confederate battle flag .
Bowling Green was designated the Confederate capital of Kentucky . Due to the military situation in the state , the provisional government was exiled and traveled with the Army of Tennessee for most of its existence . For a short time in the autumn of 1862 , the Confederate Army controlled Frankfort , the only time a Union capital was captured by Confederate forces . During this occupation , General Braxton Bragg attempted to install the provisional government as the permanent authority in the Commonwealth . However , Union General Don Carlos Buell ambushed the inauguration ceremony and drove the provisional government from the state for the final time . From that point forward , the government existed primarily on paper and was dissolved at the end of the war .
The provisional government elected two governors . George W. Johnson was elected at the Russellville Convention and served until his death at the Battle of Shiloh . Richard Hawes was elected to replace Johnson and served through the remainder of the war .
= = Background = =
Kentucky 's citizens were split regarding the issues central to the Civil War . The state had strong economic ties with Ohio River cities such as Pittsburgh and Cincinnati while at the same time sharing many cultural , social , and economic links with the South . Unionist traditions were strong throughout the Commonwealth 's history , especially in the east . With economic ties to both the North and the South , Kentucky had little to gain and much to lose from a war between the states . Additionally , many slaveholders felt that the best protection for slavery was within the Union .
The presidential election of 1860 showed Kentucky 's mixed sentiments when the state gave John Bell 45 % of the popular vote , John C. Breckinridge 36 % , Stephen Douglas 18 % , and Abraham Lincoln less than 1 % . Historian Allan Nevins interpreted the election results to mean that Kentuckians strongly opposed both secession and coercion against the secessionists . The majority coalition of Bell and Douglas supporters was seen as a solid moderate Unionist position that opposed precipitate action by extremists on either side .
The majority of Kentucky 's citizens believed the state should be a mediator between the North and South . On December 9 , 1860 , Kentucky Governor Beriah Magoffin sent a letter to the other slave state governors , suggesting that they come to an agreement with the North that would include strict enforcement of the Fugitive Slave Act , a division of common territories at the 37th parallel , a guarantee of free use of the Mississippi River , and a Southern veto over slave legislation . Magoffin proposed a conference of slave states , followed by a conference of all the states to secure the concessions . Because of the escalating pace of events , neither conference was held .
Governor Magoffin called a special session of the Kentucky General Assembly on December 27 , 1860 , to ask the legislators for a convention to decide the Commonwealth 's course in the sectional conflict . The Louisville Morning Courier on January 25 , 1861 articulated the position that the secessionists faced in the legislature , " Too much time has already been wasted . The historic moment once past , never returns . For us and for Kentucky , the time to act is NOW OR NEVER . " The Unionists , on the other hand , were unwilling to surrender the fate of the state to a convention that might " in a moment of excitement , adopt the extreme remedy of secession . " The Unionist position carried after many of the states rights ' legislators , opposing the idea of immediate secession , voted against the convention . The assembly did , however , send six delegates to a February 4 Peace Conference in Washington , D.C. , and asked Congress to call a national convention to consider potential resolutions to the secession crisis , including the Crittenden Compromise , proposed by Kentuckian John J. Crittenden .
As a result of the firing on Fort Sumter , President Lincoln sent a telegram to Governor Magoffin requesting that the Commonwealth supply four regiments as its share of the overall request of 75 @,@ 000 troops for the war . Magoffin , a Confederate sympathizer , replied , " President Lincoln , Washington , D.C. I will send not a man nor a dollar for the wicked purpose of subduing my sister Southern states . B. Magoffin " Both houses of the General Assembly met on May 7 and passed declarations of neutrality in the war , a position officially declared by Governor Magoffin on May 20 .
In a special congressional election held June 20 , Unionist candidates won nine of Kentucky 's ten congressional seats . Confederate sympathizers won only the Jackson Purchase region , which was economically linked to Tennessee by the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers . Believing defeat at the polls was certain , many Southern Rightists had boycotted the election ; of the 125 @,@ 000 votes cast , Unionists captured close to 90 @,@ 000 . Confederate sympathizers were dealt a further blow in the August 5 election for state legislators . This election resulted in veto @-@ proof Unionist majorities of 76 – 24 in the House and 27 – 11 in the Senate . From then on , most of Magoffin 's vetoes to protect southern interests were overridden in the General Assembly .
Historian Wilson Porter Shortridge made the following analysis :
With secession no longer considered a viable option , the pro @-@ Confederate forces became the strongest supporters for neutrality . Unionists dismissed this as a front for a secessionist agenda . Unionists , on the other hand , struggled to find a way to move the large , moderate middle to a " definite and unqualified stand with the Washington government . " The maneuvering between the two reached a decisive point on September 3 when Confederate forces were ordered from Tennessee to the Kentucky towns of Hickman and Columbus . Union forces responded by occupying Paducah .
On September 11 , the legislature passed a resolution instructing Magoffin to order the Confederate forces ( but not the Union forces ) to leave the state . The Governor vetoed the resolution , but the General Assembly overrode his veto , and Magoffin gave the order . The next week , the assembly officially requested the assistance of the Union and asked the governor to call out the state militia to join the Federal forces . Magoffin also vetoed this request . Again the assembly overrode his veto and Magoffin acquiesced .
= = Formation = =
A pro @-@ Confederate peace meeting , with Breckinridge as a speaker , was scheduled for September 21 . Unionists feared the meeting would lead to actual military resistance , and dispatched troops from Camp Dick Robinson to disband the meeting and arrest Breckinridge . Breckinridge , as well as many other state leaders identified with the secessionists , fled the state . These leaders eventually served as the nucleus for a group that would create a shadow government for Kentucky . In his October 8 " Address to the People of Kentucky , " Breckinridge declared , " The United States no longer exists . The Union is dissolved . "
On October 29 , 1861 , 63 delegates representing 34 counties met at Russellville to discuss the formation of a Confederate government for the Commonwealth . Despite its defeats at the polls , this group believed that the Unionist government in Frankfort did not represent the will of the majority of Kentucky 's citizens . Trigg County 's Henry Burnett was elected chairman of the proceedings . Scott County farmer George W. Johnson chaired the committee that wrote the convention 's final report and introduced some of its key resolutions . The report called for a sovereignty convention to sever ties with the Federal government . Both Breckinridge and Johnson served on the Committee of Ten that arranged the convention .
On November 18 , 116 delegates from 68 counties met at the William Forst House in Russellville . Burnett was elected presiding officer . Fearing for the safety of the delegates , he first proposed postponing proceedings until January 8 , 1862 . Johnson convinced the majority of the delegates to continue . By the third day , the military situation was so tenuous that the entire convention had to be moved to a tower on the campus of Bethel Female College , a now @-@ defunct institution in Hopkinsville .
The first item was ratification of an ordinance of secession , which proceeded in short order . Next , being unable to flesh out a complete constitution and system of laws , the delegates voted that " the Constitution and laws of Kentucky , not inconsistent with the acts of this Convention , and the establishment of this Government , and the laws which may be enacted by the Governor and Council , shall be the laws of this state . " The delegates proposed a provisional government to consist of a legislative council of ten members ( one from each Kentucky congressional district ) ; a governor , who had the power to appoint judicial and other officials ; a treasurer ; and an auditor . The delegates designated Bowling Green ( then under the control of Confederate general Albert Sidney Johnston ) as the Confederate State capital , but had the foresight to provide for the government to meet anywhere deemed appropriate by the council and governor . The convention adopted a new state seal , an arm wearing mail with a star , extended from a circle of twelve other stars .
The convention unanimously elected Johnson as governor . Horatio F. Simrall was elected lieutenant governor , but soon fled to Mississippi to escape Federal authorities . Robert McKee , who had served as secretary of both conventions , was appointed secretary of state . Theodore Legrand Burnett was elected treasurer , but resigned on December 17 to accept a position in the Confederate Congress . He was replaced by Warren County native John Quincy Burnham . The position of auditor was first offered to former Congressman Richard Hawes , but Hawes declined to continue his military service under Humphrey Marshall . In his stead , the convention elected Josiah Pillsbury , also of Warren County . The legislative council elected Willis Benson Machen as its president .
On November 21 , the day following the convention , Johnson wrote Confederate president Jefferson Davis to request Kentucky 's admission to the Confederacy . Burnett , William Preston , and William E. Simms were chosen as the state 's commissioners to the Confederacy . For reasons unexplained by the delegates , Dr. Luke P. Blackburn , a native Kentuckian living in Mississippi , was invited to accompany the commissioners to Richmond , Virginia . Though Davis had reservations about circumvention of the elected General Assembly in forming the Confederate government , he concluded that Johnson 's request had merit , and on November 25 , recommended Kentucky for admission to the Confederacy . Kentucky was admitted to the Confederacy on December 10 , 1861 .
= = Activity = =
On November 26 , 1861 , Governor Johnson issued an address to the citizens of the Commonwealth blaming abolitionists for the breakup of the United States . He asserted his belief that the Union and Confederacy were forces of equal strength , and that the only solution to the war was a free trade agreement between the two sovereign nations . He further announced his willingness to resign as provisional governor if the Kentucky General Assembly would agree to cooperate with Governor Magoffin . Magoffin himself denounced the Russellville Convention and the provisional government , stressing the need to abide by the will of the majority of the Commonwealth 's citizens .
During the winter of 1861 , Johnson tried to assert the legitimacy of the fledgling government but its jurisdiction extended only as far as the area controlled by the Confederate Army . Johnson came short of raising the 46 @,@ 000 troops requested by the Confederate Congress . Efforts to levy taxes and to compel citizens to turn over their guns to the government were similarly unsuccessful . On January 3 , 1862 , Johnson requested a sum of $ 3 million ( $ 71 million as of 2016 ) from the Confederate Congress to meet the provisional government 's operating expenses . The Congress instead approved a sum of $ 2 million , the expenditure of which required approval of Secretary of War Judah P. Benjamin and President Davis . Much of the provisional government 's operating capital was probably provided by Kentucky congressman Eli Metcalfe Bruce , who made a fortune from varied economic activities throughout the war .
The council met on December 14 to appoint representatives to the Confederacy 's unicameral provisional congress . Those appointed would serve for only two months , as the provisional congress was replaced with a permanent bicameral legislature on February 17 , 1862 . Kentucky was entitled to two senators and 12 representatives in the permanent Confederate Congress . The usual day for general elections being passed , Governor Johnson and the legislative council set election day for Confederate Kentucky on January 22 . Voters were allowed to vote in whichever county they occupied on election day , and could cast a general ballot for all positions . In an election that saw military votes outnumber civilian ones , only four of the provisional legislators were elected to seats in the Confederate House of Representatives . One provisional legislator , Henry Burnett , was elected to the Confederate Senate .
The provisional government took other minor actions during the winter of 1861 . An act was passed to rename Wayne County to Zollicoffer County in honor of Felix Zollicoffer , who died at the Battle of Mill Springs . Local officials were appointed in areas controlled by Confederate forces , including many justices of the peace . When the Confederate government eventually disbanded , the legality of marriages performed by these justices was questioned , but eventually upheld .
= = = Withdrawal from Kentucky and death of Governor Johnson = = =
Following Ulysses S. Grant 's victory at the Battle of Fort Henry , General Johnston withdrew from Bowling Green into Tennessee on February 7 , 1862 . A week later , Governor Johnson and the provisional government followed . On March 12 , the New Orleans Picayune reported that " the capital of Kentucky [ is ] now being located in a Sibley tent . "
Governor Johnson , despite his presumptive official position , his age ( 50 ) , and a crippled arm , volunteered to serve under General John C. Breckinridge and Colonel Robert P. Trabue at the Battle of Shiloh . On April 7 , Johnson was severely wounded in the thigh and abdomen , and lay on the battlefield until the following day . Johnson was recognized by acquaintance and fellow Freemason , Alexander McDowell McCook , a Union general . Johnson died aboard the Union hospital ship Hannibal , and the provisional government of Kentucky was left leaderless .
= = = Richard Hawes as governor = = =
Prior to abandoning Bowling Green , Governor Johnson requested that Richard Hawes come to the city and help with the administration of the government , but Hawes was delayed due to a bout with typhoid fever . Following Johnson 's death , the provisional government elected Hawes , who was still recovering from his illness , as governor . Following his recovery , Hawes joined the government in Corinth , Mississippi , and took the oath of office on May 31 .
During the summer of 1862 , word began to spread through the Army of Tennessee that Generals Bragg and Edmund Kirby Smith were planning an invasion of Kentucky . The legislative council voted to endorse the invasion plan , and on August 27 , Governor Hawes was dispatched to Richmond to favorably recommend it to President Davis . Davis was non @-@ committal , but Bragg and Smith proceeded , nonetheless .
On August 30 , Smith commanded one of the most complete Confederate victories of the war against an inexperienced Union force at the Battle of Richmond . Bragg also won a decisive victory at the September 13 Battle of Munfordville , but the delay there cost him the larger prize of Louisville , which Don Carlos Buell moved to occupy on September 25 . Having lost Louisville , Bragg spread his troops into defensive postures in the central Kentucky cities of Bardstown , Shelbyville and Danville and waited for something to happen , a move that historian Kenneth W. Noe called a " stupendously illogical decision . "
Meanwhile , the leaders of Kentucky 's Confederate government had remained in Chattanooga , Tennessee , awaiting Governor Hawes ' return . They finally departed on September 18 , and caught up with Bragg and Smith in Lexington , Kentucky on October 2 . Bragg had been disappointed with the number of soldiers volunteering for Confederate service in Kentucky ; wagon loads of weapons that had been shipped to the Commonwealth to arm the expected enlistees remained unissued . Desiring to enforce the Confederate Conscription Act to boost recruitment , Bragg decided to install the provisional government in the recently captured state capital of Frankfort . On October 4 , 1862 , Hawes was inaugurated as governor by the Confederate legislative council . In the celebratory atmosphere of the inauguration ceremony , however , the Confederate forces let their guard down , and were ambushed and forced to retreat by Buell 's artillery .
= = Decline and dissolution = =
Following the Battle of Perryville , the provisional government left Kentucky for the final time . Displaced from their home state , members of the legislative council dispersed to places where they could make a living or be supported by relatives until Governor Hawes called them into session . Scant records show that on December 30 , 1862 , Hawes summoned the council , auditor , and treasurer to his location at Athens , Tennessee for a meeting on January 15 , 1863 . Hawes himself unsuccessfully lobbied President Davis to remove Hawes ' former superior , Humphrey Marshall , from command . On March 4 , Hawes told Davis by letter that " our cause is steadily on the increase " and assured him that another foray into the Commonwealth would produce better results than the first had .
The government 's financial woes also continued . Hawes was embarrassed to admit that neither he nor anyone else seemed to know what became of approximately $ 45 @,@ 000 that had been sent from Columbus to Memphis , Tennessee during the Confederate occupation of Kentucky . Another major blow was Davis ' 1864 decision not to allow Hawes to spend $ 1 million that had been secretly appropriated in August 1861 to help Kentucky maintain its neutrality . Davis reasoned that the money could not be spent for its intended purpose , since Kentucky had already been admitted to the Confederacy .
Late in the war , the provisional government existed mostly on paper . However , in the summer of 1864 , Colonel R. A. Alston of the Ninth Tennessee Cavalry requested Governor Hawes ' assistance in investigating crimes allegedly committed by Brigadier General John Hunt Morgan during his latest raid into Kentucky . Hawes never had to act on the request , however , as Morgan was suspended from command on August 10 and killed by Union troops on September 4 , 1864 .
There is no documentation detailing exactly when Kentucky 's provisional government ceased operation . It is assumed to have dissolved upon the conclusion of the Civil War .
= SMS Bayern =
SMS Bayern was the lead ship of the Bayern class of battleships in the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) . The vessel was launched in February 1915 and entered service in July 1916 , too late to take part in the Battle of Jutland . Her main armament consisted of eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns in four turrets , which was a significant improvement over the preceding König 's ten 30 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 inch ) guns . The ship was to have formed the nucleus for a fourth battle squadron in the High Seas Fleet , along with three of her sister ships . Of the other ships only one — Baden — was completed ; the other two were canceled later in the war when production requirements shifted to U @-@ boat construction .
Bayern was commissioned midway through the war , and had a limited service career . The first operation in which the ship took part was an abortive fleet advance into the North Sea on 18 – 19 August 1916 , a month after she had been commissioned . The ship also participated in Operation Albion in the Gulf of Riga , but shortly after the German attack began on 12 October 1917 , Bayern was mined and had to be withdrawn for repairs . She was interned with the majority of the High Seas Fleet in Scapa Flow in November 1918 following the end of World War I. On 21 June 1919 , Admiral Ludwig von Reuter ordered the fleet to be scuttled ; Bayern sank at 14 : 30 . In September 1934 , the ship was raised , towed to Rosyth , and scrapped .
= = Design = =
Bayern was 179 @.@ 4 m ( 588 ft 7 in ) long at the waterline , and an even 180 m ( 590 ft 7 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 30 m ( 98 ft 5 in ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 4 m ( 30 ft 6 in – 30 ft 10 in ) Bayern displaced 28 @,@ 530 metric tons ( 28 @,@ 080 long tons ) at a normal displacement ; at full combat load , she displaced up to 32 @,@ 200 t ( 31 @,@ 700 long tons ) . Bayern was powered by three Parsons steam turbines rated at 34 @,@ 521 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 742 kW ) and three oil @-@ fired and eleven coal @-@ fired Schulz @-@ Thornycroft boilers , and on trials achieved 55 @,@ 202 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 164 kW ) ; she had a maximum speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . The ship could carry up to 3 @,@ 400 t ( 3 @,@ 300 long tons ; 3 @,@ 700 short tons ) of coal and 620 t ( 610 long tons ; 680 short tons ) of fuel oil , which provided a maximum range of 5 @,@ 000 nmi ( 9 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 800 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
The ship was the first German warship armed with eight 38 cm ( 15 in ) guns . The primary battery guns were arranged in four twin gun turrets : two superfiring turrets each fore and aft . Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns , six 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) guns and five 60 cm ( 23 @.@ 6 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow and two on each beam . Upon commissioning , she carried a crew of 42 officers and 1 @,@ 129 enlisted men . The ship had an armored belt that was 170 – 350 mm ( 6 @.@ 7 – 13 @.@ 8 in ) thick and an armored deck that was 60 – 100 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . Her forward conning tower had 400 mm ( 16 in ) sides , and the main battery turrets had 350 mm thick sides and 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick roofs .
= = Service history = =
Bayern was ordered with the provisional name " T " in 1912 , under the fourth and final Naval Law , which was passed that year . Work began at the Howaldtswerke Dockyard in Kiel under construction number 590 . The ship was laid down in 1913 and launched on 18 February 1915 . After fitting @-@ out and sea trials , the ship was commissioned on 15 July 1916 , a month and a half too late for her to participate in the Battle of Jutland . Bayern joined the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet upon her commissioning . The ship would have been available for the operation , but the ship 's crew , composed largely of the crew from the recently decommissioned battleship Lothringen , was given leave . She had cost the Imperial German Government 49 million Goldmarks . Bayern was later joined in service by one sister ship , Baden . Two other ships of this class , Sachsen and Württemberg , were canceled before they were completed . At the time of her commissioning , Bayern 's commander was Kapitän zur See ( Captain at Sea ) Max Hahn . Ernst Lindemann , who went on to command the battleship Bismarck during her only combat sortie in World War II , served aboard the ship as a wireless operator . On 25 May , Ludwig III of Bavaria , the last King of Bavaria , visited the ship . Bayern briefly served as the fleet flagship , from 7 to 16 August .
Admiral Reinhard Scheer planned a fleet advance for 18 – 19 August 1916 ; the operation consisted of a bombardment conducted by the I Scouting Group . This was an attempt to draw out and destroy Admiral David Beatty 's battlecruisers . As Moltke and Von der Tann were the only two German battlecruisers still in fighting condition , three dreadnoughts were assigned to the unit for the operation : Bayern and the two König @-@ class ships Markgraf and Grosser Kurfürst . Admiral Scheer and the rest of the High Seas Fleet , including 15 dreadnoughts , were to trail behind and provide cover . The British were aware of the German plans and sortied the Grand Fleet to meet them . By 14 : 35 , Scheer had been warned of the Grand Fleet 's approach and , unwilling to engage the whole of the Grand Fleet just 11 weeks after the close call at Jutland , turned his forces around and retreated to German ports . Another sortie into the North Sea followed on 18 – 20 October , and the German fleet again encountered no British naval forces .
= = = Operation Albion = = =
In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to evict the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . To this end , the Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic islands of Ösel , particularly the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint Army @-@ Navy operation to capture Ösel and Moon islands ; the primary naval component consisted of the flagship Moltke and the III Battle Squadron of the High Seas Fleet . At this time , the V Division included the Bayern and four König @-@ class battleships . The VI Division consisted of the five Kaiser @-@ class battleships . Along with 9 light cruisers , 3 torpedo boat flotillas , and dozens of mine warfare ships , the entire force numbered some 300 ships , supported by over 100 aircraft and 6 zeppelins . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Opposing the Germans were the old Russian pre @-@ dreadnoughts Slava and Tsesarevich , the armored cruisers Bayan , Admiral Makarov , and Diana , 26 destroyers , and several torpedo boats and gunboats . The garrison on Ösel numbered some 14 @,@ 000 men .
The operation began on 12 October , when Bayern , along with Moltke and the four Königs , began firing on the Russian shore batteries at Tagga Bay . Simultaneously , the five Kaisers engaged the batteries on the Sworbe peninsula ; the objective was to secure the channel between Moon and Dagö islands , thus blocking the only escape route of the Russian ships in the gulf . Bayern 's role in the operation was cut short when she struck a naval mine at 5 : 07 while moving into her bombardment position at Pamerort . The mine explosion killed one Unteroffizier and six sailors , allowed 1 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 980 long tons ; 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) of water into the ship and caused the forecastle to sink by 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . Despite the damage inflicted by the mine , Bayern engaged the naval battery at Cape Toffri on the southern tip of Hiiumaa . Bayern was released from her position at 14 : 00 . Preliminary repairs were made on 13 October in Tagga Bay . The temporary repairs proved ineffective , and Bayern had to be withdrawn to Kiel for repairs ; the return trip took 19 days . Repairs lasted from 3 November to 27 December , during which the forward torpedo tube room was stripped of its equipment and the torpedo ports were sealed . The room was then turned into an additional watertight compartment . Four 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft guns were also installed during the repairs .
On 16 October , two König @-@ class battleships and several smaller vessels were sent to engage the Russian battleships in the Gulf of Riga . The following day , König and Kronprinz engaged the Russian battleships — König dueled with Slava and Kronprinz fired on both Slava and the cruiser Bayan . The Russian vessels were hit dozens of times , until at 10 : 30 the Russian naval commander , Admiral Bakhirev , ordered their withdrawal . Slava had taken too much damage , and was unable to escape ; instead , she was scuttled and her crew was evacuated on a destroyer . By 20 October , the naval operations were effectively over ; the Russian fleet had been destroyed or forced to withdraw , and the German army held the islands in the gulf .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Following her return to the fleet , Bayern was assigned to security duties in the North Sea . Admiral Scheer had used light surface forces to attack British convoys to Norway beginning in late 1917 . As a result , the Royal Navy attached a squadron of battleships to protect the convoys , which presented Scheer with the possibility of destroying a detached squadron of the Grand Fleet . Scheer remarked that " A successful attack on such a convoy would not only result in the sinking of much tonnage , but would be a great military success , and would ... force the English to send more warships to the northern waters . " Scheer instituted strict wireless silence in preparation for the planned attack . This denied the British the ability to intercept and decrypt German signals , which had previously been a significant advantage . The operation called for Hipper 's battlecruisers to attack the convoy and its escorts on 23 April while the battleships of the High Seas Fleet stood by in support .
On 22 April , Bayern and the rest of the German fleet assembled in the Schillig Roads outside Wilhelmshaven and departed the following morning at 06 : 00 . Heavy fog forced the Germans to remain inside their defensive minefields for half an hour . Hipper 's forces were 60 nmi ( 110 km ; 69 mi ) west of Egerö , Norway , by 05 : 20 on 24 April . Despite the success in reaching the convoy route undetected , the operation failed due to faulty intelligence . Reports from U @-@ boats indicated to Scheer that the convoys sailed at the start and middle of each week , but a west @-@ bound convoy had left Bergen on Tuesday the 22nd and an east @-@ bound group left Methil , Scotland , on the 24th , a Thursday . As a result , there was no convoy for Hipper to attack .
The same day , one of Moltke 's screws slipped off , which caused serious damage to the power plant and allowed 2 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 000 long tons ; 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) of water into the ship . Moltke was forced to break radio silence in order to inform Scheer of the ship 's condition , which alerted the Royal Navy to the High Seas Fleet 's activities . Beatty sortied with a force of 31 battleships and four battlecruisers , but was too late to intercept the retreating Germans . The Germans reached their defensive minefields early on 25 April , though approximately 40 nmi ( 74 km ; 46 mi ) off Helgoland Moltke was torpedoed by the submarine E42 . Moltke successfully returned to port .
= = = Fate = = =
From 23 September to early October , Bayern served as the flagship of the III Squadron , under Vizeadmiral ( Vice Admiral ) Hugo Kraft . Bayern was to have taken part in what would have amounted to the " death ride " of the High Seas Fleet shortly before the end of World War I. The bulk of the High Seas Fleet was to have sortied from its base in Wilhelmshaven to engage the British Grand Fleet . Scheer — by now the Großadmiral of the fleet — intended to inflict as much damage as possible on the British navy , in order to obtain a better bargaining position for Germany , whatever the cost to the fleet .
While the fleet was consolidating in Wilhelmshaven , war @-@ weary sailors began rioting . On 24 October 1918 , the order was given to sail from Wilhelmshaven . Starting on the night of 29 October , sailors on several battleships mutinied ; three ships from the III Squadron refused to weigh anchor , and acts of sabotage were committed on board the battleships Thüringen and Helgoland . The order to sail was rescinded in the face of this open revolt . In an attempt to suppress the mutiny , the battleship squadrons were dispersed . Bayern , along with the rest of the III Squadron , was sent to Kiel .
Following the capitulation of Germany in November 1918 , the majority of the High Seas Fleet was to be interned in the Royal Navy base in Scapa Flow . Bayern was listed as one of the ships to be handed over . On 21 November 1918 , the ships to be interned , under the command of Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , sailed from their base in Germany for the last time . The fleet rendezvoused with the British light cruiser Cardiff , before meeting a flotilla of 370 British , American , and French warships for the voyage to Scapa Flow .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Versailles Treaty . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered his ships to be sunk . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers ; at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Bayern sank at 14 : 30 . The ship was raised on 1 September 1934 and was broken up the following year in Rosyth . The ship 's bell was eventually delivered to the German Federal Navy and is on display at Kiel Fördeklub .
= Sins of My Father ( song ) =
" Sins of My Father " is a song recorded by American recording artist Usher for his seventh studio album Looking 4 Myself ( 2012 ) . The song , a collaborative effort between Usher , Terry Lewis , Salaam Remi , and Rico Love , tells the story of a " tortured soul " in a " volatile " relationship . " Critics noted Usher 's relationship with ex @-@ wife Tameka Foster to be the basis of the song , which contains references to their children together . Usher himself added that the song itself is a " kind of testament " for the type of father he is .
" Sins of My Father " is a soul song that contains prominent blues , dub , Motown and reggae influences . It received universal acclaim from music critics , who cited it as a stand @-@ out track on Looking 4 Myself . Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , the song debuted at number 62 on the South Korea Gaon International Chart , with sales of 5 @,@ 813 digital copies .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Sins of My Father " was written by Usher , Rico Love , Salaam Remi and Terry Lewis . The production of the song was helmed by Remi , with Love also serving as its co @-@ producer . Remi has previously produced songs such as " Made You Look " ( God 's Son , 2002 ) for American rapper Nas and " You Know I 'm No Good " ( Back to Black , 2006 ) for late English singer Amy Winehouse .
In an interview with SoulCulture , Usher told that the inspiration for writing " Sins of My Father " is about dealing with things that people can 't understand . He further stated that the past can bring people " down a road " because they are not aware of it . According to him , " The time spent with a father will teach you a certain understanding of live and how to cope and deal with things . The lack of a father being there can also teach you how to deal with life – and that ’ s what ' Sins Of The Father ' is about ... That statement was made because that ’ s something that I felt . " Usher added that the song itself is a " kind of testament " for the father he is .
Gleyder " Gee " Disla and Mark " Exit " Goodchild recorded " Sins of My Father " at Jungle City Studios in New York City , Doppler Studios in Atlanta , Glenwood Place Studios in Burbank and Instrument Zoo in Miami . Alex Fremin , Jacob Dennis , Max Unruh and Ramon Rivas served as recording assistants . It was mixed by Manny Marroquin at Larrabee Sound Studio in Universal City , while Chris Galland and Delbert Bowers served as a mixing assistant . The track 's producer Remi together with Vincent Henry and Czech Film Orchestra , provided the " Sins of My Father " instrumentation .
= = Composition and lyrical interpretation = =
" Sins of My Father " is a soul song with prominent blues , dub , Motown and reggae influences that runs for three minutes and 56 seconds . The song 's instrumentation consists of bass , keyboards , guitar , drums , horns , saxophone and strings which are played by the Czech Film Orchestra . According to Jim Farber of Daily News , " Sins of My Father " consists of " some of the sexy , retro shading " that can be seen in the Remi produced songs by Amy Winehouse . Popdust 's Andrew Unterberger commented that the track " sounds like a death rattle , a hypnotically low bass line slinking around some ominously shook maracas , a molasses @-@ slow drum loop , and by the end , even some John Barry @-@ cinematic @-@ style strings . " He further stated that " Sins of My Father " is a step " bluesier and evil @-@ er , sounding more from the legacy of Howlin ’ Wolf and Screamin ’ Jay Hawkins — not quite as guttural , but Ush [ er ] still uses all the tools at his disposal , even breaking out the fake voodoo accent , and more than gets the point across . "
Lyrically , " Sins of My Father " is about being a " tortured soul " in a " volatile " relationship . Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush hinted at Foster to be the bases of the song . The narrator " believes that his bad relationship is karma for his father being a rolling stone . " " Sins of My Father " begins with Usher gasping " My sons , Keep them ... please forgive me . " Unterberger of Popdust concluded that the track gets more intense , as Usher sings in the song ’ s opening verse : " I think this woman went and put a hex on me / Oh now , why ’ d I let her go and put that sex on me ? " . The pre @-@ chorus features Usher yelping in falsetto : " But she didn ’ t make me pay for it with my money ! / OWWWW ! ! ! " . According to Erika Ramirez of Billboard magazine , " Usher soulfully pays for his father 's promiscuous ways over melodic soundcapes " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Sins of My Father " received universal acclaim from music critics . Nathan S. of DJBooth called the " openly autobiographical " song the most affecting track he has " done in years " . He concluded by stating : " I can 't think of any other artist of Usher 's status who would tie his cheating ways to an absent father , and for that he deserves some applause " . Eric Arredondo of Beats Per Minute stated that in " Sins of My Father " , Usher shows " more bite in his voice " than he has ever heard before , and that " it helps to make a song that is both fun and slightly sinister " . Natalie Shaw of BBC Music called " Sins of My Father " outstanding , commenting that Usher 's " slink here sounds sinister , for the first time , fearing he 'll fall under a demon woman 's deathly voodoo while slack , deep beats play out " .
Rap @-@ Up labelled " Sins of My Father " as one of their favorite songs on the album , alongside " Climax " , " Lemme See " and " Twisted " , while Trent Fitzgerald of PopCrush called " Sins of My Father " a " big standout " on the album . Ryan Hadfield of Consequence of Sound labelled " Sins of My Father " as an " essential track " of Looking 4 Myself and stated that , alongside " What Happened to U " , the song displays the same " vocal prowess " as the rest of the album , but is matched with " beats of higher sophistication which avers his earnest attempt to deviate from a traditional blend of R & B and hip @-@ hop " . According to Verse of SoulCulture " ' Sins Of My Father ' , with its reggae vibe meets Marvin Gaye or Curtis Mayfield sensibilities addressing family issues this is the sort of track we need to hear more of from our artists . "
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording and mixing
Recorded at Jungle City Studios , New York City ; Doppler Studios , Atlanta , Georgia ; Glenwood Place Studios , Burbank , California ; Instrument Zoo , Miami , Florida ; mixed at Larrabee Sound Studio , Universal City , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Looking 4 Myself , RCA Records .
= = Charts = =
Upon the release of Looking 4 Myself , due to digital downloads , " Sins of My Father " charted in lower regions on the singles chart in South Korea . It debuted on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number 62 on June 10 , 2012 , with sales of 5 @,@ 813 digital copies .
= North Island ( Houtman Abrolhos ) =
North Island is the northernmost island in the Houtman Abrolhos , a coral reef archipelago in the Indian Ocean off the coast of Mid West Western Australia . Located about 14 km ( 9 mi ) from the nearest island group , it is one of the largest islands in the Houtman Abrolhos , and one of the few to support dune systems . It has relatively diverse flora dominated by chenopod shrubs and fauna that includes the introduced tammar wallaby , around seven species of reptile , and about 15 resident bird species .
First recorded and surveyed in 1840 , North Island has been a seasonal camp for western rock lobster fishermen since the beginning of the 20th century , and this remains the principal focus of human activity on the island . There is also a small amount of tourism , though for the most part it is reserved as conservation habitat for vegetation communities and rare birds .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
The earliest recorded sighting of North Island occurred in May 1840 , during the third survey voyage of HMS Beagle , commanded by John Clements Wickham . It was sighted from the peak of Flag Hill on East Wallabi Island in early May , explored on 22 May , and given its name due to " its relative position to the remainder of Houtman 's Abrolhos " . Before he left the island , Wickham left a letter in a bottle atop the highest hill , which he accordingly christened Record Hill .
A map of the island first appeared in 1845 on a British Admiralty chart entitled " The Houtman Rocks " . The following year , Wickham 's lieutenant , John Lort Stokes , published the first account of the island in his Discoveries in Australia . He observed :
" The island was about a mile across , and nearly circular . It was surrounded by a range of hills , with a flat in the centre , covered with coarse grass , where a great many quails were flushed , affording good sport , but not a single wallaby . "
= = = Development of industry and infrastructure = = =
A western rock lobster fishery developed on the island in the early 20th century . There are records of the island being used as a base for crayfishers as early as 1902 , and for many years it was used as an anchorage by anglers . It was not until 1947 , however , that a seasonally inhabited permanent camp was established there . According to former crayfisher Ron Bertelsen , the first camp was established by skippers George Barker and George Nelson and deckhand John Long , who relocated there when lobsters around Pigeon Island grew scarce . They camped at the southern end of North Island in a camp initially built from packing case timbers . A local carrier boat , the Betty Margaret , serviced the camp . From about 40 seasonal inhabitants in 1940 , the population grew to about 130 by 2003 . An airstrip was built in 1979 .
= = = Visits by naturalists = = =
A number of naturalists have visited the island , starting with the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition to the Abrolhos Islands in 1913 . This expedition spent little time on North Island , as shore collecting was not very successful there , and other islands appeared better suited to their work . Expedition members nevertheless published substantial information about the island , including a description of its physiography and a list of its vertebrates .
Australian ornithologist Dom Serventy visited the island in 1945 but left no published account . In 1959 , a group from the University of Western Australia 's Department of Zoology , accompanied by the English botanist Mary Gillham , travelled to the island ; a brief article on its physiography , vegetation and vertebrate fauna was published the following year by Glen Storr . More recent visitors have included P. R. Howden in 1974 , Robert Ivan Taylor Prince in 1976 , Ronald Eric Johnstone in 1981 and 1983 , Phillip Fuller in 1992 , and Judith Harvey and Vanda Longman in 1999 .
= = Geography = =
Nominally located at 28 ° 18 ′ 9 ″ S 113 ° 35 ′ 41 ″ E , North Island is an isolated island , separated from its nearest neighbours in the Wallabi Group by the 14 km ( 9 mi ) wide South Passage . Despite this separation , it is sometimes treated as part of that group . It is roughly diamond @-@ shaped and is approximately 2 km ( 1 1 ⁄ 4 mi ) long from south to north , and 1 1 ⁄ 2 km ( 1 mi ) from west to east , giving it an area of about 180 hectares ( 450 ac ) .
Two high points are named Record Hill and Latitude Hill . These are the only gazetted places on the island , although some other features have informal names : The most northerly and southerly point on the island have been called " North Point " and " South Point " respectively , and in 1960 a high point in the northwest corner of the island was referred to as " Northwest Hill " .
On the eastern side is a seasonally inhabited permanent fishers ' camp . There is an unnamed lighthouse on the western side , a trig point on the eastern side , and a gravel airstrip near the centre .
The island is surrounded by a coral reef flat . This extends about 1 1 ⁄ 2 km ( 1 mi ) to the west of the island , and over 3 km ( 2 mi ) to the north and south , but the reef margin lies quite close to the island on the eastern side . Most of the reef is not navigable , but a passage through the reef just north of the island is named Suda Bay Passage ; one just south of the island is named Barker Passage ; and there are a few breaks or channels on the eastern side of the island where boats may obtain shelter in bad weather . An area of reef immediately north of the island is named The Flat , and at the northern extreme of the reef is a breaker named The Big Breaker . About 200 m ( 660 ft ) west of the island is a small rock informally known as " Shag Rock " , but with no official name ; it differs from Shag Rock in the Wallabi Group further south .
Like the rest of the Houtman Abrolhos , North Island is Australian territory . It is a part of Western Australia , and falls within the boundaries of the federal Electoral Division of Durack and the state electoral district of Geraldton . It is part of the Houtman Abrolhos Nature Reserve , an A @-@ class reserve managed by Western Australia 's Department of Fisheries .
= = Geology and physiography = =
The basement of North Island is the Wallabi Limestone , a dense calcretised , coral limestone platform that underlies the entire Wallabi Group . Arising abruptly from a flat shelf , it is about 40 m ( 131 ft ) thick , and of Quaternary origin . Areas of reef that formed during the Eemian interglacial ( about 125 @,@ 000 years ago ) , when sea levels were higher than at present , are now emergent in places , and these form the basement of the group 's central platform islands , namely West Wallabi Island , East Wallabi Island and North Island .
North Island 's basement for the most part does not exceed 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) in elevation . Much of it is capped by aeolianite , and nearly all of it is covered with sand , but there are some exposed outcrops . The southern margin of the island , for example , takes the form of a low cliff , which is severely undercut by the sea in many places .
There are extensive dunes of unconsolidated Holocene sand along both the western and eastern sides of the island . The topography of these dunes varies with time : in 1913 , Dakin recorded the dunes as being a good deal higher in the east than in the west , but in 1960 Storr found the eastern dunes to be severely eroded , apparently because of a fire that burnt much of the island 's vegetation in 1935 . In the centre of the island is a low plain with a sinkhole in its southwest corner and a small salt lake near its northern edge . The soil in the centre of the plain is shallow loam , whereas the rim is deeper and composed largely of shell fragments .
= = Climate = =
An automatic weather station has been installed on the island since 1990 , and hourly measures of precipitation , air temperature , wind speed , wind direction , relative humidity and atmospheric pressure have been publicly available since then . This is the only weather station in the Houtman Abrolhos , so its data underlies climatic models of the island chain as a whole . Based on the data for North Island , the Houtman Abrolhos has been described as having a Mediterranean climate with warm , dry summers and cooler , wet winters . Mean temperatures range from 9 @.@ 3 to 19 @.@ 5 ° C ( 49 to 67 ° F ) in July , and from 19 @.@ 1 to 32 @.@ 4 ° C ( 66 to 90 ° F ) in February . This is a substantially smaller range than on the mainland : the summer temperature is typically a degree cooler , while winter temperatures are a good deal warmer . This is due to the influence of the ocean , in particular the Leeuwin Current .
Eighty @-@ six percent of the island 's rain falls between April and September ; on average there are 89 rain days , resulting in 469 mm ( 18 in ) of rain . The wettest month is June , when over 100 mm ( 4 in ) typically falls . In contrast , only about 70 mm ( 3 in ) can be expected to fall between October and March .
It is nearly always windy . During summer a high @-@ pressure ridge lies to the south , causing persistent winds from the southeast or southwest at speeds exceeding 17 kn ( 31 km / h ) almost half the time . During autumn and winter , the ridge moves north , increasing atmospheric pressure over the islands and creating variable winds . Winter tends to produce both the strongest gales and the most frequent periods of calm . In addition to these winds , there is daily pattern of land breezes in the morning , followed by the onset of south @-@ westerly sea breezes in the afternoon . This pattern is caused by temperature differences between the land and the ocean ; it is not as strong in the Houtman Abrolhos chain as on the mainland , but is present .
Three classes of storm have been identified in the region . Brief squalls may occur between December and April . A tropical cyclone occurs in the area about once in three years , between January and April ; these may generate extremely high wind speeds that are potentially destructive . During winter , extra @-@ tropical cyclones sometimes pass south of Geraldton , generating winter gales with gusts of up to 35 m / s ( 115 ft / s ) , the wind direction from the northwest initially , then gradually moving around to southerly .
= = Flora = =
Most of North Island is dominated by chenopod shrubs , generally less than a metre ( 3 ft ) high . The beach vegetation is largely Spinifex longifolius ( beach spinifex ) , Salsola kali ( prickly saltwort ) , Atriplex cinerea ( grey saltbush ) and naturalised Cakile maritima ( sea rocket ) . Stable dunes are vegetated by Atriplex paludosa ( marsh saltbush ) , Scaevola crassifolia ( thick @-@ leaved fan @-@ flower ) , Olearia axillaris ( coastal daisy @-@ bush ) , Myoporum insulare ( blueberry tree ) and Exocarpos sparteus ( broom ballart ) . Sheltered areas behind dunes support Salsola kali and Myoporum insulare and also Nitraria billardierei ( nitre bush ) , the last of these being the only plant on the island to grow over 1 1 ⁄ 2 m ( 5 ft ) high . In areas where limestone is close to the surface , the vegetation consists of Pimelea microcephala ( shrubby rice @-@ flower ) , Spyridium globulosum ( basket bush ) and Acanthocarpus preissii .
The rim of the central plain is vegetated by a dense shrubland of Rhagodia baccata ( berry saltbush ) , Atriplex paludosa and Threlkeldia diffusa ( coast bonefruit ) . Nearer the centre , the vegetation consists of Frankenia pauciflora ( seaheath ) , Muellerolimon salicorniaceum and Tecticornia arbuscula ( bulli bulli ) , although T. arbuscula is replaced by Tecticornia halocnemoides ( shrubby samphire ) where the soil is shallow . The most low @-@ lying area of the central plain , south of the salt lake , is water @-@ logged in winter ; it is vegetated by a dense mat of Sarcocornia quinqueflora ( beaded samphire ) , Sporobolus virginicus ( marine couch ) and Suaeda australis ( seablite ) .
The dune , limestone and salt lake vegetation communities on North Island are considered to have high conservation significance . The dune and limestone communities have high biodiversity , are highly sensitive to disturbance and regenerate slowly . The salt lake community is considered significant because of the rarity of salt lakes on offshore islands .
According to a survey published in 2001 , the following vascular plants occur on North Island :
= = Fauna = =
= = = Mammals = = =
No land mammals are known to be native to North Island , but the Australian sea lion ( Neophoca cinerea ) occasionally hauls out on the island 's beaches , and it has been suggested that the island once had a native population of tammar wallaby ( Macropus eugenii ) .
Stokes explicitly stated the tammar wallaby to be absent from North Island in 1840 , and it was not recorded by the Percy Sladen Trust Expedition in 1913 . It was apparently introduced to the island in the 1920s , as early fishermen reported seeing it between 1928 and 1930 . This introduction failed , possibly due to overgrazing . The species was not found by Serventy during his 1945 visit , nor by Storr in 1959 , but the latter found plenty of remains , mostly mandibles . Storr interpreted these remains as predating the 1920s introduction , suggesting that a native population of tammars became extinct on the island before 1840 . Albert Russell Main agreed , but the theory has not been accepted by later researchers .
In 1985 , five tammar wallabies were introduced onto North Island , and the population established successfully . Possible reasons for this success include the absence of the wallabies ' natural predator , the carpet python ( Morelia spilota imbricata ) ; the availability of additional food and water from the fishers ' huts , which are occupied during the harshest time of the year ; and the presence of the air strip , which apparently provides additional food for them . By the 2000s , there were over 450 tammar wallabies on the island . The wallabies overgrazed and ringbarked the native vegetation , particularly the area burnt in 1935 , thus reducing vegetation cover and causing a serious decline in populations of some plant species . In 2003 , island residents asked the Department of Conservation and Land Management ( CALM ; now the Department of Environment and Conservation ) for help in managing the issue . CALM staff visited the island in April and May of that year and produced a report recommending an investigation into controlling population levels by the use of implanted contraceptives . Exploration of this option began in 2005 , but in July 2007 the research was discontinued . Around 60 wallabies were removed to educational institutions for research purposes , and culling began . By February 2008 , the wallaby population had been reduced to around 25 individuals .
The only other mammal known to occur on the island is the naturalised house mouse ( Mus Musculus ) . Eight European rabbits ( Oryctolagus cuniculus ) were introduced in 1934 , and were found to be " exceedingly numerous " by 1945 , but by 1960 they were extinct , apparently from predation by feral cats . Neither rabbits nor cats are now reported as naturalised on the island .
= = = Reptiles = = =
Reptiles recorded on North Island
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rescued 13 survivors ( eight from Clonlara , five from Alva ) . Eight merchant ships , two naval escorts and over 400 lives were lost .
Five of the convoy 's surviving merchant ships reached Gibraltar ; 10 retreated to neutral Portugal . This was described as " a bitter act of surrender could ever come our way " . In Lisbon Lanahrone 's crew went on strike , which was resolved with extra life @-@ rafts and pay . The crew of Irish Poplar was waiting in Lisbon ; when the remnants of OG 71 limped in . The crew of Irish Poplar resolved to sail home alone . While City of Dublin brought Clonlara 's survivors to Cork , Lanahrone joined Convoy HG 73 . Nine of the 25 ships in that convoy were lost . These experiences and the inability of the Royal Navy to protect merchant ships had a most profound effect on all Irish Ships . Thereafter they were blacked out when sailing in Allied convoys . Ship @-@ owners , on the advice of their masters , decided not to sail their vessels in British convoys and by the early months of 1942 the practice had ceased .
Captain William Henderson of Irish Elm , returning from a transatlantic voyage reported " circled by two German bombers , probably Condors , they circled for a considerable time and inspected closely but didn 't molest . The incident had given the crew great confidence in the protection afforded by the neutral markings " .
= = Trade routes = =
= = = British routes = = =
This " cross @-@ channel " trade accounted for most of Ireland 's trade . The ships ranged , in age , from Dundalk built , two years before the start of the war , in 1937 to Brooklands built in 1859 . The most important vessels to Ireland were the ten colliers and to Britain the livestock carriers . Initially Germany respected the neutrality of Irish vessels , apologising for the first attack on the collier Kerry Head and paying compensation . Losses came from mines , rather than direct attacks . Meath suffered such a fate ; while she was being inspected by the British Naval Control Service , she was struck by a magnetic mine , drowning seven hundred cattle , and destroying both vessels .
In August 1940 Germany " required " Ireland to cease food exports to Britain . On 17 August 1940 , Germany declared a large area around Britain to be a " scene of warlike operations " . It was believed that attacks on Irish ships and the bombing of Campile was to reinforce that message . Lord Haw @-@ Haw in a broadcast on German , threatened that Dundalk would be bombed if the export of cattle to Britain continued . On 24 July 1941 , George 's Quay , Dundalk was bombed . Nonetheless , the trade continued .
The first attack , after the German ultimatum , was against the schooner Lock Ryan , returning to Arklow . She was strafed and bombed by three German aircraft . Fortunately Lock Ryan 's cargo of china clay absorbed the blast and although badly damaged , she survived . Germany acknowledged the attack but refused to pay compensation for the damage as she was in " the blockaded area " , " through which the Irish had been offered free passage but on terms which were rejected " . There were many attacks on ships on the cross @-@ channel trade . In 1940 nine Irish ships were lost . That figure may be small compared with Allied losses , but it represents a larger proportion of the small Irish fleet .
There were restrictions on reporting attacks on ships . Frank Aiken , the government minister whose responsibilities included censorship , reverted this policy . His intention was to let Germany know that the Irish public know , and " they don 't like it " . There had been a British proposal for transshipment . William Warnock , the Irish chargé d 'affaires in Berlin told Germany that Ireland was refusing to transship British cargoes , while protesting against the attacks on Irish ships , and other neutral ships with Irish cargoes . Deliberate attacks on cross @-@ channel shipping ceased on 5 November 1941 , when the collier Glencree was strafed . There were attacks on other routes . Mines were a constant danger .
= = = The Iberian trade = = =
On November 1939 , Roosevelt signed the Fourth Neutrality Act forbidding American ships from entering the " war zone " , which was defined as a line drawn from Spain to Iceland . Cargoes intended for Ireland were shipped to Portugal . It was up to the Irish to fetch them from there . This route , known as the Iberian Trade or the Lisbon run . Setting sail from Ireland , the ships would carry agricultural products to the United Kingdom . There they would discharge their cargo , load up on fuel , pick up a British export ( often coal ) , and carry it to Portugal . In Portugal , usually Lisbon , Irish ships loaded the waiting American cargo , such as fertilizer or agricultural machinery .
Sometimes the cargo was not there : it may have been delayed , or lost at sea due to the war . In this case , the Irish captains would load a " cargo of opportunity " and bring it back to Ireland . This might be wheat or oranges ; on occasions , they even purchased their own cargo of coal . MV Kerlogue was fortunate to have a cargo of coal when two unidentified aircraft attacked her with cannon fire . The shells lodged in the coal , rather than piercing her hull . Britain denied involvement , but when the coal was discharged shell fragments of British manufacture were found . The attackers were de Havilland Mosquitos of the Polish squadron of the RAF .
The Cymric was not so fortunate , she vanished in the same waters without a trace .
The Lisbon run was undertaken by small coastal trading vessels , commonly called coasters , which were not designed for deep @-@ sea navigation . Small , and having low freeboard ( frequently around one foot ( 30 cm ) ) these ships were designed never to be out of sight of land , and to be able to make quickly to a harbour when the weather turned foul . Kerlogue has become the exemplar of the Irish Mercantile Marine in the Emergency . Only 335 gross register tons ( GRT ) and 142 feet ( 43 m ) long , Kerlogue was attacked by both sides and rescued both sides . Her rescue of 168 German sailors , given her size , was dramatic . From January 1941 , British authorities required Irish ships to visit a British port and obtain a " navicert " . This visit sometimes proved fatal . It also added up to 1 @,@ 300 miles ( 2 @,@ 100 km ) to the voyage . A ship with a " navicert " was given free passage through allied patrols and fuel , however they would be searched . Irish ships on the " Lisbon run " carried UK exports to Spain and Portugal .
= = = Atlantic routes = = =
Some British ships traded between Ireland and Britain . Other destinations were served by Irish and other neutral ships . Philip Noel @-@ Baker ( Churchill 's Parliamentary Secretary ) was able to tell the British parliament that " no United Kingdom or Allied ship has been lost while carrying a full cargo of goods either to or from Eire on an ocean voyage . " He added " a very high proportion of imports from overseas sources into Eire , and of such exports as are sent overseas from Eire , are already carried in ships on the Eire or on a neutral register . " and " The trade between Great Britain and Eire is of mutual benefit to both countries , and the risks to British seamen which it involves are small . "
In the economic depression , the Limerick Steamship Company sold both its ocean @-@ going ships , Knockfierna and Kilcredane . They were Ireland 's last ocean @-@ going ships . At the outbreak of hostilities Ireland did not have a ship designed to cross the Atlantic . British ships were not available . American ships would only travel to Portugal . Ireland depended on other neutrals . In 1940 a succession of these ships , from Norway , Greece , Argentina , and Finland , usually carrying wheat to Ireland , were lost . Soon many of these nations were no longer neutral . Ireland had to acquire its own fleet . Irish Shipping was formed . Irish Poplar was Irish Shipping 's first ship . It was acquired in Spain after it had been abandoned by its crew . Other ships were acquired from Palestine , Panama , Yugoslavia , and Chile . The Irish government minister Frank Aiken negotiated the bareboat chartering of two oil @-@ burning steamships from the United States Maritime Commission 's reserve fleet . They were both lost to U @-@ boats . Irish Oak was sunk in controversial circumstances by U @-@ 607 . All 33 crew of Irish Pine were lost when she was sunk by U @-@ 608 . Three ships were from Estonia , They were in Irish ports when Estonia was annexed by the Soviet Union . Their crews refused to return to the new Estonian SSR . The ships were sold to Irish Shipping . The SS Cetvrti ( Jugoslavia ) was abandoned in Dingle Bay after being strafed on 1 December 1940 . She was salvaged by Fort Rannoch of the Irish Navy ; she was purchased and renamed Irish Beech . An Italian ship , Caterina Gerolimich had been trapped in Dublin since the outbreak of the war . After the fall of Italian Fascism she was chartered , repaired and renamed Irish Cedar . When the war was over , she returned to Naples with a cargo of food , a gift from Ireland to war @-@ ravaged Italy . Irish Hazel was bought on 17 June 1941 . She was 46 years old , and required extensive repairs . " She was fit for nothing but the scrap yard . " A British yard bid for , and won , the contract to renovate her . This work was completed in November 1943 . Even though the Irish government paid for her purchase and for the repairs she was requisitioned by the British Ministry of War Transport and renamed Empire Don . She was returned to Irish Shipping in 1945 .
The Irish Shipping fleet imported , across the Atlantic : 712 @,@ 000 tons of wheat , 178 @,@ 000 tons of coal , 63 @,@ 000 tons of phosphate ( for fertilizer ) , 24 @,@ 000 tons of tobacco , 19 @,@ 000 tons of newsprint , 10 @,@ 000 tons of timber and 105 @,@ 000 tons of assorted other cargo . Figures from the other shipping companies have not survived .
= = After the war = =
When the hostilities were over , on 16 May 1945 , Éamon de Valera , in his speech to the nation said : " To the men of our Mercantile Marine who faced all the perils of the ocean to bring us essential supplies , the nation is profoundly grateful . " The Ringsend area of Dublin has a long maritime tradition . When housing was being redeveloped in the 1970s , some streets were named after ships which were lost : Breman Road , Breman Grove , Cymric Road , Isolda Road , Pine Road , Leukos Road , Kyleclare Road and Clonlara Road . The " An Bonn Seirbhíse Éigeandála " for " An tSeirbhís Mhuir @-@ Thráchtála " or in English : " Emergency Service Medal " of the " Mercantile Marine Service " , was awarded to all who had served six months , or longer , on an Irish @-@ registered ship in the Emergency .
On 24 September 2001 , a plinth and plaque , embossed with the Irish tricolour was erected to commemorate those crews lost on neutral Irish registered vessels in 1939 @-@ 45 . " a very significant gesture by our British friends towards recognising the debt of honour owed to all shipmates irrespective of nationality who lost their lives in the Second World War . " in the National Memorial Arboretum in England .
In Dublin , an annual commemoration , is held on the third Sunday of November . The Cork commemoration is held on the fourth Sunday of November in the former offices of the White Star Line . The Belfast commemoration is held on the second Sunday of May .
= = Publications = =
= 1948 FA Charity Shield =
The 1948 FA Charity Shield was the 26th Charity Shield , an annual English association football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Football League and FA Cup . It was the first edition held since the postponement of football during the Second World War . The match , held at Highbury on 6 October 1948 , was contested by Arsenal , champions of the 1947 – 48 Football League and Manchester United , who beat Blackpool in the final of the 1947 – 48 FA Cup . This was Arsenal 's eighth Charity Shield appearance to Manchester United 's third .
Watched by a crowd of over 30 @,@ 000 , Reg Lewis , Bryn Jones , and Ronnie Rooke each scored for the league champions inside the first 15 minutes . Manchester United responded by scoring twice before the half @-@ time break through Jack Rowley and Ronnie Burke . Lionel Smith 's own goal in the 53rd minute made the scoreline 4 – 3 , and though United 's attack were dominant in the second half , there were no further goals . Arsenal were awarded the Shield by A.V. Alexander , the Minister of Defence . Gate receipts for the match came to a total of £ 4 @,@ 300 .
= = Background = =
The FA Charity Shield was founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield . It was a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , and then by 1913 teams of amateur and professional players . In 1921 , it was played by the Football League champions and FA Cup winners for the first time . After a ten @-@ year absence due to the suspension of football during the Second World War , the Charity Shield made a return in 1948 .
Arsenal qualified for the 1948 FA Charity Shield as winners of the 1947 – 48 Football League First Division . It was the club 's sixth league title and striker Ronnie Rooke scored 33 goals in the campaign to become the division 's top goalscorer . The other Charity Shield place went to Manchester United who beat Blackpool to win the final of the 1947 – 48 FA Cup . Manchester United 's progress in the competition was unique as the club was drawn against teams from the First Division in every round . Their home ties were staged at three different grounds as Old Trafford was being repaired from the damage sustained in the Manchester Blitz .
This was Arsenal 's eighth Charity Shield appearance ; prior to the game they had won five Shields ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 ) , and lost two ( 1935 , 1936 ) . By contrast Manchester United were undefeated in the Charity Shield ; the club won their previous two appearances , in 1908 and 1911 . Manchester United had beaten Arsenal 1 – 0 the last time the two clubs met at Highbury , for a league fixture on 30 August 1948 ; Charlie Mitten scored the only goal of the match .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
Arsenal began the quicker of the two teams . Inside a minute , a miskick by Manchester United left back John Aston troubled his defence , and presented Reg Lewis and Rooke with shooting opportunities . After three minutes , Arsenal took the lead ; combination play from Jimmy Logie and Bryn Jones forced goalkeeper Jack Crompton out of his area , and ended with Jones hitting the ball high into an empty net . Lewis headed in Archie Macaulay 's cross from the right to double Arsenal 's lead , and the team scored their third almost immediately , when Rooke maneuvered past the United defence to shoot past Crompton .
United regrouped and scored immediately . Charging forward , John Anderson and Jack Rowley each shot wide , before Johnny Morris 's effort hit the post . The ball rebounded to Rowley , whose shot went in past goalkeeper George Swindin . United were in full ascendancy – " Anderson and Warner were winning the ball in mid @-@ field , and bringing it through to their forwards [ ... ] , making the Arsenal defence feel the strain , " so said The Times football correspondent . In the 35th minute however , Lewis scored his second goal of the match , beating Allenby Chilton to the ball first and going past Crompton . Five minutes before half @-@ time , United halved Arsenal 's lead – a well @-@ worked move started by Carey in his own half was finished off by Burke .
Arsenal struggled to regain fluency in the second half , as their opponents dominated play . In the 53rd minute , United scored to make it 4 – 3 ; Charlie Mitten 's flick in the area was diverted into the Arsenal net by Lionel Smith for an own goal . United fashioned further chances through Burke and Rowley , but for large periods of the second half the Arsenal defence stood firm . Jones ' headed goal was rule out for offside , after which the match descended into a contest between United 's attack and Arsenal 's defence . Jimmy Delaney came closest to equalising late on , when he darted forward and missed by inches .
= = = Details = = =
Source
= = Post @-@ match = =
A.V. Alexander , the Minister of Defence presented Arsenal with the Shield . Assessing the match the next day , Daily Express football correspondent John MacAdam wrote : " Charity begins at home , they say , and , by golly , it began at Highbury yesterday , for Arsenal were the luckiest team in the world to beat Manchester United 4 – 3 in the F.A. Charity Shield match between the winners of the League and the Cup . " The Times correspondent assessed , " Arsenal won because they sneaked a commanding lead of three goals , before Manchester had realised they were in London , " and concluded the piece with the sentence " It had been a game worthy of the occasion and of two fine clubs . " Gate receipts for the match totalled £ 4 @,@ 300 .
Manchester United ended the season as runners @-@ up to Portsmouth in the Football League First Division , and reached the semi @-@ final stage of the FA Cup . Arsenal progressed no further than the fourth round of the cup competition , and finished sixth in the league . The two clubs next faced each other in the Charity Shield in 1993 , when Manchester United won the inaugural Premier League title , and Arsenal were FA Cup winners in the 1992 – 93 season .
= Folie à Deux ( album ) =
Folie à Deux ( / fɒˈliː ə ˈduː / ; French for " A Madness Shared by Two " ) is the fourth studio album by American rock band Fall Out Boy . Produced by Neal Avron , the album was recorded from July to September 2008 at The Pass Studios and The Casita in Hollywood , California . As the follow @-@ up to the band 's commercially successful 2007 effort Infinity on High , it was released by Island Records on December 10 , 2008 , after the original November 4 release was postponed to avoid conflicts with the United States presidential election . Like the band 's two previous releases , Folie à Deux was musically composed by lead vocalist and guitarist Patrick Stump , with lyrics penned by bassist Pete Wentz . In regard to the writing process , the band considered Folie à Deux to be the band 's most collaborative record at the time .
The album was recorded in relative secrecy compared to the press that its predecessor possessed . The recording sessions inspired lyricism that related to decaying relationships , moral dilemmas , and societal shortcomings , many with a political edge . It is the first Fall Out Boy album with lyrics that are less autobiographical . The album 's style moved away from early emo power chords and toward a wider variation in genre . Fall Out Boy recruited several guest artists for Folie à Deux , as well as employing instruments and recording techniques previously unfamiliar to the group . To promote the album , the band launched a viral campaign based around a Big Brother @-@ type organization named " Citizens For Our Betterment " ( CFOB ) and embarked on an extensive tour schedule .
Folie à Deux was released in the United States on December 16 , 2008 , and received favorable reviews from most music critics , although fan opinions were mixed . Positive reviews focused on the creativity and various styles touched on , while the more negative reviews expressed concern that the record was overly indulgent . The album debuted at number eight on the US Billboard 200 chart with 149 @,@ 000 first week sales but was less commercially successful than Infinity on High . As of February 2013 Folie à Deux has sold 449 @,@ 000 copies in the US . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) after 500 @,@ 000 copies were shipped . The album spawned four singles . " I Don 't Care " , the first single , reached number 21 on the Billboard Hot 100 and was certified platinum . Folie à Deux was Fall Out Boy 's last studio album released before the band 's 2009 – 13 hiatus .
= = Background = =
Fall Out Boy began writing material for a possible successor shortly after the release of the 2007 album , Infinity on High . In March 2008 , the band attempted to enter the The Guinness Book of World Records for being the only musical act to perform in all seven continents in nine months , planning to perform in Antarctica for an audience of scientists . However , the group was unable to make the flight from Punta Arenas , Chile to Antarctica due to poor weather . Despite this unsuccessful attempt , the group felt energized from the experience and became inspired to write more music . This led to more material to sift through when the band decided to enter the studio . Fall Out Boy spent time during June 2008 formulating ideas at Avron 's home , where " three to four " song ideas were developed . Lead vocalist / guitarist Patrick Stump and bassist / lyricist Pete Wentz began turning these ideas into songs over the following month . Wentz explained that the process was the same as usual : " I 'll go over to Patrick 's house and he 'll kind of just sit there and play songs , and I 'll be like , ' Ah , that one 's awesome ! ' "
The band intended to work on new music sooner , but the release of its cover of Michael Jackson 's " Beat It " as a single stood in the way . The single " stalled out " the label , who wanted the band to film a music video for further promotion . Stump entered the studio with the intention of being less " self @-@ indulgent " , believing he dominated the band 's previous record . He wished to focus more on creating a cohesive album in which different sounds come together instead of featuring his vocals at the forefront . With the help of Neal Avron , who produced Fall Out Boy 's last two records , the quartet decided to simplify the music on Folie à Deux as opposed to the multi @-@ layered sound of Infinity on High . The band was interviewed about the album constantly before even a single note was recorded , leading to misconceptions about how the record would sound . The album was first rumored to consist of entirely acoustic folk music , while other sources later alleged it would delve into rap @-@ rock .
= = Recording and production = =
The band members decided to keep publicity down during the album 's recording , as they were taken aback by such press surrounding Infinity on High . Stump entered the studio with music for almost 50 songs . Folie à Deux was intended to be very different from the previous three Fall Out Boy albums , which were all interconnected musically and thematically ; Stump described the new songs as " having a lot of freedom [ ... ] it 's our first just plain old record in a while . " However , the sessions proved to be difficult for the band . Stump called the making of the album " painful " , noting that he and Wentz quarreled over many issues , revealing " I threw something across the room over a major @-@ to @-@ minor progression . " On previous albums , guitarist Joe Trohman felt that he and drummer Andy Hurley did not have enough musical freedom and that Stump and Wentz exerted too much control over the group : " I felt , ' Man , this isn 't my band anymore . ' It 's no one 's fault , and I don 't want to make it seem that way . It was more of a complex I developed based off of stuff I was reading . It 's hard to hear , ' Joe and Andy are just along for the ride . ' " To amend the situation , Trohman sat down with Stump to communicate his concerns , which led to more collaboration on Folie à Deux . " It made me feel like I owned the songs a lot more . It made me really excited about contributing to Fall Out Boy and made me find my role in the band , " Trohman recalled .
The group purposely cut short the amount of time set aside for recording the album , and did not notify its label before beginning work on the record . The members hoped that these steps would bring them back to the days when they were a young , broke band who had to finish an album before the money ran out . " There was something really interesting about that creative process when we were starting out , " explained Stump . " The more time you have , the more potential you have for excess . " He felt that the process was reminiscent of the making of Take This to Your Grave because both albums were created using a " first @-@ thought , best @-@ thought " mentality : " I think we were trying to find what making a record that way would sound like now , but with four adult Fall Out Boys . " Trohman called the recording process " fun because [ it ] was so collaborative , " but difficult because it was rushed .
In September , the band was still finalizing cameos , recording with Brendon Urie of Panic ! at the Disco and Pharrell Williams . The band desired to work with Kanye West , but ran out of time . Pharrell laid down beats and Stump would add vocals and melodies for " w.a.m.s. " The collaboration with Elvis Costello in " What a Catch , Donnie " was spontaneous . The band sent Costello the song , and although he had been suffering from bronchitis , he decided to participate . Stump was particularly excited about the collaboration , as Hurley noted that " Elvis is Patrick 's favorite person on earth as a musician , singer and songwriter . " Wentz felt that cameos were necessary to portray the album 's messages , stating " More than anything , they serve the purpose of a character in a musical , where this character 's voice makes the most sense ... Certain lines need to be conveyed in certain ways . "
= = Composition = =
= = = Music = = =
On Folie à Deux , Fall Out Boy continued its pattern of musical experimentation that began on the band 's previous album , Infinity on High . Singer / guitarist Patrick Stump was once again the primary composer , and attempted to create compositions that echoed the themes discussed in Wentz 's lyrics . As the lyrical content shifted in new directions from the group 's previous works , the musical style employed by the other band members evolved as well . On this topic , Trohman commented " It 's not like we said , ' We want to push the envelope , ' It 's not that at all . We just wanted to try cooler things . The album still sounds like Fall Out Boy . It has big choruses . But you can 't do the same thing every record . "
The record contains more instruments not present in the band 's previous work , including synthesizers , sequenced drums , and strings . Critics noted similarities between the album and 1980s arena rock . Joey Rosen of Rolling Stone commented that " They further explore their funky side here : Stump is emerging as one of the world 's most unlikely blue @-@ eyed @-@ soul stars , breathing life into classic R & B chord progressions and flaunting his agile voice . " Trohman drew influence from Queen while creating guitar harmonies to match Stump 's vocals on the record , while his other styles were inspired by Metallica , Prince , and The Rolling Stones . He also employs a jazz guitar interlude on " w.a.m.s. " which has been likened to Steely Dan .
The pregap hidden track " Lullabye " is an acoustic ballad influenced by Bob Dylan , written with the intention of helping Wentz ' son , Bronx Mowgli , fall asleep . Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly categorized the album 's opener , " Disloyal Order of Water Buffaloes " , as a " towering guitar anthem built on wedding @-@ march organs , thundering drums , and singer Patrick Stump 's limber vocals . " " Coffee 's for Closers " is similarly percussive and features drummer Andy Hurley drawing influence from marching band drumwork . The first single " I Don 't Care " has been described as " disco rockabilly " , and contains a repeating blues riff throughout the song ; Stump 's vocal performance on the track has been compared to John Lee Hooker .
" Headfirst Slide into Cooperstown on a Bad Bet " is an example of the album 's theme of contrasting moods , and " struts in on a massive drum line and crunching , processed guitars , gets amplified by a four @-@ piece horn section , then falls away to a simple , somber piano line " according to James Montgomery of MTV . The Elton John @-@ influenced " What a Catch , Donnie " is a piano @-@ driven ballad which features a string section in the background . As the song closes , it features Brendon Urie , Alexander DeLeon , Travie McCoy , Gabe Saporta , Elvis Costello and William Beckett singing parts of previous Fall Out Boy songs . According to Stump , the song contains lyrics that were important to the band and " gives us the chance for this record to come full circle " . The backing vocals in " America 's Suitehearts " have been compared to groups such as The Beatles .
= = = Lyrics = = =
Pete Wentz was once again the primary lyricist of the band during the production of the album . Stump said that Wentz " totally outdid himself on this record . He doesn 't even know how good his lyrics are here . " Wentz , despite many recent personal developments ( marriage to Ashlee Simpson , birth of his son , Bronx ) , desired to shift the focus away from himself and turn it outward onto the world . For the first time on a Fall Out Boy album , Folie is rarely autobiographical , as the band believed the format was " losing its luster " because " everyone was doing it . " The songs on the album explore decaying relationships , moral dilemmas , and societal shortcomings , as well as concepts such as trust , infidelity , responsibility , and commitment . Stump tagged Folie à Deux as a " message record " that takes aim at " the materialistic dance between any two parties obsessed with each other , whether it 's teenage girls and handbag makers , politicians and lobbyists or tabloids and stars . " Folie à Deux also dissects how self @-@ motivated American culture is , and many of the lyrics are intended to be satirical . While the album does contain political overtones , the band wanted to avoid being overt about these themes , leaving many lyrics open to interpretation for listeners .
Wentz referred to " I Don 't Care " as a " narcissist 's anthem " that addresses the current generation 's short attention span . Wentz further explored the subjects of narcissism and apathy in " ( Coffee 's for Closers ) " , as Stump explained , " The past decade has been totally about ' me . ' It 's totally about ' Oh , I 'm sad . I want this . I know somebody who knows this person . Me me me me me , ' so that 's what that song is about . " Additionally , " America 's Suitehearts " discusses society 's fixation with celebrities and the desire to let them do no wrong . " 27 " explores the hedonistic lifestyles common in rock and roll music . The title is a reference to the 27 Club , a group of influential musicians , including Janis Joplin , Kurt Cobain , and Jim Morrison , who all died at the age of 27 . Wentz felt that he was living a similarly dangerous lifestyle , and was " stoked " to make it to his 28th birthday . Stump added " There was a countdown clock and everything . I remember , our manager called me up on Pete 's 28th birthday and screamed , ' We made it ! ' "
= = Title and artwork = =
Folie à deux is a rare psychiatric syndrome in which symptoms of a delusional belief are transmitted from one individual to another . The same syndrome shared by more than two people may be called folie à trois , folie à quatre , folie en famille or even folie à plusieurs ( " madness of many " ) . Recent psychiatric classifications refer to the syndrome as dependency psychotic disorder or induced delusional disorder , although the research literature largely uses the original name . The disorder was first conceptualized in 19th century French psychiatry . In keeping with the record 's socially aware nature , the band felt that the term was relevant to the candidates in the 2008 U.S. presidential election . Stump further clarified the title 's meaning : " The irony is that people will probably mistake the title as something about romantic relationships in some way . And it 's our only record where that theme is not touched upon . "
On September 13 , 2008 , the album artwork was revealed on the band 's website . The cover of the album was painted by artist Luke Chueh . Wentz contacted Chueh and asked him to create the piece , to which the artist agreed . Chueh recalled of the situation , " They were great to work with , having given me full creative control over both the artwork and the final design of the [ sic ] cover . " Chueh used the title and underlying themes of the album as inspiration for the artwork . " The title of the album is Folie à Deux , and when considering this with the band 's popularity , I chose to focus on the idea of fandom , and how some people are willing to take their love / infatuation to levels that are obviously unhealthy . " Wentz currently owns the original painting . The disc 's liner notes contain pictures of the band members with blank pages next to them ; the group allowed fans to submit pictures they had drawn in the spaces and posted them to the band 's website .
= = Promotion and release = =
As the release of the new album approached , the band and its management found that they would have to navigate changes in the music industry , which Hurley described as " a completely different place . " Facing declining record sales , the lack of a proper outlet for exhibition of music videos , and the economic crisis , Hurley commented that " people are buying things they need to survive rather than records and concert tickets . " The group 's 2007 album Infinity on High sold one million copies , which was considered a disappointment compared to From Under the Cork Tree 's sales of three million . Trohman attributed this to " the same reason that nobody 's records are selling that well : there 's so much turmoil in the music industry , so much downsizing , and people are finding different ways to get their music more and more all the time . There 's very little we can do about that as a band . All we can do is try to make great music and hope it connects with people . "
= = = Citizens for Our Betterment and Welcome to the New Administration = = =
A viral campaign was launched by Pete Wentz on August 18 , 2008 , to promote the album . It was inspired by George Orwell 's novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four ( 1949 ) , and the autocratic , overbearing Big Brother organization . The campaign started when the website for Wentz 's Decaydance Records label was supposedly " hacked " by an organization called " Citizens for Our Betterment " ( CFOB ) . Clues were left in links and images on the website , and Wentz left clues on his personal blog . On August 19 , Wentz ' wife Ashlee Simpson was seen carrying a pamphlet for the organization , raising suspicion and sparking many rumors online . In the days that followed , new posts appeared on the Citizens For Our Betterment website and Wentz continued to blog , at times referring to November 4 , the same day as the 2008 U.S. presidential election . Meanwhile , another band , Copeland , launched its own viral campaign . As part of it , Copeland launched a similarly named site , CitizensFourOurBetterment.com , and spread links through various Fall Out Boy fan blogs to attract more people to the new website .
While this mixing of campaigns was done without the knowledge of the members of Fall Out Boy , Wentz did post an acknowledgement on August 22 , when CFOB again " hijacked " Decaydance Records website . Decaydance act The Cab began performing with " Citizens for Our Betterment " written on the group 's instruments . Finally , on August 26 , a blog post of a press release was made on the band 's FriendsOrEnemies.com page ; it announced Folie à Deux as the title of the upcoming album , due for release on November 4 . Wentz said of the endeavor " To me , this is not a marketing campaign . It is a way to cause excitement about your art and have people earn it and understand it ... I don 't believe the full campaign has begun , and I also believe people are taking over the ship in a truly viral way . It doesn 't hurt anyone , and hopefully it tells the story of the project better and makes it more appreciated . "
It also revealed that a mixtape , titled Welcome to the New Administration , was available for download for free on the FriendsOrEnemies website . The mixtape contained several snippets of new Fall Out Boy tracks , as well as new music from other bands such as Gym Class Heroes , Cobra Starship , and Panic ! at the Disco . However none of the titles were confirmed for Folie à Deux . It also featured a song titled " America 's Sweethearts " which was eventually confirmed for the album but with an alternate spelling , " America 's Suitehearts " . The band confirmed that it intended to release the mixtape in conjunction with the " Citizens " campaign , and felt that it was relevant to not only the themes of the album , but the 2008 election as well . Wentz explained " The whole campaign is part of the record and people can call it whatever they want , but the mixtape was part of that campaign , and we 'll see what happens from here ... In creating this autocratic organization , we created a democratic campaign , because people have made it go the direction they wanted it to go . "
= = = Release date change = = =
Initially , the album 's release date was reported to be November 4 , 2008 — meaning that it would coincide with the 2008 presidential election . Fall Out Boy later announced on October 13 , 2008 , that the early November date was in doubt , citing concerns over the planned election day tie @-@ in . The band stressed out and worked very hard on a tight deadline to get the album out on November 4 . While on a promotional tour in Spain , the band realized that things were " spinning out of control " , and , in a rushed @-@ out statement , explained :
Six months ago we thought it would be a fun idea to release our album on election day but this is not the election to be cute . We felt as though rather than making a commentary we were only riding the wave of the election . This seemed less and less like what we intended to do and more of a gimmick . It is now in the hands of our label to give us a new release date . It is our intent to get our record out this year and as soon as possible -- as we made sure to have it done in time for its original release .
Deciding to postpone the album release in a season in which artists Kanye West ( 808s & Heartbreak ) , Britney Spears ( Circus ) and Guns N ' Roses ( Chinese Democracy ) had already set release dates , the only one available was six weeks later than expected . It was soon announced that a new release date for Folie was December 16 , 2008 . Although December 16 was not an ideal date according to demographic marketing analysis , Stump said " we put our eight feet down [ and ] told our label it must come out this year . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Commercial performance = = =
Folie à Deux has sold 449 @,@ 000 copies in the US to date February 2013 , but did not perform as well commercially as its predecessor , Infinity on High . It debuted at number eight on the US Billboard 200 chart with first week sales of 149 @,@ 000 copies during a highly competitive week with other big debuts , becoming Fall Out Boy 's third consecutive top ten album . This is in contrast to the band 's more successful previous effort which shifted 260 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week to debut at number one the chart . Folie spent two weeks within the top 20 out of its 22 chart weeks . It also entered Billboard 's Rock Albums and Alternative Albums charts at number three . With 39 @,@ 000 digital downloads as part of its sales totals in its debut week , the record opened at number one on Billboard Digital Albums chart , the band 's second number one album on that chart . Fall Out Boy was bested in the group 's chart debut by R & B singers Keyshia Cole — whose A Different Me landed at number two on sales of more than 321 @,@ 000 — and Jamie Foxx , whose Intuition logged 265 @,@ 000 for a number three debut . Taylor Swift 's Fearless reigned at number one during that week . Within two months of its release , Folie à Deux was certified Gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies .
Outside the United States , the album was also less widely successful than Infinity on High but managed to reach the top 10 in Australia where it received a Platinum certification from the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units . On the Australian chart , the record debuted and peaked at number nine and spent its first seven weeks within the top 20 out of its fifteen weeks in the top 40 . In the United Kingdom , the album spent six weeks on the UK Albums Chart and was later certified Silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for the shipments of 60 @,@ 000 units . Folie logged 12 weeks on the New Zealand Albums Chart with a peak of 26 . The album also peaked at number twenty @-@ one on the Top Canadian Albums chart .
= = = Singles = = =
Three singles were released from the album : " I Don 't Care " , " America 's Suitehearts " and " What a Catch , Donnie " . As part of a new marketing ploy , Fall Out Boy released several songs on iTunes before the release of Folie à Deux . When purchased , the songs would go towards purchasing the entire album as part of the " Complete My Album " feature . The lead single , " I Don 't Care " was released on September 8 , 2008 , reaching a peak at number twenty @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 . It was certified Platinum by the RIAA for shipments of one million copies . In Australia , the song peaked at number twenty on the ARIA singles chart , being certified Gold by the ARIA , denoting shipments of 35 @,@ 000 units . The music video for the single was released on the internet on September 25 , but was pulled from iTunes and YouTube shortly after . Wentz wrote angrily on his blog , finding the video was full of product placement shots for Nokia phones .
" I Don 't Care " was followed by the digital release of " Headfirst Slide into Cooperstown on a Bad Bet " on October 7 , 2008 . It debuted and peaked at number 74 on the Hot 100 and on the Digital Songs chart at number 40 . It also reached the Canadian charts at number 64 . Contrary to popular misconception , the song was not an actual single , rather it was just a song posted online . The second digital song , " What a Catch , Donnie " , was released a short time later on October 15 , 2008 , charting at number 94 on the Hot 100 , number fifty @-@ three on Digital Songs and number ninety @-@ five in Canada week of November 1 . The release was followed by the Suave Suarez remix of " I Don 't Care " on November 4 . The third digital song , " America 's Suitehearts " ( later becoming the second radio single ) was also released digitally to iTunes on December 2 , 2008 .
" Headfirst Slide Into Cooperstown on a Bad Bet " , " What a Catch , Donnie " and " America 's Suitehearts " were digitally released before the album as part of iTunes ' " Complete My Album " feature . " America 's Suitehearts " was then commissioned as the album 's second single on January 12 , 2009 . As a single it reached number 78 on the Hot 100 , number 71 on Digital Songs week ending May 16 , 2009 , as well as peaking at number 30 on the Pop Songs chart on April 25 . In Australia , the song hit number 26 and logged in at number ninety @-@ seven in the UK . " Headfirst Slide into Cooperstown on a Bad Bet " impacted United States modern rock radio on June 15 , 2009 , while " What a Catch , Donnie " was later issued as Folie à Deux 's third and last single . However , neither re @-@ entered any charts . Music videos were created for each .
= = = Critical response = = =
The album received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 73 , based on 21 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " . Dan Martin of NME gave the record a very positive review , calling a " defining statement " with the band 's " most stylistically hatstand @-@ but @-@ indisputably @-@ best songs yet . " He wrote , " We 're not saying it 's as good as genre watermarks American Idiot or The Black Parade . We 're just saying it comes close , " closing with calling it a " staggering achievement . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic rated the album four out of five stars and compared it to labelmate Panic ! at the Disco 's effort earlier in the year , Pretty . Odd . He wrote that " Fall Out Boy capture the Zeitgeist of the latter half of the 2000s better than any band : there 's so much going on in Folie à Deux , you either choose to take it all seriously or take none of it . Fall Out Boy make as much sense when heard either way . " Scott Heisel wrote for Alternative Press , commending the band for its " creativity , ingenuity and willingness to try just about anything . " He compared the meaning of the term folie à deux ( " a madness shared by two " ) to the two very distinct feelings expressed in the different sides of the record , calling the album a good representation of the band 's career .
Many critics commented on the album 's musical experimentation . Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone , in his review , stated that " the musical mix on Folie à Deux suggests a band with an advanced case of ADD , ricocheting between genres and eras , tempos and time signatures , often several times in a given song . " Spin 's David Marchese complimented the album 's forays into strange territories , calling tracks such as " I Don 't Care " and " What a Catch , Donnie " impressive . Rock Sound 's Faye Lewis also enjoyed the variety , calling the album " a non @-@ stop exotic cabaret for the ears , delivering a far @-@ reaching selection of songs that leap between a blend of catchy pop punk . " However , some critics felt that the band was excessive in its attempts to create a diverse work . Margaret Wappler of the Los Angeles Times believed that " Folie à Deux imagines itself in the stadium . [ ... ] It 's not that FOB can 't have grandiosity , but every stadium needs open air . " She called the album 's sounds a " pleasure bot of right @-@ now pop , adroitly programmed with crunchy ' 80s melodies , emo 's dark prowess and symphonies à la Sgt. Pepper 's , " while stating " For all the steps forward , Folie a Deux also seems to contain a microchip for its own destruction . "
Q called the album " a barrelling , hugely confident record that should see Fall Out Boy swiftly elevated into mainstream rock 's premier league , " and Blender called it " the brightest , breeziest , giddiest record Fall Out Boy have ever made . " Blender ranked Folie at number 10 on its 33 best albums of the year list . Jaimie Hodgson of The Observer complimented producer Neal Avron 's " squeaky clean " production . In a more negative review of the album , Jesse Cataldo of Slant wrote that " the band 's songs are catchy at heart , enjoyable in a trifling but substantial way , until they 're smeared with layer after layer of smarm , nullifying any chance of their music being consumed as a simple , empty pleasure . " Cataldo also expressed displeasure with Lil Wayne 's performance as well as production from Pharrell Williams , which he deemed a " promising concept [ ... ] quickly discarded " , summarizing that , " Folie à Deux seems to prove , if nothing else , that Fall Out Boy is good at masking their best qualities and pushing forward their most annoying ones . "
= = Tours and performances = =
The day before Folie à Deux arrived in stores ( December 15 ) , Fall Out Boy had planned on staging an impromptu concert in New York City 's Washington Square Park . However , the band did not obtain a permit to do so . Taking inspiration from Bob Dylan and similar folk singers from the 1960s , the group wanted to do something free and spontaneous as a gift to fans . The band and its management argued with the NYPD about allowing the show to go on . In the end , they were told that picking up any instruments would earn them a trip to jail , so the band instead led the audience in a sing @-@ along . Stump sang while Wentz and Trohman played air guitar and Hurley drummed on his knees . Stump later commented in an interview that " Those cops back there — and I have no problem with the cops , trust me — but those cops were like the Grinch . They just took all the presents . "
On January 20 , 2009 , Fall Out Boy performed at the ' Be the Change ' Youth Ball , which celebrated the inauguration of President Barack Obama . The group was invited to perform by Washington , D.C. mayor Adrian Fenty , who was also a fan of the band . At the ball , the band jokingly dedicated a performance of " Thnks fr th Mmrs " to former president George W. Bush . Upon meeting Obama , Wentz remarked " It 's mind @-@ blowing . It 's one of those things where it 's such an amazing experience — just being in his presence is amazing . "
To promote the album , Fall Out Boy embarked on the Believers Never Die Tour Part Deux , which included dates in the United States and Canada . The name of the tour was based on the band 's 2004 Believers Never Die Tour . In keeping with the political themes of Folie à Deux , the tour featured symbolic commentary on the current state of corporate America . The group began the sets with a " corporate retreat " in which the group performed in dress suits with policemen in riot gear playing drums by the side of the stage . Afterwards , the band would change to casual attire for the rest of the set . Wentz noted that the purpose of the formal dress was to demonstrate " how the rich rob the poor " , and encouraged fans to direct attention to poverty @-@ stricken nations such as Sri Lanka and the Democratic Republic of the Congo .
The supporting acts on the tour were Cobra Starship , All Time Low , Metro Station and Hey Monday . For five dates on the tour , Fall Out Boy brought along rapper 50 Cent . Wentz explained , " We 've been fans of [ him ] since we heard ' Wanksta ' in 8 Mile . We 've wanted to do something with him for awhile [ sic ] , and having him out on the tour is gonna take the show to a whole new level . It 's exciting to bring two different genres together and give the fans a new experience " . The rapper had similar feelings about the situation : " This will be a major moment in music history . Joining forces with Fall Out Boy , one of the most dynamic rock bands in the industry , will be an exciting and historic event for rock and hip @-@ hop . " Due to the conflicting fan opinion regarding the album , concertgoers would " boo the band for performing numbers from the record in concert " , leaving Stump to describe touring in support of Folie as like " being the last act at the vaudeville show : We were rotten vegetable targets in Clandestine hoods . " " Some of us were miserable onstage , " said Trohman . " Others were just drunk . "
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Pete Wentz , all music composed by Fall Out Boy .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= USAir Flight 405 =
USAir Flight 405 was a regularly scheduled domestic passenger flight between LaGuardia Airport in Queens , New York City , New York , and Cleveland , Ohio . On March 22 , 1992 , a USAir Fokker F28 , registration N485US , flying the route , crashed in poor weather in a partially inverted position in Flushing Bay , shortly after liftoff from LaGuardia . The undercarriage lifted off from the runway ; however , the airplane failed to gain lift , flying only several meters above the ground . The aircraft then veered off the runway and hit multiple obstructions before coming to rest in Flushing Bay , just beyond end of the runway . Of the 51 people on board , 27 were killed in the accident , including the captain and one of the cabin crew members .
A similar accident had happened 3 years before in 1989 , when Air Ontario Flight 1363 crashed shortly after takeoff at Dryden Regional Airport after ice had accumulated on the wings and airframe . Out of 69 passengers and crew , 24 were killed .
The subsequent investigation revealed that due to pilot error , inadequate deicing procedures at LaGuardia , and several lengthy delays , a large amount of ice had accumulated on the wings and airframe . This ice disrupted airflow over the jet , increasing drag and reducing lift , which prevented the jet from lifting off the runway.The National Transportation Safety Board ( NTSB ) concluded that the flight crew were unaware of the amount of ice that had built up after the jet was delayed by heavy ground traffic taxiing to the runway . The report also listed the fact that the aircraft had begun its takeoff rotation too early at a lower speed than was standard as a contributing factor to the accident .
Investigators also found that the deicing procedures at LaGuardia were substandard . While the jet encountered a delay of up to 35 minutes , they found that the deicing fluid that was being used at the airport , and by the majority of commercial airlines across the United States , was effective for only fifteen minutes . The accident led to a number of studies into the effect that ice has on aircraft , and several recommendations into prevention techniques .
= = Flight history = =
The jet involved in the accident was a Fokker F28 Series 4000 airplane manufactured in the Netherlands . A two @-@ engine , medium @-@ range jet , the Fokker F28 is designed for transporting up to 95 passengers . The particular jet involved in the accident was registered in the United States as N485US . It was first delivered to Piedmont Airlines in August 1986 , and was acquired by USAir — now named American Airlines — three years later in August 1989 when the two airlines merged . N485US had amassed a total of 12 @,@ 462 flying hours at the time of the accident .
Captain Wallace J. Majure II , 44 , who was fully qualified to pilot the F28 and four other commercial aircraft , had accumulated approximately 9 @,@ 820 total flying hours , of which 2 @,@ 200 hours were in the F28 . Majure was initially hired as an F28 first officer by Piedmont Airlines in 1985 . He was later reassigned to serve as a first officer and then a captain on a Boeing 737 , but finally returned to an F28 captain because of company cutbacks . The New York Times reported that :
Majure was a man who yearned to please his passengers , and if he made them happy then he also made his airline happy . He had often spoken to friends about how important it was for him to get travelers to their destinations on time and how proud he was of USAir 's on @-@ time record . All the same , he was also portrayed as a by @-@ the @-@ book , cautious pilot .
First Officer John Rachuba , 30 , was hired by Piedmont in 1989 . At the time of the accident , company records indicate that he had accumulated approximately 4 @,@ 507 flying hours , of which 29 hours were in the F28 . Rachuba held a flight engineer certificate with ratings for turbojet @-@ powered aircraft and an expired instructor certificate issued on August 16 , 1987 . He also held a Federal Aviation Administration ( FAA ) license for non @-@ federal control towers . Previously , he had served as a flight engineer on Boeing 737s and Boeing 727s .
The two flight attendants were Debra Andrews Taylor and Janice King . Janice King , who was seated in the aft jumpseat , died in the crash .
= = Accident = =
= = = Poor weather , deicing , taxiing delays = = =
The aircraft took off from Jacksonville International Airport , Florida , several hours before the accident , although the departure from Jacksonville was delayed by poor weather over New York and the removal of the baggage of a passenger who decided not to board the jet . The instrument approach landing was uneventful and the jet was not significantly delayed while in the air waiting to land , however congestion on the taxiways at LaGuardia delayed the arrival of the aircraft at the gate .
One hour and six minutes behind schedule , the jet arrived at Gate B1 , where the pilot advised a ground mechanic that his airplane was " good to go . " The flight crew then disembarked the jet to use facilities in the terminal . The poor weather did not improve as the jet was deiced with Type I fluid , a heated 50 / 50 water / glycol mixture . Following the completion of this process , one of the two deicing trucks delayed the pushback of the jet when it experienced mechanical problems . The vehicle was immobilised for 20 minutes in such a position that it prevented the aircraft from taxiing to the runway following the flight crew 's return .
After the deicing truck was repaired , the pilot requested a second deicing , though the flight crew did not perform a walkaround of their airplane , and USAir procedures did not require them to do so . Following the second deicing , LaGuardia ground control granted Flight 405 permission to taxi to Runway 13 . The flight crew completed the pre @-@ flight checklist during the taxi .
Engine anti @-@ ice was turned on for the two engines during taxi . The captain announced to passengers that the flaps would remain up during taxi , and they should not be worried seeing them in the retracted position . He placed an empty coffee cup on the flap handle as a reminder of the position of the flaps , a procedure used by many flight crews . The captain told the first officer they would use standard USAir contaminated runway procedures that included the use of 18 degrees flaps , and also decided that they would take off with a reduced V1 speed of 110 knots .
Weather reports for LaGuardia showed that on the night of the accident , all taxiways were coated with a thin covering of snow . Runway 13 was also covered with a thin layer of wet snow , although it had been plowed , treated with urea and it had been sanded .
The first officer described the snowfall as " not heavy , no large flakes . " He told authorities that snow was sliding off the jet and the nose of the airplane was coated in a watery layer . He used a light positioned on the wing of his jet to check for signs of ice several times before they attempted to take off . Neither he or the pilot saw any evidence of contamination on the wing or on the black strip and therefore decided against a third deicing . He told investigators that he checked the wings " maybe 10 times , but at least 3 . " He said that he did not consider the snowfall heavy , and he did not recall any wind blowing the snow . The first officer stated that as they taxied , they looked back at the wings several times . Near the time of
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of the wing . In May – June , reinforced by a detachment from No. 11 Squadron , No. 76 Wing flew mining and bombing missions in support of the forthcoming Operation Oboe Six , the Battle of North Borneo , and Oboe Two , the Battle of Balikpapan . Before Oboe Six , while some of the Catalinas concentrated on mining the approaches to Surabaya harbour , others bombed airfields in Java and Celebes in concert with RAAF B @-@ 24 Liberators . The Catalinas and Liberators combined again in the lead @-@ up to Oboe Two to raid any Japanese airfields that could threaten Balikpapan , in some cases bombing the same target around the clock , the Catalinas by night and Liberators by day .
With the Allies ' decision to confine RAAF minelaying operations to areas south of China from June onwards , the number of worthwhile targets for the Catalinas was reduced . Sorties for the month were down to 58 , a number of which were carried out from Labuan against Banka Strait . The wing 's last minelaying missions of the war took place in July , again in the Banka Strait . In the final months before the Japanese surrender , the Catalinas also delivered propaganda leaflets around the Dutch East Indies and South China Sea , dropping over a million in June alone . No. 76 Wing and its squadrons remained at Darwin in the immediate aftermath of the war , conducting routine patrols , transporting supplies and medicine to prisoners @-@ of @-@ war in the South West Pacific , and assisting in the repatriation of Australian personnel . In November 1945 , under a reorganisation of RAAF units at Darwin , the wing headquarters was given orders to disband . It became non @-@ operational on 16 November and was officially dissolved five days later . No. 42 Squadron disbanded the same month , while Nos. 20 and 43 Squadrons transferred to Rathmines , where they disbanded in 1946 .
= Electric Mud =
Electric Mud is the fifth studio album by Muddy Waters , with Rotary Connection serving as his backing band . Released in 1968 , it imagines Muddy Waters as a psychedelic musician . Producer Marshall Chess suggested that Muddy Waters record experimental , psychedelic blues tracks with members of Rotary Connection in an attempt to revive the blues singer 's career .
The album peaked at # 127 on the Billboard Pop Albums chart . It was controversial for its fusion of electric blues with psychedelic elements , but was influential on psychedelic rock bands of the era .
= = Production = =
In 1967 , Marshall Chess formed Cadet Concept Records as a subsidiary of Chess Records . The label 's first release was the self @-@ titled debut album of the psychedelic band Rotary Connection , whose members Chess described as " the hottest , most avant garde rock guys in Chicago " . As a result of the album 's success , Chess felt that he could revive the career of bluesmen Muddy Waters and Howlin ' Wolf by recording two albums of experimental , psychedelic blues with members of Rotary Connection as the backing band for the singers , producing the albums Electric Mud and The Howlin ' Wolf Album . Chess hoped the new albums would sell well among fans of psychedelic rock bands influenced by Muddy Waters and Howlin ' Wolf . According to Muddy Waters , " Quite naturally , I like a good @-@ selling record . I was looking at it because I played for so many of these so @-@ called hippies that I thought probably I could reach them . "
In place of Muddy Waters ' regular musicians were Gene Barge , Pete Cosey , Roland Faulkner , Morris Jennings , Louis Satterfield , Charles Stepney and Phil Upchurch . Cosey , Upchurch and Jennings joked about calling the group " The Electric Niggers " . Marshall Chess liked the suggestion , but Leonard Chess refused to allow the name .
The album incorporates use of wah @-@ wah pedal and fuzzbox . Marshall Chess augmented the rhythm of Muddy Waters ' live band with the use of electric organ and saxophone . Blues purists criticized the album 's psychedelic sound . According to Marshall Chess , " It was never an attempt to make Muddy Waters a psychedelic artist ; it was a concept album like David Bowie being Ziggy Stardust . " Muddy Waters said of the album 's sound , " That guitar sounds just like a cat — meow — and the drums have a loping , busy beat . "
" I 'm Your Hoochie Coochie Man " incorporates free jazz influences , with Gene Barge performing a concert harp . Muddy Waters performs the vocals of " Let 's Spend the Night Together " , a cover of The Rolling Stones ' 1967 single , in gospel @-@ soul style with heavy influence from Cream 's Sunshine of Your Love .
According to Buddy Guy , " [ Muddy Waters couldn 't ] feel this psychedelic stuff at all ... and if the feeling is gone , that 's it . You can 't get too busy behind a singer . You 've got to let him sing it . " Muddy Waters ' previous albums replicated the sound of his live performances . Working with a studio band rather than his own was problematic for Muddy Waters , who could not perform material from the album live . He stated " What the hell do you have a record for if you can 't play the first time it 's out ? I 'm so sick of that ... If you 've got to have big amplifiers and wah @-@ wahs and equipment to make you guitar say different things , well , hell , you can 't play no blues . "
The title of the album did not refer to the use of electric guitar , as Muddy Waters had played the instrument since he first signed to Chess Records . The use of the term " electric " is used in a psychedelic context .
= = Release = =
The Electric Mud album cover artwork was eclectic and reflected McKinley Morganfield 's fashion preferences during 1968 . The front cover of the original 33 RPM vinyl commercial release during 1968 in the USA featured two graphic versions ; a white background with black text , and a second , less known black background with white text . The back cover and inner gate fold artwork were identical in both versions , as was the small booklet of photos accompanying the release . Viewing of various Electric Mud album cover graphics can be found by searching Google 's Images metasearch capabilities .
On November 19 , 1996 , the album was reissued on compact disc by Chess Records . On November 22 , 2011 , Electric Mud and After the Rain were combined on a single compact disc by BGO Records .
= = Reception = =
Electric Mud sold 150 @,@ 000 copies within the first six weeks of release . Peaking at # 127 on the Billboard Pop Albums chart , it was Muddy Waters ' first album to hit on the Billboard and Cash Box charts . In a Rolling Stone feature , Pete Welding wrote , " ' Electric Mud ' does great disservice to one of the blues ' most important innovators , and prostitutes the contemporary styles to which his pioneering efforts have led . " Although American critics panned the album , it was better received in England . According to Marshall Chess , " It was the biggest Muddy Waters record we ever had at Chess , and it dropped instantly . The English accepted it ; they are more eccentric . "
= = Legacy = =
Muddy Waters recorded After the Rain the following year , incorporating elements of the sound of Electric Mud . According to Cosey , " I 'll never forget , as soon as I walked into the studio for the follow @-@ up and Muddy saw me , he threw his arms around me , said ' Hey , how you doing , boy , play some of that stuff you played on that last album . ' " Following strong criticism of the album , Muddy Waters claimed that he disliked the album and its sound , and that he did not consider the album to be blues . He stated , " Every time I go into Chess , [ they ] put some un @-@ blues players with me [ ... ] If you change my sound , then you gonna change the whole man . " In the biography The Mojo Man , Muddy Waters stated " That Electric Mud record was dogshit . But when it came out , it started selling like wild , but then they started sending them back . They said , ' This can 't be Muddy Waters with all this shit going on , all this wha @-@ wha and fuzztone . ' "
According to Robert Gordon in Can 't Be Satisfied : The Life and Times of Muddy Waters , the valet of Jimi Hendrix later told Pete Cosey that Hendrix would listen to " Herbert Harper 's Free Press News " for inspiration before performing . Led Zeppelin bassist John Paul Jones cited Electric Mud as the inspiration for the riff of " Black Dog " . Allmusic reviewer Richie Unterberger panned the album as being " crass " .
In Lost in the Grooves : Scram 's Capricious Guide to the Music You Missed , Gene Sculatti wrote that " The rhythm seems to anticipate hip @-@ hop by three decades . " Chuck D stated that he had been introduced to Electric Mud by a member of Public Enemy , which sparked an interest in Muddy Waters ' earlier work , and in roots @-@ oriented blues . The documentary series The Blues , produced by Martin Scorsese , depicts the recording band for Electric Mud performing with Chuck D and members of The Roots . Cypress Hill samples " Tom Cat " , from this album , on the interlude " Ultraviolet Dreams " , from their self @-@ titled debut album , as does Natas on their song " See You In Hell " from the album N of tha World . The rock / funk @-@ oriented arrangement of " Mannish Boy " present on this album is sampled and featured prominently on the Gorillaz B @-@ side " Left Hand Suzuki Method " .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = = Musicians = = =
Muddy Waters – vocal
Gene Barge – tenor saxophone , producer
Phil Upchurch – guitars
Roland Faulkner – guitars
Pete Cosey – guitars
Charles Stepney – organ , arranger , producer
Louis Satterfield – bass
Morris Jennings – drums
= = = Additional personnel = = =
Stu Black – engineer
Marshall Chess – producer
Meire Murakami – design
Bill Sharpe – cover design
Abner Spector – mixing
Vartan – art direction
= = Chart positions = =
= Japanese aircraft carrier Sōryū =
Sōryū ( 蒼龍 , Sōryū , meaning " Blue ( or Green ) Dragon " ) was an aircraft carrier built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) during the mid @-@ 1930s . A sister ship , Hiryū , was intended to follow Sōryū , but Hiryū 's design was heavily modified and she is often considered to be a separate class . Sōryū 's aircraft were employed in operations during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War in the late 1930s and supported the Japanese invasion of French Indochina in mid @-@ 1940 . During the first months of the Pacific War , she took part in the attack on Pearl Harbor , the Battle of Wake Island , and supported the conquest of the Dutch East Indies . In February 1942 , her aircraft bombed Darwin , Australia , and she continued on to assist in the Dutch East Indies campaign . In April , Sōryū 's aircraft helped sink two British heavy cruisers and several merchant ships during the Indian Ocean raid .
After a brief refit , Sōryū and three other carriers of the 1st Air Fleet ( Kidō Butai ) participated in the Battle of Midway in June 1942 . After bombarding American forces on Midway Atoll , the carriers were attacked by aircraft from the island and the carriers Enterprise , Hornet , and Yorktown . Dive bombers from Yorktown crippled Sōryū and set her afire . Japanese destroyers rescued the survivors but the ship could not be salvaged and was ordered to be scuttled so as to allow her attendant destroyers to be released for further operations . She sank with the loss of 711 officers and enlisted men of the 1 @,@ 103 aboard . The loss of Sōryū and three other IJN carriers at Midway was a crucial strategic defeat for Japan and contributed significantly to the Allies ' ultimate victory in the Pacific .
= = Design = =
Sōryū was one of two large carriers approved for construction under the Imperial Japanese Navy 's 1931 – 32 Supplementary Program ( the other being her near @-@ sister Hiryū ) . In contrast to some earlier Japanese carriers , such as Akagi and Kaga , which were conversions of battlecruiser and battleship hulls respectively , Sōryū was designed from the keel up as an aircraft carrier and incorporated lessons learned from the light carrier Ryūjō .
The ship had a length of 227 @.@ 5 meters ( 746 ft 5 in ) overall , a beam of 21 @.@ 3 meters ( 69 ft 11 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 6 meters ( 24 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 16 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 15 @,@ 900 long tons ) at standard load and 19 @,@ 100 tonnes ( 18 @,@ 800 long tons ) at normal load . Her crew consisted of 1 @,@ 100 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Machinery = = =
Sōryū was fitted with four geared steam turbine sets with a total of 152 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 113 @,@ 000 kW ) , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by eight Kampon water @-@ tube boilers . The turbines and boilers were the same as those used in the Mogami @-@ class cruisers . The ship 's power and slim , cruiser @-@ type hull , with a length @-@ to @-@ beam ratio of 10 : 1 , gave her a speed of 34 @.@ 5 knots ( 63 @.@ 9 km / h ; 39 @.@ 7 mph ) and made her the fastest carrier in the world at the time of her commissioning . Sōryū carried 3 @,@ 710 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 650 long tons ) of fuel oil , which gave her a range of 7 @,@ 750 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 350 km ; 8 @,@ 920 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The boiler uptakes were trunked together to the ship 's starboard side amidships and exhausted just below flight deck level through two funnels curved downwards .
= = = Flight deck and hangars = = =
The carrier 's 216 @.@ 9 @-@ meter ( 711 ft 7 in ) flight deck was 26 meters ( 85 ft 4 in ) wide and overhung her superstructure at both ends , supported by pairs of pillars . Sōryū 's island was built on a starboard @-@ side extension that protruded beyond the side of the hull so that it did not encroach on the width of the flight deck . Nine transverse arrestor wires were installed on the flight deck and could stop a 6 @,@ 000 kg ( 13 @,@ 000 lb ) aircraft . The flight deck was only 12 @.@ 8 meters ( 42 ft 0 in ) above the waterline and the ship 's designers kept this distance low by reducing the height of the hangars . The upper hangar was 171 @.@ 3 by 18 @.@ 3 metres ( 562 by 60 ft ) and had an approximate height of 4 @.@ 6 meters ( 15 ft 1 in ) ; the lower was 142 @.@ 3 by 18 @.@ 3 metres ( 467 by 60 ft ) and had an approximate height of 4 @.@ 3 meters ( 14 ft 1 in ) . Together they had an approximate total area of 5 @,@ 736 square metres ( 61 @,@ 742 sq ft ) . This caused problems in handling aircraft because the wings of a Nakajima B5N " Kate " torpedo bomber could neither be spread nor folded in the upper hangar .
Aircraft were transported between the hangars and the flight deck by three elevators , the forward one abreast the island on the centerline and the other two offset to starboard . The forward platform measured 16 by 11 @.@ 5 meters ( 52 ft 6 in × 37 ft 9 in ) , the middle one 11 @.@ 5 by 12 meters ( 37 ft 9 in × 39 ft 4 in ) , and the rear 11 @.@ 8 by 10 meters ( 38 ft 9 in × 32 ft 10 in ) . They were capable of transferring aircraft weighing up to 5 @,@ 000 kilograms ( 11 @,@ 000 lb ) . Sōryū had an aviation gasoline capacity of 570 @,@ 000 liters ( 130 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 150 @,@ 000 U.S. gal ) for her planned aircraft capacity of sixty @-@ three plus nine spares .
= = = Armament = = =
Sōryū 's primary anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament consisted of six twin @-@ gun mounts equipped with 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter Type 89 dual @-@ purpose guns mounted on projecting sponsons , three on either side of the carrier 's hull . The guns had a range of 14 @,@ 700 meters ( 16 @,@ 100 yd ) , and a ceiling of 9 @,@ 440 meters ( 30 @,@ 970 ft ) at an elevation of + 90 degrees . Their maximum rate of fire was fourteen rounds a minute , but their sustained rate of fire was around eight rounds per minute . The ship was equipped with two Type 94 fire @-@ control directors to control the 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) guns , one for each side of the ship , although the starboard director on the island could control all of the Type 89 guns .
The ship 's light AA armament consisted of fourteen twin @-@ gun mounts for license @-@ built Hotchkiss 25 mm ( 1 in ) Type 96 AA guns . Three of these were sited on a platform just below the forward end of the flight deck . The gun was the standard Japanese light AA weapon during World War II , but it suffered from severe design shortcomings that rendered it largely ineffective . According to historian Mark Stille , the weapon had many faults including an inability to " handle high @-@ speed targets because it could not be trained or elevated fast enough by either hand or power , its sights were inadequate for high @-@ speed targets , it possessed excessive vibration and muzzle blast " . These guns had an effective range of 1 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 meters ( 1 @,@ 600 – 3 @,@ 300 yd ) , and a ceiling of 5 @,@ 500 meters ( 18 @,@ 000 ft ) at an elevation of + 85 degrees . The effective rate of fire was only between 110 and 120 rounds per minute because of the frequent need to change the 15 @-@ round magazines . The Type 96 guns were controlled by five Type 95 directors , two on each side and one in the bow .
= = = Armor = = =
To save weight , Sōryū was minimally armored ; her waterline belt of 41 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) of Ducol steel only protected the machinery spaces and the magazines . Comparable figures for Hiryu were 90 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) over the machinery spaces and the aviation gasoline storage tanks increasing to 150 millimeters ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) over the magazines . Sōryū 's waterline belt was backed by an internal anti @-@ splinter bulkhead . The ship 's deck was only 25 mm thick over the machinery spaces and 55 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) thick over the magazines and aviation gasoline storage tanks .
= = Construction and service = =
Following the Japanese ship @-@ naming conventions for aircraft carriers , Sōryū was named " Blue ( or Green ) Dragon " . The ship was laid down at the Kure Naval Arsenal on 20 November 1934 , launched on 21 December 1935 and commissioned on 29 January 1937 . She was assigned to the Second Carrier Division after commissioning . Her air group was initially intended to consist of eighteen Mitsubishi A5M ( " Claude " ) monoplane fighters , twenty @-@ seven Aichi D1A2 ( " Susie " ) Type 96 dive bombers , and twelve Yokosuka B4Y ( " Jean " ) Type 96 torpedo bombers , but the A5Ms were in short supply and Nakajima A4N1 biplanes were issued instead . On 25 April 1938 , nine A4Ns , eighteen D1A2s , and nine B4Ys transferred to Nanking to support forces advancing up the Yangtze River . The air group advanced with the successful Japanese offensive , despite the commitment by the Chinese of 150 aircraft of the Soviet Volunteer Group ; it was transferred to Wuhu in early June and then to Anqing . Little is known of its operations there , but its primary role during this time was air defense . One fighter pilot of the group was killed after he shot down a Chinese aircraft . Leaving a few fighters and their pilots behind to serve as the nucleus of a new fighter unit , the air group returned to Sōryū on 10 July . The ship supported operations over Canton in September , but her aircraft saw no aerial combat . She returned home in December and spent most of the next year and a half training .
In September – October 1940 , the ship was based at Hainan Island to support the Japanese invasion of French Indochina . In February 1941 , Sōryū moved to Taiwan to reinforce the blockade of southern China . Two months later , the 2nd Carrier Division was assigned to the First Air Fleet , or Kido Butai , on 10 April . Sōryū 's air group was detached in mid @-@ July and transferred to Hainan Island to support the occupation of southern Indochina . Sōryū returned to Japan on 7 August and became flagship of the 2nd Division . She was relieved of that role on 22 September as she began a short refit that was completed on 24 October . The ship arrived at Kagoshima two days later and she resumed her former role as flagship of the Division .
= = = Pearl Harbor and subsequent operations = = =
In November 1941 the IJN 's Combined Fleet , under Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto , prepared to participate in Japan 's initiation of war with the United States by conducting a preemptive strike against the US Navy 's Pacific Fleet base at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . On 22 November , Sōryū , commanded by Captain Ryusaku Yanagimoto , and the rest of the Kido Butai under Vice Admiral Chuichi Nagumo , including six fleet carriers from the First , Second , and Fifth Carrier Divisions , assembled in Hitokappu Bay at Etorofu Island . The fleet departed Etorofu on 26 November and followed a course across the north @-@ central Pacific to avoid commercial shipping lanes . At this time Sōryū embarked 21 Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters , 18 Aichi D3A " Val " dive bombers , and 18 Nakajima B5N torpedo bombers . From a position 230 nautical miles ( 430 km ; 260 mi ) north of Oahu , Sōryū and the other five carriers launched two waves of aircraft on the morning of 8 December 1941 ( Japan time ) .
In the first wave , eight of Sōryū 's B5Ns were supposed to attack the aircraft carriers that normally berthed on the northwest side of Ford Island , but none were in Pearl Harbor that day ; six B5Ns attacked the ships that were present , torpedoing the target ship Utah , causing her to capsize , and the elderly light cruiser Raleigh , damaging her . Two of the B5N pilots diverted to their secondary target , ships berthed alongside " 1010 Pier " , where the fleet flagship was usually moored . That battleship was in drydock and her position was occupied by the light cruiser Helena and the minelayer Oglala . One torpedo passed underneath Oglala and struck Helena in one of her engine rooms ; the other pilot rejected these targets and attacked the battleship California . Her other ten B5Ns were tasked to drop 800 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 800 lb ) armor @-@ piercing bombs on the battleships berthed on the southeast side of Ford Island ( " Battleship Row " ) and may have scored one or two hits on them . Her eight A6M Zeros strafed parked aircraft at Marine Corps Air Station Ewa , claiming twenty @-@ seven aircraft destroyed in addition to five aircraft shot down .
Sōryū 's second wave consisted of nine A6M Zeros and seventeen D3As . The former attacked Naval Air Station Kaneohe Bay , losing one Zero to American anti @-@ aircraft guns . On the return trip , the Zero pilots claimed to have shot down two American aircraft while losing two of their own . The D3As attacked various ships in Pearl Harbor , but it is not possible to identify which aircraft attacked which ship . Two of them were shot down during the attack .
While returning to Japan , Vice Admiral Chūichi Nagumo , commander of the First Air Fleet , ordered that Sōryū and Hiryū be detached on 16 December to attack the defenders of Wake Island who had already defeated the first Japanese attack on the island . The two carriers reached the vicinity of the island on 21 December and launched twenty @-@ nine D3As and two B5Ns , escorted by eighteen Zeros , to attack ground targets . They encountered no aerial opposition and launched thirty @-@ five B5Ns and six A6M Zeros the following day . They were intercepted by the two surviving Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters of Marine Fighter Squadron VMF @-@ 211 . The Wildcats shot down two B5Ns before they were shot down themselves by the Zeros . The garrison surrendered the next day after Japanese troops were landed .
The carriers arrived at Kure on 29 December . They were assigned to the Southern Force on 8 January 1942 and departed four days later for the Dutch East Indies . The ships supported the invasion of the Palau Islands and the Battle of Ambon , attacking Allied positions on the island on 23 January with fifty @-@ four aircraft . Four days later the carriers detached eighteen Zeros and nine D3As to operate from land bases in support of Japanese operations in the Battle of Borneo . On 30 January they destroyed two aircraft on the ground and shot down a Qantas Short Empire flying boat flying to Surabaya to pick up refugees .
Sōryū and Hiryū arrived at Palau on 28 January and waited for the arrival of the carriers Kaga and Akagi . All four carriers departed Palau on 15 February and launched air strikes against Darwin , Australia , four days later . Sōryū contributed eighteen B5Ns , eighteen D3As , and nine Zeros to the attack while flying Combat Air Patrols ( CAP ) over the carriers . Her aircraft attacked the ships in port and its facilities , sinking or setting on fire eight ships and causing three others to be beached lest they sink . The Zeros destroyed a single Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boat ; one D3A was lost . The Japanese aircraft spotted a ship on the return trip but had expended all their ordnance and had to be rearmed and refueled before they could attack the vessel . Several hours later , nine of Sōryū 's D3As located and bombed an American supply ship of 3 @,@ 200 gross register tons ( GRT ) , Don Isidro , hitting her five times but failing to sink her . Sōryū and the other carriers arrived at Staring Bay on Celebes Island on 21 February to resupply and rest before departing four days later to support the invasion of Java . On 1 March 1942 , the ship 's D3As damaged the destroyer USS Edsall badly enough for her to be caught and sunk by Japanese cruisers . Later that day the dive bombers sank the oil tanker USS Pecos . The four carriers launched an airstrike of 180 aircraft against Tjilatjep on 5 March , sinking five small ships , damaging another nine badly enough that they had to be scuttled , and set the town on fire . Two days later they attacked Christmas Island before returning to Staring Bay on 11 March to resupply and train for the impending Indian Ocean raid . This raid was intended to secure newly conquered Burma , Malaya , and the Dutch East Indies against Allied attack by destroying base facilities and forces in the eastern Indian Ocean .
= = = Indian Ocean raid = = =
On 26 March 1942 , the five carriers of the First Air Fleet departed from Staring Bay ; they were spotted by a Catalina about 350 nautical miles ( 650 km ; 400 mi ) southeast of Ceylon on the morning of 4 April . Nagumo closed to within 120 nautical miles ( 220 km ; 140 mi ) of Colombo before launching an airstrike the next morning . Sōryū contributed eighteen B5Ns and nine Zeros to the force . The pilots of the latter aircraft claimed to have shot down a single Fairey Fulmar of 806 Naval Air Squadron , plus seven other fighters while losing one of their own . The D3As and B5Ns inflicted some damage to the port facilities , but a day 's warning had allowed most of the shipping in the harbor to be evacuated . Later that morning the British heavy cruisers Cornwall and Dorsetshire were spotted and Sōryū launched eighteen D3As . They were the first to attack and claimed to have made fourteen hits on the two ships , sinking both in combination with the dive bombers from the other carriers .
On 9 April , Sōryū contributed eighteen B5Ns , escorted by nine Zeros , to the attack on Trincomalee . Her B5Ns were the first to bomb the port and her fighters did not encounter any British fighters . Meanwhile , a floatplane from the battleship Haruna spotted the small aircraft carrier Hermes , escorted by the Australian destroyer Vampire , and every available D3A was launched to attack the ships . Sōryū contributed eighteen dive bombers , but they arrived too late and instead found three other ships further north . They sank the oil tanker British Sergeant and the Norwegian cargo ship Norviken before they were attacked by eight Fulmars of 803 and 806 Naval Air Squadrons . The Royal Navy pilots claimed three D3As shot down for the loss of a pair of Fulmars ; the Japanese actually lost four D3As with another five damaged . While this was going on , Akagi narrowly escaped damage when nine British Bristol Blenheim bombers from Ceylon penetrated the CAP and dropped their bombs from 11 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 m ) . Sōryū had six Zeros aloft , along with fourteen more from the other carriers , and they collectively accounted for five of the British bombers for the loss of one of Hiryū 's Zeros . After launching the D3As that sank Hermes and the other ships , the First Air Fleet reversed course and headed southeast for the Malacca Strait before recovering their aircraft ; they then proceeded to Japan .
On 19 April , while transiting the Bashi Straits between Taiwan and Luzon en route to Japan , Akagi , Sōryū , and Hiryū were sent in pursuit of the American carriers Hornet and Enterprise , which had launched the Doolittle Raid against Tokyo . They found only empty ocean , for the American carriers had immediately departed the area to return to Hawaii . The carriers quickly abandoned the chase and dropped anchor at Hashirajima anchorage on 22 April . Having been engaged in constant operations for four and a half months , Sōryū , along with the other three carriers of the First and Second Carrier Divisions , was hurriedly refitted and replenished in preparation for the Combined Fleet 's next major operation , scheduled to begin one month hence . While at Hashirajima , Sōryū 's air group was based ashore at nearby Kasanohara , near Kagoshima , and conducted flight and weapons training with the other First Air Fleet carrier units .
= = = Midway = = =
Concerned by the US carrier strikes in the Marshall Islands , Lae @-@ Salamaua , and the Doolittle raids , Yamamoto was determined to force the US Navy into a showdown to eliminate the American carrier threat . He decided to invade and occupy Midway Island , an action that he was sure would draw out the American carriers . The Japanese codenamed the Midway invasion Operation MI .
On 25 May 1942 , Sōryū set out with the Combined Fleet 's carrier striking force in the company of Kaga , Akagi , and Hiryū , which constituted the First and Second Carrier Divisions , for the attack on Midway Island . Her aircraft complement consisted of eighteen Zeros , sixteen D3As , eighteen B5Ns , and two prototypes of the new Yokosuka D4Y dive bomber . Also aboard were three A6M Zeros of the 6th Kōkūtai intended as a portion of the aerial garrison for Midway .
With the fleet positioned 250 nautical miles ( 460 km ; 290 mi ) northwest of Midway at dawn ( 04 : 45 local time ) on 4 June 1942 , Sōryū 's part in the 108 @-@ plane combined air raid was a strike on the airfield on Eastern Island with eighteen torpedo bombers escorted by nine Zeros . The air group suffered heavily during the attack ; a single B5N was shot down en route to the island , another was shot down by AA fire , two were forced to ditch near destroyers on the trip back and four were damaged beyond repair . The Japanese did not know that the US Navy had discovered their MI plan by breaking their cipher , and had prepared an ambush using its three available carriers , positioned northeast of Midway .
The carrier also contributed 3 Zeros to the total of eleven assigned to the initial combat air patrol ( CAP ) over the four carriers . By 07 : 00 the carrier had six fighters with the CAP that helped to defend the Kido Butai from the first US attackers from Midway Island at 07 : 10 . At this time , Nagumo 's carriers were attacked by six US Navy Grumman TBF Avengers from Torpedo Squadron 8 ( VT @-@ 8 ) that had been temporarily detached from the Hornet to Midway , and four United States Army Air Corps ( USAAC ) Martin B @-@ 26 Marauders , all carrying torpedoes . The Avengers went after Hiryū while the Marauders attacked Akagi . The thirty CAP Zeros in the air at this time , including the six from Sōryū , immediately attacked the American airplanes , shooting down five of the Avengers and two of the B @-@ 26s . The surviving aircraft dropped their torpedoes , but all missed . Sōryū launched three more Zeros to reinforce the CAP , at 07 : 10 .
At 07 : 15 Admiral Nagumo ordered the B5Ns on Kaga and Akagi rearmed with bombs for another attack on Midway itself . This process was limited by the number of ordnance carts ( used to handle the bombs and torpedoes ) and ordnance elevators , preventing torpedoes from being stowed belowdeck until after all the bombs were moved up from their magazine , assembled , and mounted on the aircraft . The process normally took about an hour and a half ; more time would be required to bring the aircraft up to the flight deck , and to warm up and launch the strike group . Around 07 : 40 Nagumo reversed his order when he received a message from one of his scout aircraft that American warships had been spotted . Depleted of ammunition , the first six of Sōryū 's CAP Zeros landed aboard the carrier at 07 : 30 .
At 07 : 55 , the next American strike from Midway arrived in the form of sixteen Douglas SBD Dauntless bombers of Marine Scout Bomber Squadron ( VMSB @-@ 241 ) under Major Lofton R. Henderson . Sōryū 's three CAP fighters were among the nine still aloft that attacked Henderson 's planes , shooting down six of them as they executed a fruitless glide @-@ bombing attack on Hiryū . At roughly the same time , a dozen USAAC Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses attacked the Japanese carriers , bombing from 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) . The high altitude of the B @-@ 17s gave the Japanese captains enough time to anticipate where the bombs would land and successfully maneuver their ships out of the impact area . Four B @-@ 17s attacked Sōryū , but they all missed .
The CAP defeated the next American air strike from Midway , shooting down three of the eleven Vought SB2U Vindicator dive bombers from VMSB @-@ 241 , which attacked the battleship Haruna unsuccessfully , starting at around 08 : 30 . Although all the American air strikes had thus far caused negligible damage , they kept the Japanese carrier forces off @-@ balance as Nagumo endeavored to prepare a response to news , received at 08 : 20 , of the sighting of American carrier forces to his northeast . Around 08 : 30 Sōryū launched one of her D4Ys on a mission to confirm the location of the American carriers .
Sōryū began recovering her Midway strike force at around 08 : 40 and finished shortly by 09 : 10 . The landed aircraft were quickly struck below , while the carriers ' crews began preparations to spot aircraft for the strike against the American carrier forces . The preparations were interrupted at 09 : 18 when the first American carrier aircraft to attack were sighted . These consisted of fifteen Douglas TBD Devastator torpedo bombers of VT @-@ 8 , led by Lieutenant Commander John C. Waldron from the Hornet . The three airborne CAP Zeros were landing aboard at 09 : 30 when the Americans unsuccessfully attempted a torpedo attack on Soryū , but three of the morning 's escort fighters were still airborne and joined the eighteen CAP fighters in destroying Waldron 's planes . All of the American planes were shot down , leaving George H. Gay , Jr . — the only surviving aviator — treading water .
Shortly afterwards , fourteen Devastators from Torpedo Squadron 6 ( VT @-@ 6 ) from the Enterprise , led by Lieutenant Commander Eugene E. Lindsey , attacked . Lindsey 's aircraft tried to sandwich Kaga , but the CAP , reinforced by three more Zeros launched by Sōryū at 09 : 45 , shot down all but four of the Devastators , and Kaga dodged the torpedoes . Sōryū launched another trio of CAP Zeros at 10 : 00 and another three at 10 : 15 after Torpedo Squadron 3 ( VT @-@ 3 ) from Yorktown was spotted . A Wildcat escorting VT @-@ 3 shot down one of her Zeros .
While VT @-@ 3 was still attacking Hiryū , American dive bombers arrived over the Japanese carriers almost undetected and began their dives . It was at this time , around 10 : 20 , that in the words of Jonathan Parshall and Anthony Tully , the " Japanese air defenses would finally and catastrophically fail " . At 10 : 25 , Sōryū was attacked by thirteen Dauntlesses from Bombing Squadron 2 ( VB @-@ 2 ) from the Yorktown . The carrier received three direct hits from 1000 lb ( 454 kg ) bombs : one penetrated to the lower hangar deck amidships , and the other two exploded in the upper hangar deck fore and aft . The hangars contained armed and fueled aircraft preparing for the upcoming strike , resulting in secondary explosions and rupturing the steam pipes in the boiler rooms . Within a very short time the fires on the ship were out of control . At 10 : 40 she stopped and her crew was ordered to abandon ship five minutes later . The destroyers Isokaze and Hamakaze rescued the survivors . Sōryū was still afloat and showed no signs of beginning to sink by early evening , so Isokaze was ordered to scuttle her with torpedoes so as to allow the destroyers to be used for possible operations that night . The destroyer reported at 19 : 15 that Sōryū had sunk at position 30 ° 38 ′ N 179 ° 13 ′ W. Losses were 711 crew of her complement of 1 @,@ 103 , including Captain Yanagimoto , who chose to remain on board . This was the highest mortality percentage of all the Japanese carriers lost at Midway , due largely to the devastation in both hangar decks .
The loss of Sōryū and the three other IJN carriers at Midway , comprising two @-@ thirds of Japan 's total number of fleet carriers and the experienced core of the First Air Fleet , was a crucial strategic defeat and contributed significantly to the ultimate Allied victory . In an effort to conceal the defeat , the ship was not immediately removed from the Navy 's registry of ships , awaiting a " suitable opportunity " before finally being struck from the registry on 10 August 1942 .
= All Saints ' Church , Shuart =
All Saints ' Church , Shuart / ˈʃoʊɑːt / , in the north @-@ west of the Isle of Thanet , Kent , in the south @-@ east of England , was established in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period as a chapel of ease for the parish of St Mary 's Church , Reculver , which was centred on the north @-@ eastern corner of mainland Kent , adjacent to the island . The Isle of Thanet was then separated from the mainland by the sea , which formed a strait known as the Wantsum Channel . The last church on the site was demolished by the early 17th century , and there is nothing remaining above ground to show that a church once stood there .
The area of the Isle of Thanet where All Saints ' Church stood had been settled since the Bronze Age , and land in the west of the Isle of Thanet was given to Reculver in the 7th century . All Saints ' Church remained a chapel of ease for the parish of Reculver until the early 14th century , when the parish was broken up to form separate parishes for Herne and St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade . The area served by All Saints ' was merged with that of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade , which became the centre of a new parish with All Saints ' as its chapel . The churches of All Saints and St Nicholas continued to have a junior relationship with the parish of Reculver , making annual payments to the church there .
All Saints ' originally consisted of a nave and chancel , to which a sanctuary was added in the first building phase . The church was extended on three occasions between the 10th and 14th centuries – a period of population growth – to include an aisled nave , a western tower and a northern chapel ; its windows featured stained glass . The church was abandoned in the 15th century , presumably because the parish could no longer support two churches . It was demolished , and virtually all of its masonry removed , some of which may have been used in improvements to the church of St Nicholas . The settlement of Shuart remained as an area of local administration into the 17th century , but it is now regarded as a deserted medieval village . There were no visible remains of All Saints ' Church by 1723 , although land there remained as glebe belonging to the parish of St Nicholas . The site of All Saints ' Church was excavated by archaeologists between 1978 and 1979 . The main structure had been robbed of its materials leaving only the foundations , from which the archaeologists were able to interpret the history of the building 's construction and its form . Among the foundations were discovered numerous stone carvings , floor tiles , remnants of stained glass , and several disturbed graves .
= = Origin = =
The place @-@ name " Shuart " is from the Anglo @-@ Saxon language and means a skirted , or cut @-@ off , piece of land . The earliest evidence of human settlement at Shuart dates to the Bronze Age ; a rectangular Bronze Age enclosure lies a little to the north of the site of All Saints ' Church , and a collection of objects from that period , known as the " Shuart Hoard " , was found south @-@ west of the site in the 1980s . Occupation continued through the Iron Age and Roman period . Structures , pottery and glass dating to these times have been found nearby , as well as human burials and cremations .
The site 's history in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period begins with the division of the Isle of Thanet into eastern and western parts during the 7th century . The division is attributed in medieval sources to the route taken by a tame female deer that was set free to run across the island by Æbbe , founder and first abbess of the double monastery at Minster @-@ in @-@ Thanet , thereby marking out its endowment . The route was circuitous , beginning on the north side of the island at Westgate @-@ on @-@ Sea and ending on the south side at Sheriff 's Court , halfway between Minster @-@ in @-@ Thanet and Monkton , which are about 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 3 km ) apart . While land to the east of this route was given to Æbbe for her monastery , which was in existence by 678 , land to the west , described broadly as Westanea , or " the western part of the island " , was given to the monastery at Reculver by King Hlothhere of Kent in 679 . This division of the island is apparent in Domesday Book , which was compiled in 1086 , and remained an important feature in the early 15th century , when it was included prominently in a map of the island drawn up by Thomas Elmham . According to Edward Hasted the division was still marked in 1800 by " a bank , or lynch , which goes quite across the island , and is commonly called St. Mildred 's lynch . "
The monastery at Reculver had been established in 669 , and developed as the centre of a " large estate , a manor and a parish " . By the early 9th century it had become " extremely wealthy " , but it then came under the control of the archbishops of Canterbury . By the 10th century the church and its estate appear to have fallen into royal hands , since King Eadred of England gave them in 949 to Christ Church , Canterbury , now known as Canterbury Cathedral . The Anglo @-@ Saxon charter recording the gift shows that the Reculver estate still included land in the west of the Isle of Thanet at that time . Two slightly earlier charters give a more complicated picture : in 943 , King Edmund I of England gave land at St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade to a layman , and in the next year he gave the same layman land at Monkton , by means of a charter recording that land to the west and north of Monkton – evidently at Sarre – was nonetheless still regarded as belonging to Reculver , rather than to either the archbishop or the king . However , while King Edmund I 's mother Eadgifu gave lands in Kent , including Monkton , to Christ Church in 961 , all of the documents recording these transactions entered the Christ Church archive ; and , if the land that Christ Church acquired on the Isle of Thanet in the 10th century was the same as the " Liberty " shown on Thomas Elmham 's map from the early 15th century , then the site of All Saints ' Church , Shuart , must have been included . Neither Shuart nor St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade are mentioned by name in Domesday Book ; but they may have been included in the entry for Reculver , which was then recorded as a hundred in its own right , and was held entirely by the archbishop of Canterbury , but for a portion held from him by a tenant . An analysis of the archbishop 's holdings in Domesday Book concludes that All Saints ' was among them .
= = Church and community = =
A church dedicated to All Saints was established at Shuart some time between 679 and the 10th century . Although the status of the church at Reculver as mother church for the area dates from the 7th century , and may have led to the establishment of a church at Shuart then , this chapel might equally have been a development in response to acquisition of land in the area by Christ Church , Canterbury , in the mid @-@ 900s . Examination of the building 's archaeological remains has failed to provide a more precise date , but a church stood at Shuart for about 100 years or more before the establishment of a nearby church at St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade , since the earliest church there was " almost certainly built in the late 11th century " .
= = = First church = = =
The original church of All Saints was a rectangular building aligned on an east @-@ west axis , measuring 52 @.@ 5 feet ( 16 m ) by 15 @.@ 75 feet ( 5 m ) . It consisted of a western nave and an eastern chancel , with a sanctuary added to the eastern end of the chancel in the first phase of building . The chancel was about 16 @.@ 4 feet ( 5 m ) long , and the nave was small , taking up only about 9 @.@ 2 feet ( 3 m ) of the building 's overall length . They were connected by a recessed passageway about 9 @.@ 8 feet ( 3 m ) long but only about 8 @.@ 9 feet ( 3 m ) across at its narrowest , the foundations for which suggest a heavy structure , perhaps including a vaulted ceiling . The size of the community this church was originally built to serve is unknown , although Domesday Book records the presence of 90 villeins and 25 bordars in the manor of Reculver in 1086 , which included land on the Isle of Thanet , but consisted mainly of land in mainland Kent . Those numbers can be multiplied four or five times to account for dependents , since they only represent adult male heads of households ; Domesday Book does not say where in the manor they lived .
= = = Expansion = = =
A second phase of building was undertaken between the 10th and 11th centuries , in which the church was enlarged . The west wall was demolished , allowing the nave to be extended to the west by 16 @.@ 5 feet ( 5 m ) , and the passageway between it and the chancel was opened out and replaced with a lighter chancel arch . A third phase followed in the 12th century , when the nave was rebuilt as a much larger structure with north and south aisles , each lined by four columns , and measuring about 30 feet ( 9 m ) wide by 42 feet ( 13 m ) long . A tower about 16 @.@ 2 feet ( 5 m ) square was added to the western end of the church either at this time or in a fourth phase of building carried out in the 13th century . This fourth phase involved the installation of new windows featuring stained glass , especially at the eastern end of the nave , comparable to the grisaille glass still in the south transept of York Minster that dates from about 1240 . A chapel was also added to the north side of the church , measuring about 12 @.@ 5 feet ( 4 m ) wide by 29 @.@ 4 feet ( 9 m ) long , with an altar at its eastern end , and paved with tiles about 4 inches ( 10 cm ) square . Flemish floor tiles were also installed in the church , probably in the 15th century .
The expansion of the church coincided with a period of growth in the population of Reculver parish as a whole , which approximately doubled from that of 1086 to more than 1 @,@ 000 people by the late 13th century . The first record explicitly to mention All Saints ' dates from 1284 , when the community it served complained to the archbishop of Canterbury that the vicar of Reculver had failed to provide a chaplain to celebrate daily mass . In 1296 the archbishop settled a dispute concerning a duty to pay for repairs to the church , specifying that this was owed by owners of property on and around part of " North Street " . In 1310 Archbishop Robert Winchelsey of Canterbury established St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade as a parish , with All Saints ' Church as its chapel , served by a vicar and an assistant priest . According to the document by which that was done , the parish of Reculver had served more than 1 @,@ 000 parishioners in the time of Winchelsey 's predecessor , and this population was " continually increasing " , to the extent that a single vicar for the whole parish was inadequate . While Thanet was then still an island separated from the rest of Kent by the Wantsum Channel , the new arrangement was also prompted by the inconvenience posed by the distance between these chapels on the Isle of Thanet and their mother church at Reculver . However , the document specified that the vicar of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade with All Saints ' had to pay £ 3.3s.4d ( £ 3 @.@ 17 ) annually to the vicar of Reculver " as a sign of subjection " . The vicar also had to go to Reculver " in procession " with his assistant priest and his parishioners every year on Whit Monday – the eighth day after Easter – as well as being present at Reculver for the Nativity of the Virgin Mary , the patron saint of Reculver , on 8 September . The visits to Reculver continued in the mid @-@ 16th century , when they were recorded by John Leland , and the parish of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade was still making annual payments to Reculver in the 19th century . Archbishop Winchelsey 's instructions also set out relative values for the parishes of Reculver and St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade with All Saints ' , in allocating dues for taxes known as " clerical tenths " . Reculver was liable for 12s.1d ( 60.5p ) , compared to St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade with All Saints ' 11s.4d ( 57p ) . The first vicar of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade with All Saints ' was named by Archbishop Winchelsey as Andrew de Grantesete .
= = = Decline = = =
Thomas Elmham 's map of the Isle of Thanet , drawn in the early 15th century , shows the church with its tower , but a map of 1596 , which shows churches " as they actually appeared " , shows a church without a tower . Examination of the church 's foundations indicates that it was probably a ruin by the middle of the 15th century and was demolished , but was replaced by a smaller structure , without a tower , up to 20 years later . It may be that material from All Saints ' Church was used in the construction of a new clerestory for the nave of St Nicholas ' church in the late 15th century , and the medieval baptismal font now in Reculver 's parish church of St Mary the Virgin at Hillborough probably came from All Saints ' . By 1630 there was no church : in that year , the vicar and churchwardens of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade reported the existence of glebe of 1 @.@ 5 acres ( 1 ha ) called " Allhallows close , in part of which antiently stood the chapel of All Saints , or Alhallows " ; and , in 1723 , antiquarian John Lewis wrote that the church was " now so entirely demolished , with all the fences around it , that there are no marks of either of them . "
The decline of All Saints ' Church and the community of Shuart may have begun with the Black Death of 1348 – 9 . Further , this decline coincides with the closing of the adjacent Wantsum Channel . This channel had been a preferred route for sea @-@ borne trade between England and continental Europe in medieval times , probably providing " a large part of the early prosperity of Kent " , besides supporting a local industry collecting salt , but it was progressively blocked by silt . While tax records of the 15th century show that the inhabitants of Shuart had then included men of the Cinque Port of Dover , shipping through the Wantsum Channel had ceased by about the end of the 15th century , and the northern section adjacent to Shuart was merely a creek by the middle of the 16th century . The abandonment of the church presumably arose through the cost of keeping two churches – All Saints and St Nicholas – in what had become a " remote , rural parish " . Shuart continued to be represented in tax records in the 17th century : in 1624 it was assessed as a " vill " at the rate of £ 4.6s.4d ( £ 4 @.@ 32 ) for the archaic taxes known as " fifteenths and tenths " – this rate had been fixed in 1334 , and may be compared with the rate for St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade of £ 10.7s ( £ 10 @.@ 35 ) – and Shuart appears as a borgh , or tithing , in records of the Hearth Tax for 1673 . However , the parish as a whole was in decline . In 1563 the parish of St Nicholas @-@ at @-@ Wade was the second smallest on the Isle of Thanet by number of households , having only 33 , and by 1800 there were " not ... near so many " . By 1723 the settlement of Shuart was a matter of historical record only ; John Lewis wrote then that " [ it ] seems as if anciently a Vill or Town belonged to [ the chapel of All Saints ] " , and the only building recorded by Lewis was a " good farm house " . The farmhouse was built in the late 17th century and still stands , but otherwise today Shuart is considered a deserted medieval village .
= = Excavation = =
The site of All Saints ' Church , Shuart , was recorded on Ordnance Survey maps in the 19th century , and was confirmed in the mid @-@ 20th century through aerial photography by Kenneth St Joseph . On the north side of a road between Shuart Farm and Nether Hale Farm , the site is on farmland now owned by St John 's College , Cambridge , and was excavated with the college 's permission by the Thanet Archaeological Unit between 1978 and 1979 .
The only surviving part of the main structure was its foundations of rammed chalk , which nonetheless allowed a construction history to be developed , but various elements of the structure were also found . These included mortar flooring , glazed floor tiles , green sandstone , Caen stone , Quarr stone from the Isle of Wight and stained glass . Among stone fragments were numerous carvings , including " two small delicately carved pieces of foliage which are certainly twelfth @-@ century work " . Fragments of mortar showing the imprint of barnacles were found among the rubble in the foundation trenches , indicating that some of the stone used in the structure had been fetched from the shoreline . A number of graves were also discovered , one of which had been covered by an unmarked stone , but they had been robbed and filled with rubble containing fragments of human bone . Two of the graves had been dug between the demolition of the church and the construction of a smaller , short @-@ lived replacement in the 15th century . While virtually all of the building 's structure had been robbed , presumably for use elsewhere , much of what remained had been destroyed by ploughing .
= Typhoon Chataan =
Typhoon Chataan , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Gloria , was the deadliest natural disaster in the history of Chuuk , a state in the Federated States of Micronesia ( FSM ) . The typhoon formed on June 28 , 2002 , near the FSM , and for several days it meandered while producing heavy rainfall across the region . On Chuuk , the highest 24 @-@ hour precipitation total was 506 mm ( 19 @.@ 9 in ) , which was greater than the average monthly total . The rain produced floods up to 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) deep , causing landslides across the island that killed 47 people . There was also one death on nearby Pohnpei , and damage in the FSM totaled over $ 100 million .
After affecting the FSM , Chataan began a northwest track as an intensifying typhoon . Its eye passed just north of Guam on July 4 , though the eyewall moved across the island and dropped heavy rainfall . Totals were highest in southern Guam , peaking at 536 mm ( 21 @.@ 1 in ) . Flooding and landslides from the storm severely damaged or destroyed 1 @,@ 994 houses . Damage on the island totaled $ 60 @.@ 5 million , and there were 23 injuries . The typhoon also affected Rota in the Northern Marianas Islands with gusty winds and light rainfall . Typhoon Chataan attained its peak intensity of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) on July 8 . It weakened while turning to the north , and after diminishing to a tropical storm Chataan struck eastern Japan on July 10 . High rainfall , peaking at 509 mm ( 20 @.@ 0 in ) , flooded 10 @,@ 270 houses . Damage in Japan totaled about $ 500 million .
The name Chataan means " rainy day " in the Chamorro language , which is spoken on Guam . The Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) named the storm Gloria while the typhoon was in the vicinity of the country .
= = Meteorological history = =
On June 27 , 2002 , the monsoon trough spawned a tropical disturbance southwest of Pohnpei . The system rapidly organized that day , and at 2000 UTC the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a tropical cyclone formation alert . Early on June 28 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression near the Mortlock Islands in the Federated States of Micronesia ; around the same time , the JTWC also initiated storm advisories . Early on June 29 , the JTWC upgraded the system to Tropical Storm 08W , and shortly thereafter the JMA named the system Tropical Storm Chataan . After moving northwestward , the storm turned to the east , resuming a northwest track on June 30 due to a subtropical ridge to the north . The track was erratic because the storm had not yet separated from the monsoon trough . By June 30 , Chataan had steadily strengthened to severe tropical storm status , with 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) .
Only July 1 , the system 's circulation became broad , with most of the convection located west of the center . The next day , Chataan briefly weakened to an intensity of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , although it began strengthening steadily on July 3 , when its center passed very near Weno in Chuck State in the FSM . At 1800 UTC that night , the JTWC upgraded Chataan to a typhoon , and about 24 hours later the JMA followed suit while the storm was approaching Guam from the southeast . At about 2130 UTC on July 4 , the eye of Chataan moved across northern Guam in about two hours , although the center of the eye passed north of the island .
After affecting Guam , Chataan continued toward the northwest and gradually intensified . At 0000 UTC on July 8 , the typhoon reached its peak intensity of 175 km / h ( 110 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) while located near the Japanese island of Okinotorishima . The JTWC assessed that Chataan had reached its peak intensity of 240 km / h ( 150 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) about six hours earlier ; on that basis , the agency classified the system as a super typhoon . On July 8 , Chataan turned toward the north around the subtropical ridge while maintaining its peak winds for about 18 hours . On July 9 the typhoon turned to the northeast , and late that day it weakened to a severe tropical storm . At around 1530 UTC on July 10 , Chataan made landfall on the Bōsō Peninsula in Honshu with winds of about 100 km / h ( 65 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . The storm briefly moved offshore before making a second landfall on eastern Hokkaido at 1200 UTC on July 11 ; this marked the first occasion of a July landfall on the island in 28 years . A few hours later , Chataan became an extratropical cyclone in the Sea of Okhotsk , where the remnants stalled before dissipating on July 13 near Sakhalin .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Federated States of Micronesia = = =
While Chataan was in its formative stages and still tied to the monsoon trough , it produced a large area of heavy rainfall and strong winds that affected Pohnpei and Chuuk in the FSM . The storm passed very near Chuuk with wind gusts of 82 km / h ( 51 mph ) . In the day before Chataan affected the island , it dropped torrential rainfall due to its elongated structure and slow movement . Persistent winds from the larger monsoon trough generated high surf and tides of 0 @.@ 3 m ( 1 ft ) above normal across the region . The most significant effects were from the rainfall , peaking at 954 mm ( 37 @.@ 5 in ) at the Chuuk Weather Service Office over 13 days . The highest 24 @-@ hour total was 506 mm ( 19 @.@ 9 in ) on Weno Island , of which 361 mm ( 14 @.@ 2 in ) fell in 12 hours ; this was greater than the average monthly rainfall total for the station .
High winds downed power lines on Chuuk , while surf destroyed seawalls and buildings along the coast . The rains causes severe flooding across the island that reached 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in some locations , triggering at least 30 mudslides that killed 47 people . This represented the deadliest natural disaster in the island 's recorded history . The landslides reached a depth of 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) , which destroyed several homes made of tin and concrete . Many people were buried by the landslides or washed into the ocean . Saltwater flooding contaminated the groundwater and destroyed much of the island 's crops . Chataan damaged roads and bridges , and high winds downed power lines , which cut communications between islands . Across Chuuk , the storm destroyed about 1 @,@ 000 homes and left about 1 @,@ 000 people homeless . About 100 people were injured .
In nearby Pohnpei state , Chataan produced 72 km / h ( 45 mph ) winds in Nukuoro . The winds destroyed a house and a weather station . Rainfall on
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being one of only two standard gauge tunnels anywhere in Norfolk , the other being Barsham Tunnel on the Wells @-@ on @-@ Sea branch . However , as Barsham Tunnel was opened out before 1912 , Cromer Tunnel is actually the only tunnel .
The line was served in general by around half a dozen trains each way between North Walsham , Mundesley and Cromer Beach . However , with no direct service to Norwich - the nearest city - the halt was little @-@ used , and closed in 1953 as part of a package of early rationalisation measures undertaken by British Railways after nationalisation , which also involved the closure of the line from Roughton Road Junction to Mundesley . The coastal line , although highly picturesque , carried little traffic and its closure made sound economic sense to British Railways .
= = = = Present day = = = =
Due to its wooden construction , virtually no trace of Cromer Links Halt has survived other than the gate to the approach path up the embankment , the rotting remains of which were said to be entangled in the undergrowth at the site of the station .
= = Roughton Road railway station = =
Roughton Road was opened on 20 May 1985 , to serve the new housing developments in the area . It is on the southern edge of Cromer , near the junction for the disused Cromer Tunnel leading to the former Norfolk and Suffolk Joint Railway line , about 200 yards ( 183 m ) from the site of the former Cromer High station .
= Cyclone Kamisy =
Cyclone Kamisy was considered the worst tropical cyclone to affect northern Madagascar since 1911 . A tropical disturbance formed near Diego Garcia on April 3 , 1984 and subsequently moved westward , intensifying into a moderate tropical storm two days later . Given the name Kamisy , the storm gradually intensified into an intense tropical cyclone by April 9 . Kamisy reached winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) before making landfall in extreme northern Madagascar near Diego Suarez . It weakened upon entering the Mozambique Channel , but briefly re @-@ intensified on April 10 . That day while passing near Mayotte , the cyclone turned to the southeast , striking Madagascar again near Majunga . Kamisy quickly crossed the country . After emerging into the Indian Ocean off the east coast of Madagascar , the system reintensified into a moderate tropical storm before dissipating on April 16 .
In northern Madagascar , Kamisy produced wind gusts of 250 km / h ( 155 mph ) , which destroyed 80 % of the city of Diego Suarez . About 39 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the area , and there were five deaths . In western Madagascar , the cyclone dropped 232 @.@ 2 mm ( 9 @.@ 14 in ) of rainfall in 24 hours in Majunga , which damaged rice fields in the region after causing widespread river flooding . Additionally , the storm destroyed about 80 % of Majunga . Throughout the country , Kamisy caused $ 250 million in damage and 68 deaths , with 215 people injured and 100 @,@ 000 left homeless . Fifteen people were killed and 30 others were injured in Mahajanga . Following the storm , emergency food and medical supplies were rushed into the nation . In addition to the impact to Madagascar , one death and severe damage was reported in the Comoros Islands , where all of the banana crop was destroyed .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Kamisy originated from an area of convection that formed in early April . On April 3 , the system was assigned a Dvorak rating of T2.0 and was respectively upgraded into a moderate tropical storm by the Météo @-@ France office on Reunion ( MFR ) . However , the storm was not classified by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) until that evening . The storm initially tracked west @-@ southwest , but after briefly weakening into a tropical depression , Kamisy began to turn west . On April 5 , the storm was upgraded into a moderate tropical storm for the second time ; the JTWC followed suit and upgraded Kamisy into a tropical storm several hours later while located about 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) west of Diego Garcia .
Kamisy steadily intensified and on April 6 , the JTWC reported that it attained hurricane @-@ force winds despite MFR estimating winds of 80 km / h ( 50 mph ) . Early on April 7 , however , Kamisy was upgraded into a severe tropical storm as it had earned a rating of T4.0 on the Dvorak scale . Thereafter , the storm began to undergo rapid deepening . Later that day , the JTWC announced that Kamisy attained winds of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) , equivalent to a mid @-@ level Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale . Meanwhile , MFR upgraded the system into cyclone intensity . After briefly leveling off in intensity , the storm attained peak intensity of 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) later that day . Early on April 8 , the JTWC estimated that it reached its peak intensity of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) . Around this time , Kamisy was assigned a T6.0 rating via the Dvorak technique .
After maintaining peak intensity for less than a day , it weakened slightly . On April 9 , the storm brushed the northern Madagascar coast as a severe tropical storm , though the JTWC suggested that Kamsiy was considerably stronger . However , the afternoon to storm emerged into the extreme northern Mozambique Channel , where it passed near Mayotte , with little change in strength . After sharply turning south @-@ southwest , Kamisy briefly regained tropical cyclone intensity , but resumed weakening as it approached the coast . While still a moderate tropical storm , it made landfall along the north @-@ central part of the nation on April 12 , near Tamative . At the time of landfall , the JTWC noted that Kamisy was a minimal hurricane . The storm quickly weakened overland and was a tropical depression by the time it had emerged into the Indian Ocean . Shortly thereafter , the storm restrengthened into a moderate tropical storm , but this trend was short @-@ lived . The JTWC downgraded Kamisy into a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on April 14 . The agency issued the last warning on the system the following day , even though MFR kept tracking the system until the morning hours of April 16 . At this time , Kamisy was located about 500 mi ( 805 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Madagascar .
= = Impact = =
= = = Madagascar = = =
Throughout Madagascar , a total of 68 casualties were reported and 100 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Damage totaled to more than $ 250 million ( 1984 USD ) . Kamisy was considered the worst system to strike Madagascar since 1911 . According to Relief Web , 7 @,@ 000 buildings were at least partially destroyed , including 1 @,@ 020 schools and 450 hospitals . Approximately 215 people were injured due to the storm . Overall , Kamisy was the strongest storm to hit the nation between 1980 and 1993 .
In Diego Suarez , the storm caused significant damage , especially in residential areas . Warehouses , schools , and other public buildings suffered extensive damage . Throughout the city , 80 % of the buildings were damaged and the town was 85 % destroyed . Electrical and water supplies were cut in Diego Suarez . Nearby , in Befaria , a leprosarium , which housed 200 patients and their families , was damaged . The small village of Mangaoka was forced to move inland 100 m ( 330 ft ) . In Tamatave , a daily peak rainfall total of 294 mm ( 11 @.@ 6 in ) was measured , and 711 mm ( 28 @.@ 0 in ) fell in a six @-@ day period . Due to the rainfall , 70 % of the town 's population moved to high ground . In Antsiranana , 30 @,@ 000 of the 40 @,@ 000 inhabitants were left homeless and were left with little food or water . Throughout northern Madagascar , about 39 @,@ 000 people were left homeless in the area ; there were five deaths .
After making its second landfall , 80 % of the port of Mahajanga was destroyed , where 42 @,@ 120 people were reportedly homeless . Many neighborhoods of the town , whose population was 45 @,@ 000 , were completed washed away . Many rice fields in the region were destroyed due to widespread river flooding . In Mahajanga alone , 15 people were killed while 30 others were majorly hurt . Several schools throughout the city were destroyed . Winds greater than 112 mph ( 180 km / h ) were reported in Mahanjanga as well . Elsewhere , the town of Movoya was also mostly destroyed .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
After making its first landfall , the storm struck Mayotte , in the Comoros island group , where severe damage was recorded . One death was also reported . Dozens of others were severely hurt . Around 25 @,@ 000 people were displaced . All of the banana and rice crop were destroyed by the storm in both Comoros and Seychelles .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , emergency food and medical supplies were rushed into the nation . Due to Madagascar 's small budget , it did not have the resources to repair all the damage alone . Two French rescue mission , including one from Reunion , provided victims with food and medical assistance to Madagascar and Mayotte . Furthermore , the Malagasy Red Cross launched an appeal for blankets , clothes , tents , and medicine . The United States provided $ 25 @,@ 000 in cash and $ 15 @,@ 000 worth of other items . Moreover , Italy donated $ 41 @,@ 500 to Madagascar . Netherlands provided $ 65 @,@ 000 worth of supplies while the nations ' the League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies decided to send a disaster team to the devastated area . The United Kingdom provided $ 74 @,@ 000 is cash ; France provided 2 @.@ 2 short tons ( 2 @.@ 0 t ) of medicine , 500 short tons ( 450 t ) , and 4 tents . The government asked for 60 @,@ 000 short tons ( 54 @,@ 000 t ) of rice , 5 @,@ 000 short tons ( 4 @,@ 500 t ) of flour , 200 short tons ( 180 t ) of edible oil , and 20 short tons ( 18 t ) of milk and canned food . Aside from food items , they also asked for 20 @,@ 000 short tons ( 18 @,@ 000 t ) of cement and 50 @,@ 000 packages of iron sheets . Additionally , the head of Minister of State , Foreign and Commonwealth Office intended to focus on the reconstruction of bridges and roads . A private consulting company was later hired to conduct a post @-@ storm assessment ; a training program was subsequently launched , which had a budget of $ 3 @.@ 5 million . The training program lasted until the 1985 – 86 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season , when Cyclone Honorinina devastated the nation .
Sailors from the US Navy 's warship USS Hector , were diverted to assist in the relief effort in Diego @-@ Suarez , between April 23 and May 1 , 1984 . The warship was the first American naval vessel to visit the port after Madagascar ’ s Government banned the superpowers including France and the United States from using it during the 1970s and were awarded two Humanitarian Service Medals . Amongst other assistance provided they restored the roof and power to the ports hospital and repaired the leprosarium at Befaria , near Diego @-@ Suarez . Two French naval vessels also supplied brought food , medicine and other emergency supplies to help with the aftermath of the cyclone .
= Agaricus bernardii =
Agaricus bernardii , commonly called the salt @-@ loving mushroom , is an agaric fungus in the family Agaricaceae . A short , squat mushroom , the thick stem is usually less than the diameter of the cap , which ranges from 5 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) . Found in Asia , Europe , North America , and New Zealand , it is a salt @-@ tolerant species that grows in salt marshes , dunes , and coastal grassland . The fungus produces fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) with convex to flattened caps up to 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter , atop thick stems up to 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long . The cap surface is whitish to buff , and can develop scales or warts in age . Gills are initially pink before turning brown when the spores mature . The flesh turns reddish when it is cut or bruised . The mushroom somewhat resembles Agaricus bitorquis but it differs from that species by the reddish @-@ brown staining of cap and stem tissue , the nature of the ring on the stem , as well as its briny odor . An edible mushroom , it is stronger in flavor but similar to the store @-@ bought button mushrooms , Agaricus bisporus .
= = Taxonomy = =
The species was first described by French mycologist Lucien Quélet as Psalliota bernardi in 1879 , based on collections made in La Rochelle , a seaport on the Bay of Biscay ( France ) . Pier Andrea Saccardo transferred it to Agaricus in 1887 . Synonyms include Psalliota bernardii , Pratella bernardii , Fungus bernardii , and Agaricus campestris subsp. bernardii .
The infrageneric ( below genus @-@ level ) classification of A. bernardii is not known with certainty . In his 1978 proposed classification , Paul Heinemann placed it in the subsection Bitorques of the section Agaricus . Although the species has some similarities with species in the section Duploannulatae based on the structure of its veil and its tendencies towards rufescence ( developing a red coloration ) , molecular analysis shows that it does not belong in this section . An earlier ( 1999 ) analysis suggested that it is closely related to the " Agaricus clade " , which contains A. subperonatus , A. devoniensis , A. bisporus , A. spissicaulis , A. bitorquis , and A. impudicus . In 1986 , Henri Romagnesi placed it in section Chitonioides ; Solomon Wasser demoted this to a subsection of Duploannulatae in 1995 , and later provided molecular support for his decision . In addition to A. bernardii , species in Wasser 's concept of subsection Chitonioides include A. rollanii , A. bernardiiformis , A. gennadii , A. pequinii , and A. nevoi .
The species was named after the original collector , G. Bernard . Agaricus bernardii is commonly known as the salt @-@ loving mushroom .
= = Description = =
Fruit bodies of Agaricus bernardii have caps that range in shape from convex to flattened , and reach a diameter of 5 – 15 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) . The cap surface is dry and smooth , with a white or buff color that can develop brownish spots in maturity . In age , the surface often forms scales or warts . The flesh is thick , firm , and stains reddish @-@ orange or reddish @-@ brown when cut , although this reaction can be slow to develop . Its odor ranges from mild to briny to pungent . The gills are free from attachment to the stem , and packed close together . Initially grayish @-@ pink to pinkish , they turn reddish @-@ brown and then chocolate brown as the spores mature . The stem is solid ( i.e. , not hollow ) , firm , and measures 4 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long by 2 – 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . A thick , white , rubbery partial veil covers the gills of the immature mushroom , and eventually remains as a ring on the middle of the stem .
Although the mushrooms sometimes have an odor that is briny or pungent ( " though not inappropriate " ) , they are edible and good . David Arora compares its taste to that of the closely related Agaricus bitorquis , " but a little chewier and sometimes with a slightly salty or briny taste . "
Agaricus bernardii mushrooms produce a dark brown spore print . The spores are smooth , broadly elliptical , and have dimensions of 6 – 7 @.@ 5 by 5 – 6 μm . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored and club @-@ shaped , measuring 14 – 25 by 4 – 7 μm ; the sterigmata are 4 – 5 μm . Cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill edge ) are broadly club @-@ shaped to cylindrical , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 17 – 30 by 4 – 8 μm .
= = = Similar species = = =
Agaricus bitorquis , also edible , has a similar appearance , but can be distinguished by its double ring , and the lack of a fishy or briny odor . Additionally , A. bitorquis does not stain reddish when cut , and usually does not have a scaly or warty cap . The Hungarian species A. bernardiiformis , named for its similarity to A. bernardii , is distinguished from the latter by its smaller spores ( 6 @.@ 2 – 8 @.@ 2 by 5 @.@ 4 – 6 @.@ 2 μm ) and its club @-@ shaped cheilocystidia that measure 17 – 35 by 7 – 9 @.@ 5 μm . MycoBank , however , considers the two species to be conspecific .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Agaricus bernardii is a saprobic species . Its mushrooms fruit singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground . They grow in sandy soils , lawns , and in habitats with a high salt concentration , like along ocean coasts and salt marshes . Once primarily a maritime species , the fungus has spread inland to roadside verges where salt has been applied to de @-@ ice the roads . Fruit bodies sometimes form underground . Mushrooms can also grow in fairy rings , especially when in grasslands or pastures . A Czech study determined that the mushrooms will strongly bioaccumulate silver from contaminated soil . Although the average concentration of silver in the soil is typically less than 1 milligram per kilogram of soil , it can be significantly elevated near industrial sites such as mines and smelters . The concentration of silver in the caps — which reached levels of up to 544 mg per kg of mushroom tissue ( dry weight ) — was about twice that of the stems .
The species is found in Asia , Europe , North America ( including Mexico ) and New Zealand .
= Abraham Goldfaden =
Abraham Goldfaden Yiddish : אַבֿרהם גאָלדפֿאַדען ; ( born Avrum Goldnfoden ; the Romanian spelling Avram Goldfaden is common ; 24 July 1840 in Starokostiantyniv – 9 January 1908 in New York City ) was a Russian @-@ born Jewish poet , playwright , stage director and actor in the languages Yiddish and Hebrew , author of some 40 plays . Goldfaden is considered the father of the Jewish modern theatre .
In 1876 he founded in Romania what is generally credited as the world 's first professional Yiddish @-@ language theater troupe . He was also responsible for the first Hebrew @-@ language play performed in the United States . The Avram Goldfaden Festival of Iaşi , Romania , is named and held in his honour .
Jacob Sternberg called him " the Prince Charming who woke up the lethargic Romanian Jewish culture . " Israil Bercovici wrote of his works : " we find points in common with what we now call ' total theater ' . In many of his plays he alternates prose and verse , pantomime and dance , moments of acrobatics and some of jonglerie , and even of spiritualism ... "
= = Early life = =
Goldfaden was born in Starokonstantinov ( Russia ; present day Ukraine ) . His birthdate is sometimes given as July 12 , following the " Old Style " calendar in use at that time in the Russian Empire . He attended a Jewish religious school ( a cheder ) , but his middle @-@ class family was strongly associated with the Haskalah , the " Jewish Enlightenment , " and his father , a watchmaker , arranged that he receive private lessons in German and Russian . As a child , he is said to have appreciated and imitated the performances of wedding jesters and Brody singers to the degree that he acquired the nickname Avromele Badkhen , " Abie the Jester . " In 1857 he began studies at the government @-@ run rabbinical school at Zhytomyr , from which he emerged in 1866 as a teacher and a poet ( with some experience in amateur theater ) , but he never led a congregation .
Goldfaden 's first published poem was called " Progress " ; his New York Times obituary described it as " a plea for Zionism years before that movement developed . " In 1865 he published his first book of poetry , Tzitzim u @-@ Ferahim ( in Hebrew ) ; The Jewish Encyclopedia ( 1901 – 1906 ) says that " Goldfaden 's Hebrew poetry ... possesses considerable merit , but it has been eclipsed by his Yiddish poetry , which , for strength of expression and for depth of true Jewish feeling , remains unrivaled . " The first book of verse in Yiddish was published in 1866 , and in 1867 he took a job teaching in Simferopol . A year later , he moved on to Odessa ( in Ukraine ) , where he lived initially in his uncle 's house , where a cousin who was a good pianist helped him set some of his poems to music .
In Odessa , Goldfaden renewed his acquaintance with fellow Yiddish @-@ language writer Yitzkhok Yoel Linetzky , whom he knew from Zhytomyr and met Hebrew @-@ language poet Eliahu Mordechai Werbel ( whose daughter Paulina would become Goldfaden 's wife ) and published poems in the newspaper Kol @-@ Mevaser . He also wrote his first two plays , Die Tzwei Sheines ( The Two Neighbors ) and Die Murneh Sosfeh ( Aunt Susie ) , included with some verses in a modestly successful 1869 book Die Yidene ( The Jewish Woman ) , which went through three editions in three years . At this time , he and Paulina were living mainly on his meagre teacher 's salary of 18 rubles a year , supplemented by giving private lessons and taking a job as a cashier in a hat shop .
In 1875 , Goldfaden headed for Munich , intending to study medicine . This did not work out , and he headed for Lvov / Lemberg in Galicia , where he again met up with Linetsky , now editor of a weekly paper , Isrulik or Der Alter Yisrulik ( which was well reputed , but was soon shut by the government ) . A year later , he moved on to Chernivtsi in Bukovina , where he edited the Yiddish @-@ language daily Dos Bukoviner Israelitishe Folksblatt . The limits of the economic sense of this enterprise can be gauged from his inability to pay a registration fee of 3000 ducats . He tried unsuccessfully to operate the paper under a different name , but soon moved on to Iaşi on the invitation of Isaac Librescu ( 1850 – 1930 ) , a young wealthy communitary activist interested in theatre .
= = Iaşi = =
Arriving in Iaşi ( Jassy ) in 1876 , Goldfaden was fortunate to be better known as a good poet — many of whose poems had been set to music and had become popular songs — than as a less @-@ than @-@ successful businessman . Nevertheless , when he sought funds from Isaac Librescu for another newspaper , Librescu was uninterested in that proposition . Librescu 's wife remarked that Yiddish @-@ language journalism was just a way to starve ; she suggested that there would be a lot more of a market for Yiddish @-@ language theater . Librescu offered Goldfaden 100 francs for a public recital of his songs in the garden of Shimen Mark , Grădina Pomul Verde ( " the Green Fruit @-@ Tree Garden " ) .
Instead of a simple recital , Goldfaden expanded the program into something of a vaudeville performance ; either this or an indoor performance he and his fellow performers gave later that year in Botoşani is generally counted as the first professional Yiddish theatre performance . However , in the circumstances , the designation of a single performance as " the first " may be nominal : Goldfaden 's first actor , Israel Grodner , was already singing Goldfaden 's songs ( and others ) in the salons of Iaşi ; also , in 1873 , Grodner sang in a concert in Odessa ( songs by Goldfaden , among others ) that apparently included significant improvised material between songs , although no actual script .
Although Goldfaden , by his own account , was familiar at this time with " practically all of Russian literature , " had plenty of exposure to Russian and Polish theater , and had even seen an African American tragedian , Ira Aldrich , performing Shakespeare , the performance at Grădina Pomul Verde was only a bit more of a play than Grodner had participated in three years earlier . The songs were strung together with a bit of character and plot and a good bit of improvisation . The performance by Goldfaden , Grodner , Sokher Goldstein , and possibly as many as three other men went over well . The first performance was either Di bobe mitn einikl ( Grandmother and Granddaughter ) or Dos bintl holts ( The Bundle of sticks ) ; sources disagree . ( Some reports suggest that Goldfaden himself was a poor singer , or even a non @-@ singer and poor actor ; according to Bercovici , these reports stem from Goldfaden 's own self @-@ disparaging remarks or from his countenance as an old man in New York , but contemporary reports show him to have been a decent , though not earth @-@ shattering , actor and singer . )
After that time , Goldfaden continued miscellaneous newspaper work , but the stage became his main focus .
As it happens , the famous Romanian poet Mihai Eminescu , then journalist , saw one of their Pomul Verde performances later that summer . He records in his review that the company had six players . ( A 1905 typographical error would turn this to a much @-@ cited sixteen , suggesting a grander beginning for Yiddish theater . ) He was impressed by the quality of the singing and acting , but found the pieces " without much dramatic interest . " [ Bercovici , 1998 , 58 ] His generally positive comments would seem to deserve to be taken seriously : Eminescu was known generally as " virulently antisemitic . " Eminescu appears to have seen four of Goldfaden 's early plays : a satiric musical revue Di velt a gan @-@ edn ( The World and Paradise ) , Der farlibter maskil un der oyfgeklerter hosid ( a dialogue between " an infatuated philosopher " and " an enlightened Hasid " ) , another musical revue Der shver mitn eidem ( Father @-@ in @-@ law and Son @-@ in @-@ Law ) , and a comedy Fishl der balegole un zayn knecht Sider ( Fishel the Junkman and His Servant Sider ) .
= = Searching for a theater = =
As the season for outdoor performances was coming to a close , Goldfaden tried and failed to rent an appropriate theater in Iaşi . A theater owner named Reicher , presumably Jewish himself , told him that " a troupe of Jewish singers " would be " too dirty . " Goldfaden , Grodner , and Goldstein headed first to Botoşani , where they lived in a garret and Goldfaden continued to churn out songs and plays . An initial successful performance of Di Rekruten ( The Recruits ) in an indoor theater ( " with loges ! " as Goldfaden wrote ) was followed by days of rain so torrential that no one would come out to the theater ; they pawned some possessions and left for Galaţi , which was to prove a bit more auspicious , with a successful three @-@ week run .
In Galaţi they acquired their first serious set designer , a housepainter known as Reb Moishe Bas . He had no formal artistic training , but he proved to be good at the job , and joined the troupe , as did Sara Segal , their first actress . She was not yet out of her teens . After seeing her perform in their Galaţi premiere , her mother objected to her unmarried daughter cavorting on a stage like that . Goldstein – who , unlike Goldfaden and Grodner , was single – promptly married her and she remained with the troupe . ( Besides being known as Sara Segal and Sofia Goldstein , she became best known as Sofia Karp , after a second marriage to actor Max Karp . )
After the successful run in Galaţi came a less successful attempt in Brăila , but by now the company had honed its act and it was time to go to the capital , Bucharest .
= = Bucharest = =
As in Iaşi , Goldfaden arrived in Bucharest with his reputation already established . He and his players performed first in the early spring at the salon Lazăr Cafegiu on Calea Văcăreşti ( Văcăreşti Avenue , in the heart of the ghetto ) , then , once the weather turned warm , at the Jigniţa garden , a pleasant tree @-@ shaded beer garden on Str . Negru Vodă that up until then had drawn only a neighborhood crowd . He filled out his cast from the great pool of Jewish vocal talent : synagogue cantors . He also recruited two eminently respectable classically trained prima donnas , the sisters Margaretta and Annetta Schwartz .
Among the cantors in his casts that year were Lazăr Zuckermann ( also known as Laiser Zuckerman ; as a song @-@ and @-@ dance man , he would eventually follow Goldfaden to New York and have a long stage career ) , Moishe Zilberman ( also known as Silberman ) , and Simhe Dinman , as well as the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Zigmund Mogulescu ( Sigmund Mogulesko ) , who soon became a stage star . Orphaned by his teen years , Mogulescu had already made his way in the world as a singer – not only as a soloist in the Great Synagogue of Bucharest but also as a performer in cafes , at parties , with a visiting French operetta company , and even in a church choir . Before his voice changed , he had sung with Zuckerman , Dinman , and Moses Wald in the " Israelite Chorus , " performing at important ceremonies in the Jewish community . Mogulescu 's audition for Goldfaden was a scene from Vlăduţu Mamei ( Mama 's Boy ) , which formed the basis later that year for Goldfaden 's light comedy Shemdrik , oder Die Komishe Chaseneh ( Shmendrik or The Comical Wedding ) , starring Mogulescu as the almost painfully clueless and hapless young man ( a role later famously played in New York and elsewhere by actress Molly Picon ) .
This recruiting of cantors was not without controversy : Cantor Cuper ( also known as Kupfer ) , the head cantor of the Great Synagogue , considered it " impious " that cantors should perform in a secular setting , to crowds where both sexes mingled freely , keeping people up late so that they might not be on time for morning prayers .
While one may argue over which performance " started " Yiddish theater , by the end of that summer in Bucharest Yiddish theater was an established fact . The influx of Jewish merchants and middlemen to the city at the start of the Russo @-@ Turkish War had greatly expanded the audience ; among these new arrivals were Israel Rosenberg and Jacob Spivakovsky , the highly cultured scion of a wealthy Russian Jewish family , both of whom actually joined Goldfaden 's troupe , but soon left to found the first Yiddish theater troupe in Imperial Russia .
Goldfaden was churning out a repertoire – new songs , new plays , and translations of plays from Romanian , French , and other languages ( in the first two years , he wrote 22 plays , and would eventually write about 40 ) – and while he was not always able to retain the players in his company once they became stars in their own right , he continued for many years to recruit first @-@ rate talent , and his company became a de facto training ground for Yiddish theater . By the end of the year , others were writing Yiddish plays as well , such as Moses Horowitz with Der tiranisher bankir ( The Tyrannical Banker ) , or Grodner with Curve un ganev ( Prostitute and Thief ) , and Yiddish theater had become big theater , with elaborate sets , duelling choruses , and extras to fill out crowd scenes .
Goldfaden was helped by Ion Ghica , then head of the Romanian National Theater to legally establish a " dramatic society " to handle administrative matters . From those papers , we know that the troupe at the Jigniţa included Moris Teich , Michel Liechman ( Glückman ) , Lazăr Zuckermann , Margareta Schwartz , Sofia Palandi , Aba Goldstein , and Clara Goldstein . We also know from similar papers that when Grodner and Mogulescu walked out on Goldfaden to start their own company , it included ( besides themselves ) Israel Rosenberg , Jacob Spivakovsky , P. Şapira , M. Banderevsky , Anetta Grodner , and Rosa Friedman .
Ion Ghica was a valuable ally for Yiddish theater in Bucharest . On several occasions he expressed his favorable view of the quality of acting , and even more of the technical aspects of the Yiddish theater . In 1881 , he obtained for the National Theater the costumes that had been used for a Yiddish pageant on the coronation of King Solomon , which had been timed in tribute to the actual coronation of Carol I of Romania .
= = Turning serious = =
While light comedy and satire might have established Yiddish theater as a commercially successful medium , it was Goldfaden 's higher aspirations for it that eventually earned him recognition as " the Yiddish Shakespeare . " As a man broadly read in several languages , he was acutely aware that there was no Eastern European Jewish tradition of dramatic literature – that his audience was used to seeking just " a good glass of Odobeşti and a song . " Years later , he would paraphrase the typical Yiddish theatergoer of the time as saying to him : " We don 't go to the theater to make our head swim with sad things . We have enough troubles at home ... We go to the theater to cheer ourselves up . We pay up a coin and hope to be distracted , we want to laugh from the heart . "
Goldfaden wrote that this attitude put him " pure and simply at war with the public . " His stage was not to be merely " a masquerade " ; he continued : " No , brothers . If I have arrived at having a stage , I want it to be a school for you . In youth you didn 't have time to learn and cultivate yourself ... Laugh heartily if I amuse you with my jokes , while I , watching you , feel my heart crying . Then , brothers , I 'll give you a drama , a tragedy drawn from life , and you , too , shall cry – while my heart shall be glad . " Nonetheless , his " war with the public " was based on understanding that public . He would also write , " I wrote Di kishefmakhern ( The Witch ) in Romania , where the populace – Jews as much as Romanians – believe strongly in witches . " Local superstitions and concerns always made good subject matter , and , as Bercovici remarks , however strong his inspirational and didactic intent , his historical pieces were always connected to contemporary concerns .
Even in the first couple of years of his company , Goldfaden did not shy away from serious themes : his rained @-@ out vaudeville in Botoşani had been Di Rekruten ( The Recruits ) , playing with the theme of the press gangs working the streets of that town to conscript young men into the army . Before the end of 1876 , Goldfaden had already translated Desolate Island by August von Kotzebue ; thus , a play by a German aristocrat and Russian spy became the first non @-@ comic play performed professionally in Yiddish . After his initial burst of mostly vaudevilles and light comedies ( although Shmendrik and The Two Kuni @-@ Lemls were reasonably sophisticated plays ) , Goldfaden would go on to write many serious Yiddish @-@ language plays on Jewish themes , perhaps the most famous being Shulamith , also from 1880 . Goldfaden himself suggested that this increasingly serious turn became possible because he had educated his audience . Nahma Sandrow suggests that it may have had equally as much to do with the arrival in Romania , at the time of the Russo @-@ Turkish War , of Russian Jews who had been exposed to more sophisticated Russian language theater . Goldfaden 's strong turn toward almost uniformly serious subject matter roughly coincided with bringing his troupe to Odessa .
Goldfaden was both a theoretician and a practitioner of theater . That he was in no small measure a theoretician – for example , he was interested almost from the start in having set design seriously support the themes of his plays – relates to a key property of Yiddish theater at the time of its birth : in general , writes Bercovici , theory ran ahead of practice . Much of the Jewish community , Goldfaden included , were already familiar with contemporary theater in other languages . The initial itinerary of Goldfaden 's company – Iaşi , Botoşani , Galaţi , Brăila , Bucharest – could as easily have been the itinerary of a Romanian @-@ language troupe . Yiddish theater may have been seen from the outset as an expression of a Jewish national character , but the theatrical values of Goldfaden 's company were in many ways those of a good Romanian theater of the time . Also , Yiddish was a German dialect which became a well @-@ known language even among non @-@ Jews in Moldavia ( and Transylvania ) , an important language of commerce ; the fact that one of the first to write about Yiddish theater was Romania 's national poet , Mihai Eminescu , is testimony that interest in Yiddish theater went beyond the Jewish community .
Almost from the first , Yiddish theater drew a level of theater criticism comparable to any other European theater of its time . For example , Bercovici cites a " brochure " by one G. Abramski , published in 1877 , that described and gave critiques of all of Goldfaden 's plays of that year . Abramski speculated that the present day might be for Yiddish theater a moment comparable to the Elizabethan era for English theater . He discussed what a Yiddish theater ought to be , noted its many sources ( ranging from Purim plays to circus pantomime ) , and praised its incorporation of strong female roles . He also criticized where he saw weaknesses , noting how unconvincingly a male actor played the mother in Shmendrik , or remarking of the play Di shtume kale ( The Mute Bride ) — a work that Goldfaden apparently wrote to accommodate a pretty , young actress who in the performance was too nervous to deliver her lines — that the only evidence of Goldfaden 's authorship was his name .
= = Russia = =
Goldfaden 's father wrote him to solicit the troupe to come to Odessa in Ukraine , which was then part of Imperial Russia . The timing was opportune : the end of the war meant that much of his best audience were now in Odessa rather than Bucharest ; Rosenberg had already quit Goldfaden 's troupe and was performing the Goldfadenian repertoire in Odessa .
With a loan from Librescu , Goldfaden headed east with a group of 42 people , including performers , musicians , and their families . After the end of the Russo @-@ Turkish War he and his troupe travelled extensively through Imperial Russia , notably to Kharkov ( also in Ukraine ) , Moscow , and Saint Petersburg . Jacob Adler later described him at this time as " a bon vivant , " " a cavalier , " " as difficult to approach as an emperor . " He continued to turn out plays at a prolific pace , now mostly serious pieces such as Doctor Almasada , oder Die Yiden in Palermo ( Doctor Almasada , or The Jews of Palermo ) , Shulamith , and Bar Kokhba , the last being a rather dark operetta about Bar Kokhba 's revolt , written after the pogroms in Russia following the 1881 assassination of Czar Alexander II .
As it happens , a Frenchman named Victor Tissot happened to be in Berdichev when Goldfaden 's company was there . He saw two plays – Di Rekruten , first premiered in Botoşani , and the later Di Shvebleh ( Matches ) , a play of intrigue . Tissot 's account of what he saw gives an interesting picture of the theaters and audiences Goldfaden 's troupe encountered outside of the big cities . " Berdichev , " he begins , " has not one cafe , not one restaurant . Berdichev , which is a boring and sad city , nonetheless has a theatrical hall , a big building made of rough boards , where theater troupes passing through now and then put on a play . " Although there was a proper stage with a curtain , the cheap seats were bare benches , the more expensive ones were benches covered in red percale . Although there were many full beards , " there were no long caftans , no skullcaps . " Some of the audience were quite poor , but these were assimilated Jews , basically secular . The audience also included Russian officers with their wives or girlfriends .
In Russia , Goldfaden and his troupe drew large audiences and were generally popular with progressive Jewish intellectuals , but slowly ran afoul of both the Czarist government and conservative elements in the Jewish community . Goldfaden was calling for change in the Jewish world :
Wake up my people
From your sleep , wake up
And believe no more in foolishness .
A call like this might be a bit ambiguous , but it was unsettling to those who were on the side of the status quo . Yiddish theater was banned in Russia starting September 14 , 1883 , as part of the anti @-@ Jewish reaction following the assassination of Czar Alexander II . Goldfaden and his troupe were left adrift in Saint Petersburg . They headed various directions , some to England , some to New York City , some to Poland , some to Romania .
= = The prophet adrift = =
While Yiddish theater continued successfully in various places , Goldfaden was not on the best terms at this time with Mogulescu . They had quarrelled ( and settled ) several times over rights to plays , and Mogulescu and his partner Moishe " Maurice " Finkel now dominated Yiddish theater in Romania , with about ten lesser companies competing as well . Mogulescu was a towering figure in Bucharest theater at this point , lauded on a level comparable to the actors of the National Theater , performing at times in Romanian as well as Yiddish , drawing an audience that went well beyond the Jewish community .
Goldfaden seems , in Bercovici 's words , to have lost " his theatrical elan " in this period . He briefly put together a theater company in 1886 in Warsaw , with no notable success . In 1887 he went to New York ( as did Mogulescu , independently ) . After extensive negotiations and great anticipation in the Yiddish @-@ language press in New York ( " Goldfaden in America , " read the headline in the January 11 , 1888 edition of the New Yorker Yiddishe Ilustrirte Zaitung ) , he briefly took on the job of director of Mogulescu 's new " Rumanian Opera House " ; they parted ways again after the failure of their first play , whose production values were apparently not up to New York standards . Goldfaden attempted ( unsuccessfully ) to found a theater school , then headed in 1889 for Paris , rather low on funds . There he wrote some poetry , worked on a play that he didn 't finish at that time , and put together a theater company that never got to the point of putting on a play ( because the cashier made off with all of their funds [ Adler , 1999 , 262 commentary ] ) . In October 1889 he scraped together the money to get to Lvov , where his reputation as a poet again came to his rescue .
= = Lvov = =
Lvov was not exactly a dramatist 's dream . Leon Dreykurs described audiences bringing meals into the theater , rustling paper , treating the theater like a beer garden . He also quotes Jacob Schatzky : " All in all , the Galician milieu was not favorable to Yiddish theater . The intellectuals were assimilated , but the masses were fanatically religious and they viewed Jewish ' comedians ' with disdain . "
Nonetheless , Iacob Ber Ghimpel , who owned a Yiddish theater there , was glad to have a figure of Goldfaden 's stature . Goldfaden completed the play he 'd started in Paris , Rabi Yoselman , oder Die Gzerot fun Alsas ( " Rabbi Yoselman , or The Alsatian Decree " ) , in five acts and 23 scenes , based on the life of Josel of Rosheim . At this time he also wrote an operetta Rothschild and a semi @-@ autobiographical play called Mashiach Tzeiten ( Messiah Times ) that gave a less @-@ than @-@ optimistic view of America .
Kalman Juvelier , an actor in Ber Ghimpel 's company , credited Goldfaden with greatly strengthening the caliber of performance in Lvov during his brief time there , reporting that Goldfaden worked with every actor on understanding his or her character , so as to ensure that the play was more than just a series of songs and effects , and was respected by all .
= = Bucharest = =
Buoyed by his success in Lvov , he returned to Bucharest in 1892 , as director of the Jigniţa theater . His new company again included Lazăr Zuckermann ; other players were Marcu ( Mordechai ) Segalescu , and later Iacob Kalich , Carol Schramek , Malvina Treitler @-@ Löbel and her father H. Goldenbers . Among his notable plays from this period were Dos zenteh Gebot , oder Lo tachmod ( The Tenth Commandment , or Thou Shalt Not Covet ) , Judas Maccabaeus , and Judith and Holfernes and a translation of Johann Strauss 's Gypsy Baron .
However , it was not a propitious time to return to Romania . Yiddish theater had become a business there , with slickly written advertisements , coordinated performances in multiple cities using the same publicity materials , and cutthroat competition : on one occasion in 1895 , a young man named Bernfeld attended multiple performances of Goldfaden 's Story of Isaac , memorized it all ( including the songs ) , and took the whole package to Kalman Juvilier , who put on an unauthorized production in Iaşi . Such outright theft was possible because once Ion Ghica headed off on a diplomatic career , the National Theater , which was supposed to adjudicate issues like unauthorized performances of plays , was no longer paying much attention to Yiddish theater . ( Juvilier and Goldfaden finally reached an out @-@ of @-@ court settlement . )
Cutthroat competition was nothing to what was to follow . The 1890s were a tough time for the Romanian economy , and a rising tide of anti @-@ Semitism made it an even tougher time for the Jews . One quarter of the Jewish population emigrated , with intellectuals particularly likely to leave , and those intellectuals who remained were more interested in politics than in theater : this was a period of social ferment , with Jewish socialists in Iaşi starting Der Veker ( The Awakener ) .
Goldfaden left Romania in 1896 ; soon Juvilier 's was the only active Yiddish theater troupe in the country , and foreign troupes had almost entirely ceased coming to the country . Although Lateiner , Horowitz , and Shumer kept writing , and occasionally managed to put on a play , it was not a good time for Yiddish theater – or any theater – in Romania , and would only become worse as the economy continued to decline .
Goldfaden wandered Europe as a poet and journalist . His plays continued to be performed in Europe and America , but rarely , if ever , did anyone send him royalties . His health deteriorated – a 1903 letter refers to asthma and spitting up blood – and he was running out of money . In 1903 , he wrote Jacob Dinesohn from Paris , authorizing him to sell his remaining possessions in Romania , clothes and all . This gave him the money to head once more to New York in 1904 .
= = New York City = =
In America , he again tried his hand at journalism , but a brief stint as editor of the New Yorker Yiddishe Ilustrirte Zaitung resulted only in getting the paper suspended and landing himself a rather large fine . On March 31 , 1905 , he recited poetry at a benefit performance at Cooper Union to raise a pension for Yiddish poet Eliakum Zunser , even worse off than himself because he had found himself unable to write since coming to America in 1889 . Shortly afterwards , he met a group of young people who had a Hebrew language association at the Dr. Herzl Zion Club , and wrote a Hebrew @-@ language play David ba @-@ Milchama ( David in the War ) , which they performed in March 1906 , the first Hebrew @-@ language play to be performed in America . Repeat performances in March 1907 and April 1908 drew successively larger crowds .
He also wrote the spoken portions of Ben Ami , loosely based on George Eliot 's Daniel Deronda . After Goldfaden 's former bit player Jacob Adler — by now the owner of a prominent New York Yiddish theater — optioned and ignored it , even accusing Goldfaden of being " senile , " it premiered successfully at rival Boris Thomashefsky 's People 's Theater December 25 , 1907 , with music by H. Friedzel and lyrics by Mogulescu , who was by this time an international star .
Goldfaden died in New York City in 1908 . An estimated 75 @,@ 000 turned out for his funeral , joining the procession from the People 's Theater on Bowery to Washington Cemetery in Brooklyn . The number of mourners is given as 30 @,@ 000 in the entry for Goldfaden ( " Goldfadn , Avrom " ) , in the Cambridge Guide to Theatre ( Cambridge University Press , 1995 , p . 432 ) , signed by Nahma Sandrow . The New York Times , calling him " both a poet and a prophet , " noted that " there was more evidence of genuine sympathy with and admiration for the man and his work than is likely to be manifested at the funeral of any poet now writing in the English language in this country . "
In November 2009 , Goldfaden was the subject of postage stamps issued jointly by Israel and Romania .
= = Zionism = =
Goldfaden had an on @-@ again off @-@ again relationship with Zionism . Some of his earliest poetry was Zionist avant la lettre and one of his last plays was written in Hebrew ; several of his plays were implicitly or explicitly Zionist ( Shulamith set in Jerusalem , Mashiach Tzeiten ? ! ending with its protagonists abandoning New York for Palestine ) ; he served as a delegate from Paris to the World Zionist Congress in 1900 . Still , he spent most of his life ( and set slightly more than half of his plays ) in the Pale of Settlement and in the adjoining Jewish areas in Romania , and when he left it was never to go to Palestine , but to cities such as New York , London or Paris . This might be understandable when the number of his potential Jewish spectators in Palestine in his time was very small .
= = Works = =
= = = Plays = = =
Sources disagree about the dates ( and even the names ) of some of Goldfaden 's plays . The titles here represent YIVO Yiddish > English transliteration , though other variants exist .
Di Mumeh Soseh ( Aunt Susie ) wr . 1869
Di Tzvey Sheynes ( The Two Neighbours ) wr . 1869 ( possibly the same as Di Sheynes 1877
Polyeh Shikor ( Polyeh , the Drunkard ) 1871
Anonimeh Komedyeh ( Anonymous Comedy ) 1876
Di Rekruten ( The Recruits ) 1876 , 1877
Dos Bintl Holtz ( The Bundle of Sticks ) 1876
Fishl der balegole un zayn knecht Sider ( Fishel the Junkman and His Servant Sider ) 1876
Di Velt a Gan @-@ Edn ( The World and Paradise ) 1876
Der Farlibter Maskil un der Oifgeklerter Hosid ( The Infatuated Philosopher and the Enlightened Hasid ) 1876
Der Shver mitn eydem ( Father @-@ in @-@ Law and Son @-@ in @-@ Law ) 1876
Di Bobeh mit dem Eynikel ( The Grandmother and the Granddaughter ) 1876 , 1879
The Desolate Isle , Yiddish translation of a play by August von Kotzebue , 1876
Di Intrigeh oder Dvosye di pliotkemahern ( The Intrigue or Dvoisie Intrigued ) 1876 , 1877
A Gloz Vaser ( A Glass of Water ) 1877
Hotye @-@ mir un Zaytye @-@ mir ( Leftovers ) 1877
Shmendrik , oder Di komishe Chaseneh ( Schmendrik or The Comical Wedding ) 1877 , 1879
Shuster un Shnayder ( Shoemaker and Tailor ) 1877
Di Kaprizneh Kaleh , oder Kaptsnzon un Hungerman ( The Capricious Bride or Pauper @-@ son and Hunger @-@ man ) 1877 presumably the same play as Di kaprizneh Kaleh @-@ Moyd ( The Capricious Bridemaid ) 1887
Yontl Shnayder ( Yontl the Tailor ) 1877
Vos tut men ? ( What Did He Do ? ) 1877
Di Shtumeh Kaleh ( The Mute Bride ) 1877 , 1887
Di Tsvey Toybe ( The Two Deaf Men ) 1877
Der Gekoyfter Shlof ( The Purchased Sleep ) 1877
Di Sheynes ( The Neighbors ) 1877
Yukel un Yekel ( Yukel and Yekel ) 1877
Der Katar ( Catarrh ) 1877
Iks @-@ Miks @-@ Driks , 1877
Di Mumeh Sose ( Aunty Susie ) 1877
Brayndele Kozak ( Breindele Cossack ) , 1877
Der Podriatshik ( The Purveyor ) , 1877
Di Alte Moyd ( The Old Maid ) 1877
Di Tsvey fardulte ( The Two Scatter @-@ Brains ) 1877
Di Shvebeleh ( Matches ) 1877
Fir Portselayene Teler ( Four Porcelain Plates ) 1877
Der Shpigl ( The Mirror ) 1877
Toib , Shtum un Blind ( Deaf , Dumb and Blind ) 1878
Der Ligner , oder Todres Bloz ( The Liar , or , Todres , Blow ) ( or Todres the Trombonist ) 1878
Ni @-@ be @-@ ni @-@ me @-@ ni @-@ cucurigu ( Not Me , Not You , Not Cock @-@ a @-@ Doodle @-@ Doo or Neither This , Nor That , nor Kukerikoo ; Lulla Rosenfeld also gives the alternate title The Struggle of Culture with Fanaticism ) 1878
Der Heker un der Bleher @-@ yung ( The Butcher and the Tinker ) 1878
Di Kishufmacherin ( The Sorceress , also known as The Witch of Botoşani ) 1878 , 1887
Soufflé , 1878
Doy Intriganten ( Two Intriguers ) 1878
Di tsvey Kuni @-@ lemels ( The Fanatic , or The Two Kuni @-@ Lemls ) 1880
Tchiyat Hametim ( The Winter of Death ) 1881
Shulamith ( Shulamith or The Daughter of Jerusalem ) wr . 1880 , 1881
Dos Zenteh Gebot , oder Lo Tachmod ( The Tenth Commandment , or Thou Shalt Not Covet ) 1882 , 1887
Der Sambatyen ( Sambation ) 1882
Doktor Almasada , oder Di Yiden in Palermo ( Doctor Almasada , or The Jews of Palermo also known as Doctor Almasado , Doctor Almaraso , Doctor Almasaro ) 1880 , 1883
Bar Kokhba , 1883 , 1885
Akeydos Yitschok ( The Sacrifice of Isaac ) , 1891
Dos Finfteh Gebot , oder Kibed Ov ( The Fifth Commandment , or Honor Thy Father ) , 1892
Rabi Yoselman , oder Di Gzerot fun Alsas ( Rabbi Yoselman , or The Alsatian Decree ) 1877 , 1892
Judas Maccabeus , 1892
Judith and Holofernes , 1892
Mashiach Tzeiten ? ! ( The Messianic Era ? ! ) 1891 1893
Yiddish translation of Johann Strauss 's Gypsy Baron 1894
Sdom Veamora ( Sodom and Gomorrah ) 1895
Di Katastrofe fun Brayla ( The Catastrophe in Brăila ) 1895
Meylits Yoysher ( The Messenger of Justice ) 1897
David ba @-@ Milchama ( David in the War ) 1906 , in Hebrew
Ben Ami ( Son of My People ) 1907 , 1908
= = = Songs and poetry = = =
Goldfaden wrote hundreds of songs and poems . Among his most famous are :
" Der Malekh " ( " The Angel " )
" Royzhinkes mit mandlen " ( Raisins and Almonds )
" Shabes , Yontev , un Rosh Khoydesh " ( " Sabbath , Festival , and New Moon " )
" Tsu Dayn Geburtstag ! " ( " To Your Birthday ! " )
= Ununpentium =
Ununpentium ( element symbol : Uup ) is the temporary name of a superheavy element that was first synthesized in 2003 by a joint team of Russian and American scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ( JINR ) in Dubna , Russia . With the atomic number 115 in the periodic table the synthetic element is also known as element 115 , or eka @-@ bismuth . In December 2015 , it was recognized as one of four new elements by the Joint Working Party of international scientific bodies IUPAC and IUPAP . In June 2016 , the IUPAC suggested the element to be named moscovium / mɒsˈkoʊviəm / ( element symbol : Mc ) , a name to be formally accepted by the end of 2016 .
Ununpentium is an extremely radioactive element ; its most stable known isotope , ununpentium @-@ 289 , has a half @-@ life of only 220 milliseconds . In the periodic table , it is a p @-@ block transactinide element . It is a member of the 7th period and is placed in group 15 as the heaviest pnictogen , although it has not been confirmed to behave as a heavier homologue of the pnictogen bismuth . Ununpentium is calculated to have some similar properties to its lighter homologues , nitrogen , phosphorus , arsenic , antimony , and bismuth , although it should also show several major differences from them . About 100 atoms of ununpentium have been observed to date , all of which have been shown to have mass numbers from 287 to 290 .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
The first synthesis of ununpentium succeeded in August 2003 at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research ( JINR ) in Dubna , Russia , by a joint team of Russian and American scientists . Headed by Russian nuclear physicist Yuri Oganessian , the team included American scientists of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory . The researchers on February 2 , 2004 , in Physical Review C that they bombarded americium @-@ 243 with calcium @-@ 48 ions to produce four atoms of ununpentium . These atoms decayed by emission of alpha @-@ particles to ununtrium in approximately 100 milliseconds .
243
95Am + 48
20Ca → 288
115Uup + 3 1
0n → 284
113Uut + α
243
95Am + 48
20Ca → 287
115Uup + 4 1
0n → 283
113Uut + α
The Dubna – Livermore collaboration strengthened their claim for the discoveries of ununpentium and ununtrium by conducting chemical experiments on the final decay product 268Db . None of the nuclides in this decay chain were previously known , so existing experimental data was not available to support their claim . In June 2004 , and December 2005 , the presence of a dubnium isotope was confirmed by extracting the final decay products , measuring spontaneous fission ( SF ) activities and using chemical identification techniques to confirm that they behave like a group 5 element ( as dubnium is known to be in group 5 of the periodic table ) . Both the half @-@ life and decay mode were confirmed for the proposed 268Db , lending support to the assignment of the parent nucleus to ununpentium . However , in 2011 , the IUPAC / IUPAP Joint Working Party ( JWP ) did not recognize the two elements as having been discovered , because current theory could not distinguish the chemical properties of group 4 and group 5 elements with sufficient confidence . Furthermore , the decay properties of all the nuclei in the decay chain of ununpentium had not been previously characterized before the Dubna experiments , a situation which the JWP generally considers " troublesome , but not necessarily exclusive " .
= = = Road to confirmation = = =
Two heavier isotopes of ununpentium , 289Uup and 290Uup , were discovered in 2009 – 2010 as daughters of the ununseptium isotopes 293Uus and 294Uus . The JINR also has future plans to study lighter isotopes of element 115 by replacing the americium @-@ 243 target with the lighter isotope americium @-@
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Long
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wikitext-103-excerpt
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) translation of the Old English , run :
= = = = Variations = = = =
In this section Tolkien describes variations on the basic patterns . For example , dips ( between lifts ) were usually monosyllabic , but the number of syllables was not limited by Old English metre , so a series of weak syllables was permitted in a half @-@ line . Other variations included breaking a lift into two syllables , the first short but stressed , the second weak , with for instance ' vĕssel ' in place of ' boat ' .
= = = = Alliteration = = = =
Tolkien states that calling Old English verse alliterative is a misnomer for two reasons . Firstly it is not fundamental to the metre , which would work without it . Secondly , it does not depend on letters , as in modern English alliteration , but on sounds . Old English alliteration , then , is an " agreement of the stressed elements in beginning with the same consonant , or in beginning with no consonant . " Further , all words starting with any stressed vowel are considered to alliterate : he gives the example of ' old ' alliterating with ' eager ' .
= = = = = Arrangement = = = = =
Tolkien lays down three rules of Old English alliteration . " One full lift in each half @-@ line must alliterate . " In the second half @-@ line , only the first lift may alliterate : the second must not . In the first half @-@ line , both lifts can alliterate ; the stronger one must do so . He notes that these rules force the second half @-@ line to have its stronger lift first , so lines tend to fall away at the end , contrasting with a " rise in intensity " at the start of the next line .
= = = = = Function = = = = =
Tolkien states that " The main metrical function of alliteration is to link the two separate and balanced patterns together into a complete line " , so it has to be as early in the second half @-@ line as possible . It also quickens and relieves heavy patterns ( which had double alliteration ) .
Rhyme is used only " gratuitously , and for special effects . " Here he gives an example from Beowulf itself , lines 212 @-@ 213 : ' stréamas wundon | | sund wið sande ' ( waves wound | | sea against sand ) , where ' wundon ' actually rhymes ( internally ) with ' sund ' . Tolkien explains : " [ here ] the special effect ( breakers are beating on the shore ) may be regarded as deliberate . " His version of this captures the rhyme and the alliteration , as well as the meaning :
Tolkien ends the essay with an analysis of lines 210 @-@ 228 of Beowulf , providing the original text , marked up with stresses and his metrical patterns for each half @-@ line , as well as a literal translation with poetical words underlined . He notes that there are three words for boat and for wave , five for men , four for sea : in each case some are poetical , some normal .
He also notes that sentences generally stop in the middle of a line , so " sense @-@ break and metrical break are usually opposed . " He notes too that significant elements in second half @-@ lines are often " caught up and re @-@ echoed or elaborated " , giving a characteristic ' parallelism ' to Beowulf . This is seen , he argues , not just in such small details , but in the parallel arrangement of narrative , descriptive and speech passages ; in the use of separate passages describing incidents of strife between Swedes and Geats ; and at the largest scale , in the fact that the whole poem
itself is like a line of its own verse written large , a balance of two great blocks , A + B ; or like two of its parallel sentences with a single subject but no expressed conjunction . Youth + Age ; he rose – fell . It may not be , at large or in detail , fluid or musical , but it is strong to stand : tough builder 's work of true stone .
= = Reception = =
Mark F. Hall , examining Tolkien 's own use of alliterative verse , writes that Tolkien notes that " the Beowulf poet likely was consciously using archaic and literary words " , and compares this to Tolkien 's own practice in poems such as " The Lay of the Children of Húrin " , where , Hall thinks , Tolkien 's words could be applied to his own verse : " Its manner and conventions , and its metre , are unlike those of modern English verse . Also it is preserved fragmentarily and by chance , and has only in recent times been redeciphered and interpreted , without the aid of any tradition or gloss " . Hall further comments that in ' Lays of Beleriand ' , Tolkien failed to heed his own warning against archaism , as he uses the word " weird " archaically to mean ' fate ' ( OE ' wyrd ' ) , and speculates that this may have been a reaction against the " rigidity and formality of translating authentic Anglo @-@ Saxon literature . "
The Green Man Review comments that Tolkien 's " emphasis as a translator was on selecting the word that best fit the tone of the poem . He defends the Beowulf poet 's use of high sounding language that was anachronistic even in [ the poet 's ] time . He also uses the works of earlier translators of Beowulf to give hilarious examples of what to avoid when translating an ancient text . " The reviewer concludes that together with " The Monsters and the Critics " , the essays are " strangely prescient . With a little tweaking , they could easily serve as a defense of The Lord of the Rings against charges that its high sounding language was at variance with the ' juvenile ' plot . "
The fantasy and science fiction author Alexa Chipman writes that while Tolkien was " firmly against any prose translation of Beowulf , as it is , at heart , a poem " , he agreed that " if one is trying to read the original , having a translation of it handy can sometimes be of assistance " . She recalls her own Beowulf studies with " a huge stack of dictionary and grammar books " , and draws attention to Tolkien 's comment that " Perhaps the most important function of any translation used by a student is to provide not a model for imitation , but an exercise for correction . "
The same comment , on the function of any translation , is cited by Hugh Magennis in his book Translating Beowulf : Modern Versions in English Verse , along with Tolkien 's opening remark that translating a poem into " plain prose " , " a work of skilled and close @-@ wrought metre ( to say no more ) needs defence . " Magennis writes that Tolkien " goes on to provide such a defence " by insisting that " Clark Hall " was offered not to enable people to judge the original poem or to substitute for it , but " to provide an aid to study . " He also cites Tolkien 's insistence that " the Modern English of prose Beowulf translations should be ' harmonious ' and should avoid ' colloquialism and false modernity ' . " Magennis argues that
This conviction provides the rationale for an elevated register incorporating archaizing features , such as he finds in Wrenn 's ' Clark Hall ' : ' If you wish to translate , not rewrite Beowulf ' , declares Tolkien , ' your language must be literary and traditional : not because it is now a long while since the poem was made , or because it speaks of things that have since become ancient ; but because the diction of Beowulf was poetical , archaic , artificial ( if you will ) , in the day that the poem was made . ' Here Tolkien does argue for literary correspondence between source and translation : the translation is doing more than conveying ( to revert to an earlier quotation from Tolkien ) ' the matter of the poem , and furnishing the professional student with the material and guidance necessary for the early stages of his study of the original ' ; it is doing so in an appropriate style that suggests qualities of the Old English .
The academic Philip Mitchell comments that " The entire essay is worth serious study " and notes that among other points made by Tolkien , " Anglo @-@ Saxon verse is not attempting to offer puzzles but an aesthetic of compression in a slow meter of balance . "
In his thesis , Peter Grybauskas writes that Tolkien is preoccupied with " structural juxtapositions " in " Beowulf : The Monsters and the Critics " and " On Translating Beowulf " . In these essays , Grybauskas argues , Tolkien talks about concepts of balance and opposition , and indeed ends the essay on translation with a synecdoche , a " structural vision of the whole capable of being glimpsed in the smallest part " in the passage ( quoted above ) where Tolkien talks about the " two great blocks , A + B " . He points out that Tolkien makes use of the concept in the composition of his fictional work The Lord of the Rings .
The translator Ross Smith comments that while Tolkien was cautious about publishing his translations of Beowulf , " he was quite willing to explain the approach that in his opinion should be taken towards such a monolithic task . " Smith points out that , unlike publishing a prose or verse translation , explaining his translation criteria did not expose Tolkien to aesthetic criticism . Smith remarks that Tolkien is " somewhat disdainful " of Clark Hall 's version , such things being useful as study @-@ guides and little else ; putting Old English poetry into modern English prose inevitably creates something " dull and flat " , so Tolkien much prefers versions that try to preserve the original 's rhyme and metre . Smith notes that the same opinion can be found in Tolkien 's essay " Sir Gawain and the Green Knight " .
= United States v. Washington =
United States v. Washington , 384 F. Supp . 312 ( W.D. Wash . 1974 ) , aff 'd , 520 F.2d 676 ( 9th Cir . 1975 ) , commonly known as the Boldt Decision ( from the name of the trial court judge , George Hugo Boldt ) , was a 1974 case heard in the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington and the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . It reaffirmed the reserved right of American Indian tribes in the State of Washington to act alongside the state as co @-@ managers of salmon and other fish , and to continue harvesting them in accordance with the various treaties that the United States had signed with the tribes . The tribes of Washington had ceded their land to the United States but had reserved the right to fish as they had always done , including fishing at their traditional locations that were off the designated reservations .
Over time , the state of Washington had infringed on the treaty rights of the tribes despite losing a series of court cases on the issue . Those cases provided the Indians a right of access through private property to their fishing locations , and said that the state could neither charge Indians a fee to fish nor discriminate against the tribes in the method of fishing allowed . Those cases also provided for the Indians ' rights to a fair and equitable share of the harvest . The Boldt decision further defined that reserved right , holding that the tribes were entitled to half the fish harvest each year .
In 1975 the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals upheld Judge Boldt 's ruling . The U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear the case . After the state refused to enforce the court order , Judge Boldt ordered the United States Coast Guard and federal law enforcement agencies to enforce his rulings . On July 2 , 1979 , the Supreme Court rejected a collateral attack on the case , largely endorsing Judge Boldt 's ruling and the opinion of the Ninth Circuit . In Washington v. Washington State Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel Ass 'n , Justice John Paul Stevens wrote that " [ b ] oth sides have a right , secured by treaty , to take a fair share of the available fish . " The Supreme Court also endorsed Boldt 's orders to enforce his rulings by the use of federal law enforcement assets and the Coast Guard .
= = Background = =
= = = History of tribal fishing = = =
The American Indians of the Pacific Northwest had long depended on the salmon harvest , a resource which allowed them to become the wealthiest North American tribes . The salmon harvest for the Columbia River basin was estimated at 43 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 kg ) annually , which not only provided sufficient salmon for the tribes ' needs , but also enough to trade with others . By the 1840s , tribes were trading salmon to the Hudson Bay Company which shipped the fish to New York , Great Britain , and other locations around the world .
= = = Treaties = = =
In the 1850s , the United States government entered into a series of treaties with the American Indian tribes of the Pacific Northwest . In the Treaty of Olympia , territorial governor Isaac I. Stevens agreed that the tribes had rights including :
" The right of taking fish at all usual and accustomed grounds and stations is secured to said Indians in common with all citizens of the Territory , and of erecting temporary houses for the purpose of curing the same ; together with the privilege of hunting , gathering roots and berries , and pasturing their horses on all open and unclaimed lands . Provided , however , That they shall not take shell @-@ fish from any beds staked or cultivated by citizens ; and provided , also , that they shall alter all stallions not intended for breeding , and keep up and confine the stallions themselves . "
Other agreements with area tribes included the treaties of Medicine Creek , Point Elliott , Neah Bay , and Point No Point . All of these had similar language on the rights of the Indians to fish outside the reservation . While the tribes agreed to part with their land , they insisted on protecting their fishing rights throughout the Washington territory .
= = = Post @-@ treaty history = = =
Initially , the federal government honored its treaties with the tribes , but with increasing numbers of white settlers moving into the area , the settlers began to infringe upon the fishing rights of the native tribes . By 1883 , whites had established more than forty salmon canneries . In 1894 , there were three canneries in the Puget Sound area ; by 1905 there were twenty @-@ four . The whites also began to use new techniques that prevented a significant portion of the salmon from reaching the tribal fishing areas . When Washington Territory became a state in 1889 , the legislature passed " laws to curtail tribal fishing in the name of ' conservation ' but what some scholars described as being designed to protect white fisheries " . The state legislature , by 1897 , had banned the use of weirs , which were customarily used by Indians . The tribes turned to the courts for enforcement of their rights under the treaties .
= = = = United States v. Taylor = = = =
In one of the earliest of these enforcement cases , decided in 1887 , the United States Indian Agent and several members of the Yakima tribe filed suit in territorial court to enforce their right of access to off @-@ reservation fishing locations . Frank Taylor , a non @-@ Indian settler , had obtained land from the United States and had fenced off the land , preventing access by the Yakima to their traditional fishing locations . Although the trial court ruled in Taylor 's favor , the Supreme Court of the Territory of Washington reversed and held that the tribe had reserved its own rights to fish , thereby creating an easement or an equitable servitude of the land that was not extinguished when Taylor obtained title .
= = = = United States v. Winans = = = =
Within ten years , another case arose , which dealt with fishing rights at Celilo Falls , a traditional Indian fishing location . Two brothers , Lineas and Audubon Winans , owned property on both sides of the Columbia River and obtained licenses from the state of Washington to operate four fish wheels . The wheels prevented a significant number of salmon from passing the location . Additionally , the Winans prohibited anyone , whether an Indian with treaty rights or otherwise , from crossing their land to get to the falls .
The United States Attorney for Washington then filed a suit to enforce the treaty rights of the tribe . The trial court held that the property rights of the Winans allowed them to exclude others from the property , including the Indians . In 1905 , the United States Supreme Court reversed that decision , holding that the tribe had reserved fishing rights when they ceded the property to the United States . Since the tribes had the right to fish reserved in the treaties , the federal government and subsequent owners had no greater property rights than were granted by the treaties .
= = = = Seufert Bros. Co. v. United States = = = =
In 1914 , the United States sued again , this time against the Seufert Brothers Company which had prevented Yakima Indians including Sam Williams from fishing on the Oregon side of the Columbia River near the Celilo Falls . After the United States sued on behalf of Williams , the United States District Court in Oregon issued an injunction which the Supreme Court affirmed , again holding that the treaties created a servitude that ran with the land . This decision was significant in that it expanded the hunting and fishing rights outside the territory ceded by the tribes when it was shown that the tribe used the area for hunting and fishing .
= = = State attempts to regulate Indian fishing = = =
= = = = Tulee v. Washington = = = =
In Tulee v. Washington , the United States Supreme Court once again ruled on the treaty rights of the Yakima tribe . In 1939 , Sampson Tulee , a Yakima , was arrested for fishing without a state fishing license . The United States government immediately filed for a writ of habeas corpus on Tulee 's behalf , which was denied on procedural grounds because he had not yet been tried in state court and had not exhausted his appeals . Tulee was convicted in state court , which was upheld by the Washington Supreme Court on the grounds that the state 's sovereignty allowed it to impose a fee on Indians who were fishing outside the reservation . The United States Supreme Court reversed , stating " we are of the opinion that the state is without power to charge the Yakimas a fee for fishing " .
= = = = The Puyallup cases = = = =
Following the Tulee decision , there were three United States Supreme Court decisions involving the Puyallup tribe . The first was Puyallup Tribe v. Department of Game of Washington , ( Puyallup I ) which involved a state ban on the use of nets to catch steelhead trout and salmon . Despite the ban , the tribes continued to use nets based on their treaty rights . Justice William Douglas delivered the opinion of the Court which said that the treaty did not prevent state regulations that were reasonable and necessary under a fish conservation scheme , provided the regulation was not discriminatory .
After being remanded to determine if the regulations were not discriminatory , the case returned to the United States Supreme Court in Department of Game of Washington v. Puyallup Tribe ( Puyallyp II ) . Again , Justice Douglas wrote the opinion for the Court , but this time he struck down the state restrictions as discriminatory . Douglas noted that the restrictions for catching steelhead trout with nets had remained , and was a method used only by the Indians , whereas hook and line fishing was allowed but was used only by non @-@ Indians . As such , the effect of the regulation allocated all of the steelhead trout fishing to sport anglers , and none to the tribes .
The third case , Puyallup Tribe , Inc. v. Department of Game of Washington ( Puyallup III ) , was decided in 1977 . Members of the Puyallup Tribe filed suit , arguing that under the doctrine of sovereign immunity , Washington state courts lacked jurisdiction to regulate fishing activities on tribal reservations . Writing for a majority of the Court , Justice John Paul Stevens held that , despite the tribe 's sovereign immunity , the state could regulate the harvest of steelhead trout in the portion of the river that ran through the Puyallup Reservation as long as the state could base its decision and apportionment on conservation grounds .
= = = = The Belloni decision = = = =
One year after the Puyallup I decision , Judge Robert C. Belloni issued an order in Sohappy v. Smith , a treaty fishing case involving the Yakima tribe and the state of Oregon . In this case , Oregon had discriminated against the Indians in favor of sports and commercial fishermen , allocating almost nothing to the tribes at the headwaters of the river . Oregon argued that the treaties only gave the Indians the same rights as every other citizen , and Belloni noted that " [ s ] uch a reading would not seem unreasonable if all history , anthropology , biology , prior case law and the intention of the parties to the treaty were to be ignored " . Belloni also found that :
The state may regulate fishing by non @-@ Indians to achieve a wide variety of management or " conservation " objectives . Its selection of regulations to achieve these objectives is limited only by its own organic law and the standards of reasonableness required by the Fourteenth Amendment . But when it is regulating the federal right of Indians to take fish at their usual and accustomed places it does not have the same latitude in prescribing the management objectives and the regulatory means of achieving them . The state may not qualify the federal right by subordinating it to some other state objective or policy . It may use its police power only to the extent necessary to prevent the exercise of that right in a manner that will imperil the continued existence of the fish resource .
Belloni issued a final ruling that the tribes were entitled to a fair and equitable portion of the fish harvest . The court retained continuing jurisdiction , and his order was not appealed .
= = U.S. District Court ( Boldt decision ) = =
= = = Issue = = =
Although the Belloni decision established the rights of the Indians to exercise their treaty fishing rights , the states of Oregon and Washington continued to arrest Indians for violations of state law and regulations that infringed on those rights . In September 1970 , the United States Attorney filed an action in the United States District Court for the Western District of Washington alleging that the state of Washington had infringed on the treaty rights of the Hoh , Makah , Muckleshoot , Nisqually , Puyallup , Quileute , and Skokomish tribes . Later , the Lummi , Quinault , Sauk @-@ Suiattle , Squaxin Island , Stillaguamish , Upper Skagit , and Yakima tribes intervened in the case . Defendants were the state of Washington , the Washington Department of Fisheries , the Washington Game Commission , and the Washington Reef Net Owners Association .
= = = Trial = = =
The first phase of the case took three years , mainly in preparation for trial . During the trial , Boldt heard testimony from about fifty witnesses and admitted 350 exhibits . The evidence showed that the state had shut down many sites used by Indians for net fishing while allowing commercial net fishing elsewhere on the same run . At most , the tribes took only about two percent ( 2 % ) of the total harvest . There was no evidence presented by the state that showed any detrimental actions by Indians toward the harvest . Both expert testimony and cultural testimony was presented , with tribal members relating the oral history dealing with the treaties and fishing rights . Additionally , Boldt found that the tribe 's witnesses were more credible than those of the state , finding that the tribe 's expert witnesses were " exceptionally well researched " .
= = = Holding = = =
The court held that , when the tribes conveyed millions of acres of land in Washington State through a series of treaties signed in 1854 and 1855 , they reserved the right to continue fishing . The court looked at the minutes of the treaty negotiations to interpret the meaning of the treaty language " in common with " as the United States described it to the Tribes , holding that the United States intended for there to be an equal sharing of the fish resource between the Tribes and the settlers . As the court stated , the phrase means " sharing equally the opportunity to take fish ... therefore , nontreaty fishermen shall have the opportunity to take up to 50 % of the harvestable number of fish ... and treaty right fishermen shall have the opportunity to take up to the same percentage " . The formula used by Boldt gave the tribes forty @-@ three percent ( 43 % ) of the Puget Sound harvest , which was equivalent to eighteen percent ( 18 % ) of the statewide harvest . The order required the state to limit the amount of fish taken by non @-@ Indian commercial fishermen , causing a drop in their income from about $ 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 to $ 500 @-@ 2 @,@ 000 .
Furthermore , the court also held the state could regulate the Indians ' exercise of their treaty rights , but only to ensure the " perpetuation of a run or of a species of fish " . To regulate the Indians , the state must be able to show that conservation could not be achieved by regulating only the non @-@ Indians , must not discriminate against the Indians , and must use appropriate due process .
= = Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals = =
= = = Opinion of the court = = =
After the District Court issued its ruling , both sides submitted appeals to the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit . Washington argued that the district court had no power to invalidate state fishing regulations , while the tribes argued " the state may not regulate their fishing activities at treaty locations for any reason " . Writing for a majority of the court , Circuit Court Judge Herbert Choy affirmed Judge Boldt 's opinion " in all respects " , but clarified that Judge Boldt 's " equitable apportionment " of harvestable fish did not apply to " fish caught by non @-@ Washington citizens outside the state 's jurisdiction " .
In his majority opinion , Judge Choy emphasized that states may not enact regulations that are " in conflict with treaties in force between the United States and the Indian nations " . Consequently , he concluded that the treaties signed in the 1850s expressly preempted Washington 's regulations and that non @-@ Indians had " only a limited right to fish at treaty places . " Judge Choy also emphasized that the tribes were " entitled to an equitable apportionment of the opportunity to fish in order to safeguard their federal treaty rights " and that the Ninth Circuit should grant the district court a " great amount of discretion as a court of equity " when apportioning rights to fisheries . He held that the district court 's apportionment " was well within its discretion " , but clarified that tribes were not entitled to compensation for " unanticipated heavy fishing " that occurred off Washington 's coast . Judge Choy also clarified that the district court 's equitable remedy should attempt to minimize hardships for white reef net fishermen .
= = = Concurrence = = =
District court judge James M. Burns , sitting by designation , wrote a separate concurring opinion in which he criticized the " recalcitrance of Washington State officials " in their management of the state 's fisheries . Judge Burns argued that Washington 's recalcitrance forced Judge Boldt to act as " perpetual fishmaster " and noted that he " deplore [ d ] " situations in which district court judges are forced to act as " enduring managers of the fisheries , forests , and highways " . In his concluding remarks , Judge Burns argued that Washington 's responsibility to manage its natural resources " should neither escape notice nor be forgotten . "
= = = Certiorari denied = = =
After the Ninth Circuit issued its ruling in the direct appeal , the case was remanded to the district court for further proceedings . Washington submitted an appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States , but the Supreme Court denied the state 's petition for certiorari and subsequent petition for rehearing . Despite these rulings , the parties in the original case continued to litigate issues relating to apportionment of the fisheries and subsequent rulings have been issued as recently as May 2015 .
= = Subsequent developments = =
= = = Legal = = =
= = = = Collateral attacks = = = =
After Boldt 's decision , the Washington Department of Fisheries issued new regulations in compliance with the decision . The Puget Sound Gillnetters Association and the Washington State Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel Association both filed lawsuits in state court to block the new regulations . These private concerns won at both the trial court and at the Washington Supreme Court . Washington Attorney General Slade Gorton , representing the state of Washington , supported the position of the private concerns and opposed the position of the United States and the tribes . The United States Supreme Court granted certiorari and vacated the decision of the Washington Supreme Court .
Justice John Paul Stevens announced the decision of the Court , which upheld Judge Boldt 's order and overturned the rulings of the state courts . Stevens made it explicitly clear that Boldt could issue the orders he did , stating " [ t ] he federal court unquestionably has the power to enter the various orders that state official and private parties have chosen to ignore , and even to displace local enforcement of those orders if necessary to remedy the violations of federal law found by the court . "
= = = = Court supervision = = = =
When the state would not enforce his order to reduce the catch of non @-@ Indian commercial fishermen , Boldt took direct action , placing the matter under federal supervision . The United States Coast Guard and the National Marine Fisheries Service were ordered to enforce the ruling and soon had boats in the water confronting violators . Some of the protesters rammed Coast Guard boats and at least one member of the Coast Guard was shot . Those whom the officers caught breaking the court 's orders were taken before federal magistrates and fined for contempt , and the illegal fishing as a protest stopped . The United States District Court continued to exercise jurisdiction over the matter , determining traditional fishing locations and compiling major orders of the court .
= = = = Phase II = = = =
The case continued to have issues brought up before the district court . In what became known as " Phase II " , District Judge William H. Orrick , Jr. heard the issues presented by the United States on behalf of the tribes . Following the hearing , Orrick enjoined the state of Washington from damaging the fishes ' habitat , and included hatchery @-@ raised fish in the allocation to Indians . The state of Washington appealed the decision to the Ninth Circuit , which affirmed in part and reversed in part , allowing the hatchery fish to remain in the allocation , but leaving the habitat issue open .
= = = = Culvert case subproceeding = = = =
In 2001 , twenty @-@ one northwest Washington tribes , joined by the United States filed a Request for Determination in U.S. District Court , asking the court to find that the State of Washington has a treaty @-@ based duty to preserve fish runs and habitat sufficiently for the tribes to earn a “ moderate living , ” and sought to compel the state to repair or replace culverts that impede salmon migration . On August 22 , 2007 , the district court issued a summary judgment order , holding that while culverts impeding andromadous fish migration are not the only factor diminishing their upstream habitat , in building and maintaining culverts that impede salmon migration , Washington State had diminished the size of salmon runs within the case area and thereby violated its obligation under the Stevens Treaties . On March 29 , 2013 , the court issued an injunction ordering the state to significantly increase the effort for removing state @-@ owned culverts that block habitat for salmon and steelhead , and to replace the state @-@ owned culverts that have the greatest adverse impact on the habitat of andromadous fish by 2030 .
The State of Washington appealed the district court ’ s decision to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals . On June 27 , 2016 , a three judge panel of the Ninth Circuit affirmed the district court ’ s decision and upheld the injunction . Washington State has estimated it will need to fix an average of 30 to 40 culverts a year to comply with the injunction .
= = = Public response = = =
Scholars consider the Boldt decision to be a landmark case in American Indian law , in the area of cooperative management of resources , for Indian treaty rights , internationally for aboriginal treaty rights , and tribal civil rights .
The decision caused an immediate negative reaction from some citizens of Washington . Bumper stickers reading " Can Judge Boldt , Not Salmon " appeared , and Boldt was hung in effigy at the federal courthouse . Non @-@ Indian commercial fishermen ignored the ruling and the state was reluctant ( or at times refused ) to enforce the law . By 1978 , Congressman John E. Cunningham tried to get a bill passed to abrogate the treaties , to break up Indian holdings , and stop giving the tribes " special consideration " , but the effort failed . In 1984 , Washington voters passed an initiative ending " special rights " for Indians , but the state refused to enforce it as being preempted by federal law .
United States v. Washington was a landmark case in terms of Native American civil rights and evoked strong emotions . According to former U.S. Representative Lloyd Meeds of Everett , " the fishing issue was to Washington state what busing was to the East " for African Americans during the Civil Rights Movement .
= = = Tribal developments = = =
The tribes involved benefited greatly from the decision . Prior to Boldt 's ruling , Indians collected less than five percent ( 5 % ) of the harvest , but by 1984 , they were collecting forty @-@ nine percent ( 49 % ) . Tribal members became successful commercial fishermen , even expanding to marine fishing as far away as Alaska . The tribes became co @-@ managers of the fisheries along with the state , hiring fish biologists and staff to carry out those duties . The Makah tribe , based on the terms of the Neah Bay Treaty and the Boldt decision , took their first California gray whale in over seventy years in 1999 . Following a lawsuit by various animal rights activists , the tribe was allocated the right to take up to five whales a year for the 2001 and 2002 seasons .
= Kurt Vonnegut =
Kurt Vonnegut Jr . ( / ˈvɒnᵻɡət / ; November 11 , 1922 – April 11 , 2007 ) was an American author . In a career spanning over 50 years , Vonnegut published fourteen novels , three short story collections , five plays , and five works of non @-@ fiction . He is most famous for his darkly satirical , best @-@ selling novel Slaughterhouse @-@ Five ( 1969 ) .
Born and raised in Indianapolis , Indiana , Vonnegut attended Cornell University , but dropped out in January 1943 and enlisted in the United States Army . He was deployed to Europe to fight in World War II , and was captured by the Germans during the Battle of the Bulge . He was interned in Dresden and survived the Allied bombing of the city by taking refuge in a meat locker of the slaughterhouse where he was imprisoned . After the war , Vonnegut married Jane Marie Cox , with whom he had three children . He later adopted his sister 's three sons , after she died of cancer and her husband died in a train accident .
Vonnegut published his first novel , Player Piano , in 1952 . The novel was reviewed positively , but was not commercially successful . In the nearly twenty years that followed , Vonnegut published several novels that were only marginally successful , such as Cat 's Cradle ( 1963 ) and God Bless You , Mr. Rosewater ( 1964 ) . Vonnegut 's magnum opus , however , was his immediately successful sixth novel , Slaughterhouse @-@ Five . The book 's antiwar sentiment resonated with its readers amidst the ongoing Vietnam War , and its reviews were generally positive . After its release , Slaughterhouse @-@ Five went to the top of The New York Times Best Seller list , thrusting Vonnegut into fame . He was invited to give speeches , lectures , and commencement addresses around the country and received many awards and honors .
Later in his career , Vonnegut published several autobiographical essays and short @-@ story collections , including Fates Worse Than Death ( 1991 ) , and A Man Without a Country ( 2005 ) . After his death , he was hailed as a morbidly comical commentator on the society in which he lived , and as one of the most important contemporary writers . Vonnegut 's son Mark published a compilation of his father 's unpublished compositions , titled Armageddon in Retrospect . Numerous scholarly works have examined Vonnegut 's writing and humor .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family and early life = = =
Kurt Vonnegut Jr. was born on November 11 , 1922 in Indianapolis , Indiana . He was the youngest of three children of Kurt Vonnegut Sr. and his wife Edith ( née Lieber ) . His older siblings were Bernard ( born 1914 ) and Alice ( born 1917 ) . Vonnegut was descended from German immigrants who settled in the United States in the mid @-@ 19th century ; his patrilineal great @-@ grandfather , Clemens Vonnegut of Westphalia , Germany , settled in Indianapolis and founded the Vonnegut Hardware Company . Kurt 's father , and his father before him , Bernard , were architects ; the architecture firm under Kurt Sr. designed such buildings as Das Deutsche Haus ( now called " The Athenæum " ) , the Indiana headquarters of the Bell Telephone Company , and the Fletcher Trust Building . Vonnegut 's mother was born into Indianapolis high society , as her family , the Liebers , were among the wealthiest in the city , their fortune derived from ownership of a successful brewery .
Although both of Vonnegut 's parents were fluent German speakers , the ill feeling toward that country during and after World War I caused the Vonneguts to abandon the culture to show their American patriotism . Thus , they never taught their youngest son German or introduced him to German literature and tradition , leaving him feeling " ignorant and rootless " . Vonnegut later credited Ida Young , his family 's African @-@ American cook and housekeeper for the first ten years of his life , for raising him and giving him values . " [ She ] gave me decent moral instruction and was exceedingly nice to me . So she was as great an influence on me as anybody . " Vonnegut described Young as " humane and
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. Talal Nizameddin states in his book Russia and the Middle East : Towards A New Foreign Policy that " Brezhnev 's legacy , generally unaffected by his weak successors ( Yuri Andropov and Konstantin Chernenko ) , was entanglement in Afghanistan , tension with China and Japan , as well as the prospect of a new dimension to the arms race with the United States in the form of the Strategic Defence Initiative ( Star Wars ) . " According to historian David Dyker in his book The Soviet Union under Gorbachev : Prospects for Reform " Brezhnev left his successors a Soviet Union suffering from a host of domestic and foreign problems " . The biggest obstacle , according to Dyker , was the weakness of the economy which had undermined Soviet influence outside its borders considerably during the late Brezhnev due to its relative technological backwardness .
The author of The Soviet Paradox : External Expansion , Internal Decline Seweryn Bialer has a more mixed assessment of Brezhnev 's reign . Bialer notes that the era was a time of " lost opportunities " , but admits that the economic growth during Brezhnev 's first years weakened " the rationale for radical reform " . However , as Bialer notes in his book , even the gerontocracy which Brezhnev himself had created were disillusioned with Brezhnev 's leadership when he died in 1982 . In his book Russia 's Transformation : Snapshots of a Crumbling System Robert Vincent Daniels argues that Brezhnev " gave the country stability , if nothing else , even though it was the stability of the police state " , and that his domestic and external policies tried to ensure the " status quo " . Daniels believes that Brezhnev 's reign can be separated into two parts , the first , starting in 1964 and ending in 1975 conforms to a " status quo leadership , building the economy , pursuing détente , and maintaining political equilibrium at home " . The second phase , which began in 1975 , was exactly the opposite ; the economy stopped growing , the collective leadership ended with Nikolai Podgorny 's removal , Brezhnev developed a cult of personality and the Soviet Union itself started to stagnate . Historians Jiří Valenta and Frank Cibulka noted in their book Gorbachev 's New Thinking and Third World Conflicts that Brezhnev 's legacy was a " mixture of achievements and failures in both domestic and foreign policy " . However , they argue that by the time of his death his failures had become severe chronic systematic problems . Brezhnev 's main achievements , according to Valenta and Cibulka , was his foreign and defence policies , however , with the economy in decline these achievements were not durable in the long @-@ run . They also note that the Soviet Union was able to consolidate itself as a superpower , which in turn increased their influence in non @-@ communist Third World countries .
On a positive note , Ian Thatcher argues that " [ r ] ather than deserving a reputation as the most vilified of all Soviet leaders , Brezhnev should be praised as one of the most successful exponents of the art of Soviet politics . " He argues that Brezhnev was a good politician within the framework of the Soviet political system . Dmitry Peskov said " Brezhnev wasn ’ t a minus for the history of our country , he was a huge plus , He laid a foundation for the country ’ s economics and agriculture . " Archie Brown wrote in his book , The Rise & Fall of Communism , that " From the point of view of Communist rulers , the Brezhnev era was in many ways successful . " Brown adds that the Soviet Union reached " rough parity with the United States " militarily by the early 1970s , and became a superpower in the military sense of the world . According to Brown " The Brezhnev era was a time when tens of millions of Soviet citizens lived a peaceful and predictable life than hitherto " and where " Most people did not live in fear of the KGB . "
= = Opinion polls = =
Brezhnev has fared well in Russian opinion polls when compared to his successors and predecessors . However , in the West he is most commonly remembered for starting the economic stagnation which triggered the dissolution of the Soviet Union . A 2000 poll by VTsIOM asked various Russians the question " Was a given period more positive or more negative for the country ? " . 36 percent of the people polled viewed Brezhnev 's tenure as more positive than negative . His predecessor , Nikita Khrushchev trailed close behind him , earning 33 percent . A poll by the Public Opinion Fund ( VTsIOM ) in September 1999 similarly chose the Brezhnev period as the time in the 20th century when " ordinary people lived best " , having a clear majority of 51 to 10 . In a similar poll done in 1994 , Brezhnev garnered a majority of only 36 to 16 . According to a 2006 Public Opinion Fund poll , 61 percent of the Russian people viewed the Brezhnev era as good for the country . A poll by the VTsIOM in 2007 showed that the majority of Russians would choose to live during the Brezhnev era over any other period of 20th @-@ century Russian history . Researchers have noted a surge in Brezhnev 's popularity , along with other communist rulers , during and in the aftermath of the Russian financial crisis of 1998 , which is well remembered by many Russians for plunging many into poverty . When comparing these two periods , Brezhnev 's USSR is best remembered for stability in prices and income by the Russians and not the socio @-@ economic stagnation for which he is remembered in the West .
= Percheron =
The Percheron is a breed of draft horse that originated in the Huisne river valley in western France , part of the former Perche province from which the breed takes its name . Usually gray or black in color , Percherons are well muscled , and known for their intelligence and willingness to work . Although their exact origins are unknown , the ancestors of the breed were present in the valley by the 17th century . They were originally bred for use as war horses . Over time , they began to be used for pulling stagecoaches and later for agriculture and hauling heavy goods . In the late 18th and early 19th centuries , Arabian blood was added to the breed . Exports of Percherons from France to the United States and other countries rose exponentially in the late 19th century , and the first purely Percheron stud book was created in France in 1883 .
Before World War I , thousands of Percherons were shipped from France to the United States , but after the war began , an embargo stopped shipping . The breed was used extensively in Europe during the war , with some horses being shipped from the US back to France to help in the war effort . Beginning in 1918 , Percherons began to be bred in Great Britain , and in 1918 the British Percheron Horse Society was formed . After a series of name and studbook ownership changes , the current US Percheron registry was created in 1934 . In the 1930s , Percherons accounted for 70 percent of the draft horse population in the United States , but their numbers declined substantially after World War II . However , the population began to recover and as of 2009 , around 2 @,@ 500 horses were registered annually in the United States alone . The breed is still used extensively for draft work , and in France they are used for food . They have been crossed with several light horse breeds to produce horses for range work and competition . Purebred Percherons are used for forestry work and pulling carriages , as well as work under saddle , including competition in English riding disciplines such as show jumping .
= = Characteristics = =
The ideal size for the Percheron varies between countries . In France , height ranges from 15 @.@ 1 to 18 @.@ 1 hands ( 61 to 73 inches , 155 to 185 cm ) and weight from 1 @,@ 100 to 2 @,@ 600 pounds ( 500 to 1 @,@ 200 kg ) . Percherons in the United States generally stand between 16 @.@ 2 and 17 @.@ 3 hands ( 66 and 71 inches , 168 and 180 cm ) , with a range of 15 and 19 hands ( 60 and 76 inches , 152 and 193 cm ) . American Percherons average 1 @,@ 900 pounds ( 860 kg ) , and their top weight is around 2 @,@ 600 pounds ( 1 @,@ 200 kg ) . In Great Britain , 16 @.@ 2 hands ( 66 inches , 168 cm ) is the shortest acceptable height for stallions and 16 @.@ 1 hands ( 65 inches , 165 cm ) for mares , while weights range from around 2 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 910 to 1 @,@ 000 kg ) for stallions and 1 @,@ 800 to 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 820 to 910 kg ) for mares . They are generally gray or black in coloring , although the American registry also allows the registration of roan , bay and chestnut horses . Only gray or black horses may be registered in France and Britain . Many horses have white markings on their heads and legs , but registries consider excessive white to be undesirable .
The head has a straight profile , broad forehead , large eyes and small ears . The chest is deep and wide and the croup long and level . The feet and legs are clean and heavily muscled . The overall impression of the Percheron is one of power and ruggedness . Enthusiasts describe the temperament as proud and alert , and members of the breed are considered intelligent , willing workers with good dispositions . They are considered easy keepers and adapt well to many conditions and climates . In the 19th century , they were known to travel up to 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) a day at a trot . Horses in the French registry are branded on the neck with the intertwined letters " SP " , the initials of the Société Hippique Percheronne .
= = History = =
The Percheron breed originated in the Huisne river valley in France , which arises in Orne , part of the former Perche province , from which the breed gets its name . Several theories have been put forth as to the ancestry of the breed , though its exact origins are unknown . One source of foundation bloodstock may have been mares captured by Clovis I from the Bretons some time after 496 AD , and another may have been Arabian stallions brought to the area by Muslim invaders in the 8th century . Other possibilities are captured Moorish cavalry horses from the Battle of Poitiers in 732 AD , some of which were taken by warriors from Perche . A final theory posits that the Percheron and the Boulonnais breed are closely related , and that the Boulonnais influenced the Percheron when they were brought to Brittany as reinforcements for the legions of Caesar . It is known that during the 8th century , Arabian stallions were crossed with mares native to the area , and more Oriental horse blood was introduced by the Comte de Perche upon his return from the Crusades and expeditions into territory claimed by Spain . Blood from Spanish breeds was added when the Comte de Rotrou imported horses from Castile . No matter the theory of origin , breed historians agree that the terrain and climate of the Perche area had the greatest influence on the development of the breed . A possible reference to the horse is made in the 13th @-@ century romance Guillaume de Dole , in which the title character asks for " the Count of Perche 's horse " to be made ready , possibly indicating the " ' great horse , ' which could accommodate an armored knight " and was bred in the geographical setting of the poem .
During the 17th century , horses from Perche , the ancestors of the current Percheron , were smaller , standing between 15 and 16 hands ( 60 and 64 inches , 152 and 163 cm ) high , and more agile . These horses were almost uniformly gray ; paintings and drawings from the Middle Ages generally show French knights on mounts of this color . After the days of the armored knight , the emphasis in horse breeding was shifted so as to develop horses better able to pull heavy stage coaches at a fast trot . Gray horses were preferred because their light coloring was more visible at night . This new type of horse was called the " Diligence Horse " , because the stage coaches they pulled were named " diligences " . After the stage coach was replaced by rail , the modern Percheron type arose as a slightly heavier horse for use in agriculture and heavy hauling work moving goods from docks to railway terminals .
= = = 19th century = = =
Arabian stallions were made available to Percheron breeders for use in breeding army mounts , beginning in 1760 at the royal stud at Le Pin . Between 1789 and the early 1800s , the Percheron was in danger of becoming extinct as horse breeding was suppressed during the French Revolution and its aftermath . Early histories of the breed point to two gray Arabian stallions from Le Pin , Godolphin , and Gallipoly , as the blood that helped to restart Percheron breeding . However , later research found that Godolphin was a chestnut Arabian of ordinary conformation and no special worth , while Gallipoly was a gray saddle horse of unknown breeding . Modern breed historians contest that there was enough breeding stock left after the early 19th century to restart the breed without further Arabian influence , and state that it is unlikely that two horses of unremarkable breeding and conformation had a significant influence on the breed . Jean le Blanc , a founding stallion of the Percheron breed , was foaled in 1823 . Today , all Percherons trace their ancestry to this stallion . At this time the breed also became larger , with horses from other French districts being imported to Perche to change the Percheron from a coach horse averaging 1 @,@ 200 to 1 @,@ 400 pounds ( 540 to 640 kg ) to a draft horse averaging 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 910 kg ) . In 1893 , the first Percheron stud book was created in France . By 1910 , French registrations had risen to almost 32 @,@ 000 horses . Between 1880 and 1920 , Percheron breeders in France exported horses all over the world , including South Africa , South America , Australia and North America .
= = = = In the United States and Great Britain = = = =
Percherons were first imported into the United States in 1839 , although only one of the initial four horses survived the ocean trip . Soon after , two stallions and two mares were imported ; one mare died shortly after arrival and one stallion went blind and was retired within a year . Although the first importations of Percherons were less than successful , the remaining stallion , named Diligence , was credited with siring almost 400 foals . In 1851 , three stallions were imported : Normandy 351 , Louis Napoleon 281 and Gray Billy . Throughout their stud careers , each had significant influence on American draft horse stock . In the mid @-@ 19th century in the United States , Percheron stallions were crossed with homebred mares to improve the local stock , resulting in thousands of crossbred horses . After the American Civil War in the 1860s greatly reduced the number of horses , there was a significant need for large draft horses , especially in growing cities and in the expanding West . Large numbers of Percherons were imported to the United States beginning in the early 1870s , and they became popular with draft horse breeders and owners . In the 1880s , approximately 7 @,@ 500 horses were exported to the United States . This extensive importation lasted until 1893 , when the US experienced a financial panic , and virtually no Percheron imports occurred between 1894 and 1898 . In addition , many existing horses were lost as people were too poor to purchase or care for large draft horses . In 1898 , importations began again as abruptly as they had ceased , with an average of 700 horses a year imported between 1898 and 1905 . In 1906 alone , over 13 @,@ 000 horses were imported to the United States from France . In the American traveling circuses of the late 19th century and early 20th century , the Percheron was the most frequently seen draft horse . Drivers appreciated the breed 's agility , stamina and quick @-@ footed gait .
In 1876 , the Norman @-@ Percheron Association was formed by a group of Percheron breeders in Chicago , and at the same time the stud book was begun . The Norman @-@ Percheron Association was the United States ' first purebred livestock association . In 1877 , the word " Norman " was dropped from the name . Later , in the panic of 1893 , the Percheron Association went bankrupt and ceased to function . In 1905 , also in Chicago , Percheron breeders met again to reform as the Percheron Society of America . Since 1934 , the group has been known as the Percheron Horse Association of America . At its height , the organization was the largest draft horse association in the world , in the early 20th century registering over 10 @,@ 000 horses annually .
In the late 19th century , Percherons also began to be exported from the United States to Great Britain , where they were used to pull horse @-@ drawn buses in large cities . The first Percherons imported to Britain included some of the thousands of crossbreds from the United States . In Britain , many of the horses , once they finished their bus @-@ pulling career , were sold to farmers . Other imported horses were sold to the British Army , and in 1900 , 325 horses were shipped to South Africa for use in the Boer War .
= = = 20th and 21st centuries = = =
In 1911 , the French society restricted registration to horses with both parents already registered with the society . In the early 20th century , the Percheron was one of the four major draft horse breeds , along with the Belgian , the Clydesdale and the Shire . Breeders could sell their horses for significant amounts of money , especially in the United States and Canada , where breeding stock brought a premium price .
Prior to World War I , a flourishing trade route for Percherons existed between Nogent @-@ le @-@ Rotrou , Le Havre and the United States . However , after the war began , an embargo was placed on French Percherons , disallowing them from exportation . Other than an exception in April 1916 to allow 59 horses to be shipped from France to the US , this embargo remained in place until the end of the war . The war took its toll on the Percheron breed as horses , fodder , and handlers were requisitioned for the fighting , and even after the embargo was lifted France did not have the quality or quantity of stock to fulfill the needs of American breeders . The embargo created a breeding boom in the US , replacing the previous practice of importing the majority of Percherons from France , and late in the war horses were shipped the other way – from the US to Europe – to supply those needed in the war . The lack of feathering on the Percheron 's lower legs made them easier to care for in the mud that they often worked in during wartime . Their quick trot on paved roads made them more versatile than motorized vehicles , and they were useful for work with guns and in forward units due to their calm temperaments .
Between 1918 and 1922 , over 350 Percherons were imported to Britain from France and , combined with stock from the US and Canada , were used as breeding stock to establish the breed in the country . In 1918 , the British Percheron Horse Society was formed . British breeders and owners continue to import Percherons from France , and also occasionally from Canada , when not prohibitively expensive .
By the 1930s , Percherons accounted for over 70 percent of the purebred draft horses in the United States , and all of the major land @-@ grant universities maintained stables of Percherons . A 1930 census of horses found over 33 @,@ 000 Percherons in the United States , with the next most popular breed , the Belgian , having a population of less than 10 @,@ 000 . One Percheron historian attributes this popularity to the breed 's " strength , energy , activity , robustness and endurance " . After World War II , increasing mechanization prompted a decline in the Percheron population . In 1954 , only 85 Percherons were registered in the US , a record low . The 1950s , 1960s and early 1970s were bad years for the US Percheron population , and breeding was reduced to only a few farms . These breeders kept the American population alive through these years , however , and the 1980s saw renewed interest in the breed .
In 1966 , the French stud book was changed to include draft types from other areas of France that were closely related to the Percheron – including the horses of Berrichon , Nivernais , Marne , Augeron , Bourbonnais , Loire and Saône @-@ et @-@ Loire . French Percherons were also hit hard by the advent of mechanization , and between 1970 and 1990 focus was placed on breeding horses of greater mass for the meat market . The largest and heaviest stallions were selected for breeding . Beginning at the 1989 World Percheron Congress , French breeders realized that they needed a lighter breed for tourism , export to Japan for draft work , and other markets . In 1993 , a trend of importing American stallions to France was started with the black stallion Silver Shadows Sheik . This stallion and others were used to create a more elegant , smaller and sleeker look in the French Percheron , while still retaining the traditional bone and foot structure . All the imported stallions were black , reviving the popularity of black Percherons in France . French breeders continue to import American @-@ bred Percheron stallions in order to produce lighter foals , moving away from the heavier meat @-@ type horses of the late 20th century . Also in 1993 , the Société Hippique Percheronne anticipated the increasing tourist and exportation markets by prohibiting docking , which was not prohibited for other draft breeds until 1996 . This was partly at the request of the Germans , and partly due to the influence of magazines such as Cheval .
In 1988 , there were 1 @,@ 088 Percherons in the United States , rising to 2 @,@ 257 by 1998 . As of 2009 , the Percheron Horse Association of America had horses registered in all 50 states , and had nearly 3 @,@ 000 members , with around 2 @,@ 500 new horses being registered annually . The French Société Hippique Percheronne de France ( Percheron Horse Society of France ) registered between 750 and 885 horses in each year between 2007 and 2010 . As of 2012 , the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy considers the Percheron to be " recovering " , meaning that the breed has exceeded the numbers required to be in one of the " watch " categories , but still needs to be monitored .
= = = Augeron = = =
The Augeron , also known as Caen or Virois , was developed from the Percheron during the 19th century and was merged back into the Percheron in the 1960s . Bred mainly in the Pays d 'Auge region , it previously had its own studbook , registered by the Société hippique du trait augeron . The status of the subtype has been repeatedly debated because of its origin from Percherons bred in Pays d 'Auge , a breeding group that was modified from the original breed standard due to the influence of soil and climate over the years , creating the Augeron type . Augerons are light gray in color , tall , strong , well @-@ built , and energetic . They stand between 158 – 170 cm ( 15 @.@ 2 – 16 @.@ 3 hands ) in height , but those horses bred in Vire are known to be smaller than the standard .
In the 19th century , the existence of the Augeron population was , despite its popularity , generally ignored by authors . In Paris , they were named " Caen " and " Virois " , after their region of origin , although specialists included the " Caen Virois " breed with the Augeron in a 1904 text . In the 19th century , these horses were sold at fairs in Argences and Bayeux in Lower Normandy . They were noticed several times for their homogeneity , beauty , and high value . In 1858 , Augerons were sold for between 600 and 1200 francs .
The Société hippique du trait augeron , or Augeron Horse Society , was formed in 1913 by breeders in Auge to record these horses in a breed registry . One reason for this lay in the desire to protect the cradle of breeding Percheron horses : only animals born near the Perche were entitled to registration in the studbook , and hence to use the name of " Percheron " . This limitation excluded several nearby populations of horses foaled outside of Perche , such as the Maine and the Augeron .
= = Uses = =
The Percheron is the most famous and populous of all French draft breeds in the world today . They were used to improve both the Ardennes and Vladimir Heavy Draft horses , and to create the Spanish @-@ Norman breed , a cross between the Andalusian and the Percheron . By the end of the 19th century , Percherons made up the majority of driving horses in Paris . The Percheron is still used extensively for draft work and , like other draft breeds , it is also used in France for meat production . Around the world , Percherons are used for parades , sleigh rides and hayrides , as well as being used to pull carriages in large cities . The largest team of working Percherons in Europe is found at Disneyland Paris , where the breed makes up 30 percent of the horses in the park and the horses work to pull trams on the main park street . One of the most famous horse teams in the United States is the Heinz hitch of Percherons , having appeared multiple times at the Tournament of Roses Parade .
In Great Britain , the Percheron is used for advertising and publicity , as well as forestry and farm work . They are crossbred with lighter horses by breeders of heavy hunters in order to increase size and improve disposition . Purebred Percherons are also ridden , and some have proven useful at show jumping . Crossbred Percherons have been used successfully in dressage . In both the Falkland Islands and northern Australia , Percherons have been crossed with local mares , primarily Criollos in the Falklands , to produce larger stock horses with greater stamina . These crossbred horses are used extensively in both the sub @-@ Antarctic climate of the Falklands and the sub @-@ tropical climate of Australia for working stock . In Australia they are also crossed with Thoroughbreds for use as mounted police horses .
In 1978 , the first World Percheron Congress was held in Great Britain , and has been held annually ever since . Although the majority of the shows have been held in North America , four – in 1980 , 1989 , 2001 and 2011 – have been held in France . Each year , in July , the French national breed show is held in Haras du Pin .
= Iridium =
Iridium is a chemical element with symbol Ir and atomic number 77 . A very hard , brittle , silvery @-@ white transition metal of the platinum group , iridium is generally credited with being the second densest element ( after osmium ) based on measured density , although calculations involving the space lattices of the elements show that iridium is denser . It is also the most corrosion @-@ resistant metal , even at temperatures as high as 2000 ° C. Although only certain molten salts and halogens are corrosive to solid iridium , finely divided iridium dust is much more reactive and can be flammable .
Iridium was discovered in 1803 among insoluble impurities in natural platinum . Smithson Tennant , the primary discoverer , named iridium for the Greek goddess Iris , personification of the rainbow , because of the striking and diverse colors of its salts . Iridium is one of the rarest elements in Earth 's crust , with annual production and consumption of only three tonnes . 191Ir and 193Ir are the only two naturally occurring isotopes of iridium , as well as the only stable isotopes ; the latter is the more abundant of the two .
The most important iridium compounds in use are the salts and acids it forms with chlorine , though iridium also forms a number of organometallic compounds used in industrial catalysis , and in research . Iridium metal is employed when high corrosion resistance at high temperatures is needed , as in high @-@ performance spark plugs , crucibles for recrystallization of semiconductors at high temperatures , and electrodes for the production of chlorine in the chloralkali process . Iridium radioisotopes are used in some radioisotope thermoelectric generators .
Iridium is found in meteorites with an abundance much higher than its average abundance in Earth 's crust . For this reason , the unusually high abundance of iridium in the clay layer at the Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary gave rise to the Alvarez hypothesis that the impact of a massive extraterrestrial object caused the extinction of dinosaurs and many other species 66 million years ago . Similarly , an iridium anomaly in core samples from the Pacific Ocean suggested the Eltanin impact of about 2 @.@ 5 million years ago .
It is thought that the total amount of iridium in the planet Earth is much higher than that observed in crustal rocks , but as with other platinum @-@ group metals , the high density and tendency of iridium to bond with iron caused most iridium to descend below the crust when the planet was young and still molten .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
A member of the platinum group metals , iridium is white , resembling platinum , but with a slight yellowish cast . Because of its hardness , brittleness , and very high melting point , solid iridium is difficult to machine , form , or work , thus powder metallurgy is commonly employed , instead . It is the only metal to maintain good mechanical properties in air at temperatures above 1 @,@ 600 ° C ( 2 @,@ 910 ° F ) . It has the 10th highest boiling point among all elements and becomes a superconductor at temperatures below 0 @.@ 14 K.
Iridium 's modulus of elasticity is the second @-@ highest among the metals , only being surpassed by osmium . This , together with a high shear modulus and a very low figure for Poisson 's ratio ( the relationship of longitudinal to lateral strain ) , indicate the high degree of stiffness and resistance to deformation that have rendered its fabrication into useful components a matter of great difficulty . Despite these limitations and iridium 's high cost , a number of applications have developed where mechanical strength is an essential factor in some of the extremely severe conditions encountered in modern technology .
The measured density of iridium is only slightly lower ( by about 0 @.@ 12 % ) than that of osmium , the densest element known . Some ambiguity occurred regarding which of the two elements was denser , due to the small size of the difference in density and difficulties in measuring it accurately , but , with increased accuracy in factors used for calculating density X @-@ ray crystallographic data yielded densities of 22 @.@ 56 g / cm3 for iridium and 22 @.@ 59 g / cm3 for osmium .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Iridium is the most corrosion @-@ resistant metal known : it is not attacked by almost any acid , aqua regia , molten metals , or silicates at high temperatures . It can , however , be attacked by some molten salts , such as sodium cyanide and potassium cyanide , as well as oxygen and the halogens ( particularly fluorine ) at higher temperatures .
= = = Compounds = = =
Iridium forms compounds in oxidation states between − 3 and + 9 ; the most common oxidation states are + 3 and + 4 . Well @-@ characterized examples of the high + 6 oxidation state are rare , but include IrF
6 and two mixed oxides Sr
2MgIrO
6 and Sr
2CaIrO
6 . In addition , it was reported in 2009 that iridium ( VIII ) oxide ( IrO
4 ) was prepared under matrix isolation conditions ( 6 K in Ar ) by UV irradiation of an iridium @-@ peroxo complex . This species , however , is not expected to be stable as a bulk solid at higher temperatures . The highest oxidation state ( + 9 ) , which is also the highest recorded for any element , is only known in one cation , IrO +
4 ; it is only known as gas @-@ phase species and is not known to form any salts .
Iridium dioxide , IrO
2 , a brown powder , is the only well @-@ characterized oxide of iridium . A sesquioxide , Ir
2O
3 , has been described as a blue @-@ black powder which is oxidized to IrO
2 by HNO
3 . The corresponding disulfides , diselenides , sesquisulfides , and sesquiselenides are known , and IrS
3 has also been reported . Iridium also forms iridates with oxidation states + 4 and + 5 , such as K
2IrO
3 and KIrO
3 , which can be prepared from the reaction of potassium oxide or potassium superoxide with iridium at high temperatures .
Although no binary hydrides of iridium , IrxHy are known , complexes are known that contain IrH4 −
5 and IrH3 −
6 , where iridium has the + 1 and + 3 oxidation states , respectively . The ternary hydride Mg
6Ir
2H
11 is believed to contain both the IrH4 −
5 and the 18 @-@ electron IrH5 −
4 anion .
No monohalides or dihalides are known , whereas trihalides , IrX
3 , are known for all of the halogens . For oxidation states + 4 and above , only the tetrafluoride , pentafluoride and hexafluoride are known . Iridium hexafluoride , IrF
6 , is a volatile and highly reactive yellow solid , composed of octahedral molecules . It decomposes in water and is reduced to IrF
4 , a crystalline solid , by iridium black . Iridium pentafluoride has similar properties but it is actually a tetramer , Ir
4F
20 , formed by four corner @-@ sharing octahedra . Iridium metal dissolves in molten alkali @-@ metal cyanides to produce the Ir ( CN ) 3 +
6 ( hexacyanoiridate ) ion .
Hexachloroiridic ( IV ) acid , H
2IrCl
6 , and its ammonium salt are the most important iridium compounds from an industrial perspective . They are involved in the purification of iridium and used as precursors for most other iridium compounds , as well as in the preparation of anode coatings . The IrCl2 −
6 ion has an intense dark brown color , and can be readily reduced to the lighter @-@ colored IrCl3 −
6 and vice versa . Iridium trichloride , IrCl
3 , which can be obtained in anhydrous form from direct oxidation of iridium powder by chlorine at 650 ° C , or in hydrated form by dissolving Ir
2O
3 in hydrochloric acid , is often used as a starting material for the synthesis of other Ir ( III ) compounds . Another compound used as a starting material is ammonium hexachloroiridate ( III ) , ( NH
4 )
3IrCl
6 . Iridium ( III ) complexes are diamagnetic ( low @-@ spin ) and generally have an octahedral molecular geometry .
Organoiridium compounds contain iridium – carbon bonds where the metal is usually in lower oxidation states . For example , oxidation state zero is found in tetrairidium dodecacarbonyl , Ir
4 ( CO )
12 , which is the most common and stable binary carbonyl of iridium . In this compound , each of the iridium atoms is bonded to the other three , forming a tetrahedral cluster . Some organometallic Ir ( I ) compounds are notable enough to be named after their discoverers . One is Vaska 's complex , IrCl ( CO ) [ P ( C
6H
5 )
3 ]
2 , which has the unusual property of binding to the dioxygen molecule , O
2 . Another one is Crabtree 's catalyst , a homogeneous catalyst for hydrogenation reactions . These compounds are both square planar , d8 complexes , with a total of 16 valence electrons , which accounts for their reactivity .
An iridium @-@ based organic LED material has been documented , and found to be much brighter than DPA or PPV , so could be the basis for flexible OLED lighting in the future .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Iridium has two naturally occurring , stable isotopes , 191Ir and 193Ir , with natural abundances of 37 @.@ 3 % and 62 @.@ 7 % , respectively . At least 34 radioisotopes have also been synthesized , ranging in mass number from 164 to 199 . 192Ir , which falls between the two stable isotopes , is the most stable radioisotope , with a half @-@ life of 73 @.@ 827 days , and finds application in brachytherapy and in industrial radiography , particularly for nondestructive testing of welds in steel in the oil and gas industries ; iridium @-@ 192 sources have been involved in a number of radiological accidents . Three other isotopes have half @-@ lives of at least a day — 188Ir , 189Ir , and 190Ir . Isotopes with masses below 191 decay by some combination of β + decay , α decay , and ( rare ) proton emission , with the exceptions of 189Ir , which decays by electron capture . Synthetic isotopes heavier than 191 decay by β − decay , although 192Ir also has a minor electron capture decay path . All known isotopes of iridium were discovered between 1934 and 2001 ; the most recent is 171Ir .
At least 32 metastable isomers have been characterized , ranging in mass number from 164 to 197 . The most stable of these is 192m2Ir , which decays by isomeric transition with a half @-@ life of 241 years , making it more stable than any of iridium 's synthetic isotopes in their ground states . The least stable isomer is 190m3Ir with a half @-@ life of only 2 µs . The isotope 191Ir was the first one of any element to be shown to present a Mössbauer effect . This renders it useful for Mössbauer spectroscopy for research in physics , chemistry , biochemistry , metallurgy , and mineralogy .
= = History = =
The discovery of iridium is intertwined with that of platinum and the other metals of the platinum group . Native platinum used by ancient Ethiopians and by South American cultures always contained a small amount of the other platinum group metals , including iridium . Platinum reached Europe as platina ( " silverette " ) , found in the 17th century by the Spanish conquerors in a region today known as the department of Chocó in Colombia . The discovery that this metal was not an alloy of known elements , but instead a distinct new element , did not occur until 1748 .
Chemists who studied platinum dissolved it in aqua regia ( a mixture of hydrochloric and nitric acids ) to create soluble salts . They always observed a small amount of a dark , insoluble residue . Joseph Louis Proust thought that the residue was graphite . The French chemists Victor Collet @-@ Descotils , Antoine François , comte de Fourcroy , and Louis Nicolas Vauquelin also observed the black residue in 1803 , but did not obtain enough for further experiments .
In 1803 , British scientist Smithson Tennant ( 1761 – 1815 ) analyzed the insoluble residue and concluded that it must contain a new metal . Vauquelin treated the powder alternately with alkali and acids and obtained a volatile new oxide , which he believed to be of this new metal — which he named ptene , from the Greek word πτηνός ptēnós , " winged " . Tennant , who had the advantage of a much greater amount of residue , continued his research and identified the two previously undiscovered elements in the black residue , iridium and osmium . He obtained dark red crystals ( probably of Na
2 [ IrCl
6 ] · nH
2O ) by a sequence of reactions with sodium hydroxide and hydrochloric acid . He named iridium after Iris ( Ἶρις ) , the Greek winged goddess of the rainbow and the messenger of the Olympian gods , because many of the salts he obtained were strongly colored . Discovery of the new elements was documented in a letter to the Royal Society on June 21 , 1804 .
British scientist John George Children was the first to melt a sample of iridium in 1813 with the aid of " the greatest galvanic battery that has ever been constructed " ( at that time ) . The first to obtain high @-@ purity iridium was Robert Hare in 1842 . He found it had a density of around 21 @.@ 8 g / cm3 and noted the metal is nearly immalleable and very hard . The first melting in appreciable quantity was done by Henri Sainte @-@ Claire Deville and Jules Henri Debray in 1860 . They required burning more than 300 liters of pure O
2 and H
2 gas for each kilogram of iridium .
These extreme difficulties in melting the metal limited the possibilities for handling iridium . John Isaac Hawkins was looking to obtain a fine and hard point for fountain pen nibs , and in 1834 managed to create an iridium @-@ pointed gold pen . In 1880 , John Holland and William Lofland Dudley were able to melt iridium by adding phosphorus and patented the process in the United States ; British company Johnson Matthey later stated they had been using a similar process since 1837 and had already presented fused iridium at a number of World Fairs . The first use of an alloy of iridium with ruthenium in thermocouples was made by Otto Feussner in 1933 . These allowed for the measurement of high temperatures in air up to 2000 ° C.
In Munich , Germany in 1957 Rudolf Mössbauer , in what has been called one of the " landmark experiments in twentieth @-@ century physics " , discovered the resonant and recoil @-@ free emission and absorption of gamma rays by atoms in a solid metal sample containing only 191Ir . This phenomenon , known as the Mössbauer effect ( which has since been observed for other nuclei , such as 57Fe ) , and developed as Mössbauer spectroscopy , has made important contributions to research in physics , chemistry , biochemistry , metallurgy , and mineralogy . Mössbauer received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1961 , at the age 32 , just three years after he published his discovery . In 1986 Rudolf Mössbauer was honored for his achievements with the Albert Einstein Medal and the Elliot Cresson Medal .
= = Occurrence = =
Iridium is one of the nine least abundant stable elements in Earth 's crust , having an average mass fraction of 0 @.@ 001 ppm in crustal rock ; gold is 40 times more abundant , platinum is 10 times more abundant , and silver and mercury are 80 times more abundant . Tellurium is about as abundant as iridium . In contrast to its low abundance in crustal rock , iridium is relatively common in meteorites , with concentrations of 0 @.@ 5 ppm or more . The overall concentration of iridium on Earth is thought to be much higher than what is observed in crustal rocks , but because of the density and siderophilic ( " iron @-@ loving " ) character of iridium , it descended below the crust and into Earth 's core when the planet was still molten .
Iridium is found in nature as an uncombined element or in natural alloys ; especially the iridium – osmium alloys , osmiridium ( osmium @-@ rich ) , and Iridosmium ( iridium @-@ rich ) . In the nickel and copper deposits , the platinum group metals occur as sulfides ( i.e. ( Pt , Pd ) S ) , tellurides ( i.e. PtBiTe ) , antimonides ( PdSb ) , and arsenides ( i.e. PtAs
2 ) . In all of these compounds , platinum is exchanged by a small amount of iridium and osmium . As with all of the platinum group metals , iridium can be found naturally in alloys with raw nickel or raw copper .
Within Earth 's crust , iridium is found at highest concentrations in three types of geologic structure : igneous deposits ( crustal intrusions from below ) , impact craters , and deposits reworked from one of the former structures . The largest known primary reserves are in the Bushveld igneous complex in South Africa , though the large copper – nickel deposits near Norilsk in Russia , and the Sudbury Basin in Canada are also significant sources of iridium . Smaller reserves are found in the United States . Iridium is also found in secondary deposits , combined with platinum and other platinum group metals in alluvial deposits . The alluvial deposits used by pre @-@ Columbian people in the Chocó Department of Colombia are still a source for platinum @-@ group metals . As of 2003 , the world reserves had not been estimated .
= = = Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary presence = = =
The Cretaceous – Paleogene boundary of 66 million years ago , marking the temporal border between the Cretaceous and Paleogene periods of geological time , was identified by a thin stratum of iridium @-@ rich clay . A team led by Luis Alvarez proposed in 1980 an extraterrestrial origin for this iridium , attributing it to an asteroid or comet impact . Their theory , known as the Alvarez hypothesis , is now widely accepted to explain the extinction of the non @-@ avian dinosaurs . A large buried impact crater structure with an estimated age of about 66 million years was later identified under what is now the Yucatán Peninsula ( the Chicxulub crater ) . Dewey M. McLean and others argue that the iridium may have been of volcanic origin instead , because Earth 's core is rich in iridium , and active volcanoes such as Piton de la Fournaise , in the island of Réunion , are still releasing iridium .
= = Production = =
Iridium is also obtained commercially as a by @-@ product from nickel and copper mining and processing . During electrorefining of copper and nickel , noble metals such as silver , gold and the platinum group metals as well as selenium and tellurium settle to the bottom of the cell as anode mud , which forms the starting point for their extraction . To separate the metals , they must first be brought into solution . Several separation methods are available depending on the nature of the mixture ; two representative methods are fusion with sodium peroxide followed by dissolution in aqua regia , and dissolution in a mixture of chlorine with hydrochloric acid .
After the mixture is dissolved , iridium is separated from the other platinum group metals by precipitating ammonium hexachloroiridate ( ( NH
4 )
2IrCl
6 ) or by extracting IrCl2 −
6 with organic amines . The first method is similar to the procedure Tennant and Wollaston used for their separation . The second method can be planned as continuous liquid – liquid extraction and is therefore more suitable for industrial scale production . In either case , the product is reduced using hydrogen , yielding the metal as a powder or sponge that can be treated using powder metallurgy techniques .
Iridium prices have fluctuated over a considerable range . With a relatively small volume in the world market ( compared to other industrial metals like aluminium or copper ) , the iridium price reacts strongly to instabilities in production , demand , speculation , hoarding , and politics in the producing countries . As a substance with rare properties , its price has been particularly influenced by changes in modern technology : The gradual decrease between 2001 and 2003 has been related to an oversupply of Ir crucibles used for industrial growth of large single crystals . Likewise the prices above 1000 USD / oz between 2010 and 2014 have been explained with the installation of production facilities for single crystal sapphire used in LED backlights for TVs .
= = Applications = =
The demand for iridium surged from 2 @.@ 5 tonnes in 2009 to 10 @.@ 4 tonnes in 2010 , mostly because of electronics @-@ related applications that saw a rise from 0 @.@ 2 to 6 tonnes – iridium crucibles are commonly used for growing large high @-@ quality single crystals , demand for which has increased sharply . This increase in iridium consumption is predicted to saturate due to accumulating stocks of crucibles , as happened earlier in the 2000s . Other major applications include spark plugs that consumed 0 @.@ 78 tonnes of iridium in 2007 , electrodes for the chloralkali process ( 1 @.@ 1 t in 2007 ) and chemical catalysts ( 0 @.@ 75 t in 2007 ) .
= = = Industrial and medical = = =
The high melting point , hardness and corrosion resistance of iridium and its alloys determine most of its applications . Iridium and especially iridium – platinum alloys or osmium – iridium alloys have a low wear and are used , for example , for multi @-@ pored spinnerets , through which a plastic polymer melt is extruded to form fibers , such as rayon . Osmium – iridium is used for compass bearings and for balances .
Their resistance to arc erosion makes iridium alloys ideal for electrical contacts for spark plugs , and iridium @-@ based spark plugs are particularly used in aviation .
Pure iridium is extremely brittle , to the point of being hard to weld because the heat @-@ affected zone cracks , but it can be made more ductile by addition of small quantities of titanium and zirconium ( 0 @.@ 2 % of each apparently works well )
Corrosion and heat resistance makes iridium an important alloying agent . Certain long @-@ life aircraft engine parts are made of an iridium alloy , and an iridium – titanium alloy is used for deep @-@ water pipes because of its corrosion resistance . Iridium is also used as a hardening agent in platinum alloys . The Vickers hardness of pure platinum is 56 HV , whereas platinum with 50 % of iridium can reach over 500 HV .
Devices that must withstand extremely high temperatures are often made from iridium . For example , high @-@ temperature crucibles made of iridium are used in the Czochralski process to produce oxide single @-@ crystals ( such as sapphires ) for use in computer memory devices and in solid state lasers . The crystals , such as gadolinium gallium garnet and yttrium gallium garnet , are grown by melting pre @-@ sintered charges of mixed oxides under oxidizing conditions at temperatures up to 2100 ° C.
Iridium compounds are used as catalysts in the Cativa process for carbonylation of methanol to produce acetic acid .
The radioisotope iridium @-@ 192 is one of the two most important sources of energy for use in industrial γ @-@ radiography for non @-@ destructive testing of metals . Additionally , 192Ir is used as a source of gamma radiation for the treatment of cancer using brachytherapy , a form of radiotherapy where a sealed radioactive source is placed inside or next to the area requiring treatment . Specific treatments include high @-@ dose @-@ rate prostate brachytherapy , bilary duct brachytherapy , and intracavitary cervix brachytherapy .
Iridium is a good catalyst for the decomposition of hydrazine ( into hot nitrogen and ammonia ) , and this is used in practice in low @-@ thrust rocket engines ; there are more details in the monopropellant rocket article .
= = = Scientific = = =
An alloy of 90 % platinum and 10 % iridium was used in 1889 to construct the International Prototype Metre and kilogram mass , kept by the International Bureau of Weights and Measures near Paris . The meter bar was replaced as the definition of the fundamental unit of length in 1960 by a line in the atomic spectrum of krypton , but the kilogram prototype is still the international standard of mass .
Iridium has been used in the radioisotope thermoelectric generators of unmanned spacecraft such as the Voyager , Viking , Pioneer , Cassini , Galileo , and New Horizons . Iridium was chosen to encapsulate the plutonium @-@ 238 fuel in the generator because it can withstand the operating temperatures of up to 2000 ° C and for its great strength .
Another use concerns X @-@ ray optics , especially X @-@ ray telescopes . The mirrors of the Chandra X @-@ ray Observatory are coated with a layer of iridium 60 nm thick . Iridium proved to be the best choice for reflecting X @-@ rays after nickel , gold , and platinum were also tested . The iridium layer , which had to be smooth to within a few atoms , was applied by depositing iridium vapor under high vacuum on a base layer of chromium .
Iridium is used in particle physics for the production of antiprotons , a form of antimatter . Antiprotons are made by shooting a high @-@ intensity proton beam at a conversion target , which needs to be made from a very high density material . Although tungsten may be used instead , iridium has the advantage of better stability under the shock waves induced by the temperature rise due to the incident beam .
Carbon – hydrogen bond activation ( C – H activation ) is an area of research on reactions that cleave carbon – hydrogen bonds , which were traditionally regarded as unreactive . The first reported successes at activating C – H bonds in saturated hydrocarbons , published in 1982 , used organometallic iridium complexes that undergo an oxidative addition with the hydrocarbon .
Iridium complexes are being investigated as catalysts for asymmetric hydrogenation . These catalysts have been used in the synthesis of natural products and able to hydrogenate certain difficult substrates , such as unfunctionalized alkenes , enantioselectively ( generating only one of the two possible enantiomers ) .
Iridium forms a variety of complexes of fundamental interest in triplet harvesting .
= = = Historical = = =
Iridium – osmium alloys were used to tip fountain pen nibs . The first major use of iridium was in 1834 in nibs mounted on gold . Since 1944 , the famous Parker 51 fountain pen was fitted with a nib tipped by a ruthenium and iridium alloy ( with 3 @.@ 8 % iridium ) . The tip material in modern fountain pens is still conventionally called " iridium " , although there is seldom any iridium in it ; other metals such as tungsten have taken its place .
An iridium – platinum alloy was used for the touch holes or vent pieces of cannon . According to a report of the Paris Exhibition of 1867 , one of the pieces being exhibited by Johnson and Matthey " has been used in a Withworth gun for more than 3000 rounds , and scarcely shows signs of wear yet . Those who know the constant trouble and expense which are occasioned by the wearing of the vent @-@ pieces of cannon when in active service , will appreciate this important adaptation " .
The pigment iridium black , which consists of very finely divided iridium , is used for painting porcelain an intense black ; it was said that " all other porcelain black colors appear grey by the side of it " .
= = Precautions = =
Iridium in bulk metallic form is not biologically important or hazardous to health due to its lack of reactivity with tissues ; there are only about 20 parts per trillion of iridium in human tissue . Like most metals , finely divided iridium powder can be hazardous to handle , as it is an irritant and may ignite in air . Very little is known about the toxicity of iridium compounds because they are used in very small amounts , but soluble salts , such as the iridium halides , could be hazardous due to elements other than iridium or due to iridium itself . However , most iridium compounds are insoluble , which makes absorption into the body difficult .
A radioisotope of iridium , 192Ir , is dangerous like other radioactive isotopes . The only reported injuries related to iridium concern accidental exposure to radiation from 192Ir used in brachytherapy . High @-@ energy gamma radiation from 192Ir can increase the risk of cancer . External exposure can cause burns , radiation poisoning , and death . Ingestion of 192Ir can burn the linings of the stomach and the intestines . 192Ir , 192mIr , and 194mIr tend to deposit in the liver , and can pose health hazards from both gamma and beta radiation .
= NeXT =
NeXT , Inc . ( later NeXT Computer , Inc. and NeXT Software , Inc ) was an American computer company headquartered in Redwood City , California , that developed and manufactured a series of computer workstations intended for the higher education and business markets . NeXT was founded in 1985 by Apple Computer co @-@ founder Steve Jobs , after he resigned from Apple , along with his co @-@ workers . NeXT introduced the first NeXT Computer in 1988 , and the smaller NeXTstation in 1990 . The NeXT computers experienced relatively limited sales , with estimates of about 50 @,@ 000 units shipped in total . Nevertheless , their innovative object @-@ oriented NeXTSTEP operating system and development environment were highly influential .
The NeXT Computer and NeXTSTEP operating system were the platform used for creating the World Wide Web , as well as creating the first app store , which was originally demonstrated to Steve Jobs in 1993 .
NeXT later released much of the NeXTSTEP system as a programming environment standard called OpenStep . NeXT withdrew from the hardware business in 1993 to concentrate on marketing OPENSTEP for Mach , its own OpenStep implementation , for several OEMs . NeXT also developed WebObjects , one of the first enterprise Web application frameworks . WebObjects never became very popular because of its initial high price of $ 50 @,@ 000 , but it remains a prominent early example of a Web server based on dynamic page generation rather than on static content .
Apple purchased NeXT in 1997 for $ 429 million and 1 @.@ 5 million shares of Apple stock . As part of the agreement , Steve Jobs , Chairman and CEO of NeXT Software , returned to Apple , the company he had co @-@ founded in 1976 . The founder promised to merge software from NeXT with Apple 's hardware platforms , eventually resulting in OS X , iOS , and now watchOS and tvOS . Parts of these operating systems incorporated the OPENSTEP foundation .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
In 1985 , Apple co @-@ founder Steve Jobs was the head of Apple 's SuperMicro division , which was responsible for the development of the Macintosh and Lisa personal computers . The Macintosh had been successful on university campuses in considerable part because of the Apple University Consortium , which allowed students and institutions to buy the computers at a discount . The consortium had sold more than $ 50 million in computers by February 1984 .
While chairman , Jobs visited university departments and faculty members to sell Macintosh . Jobs met Paul Berg , a Nobel Laureate in chemistry , at a luncheon held in Silicon Valley to honor François Mitterrand , then President of France . Berg was frustrated by the expense of teaching students about recombinant DNA from textbooks instead of in wet laboratories , used for the testing and analysis of chemicals , drugs , and other materials or biological matter . Wet labs were prohibitively expensive for lower @-@ level courses and were too complex to be simulated on personal computers of the time . Berg suggested to Jobs to use his influence at Apple to create a " 3M computer " workstation for higher education , featuring more than one megabyte of random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) , a megapixel display and megaFLOP performance , hence the name " 3M " .
Jobs was intrigued by Berg 's concept of a workstation and contemplated starting a higher education computer company in the fall of 1985 , amidst increasing turmoil at Apple . Jobs ' division did not release upgraded versions of the Macintosh and most of the Macintosh Office . As a result , sales plummeted , and Apple was forced to write off millions of dollars in unsold inventory . Apple 's chief executive officer ( CEO ) John Sculley ousted Jobs from his day @-@ to @-@ day role at Apple , replacing him with Jean @-@ Louis Gassée in 1985 . Later that year , Jobs began a power struggle to regain control of the company . The board of directors sided with Sculley while Jobs took a business visit to Western Europe and the Soviet Union on behalf of Apple .
= = = Original NeXT team = = =
After several months of being sidelined , Jobs resigned from Apple on September 13 , 1985 . He told the board he was leaving to set up a new computer company , and that he would be taking several Apple employees from the SuperMicro division with him . He also told the board that his new company would not compete with Apple and might even consider licensing its designs back to them to market under the Macintosh brand .
Jobs named his new company Next , Inc . A number of former Apple employees followed him to Next , including Joanna Hoffman , Bud Tribble , George Crow , Rich Page , Susan Barnes , Susan Kare , and Dan 'l Lewin . After consulting with major educational buyers from around the country , including a follow @-@ up meeting with Paul Berg , a tentative specification for the workstation was drawn up . It was designed to be powerful enough to run wet lab simulations and cheap enough for college students to use in their dormitory rooms . Before the specifications were finished , however , Apple sued Next for " nefarious schemes " to take advantage of the cofounders ' insider information . Jobs remarked , " It is hard to think that a $ 2 billion company with 4 @,@ 300 @-@ plus people couldn 't compete with six people in blue jeans . " The suit was eventually dismissed before trial .
In 1986 , Jobs recruited the famous graphic designer Paul Rand to create a brand identity costing $ 100 @,@ 000 . Rand created a 100 @-@ page brochure detailing the brand , including the precise angle used for the logo ( 28 ° ) and a new company name , NeXT . The first major outside investment was from Ross Perot , who invested after seeing a segment about NeXT on The Entrepreneurs . In 1987 , he invested $ 20 million in exchange for 16 percent of NeXT 's stock and subsequently joined the board of directors in 1988 .
= = = 1987 – 93 : NeXT Computer = = =
= = = = First generation = = = =
NeXT changed its business plan in mid @-@ 1986 . The company decided to develop both computer hardware and software , instead of just a low @-@ end workstation . A team led by Avie Tevanian , who had joined the company after working as one of the Mach kernel engineers at Carnegie Mellon University , was to develop the NeXTSTEP operating system . The hardware division , led by Rich Page — one of the cofounders who had previously led the Apple Lisa team — designed and developed the hardware . NeXT 's first factory was completed in Fremont , California in 1987 . It was capable of producing 150 @,@ 000 machines per year . NeXT 's first workstation was officially named the NeXT Computer , although it was widely termed " the cube " because of its distinctive case , a 1 ft magnesium cube , designed by Apple IIc case designer Frogdesign in accordance with an edit from Jobs .
The original design team had anticipated releasing the computer for US $ 3 @,@ 000 in spring of 1987 to be ready for sale by summer of that year . Prototype workstations were eventually shown to standing ovations on October 12 , 1988 . The NeXT Computer was revealed at a lavish , invitation @-@ only gala event , " NeXT Introduction — the Introduction to the NeXT Generation of Computers for Education " at the Louise M. Davies Symphony Hall , San Francisco , California on Wednesday October 12 , 1988 . The following day , selected educators and software developers were invited ( for $ 100 registration fee ) to attend the first public technical overview of the NeXT computer at an event called " The NeXT Day " held at the San Francisco Hilton . This event gave developers interested in developing NeXT software an insight into the software architecture , object @-@ oriented programming and developing for the NeXT Computer . The luncheon speaker was Steve Jobs .
The first machines were tested in 1989 , after which NeXT started
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selling limited numbers to universities with a beta version of the NeXTSTEP operating system installed . Initially the NeXT Computer was targeted at U.S. higher education establishments only , with a base price of $ 6 @,@ 500 . The machine was widely reviewed in magazines , generally concentrating on the hardware . When asked if he was upset that the computer 's debut was delayed by several months , Jobs responded , " Late ? This computer is five years ahead of its time ! "
The NeXT Computer was based on the new 25 MHz Motorola 68030 central processing unit ( CPU ) . The Motorola 88000 RISC chip was originally considered , but was not available in sufficient quantities . It included between 8 and 64 MB of random @-@ access memory ( RAM ) , a 256 MB magneto @-@ optical ( MO ) drive , a 40 MB ( swap @-@ only ) , 330 MB , or 660 MB hard disk drive , 10BASE2 Ethernet , NuBus and a 17 @-@ inch MegaPixel grayscale display measuring 1120 by 832 pixels . In 1989 a typical new PC , Macintosh , or Amiga computer included a few megabytes of RAM , a 640 × 480 16 @-@ color or 320x240 4000 @-@ color display , a 10 to 20 megabyte hard drive and few networking capabilities . It also was the first computer to ship with a general @-@ purpose DSP chip ( Motorola 56001 ) on the motherboard . This was used to support sophisticated music and sound processing , including the Music Kit software .
The magneto @-@ optical drive manufactured by Canon Inc. was used as the primary mass storage device . These drives were relatively new to the market , and the NeXT was the first computer to use them . They were cheaper than hard drives ( blank media especially so : though each had a cost of $ 150 to Canon , Jobs 's typically forthright negotiations saw Canon agree to a retail of only $ 50 apiece ) but slower ( with an average seek time of 96 ms ) . The design made it impossible to move files between computers without a network , since each NeXT Computer had only one MO drive and the disk could not be removed without shutting down the system . Storage options proved challenging for the first NeXT Computers . The magneto @-@ optical media was relatively expensive and had performance and reliability problems despite being faster than a floppy drive . The drive was not sufficient to run as the primary medium running the NeXTSTEP operating system both in terms of speed and capacity .
In 1989 , NeXT struck a deal for former Compaq reseller Businessland to sell NeXT computers in select markets nationwide . Selling through a retailer was a major change from NeXT 's original business model of only selling directly to students and educational institutions . Businessland founder David Norman predicted that sales of the NeXT Computer would surpass sales of Compaq computers after 12 months .
In 1989 , Canon invested US $ 100 million in NeXT , giving it a 16 @.@ 67 percent stake , making NeXT worth almost $ 600 million . Canon invested in NeXT with the condition that it would be able to use the NeXTSTEP environment with its own workstations , which would mean a greatly expanded market for the software . After NeXT exited the hardware business , Canon produced a line of PCs , called object.station , including models 31 , 41 , 50 and 52 , specifically designed to run NeXTSTEP / Intel . Canon also served as NeXT 's distributor in Japan .
The first NeXT computers were released on the retail market in 1990 , for $ 9 @,@ 999 . NeXT 's original investor Ross Perot resigned from the board of directors in June 1991 to dedicate more time to Perot Systems , a Plano , Texas @-@ based systems integrator .
= = = = Second generation = = = =
NeXT released a second generation of workstations in 1990 . The new range included a revised NeXT Computer , renamed the NeXTcube , and the NeXTstation , nicknamed " the slab , " which used a " pizza box " case form @-@ factor . Jobs was explicit in ensuring NeXT staff did not use the latter terminology , lest the NeXT machines be compared to competing Sun workstations . The magneto @-@ optical drive was replaced with a 2 @.@ 88 MB floppy drive to offer users a way to use their floppy disks . However , individual 2 @.@ 88 MB floppies were expensive and the technology did not supplant the 1 @.@ 44 MB floppy . Realizing this , NeXT utilized the CD @-@ ROM drive , which eventually became an industry standard for storage . Color graphics were available on the NeXTstation Color and the NeXTdimension graphics processor hardware for the NeXTcube . The new computers were cheaper and faster than their predecessors , with the new Motorola 68040 processor .
In 1992 , NeXT launched " Turbo " variants of the NeXTcube and NeXTstation with a 33 MHz 68040 processor and maximum RAM capacity increased to 128 MB . NeXT sold 20 @,@ 000 computers in 1992 ( NeXT counted upgraded motherboards on back order as sales ) — a small number compared with their competitors . However , the company reported sales of $ 140 million for the year , encouraging Canon to invest a further $ 30 million to keep the company afloat .
In total , 50 @,@ 000 NeXT machines were sold , including thousands to the then super secret National Reconnaissance Office located in Chantilly , Virginia . NeXT 's long @-@ term aim was to migrate to the RISC ( Reduced Instruction Set Computing ) architecture , a processor design strategy intended to increase performance . The project was known as the NeXT RISC Workstation ( NRW ) . Initially the NRW was to be based on the Motorola 88110 processor , but due to a lack of confidence in Motorola 's commitment to the 88000 @-@ series architecture , it was later redesigned around dual PowerPC 601s . NeXT produced some motherboards and enclosures , but exited the hardware business before full production .
= = = = Software applications = = = =
NeXT computers were delivered with Mathematica pre @-@ installed . Several developers used the NeXT platform to write pioneering programs . Tim Berners @-@ Lee used a NeXT Computer in 1990 to create the first Web browser and Web server ; accordingly , NeXT was instrumental in the development of the World Wide Web .
NeXT was an engineering computer used by professors for the most serious science challenges , and also for developing finished newspaper layouts using News running on Next . George Mason University in the early 1990s had a set of them for publishing , as well as Silicon Graphics for CAD / GL and Mathematica for astrophysics . The games Doom , Doom II : Hell on Earth and Quake were developed by id Software on NeXT machines . Other games based on the Doom engine , such as Heretic and Hexen : Beyond Heretic by Raven Software , as well as Strife by Rogue Entertainment were also developed on NeXT hardware using id 's tools .
Other commercial programs were released for NeXT computers , including Altsys Virtuoso , a vector drawing program with page @-@ layout features which was ported to Mac OS and Microsoft Windows as Aldus FreeHand v4 , and the Lotus Improv spreadsheet program . The systems also came with a number of smaller built @-@ in applications , such as the Merriam @-@ Webster Collegiate Dictionary , Oxford Quotations , the complete works of William Shakespeare , and the Digital Librarian search engine to access them .
= = = 1993 – 96 : NeXT Software = = =
NeXT started porting the NeXTSTEP operating system to IBM PC compatible computers using the Intel 80486 processor in late 1991 . The operating system was ported to Intel 's architecture because of a change in NeXT 's business strategy , which was then to remove themselves from the hardware business entirely . A demonstration of the port was displayed at the NeXTWorld Expo in January 1992 . By mid @-@ 1993 the product was complete and version 3 @.@ 1 , also known as NeXTSTEP 486 , was released . Prior to the release of NeXTSTEP , Chrysler planned to buy 3 @,@ 000 copies in 1992 .
NeXTSTEP 3.x was later ported to PA @-@ RISC and SPARC @-@ based platforms , for a total of four versions : NeXTSTEP / NeXT ( for NeXT 's 68k " black boxes " ) , NeXTSTEP / Intel , NeXTSTEP / PA @-@ RISC and NeXTSTEP / SPARC . Although these ports were not widely used , NeXTSTEP gained popularity at institutions such as First Chicago NBD , Swiss Bank Corporation , O 'Connor and Company , and other organizations owing to its programming model . It was also used by many American federal agencies , such as United States Naval Research Laboratory , the National Security Agency , the Advanced Research Projects Agency , the Central Intelligence Agency and the National Reconnaissance Office . Some IBM PC clone vendors offered somewhat customized hardware solutions that were delivered running NeXTSTEP on Intel , such as the Elonex NextStation and the Canon object.station 41 .
NeXT withdrew from the hardware business in 1993 and the company was renamed NeXT Software Inc ; consequently , 300 of the 540 staff employees were laid off . NeXT negotiated to sell the hardware business , including the Fremont factory , to Canon . Canon later pulled out of the deal . Work on the PowerPC machines was stopped , along with all hardware production . CEO of Sun Microsystems Scott McNealy announced plans to invest $ 10 million in 1993 and use NeXT software ( OpenStep ) in future Sun systems . NeXT partnered with Sun to create OpenStep which was NeXTSTEP sans the Mach @-@ based kernel .
After dropping the hardware business , NeXT returned to selling a toolkit to run on other operating systems , in effect returning to the original business plan . New products based on OpenStep were released , including OpenStep Enterprise , a version for Microsoft 's Windows NT . The company also launched WebObjects , a platform for building large @-@ scale dynamic web applications . Many large businesses including Dell , Disney , WorldCom , and the BBC used this WebObjects software for a short time . In the modern day , WebObjects is used almost solely to power Apple 's iTunes Store and most of its corporate Web site .
= = = 1996 – 97 : Apple merger = = =
Apple Computer announced an intention to acquire NeXT on December 20 , 1996 . Apple paid $ 429 million in cash , which went to the initial investors and 1 @.@ 5 million Apple shares , which went to Steve Jobs , who was deliberately not given cash for his part in the deal . The main purpose of the acquisition was to use NeXTSTEP as a foundation to replace the dated Mac OS , instead of BeOS or the in @-@ development Copland . The deal was finalized on February 7 , 1997 , bringing Jobs back to Apple as a consultant , who was later appointed as interim CEO . In 2000 Jobs took the CEO position as a permanent assignment .
Several NeXT executives replaced their Apple counterparts when Steve Jobs restructured the company 's board of directors . Over the next five years the NeXTSTEP operating system was ported to the PowerPC architecture . At the same time , an Intel port and OpenStep Enterprise toolkit for Windows were both produced . The operating system was code named Rhapsody , while the toolkit for development on all platforms was called " Yellow Box " . For backwards compatibility Apple added the " Blue Box " to Rhapsody , allowing existing Mac applications to be run in a self @-@ contained cooperative multitasking environment .
A server version of the new operating system was released as Mac OS X Server 1 @.@ 0 in 1999 , and the first consumer version , Mac OS X 10 @.@ 0 , in 2001 . The OpenStep developer toolkit was renamed Cocoa . Rhapsody 's Blue Box was renamed Classic Environment and changed to run applications full @-@ screen without requiring a separate window . Apple included an updated version of the original Macintosh toolbox , called Carbon , that gave existing Mac applications access to the environment without the constraints of Blue Box . Some of NeXTSTEP 's interface features were used in Mac OS X , including the Dock , the Services menu , the Finder 's " browser " view , and the Cocoa text system .
NeXTSTEP 's processor @-@ independent capabilities were retained in Mac OS X , leading to both PowerPC and Intel x86 versions ( although only PowerPC versions were publicly available before 2006 ) . Apple moved to Intel processors by August 2006 .
= = Corporate culture and community = =
Jobs created a different corporate culture at NeXT in terms of facilities , salaries , and benefits . Jobs had experimented with some structural changes at Apple but at NeXT he abandoned conventional corporate structures , instead making a " community " with " members " instead of employees . There were only two different salaries at NeXT until the early 1990s . Team members who joined before 1986 were paid $ 75 @,@ 000 while those who joined afterwards were paid $ 50 @,@ 000 . This caused a few awkward situations where managers were paid less than their employees . Employees were given performance reviews and raises every six months because of the spartan salary plans . To foster openness , all employees had full access to the payrolls , although few employees ever took advantage of the privilege . NeXT 's health insurance plan offered benefits to not only married couples but unmarried couples and same @-@ sex couples , although the latter privilege was later withdrawn due to insurance complications . The payroll schedule was also very different from other companies in Silicon Valley at the time : instead of getting paid twice a month at the end of the pay period , employees would get paid once a month in advance .
Jobs found office space in Palo Alto , California on 3475 Deer Creek Road , occupying a glass and concrete building which featured a staircase designed by architect I. M. Pei . The first floor used hardwood flooring and large worktables where the workstations would be assembled . To avoid inventory errors , NeXT used the just @-@ in @-@ time ( JIT ) inventory strategy . The company contracted out for all major components such as mainboards and cases and had the finished components shipped to the first floor for assembly . The second floor was the office space with an open floor plan . The only enclosed rooms were Jobs 's office and a few conference rooms .
As NeXT expanded , more office space was needed . The company rented an office at 800 and 900 Chesapeake Drive in Redwood City , also designed by Pei . The architectural centerpiece was a " floating " staircase with no visible supports . The open floor plan was retained , although furnishings became luxurious , with $ 5 @,@ 000 chairs , $ 10 @,@ 000 sofas and Ansel Adams prints .
NeXT 's first former campus in Palo Alto was subsequently occupied by SAP AG . Its second former campus in Redwood City was occupied by ApniCure and OncoMed Pharmaceuticals Inc .
The first issue of NeXTWORLD magazine was printed in 1991 . It was published in San Francisco by Integrated Media and edited by Michael Miley and later Dan Ruby . It was the only mainstream periodical to discuss NeXT computers , the operating system , and NeXT software . Publication was discontinued in 1994 after only four volumes were released . A NeXTWORLD Expo followed as a developer conference , held in 1991 and 1992 at the San Francisco Civic Center and in 1993 and 1994 at the Moscone Center in San Francisco , with Steve Jobs as the keynote speaker .
= = Influence on the computer industry = =
Steve Jobs pooled the finest of over @-@ specified hardware and software into NeXT , and also the company added innovations of their own . As such , it was the machine of choice for well @-@ funded science departments that , of course , were Unix @-@ friendly at the time .
Despite NeXT 's limited commercial success , the company had a wide @-@ ranging impact on the computer industry . Object @-@ oriented programming and graphical user interfaces became more common after the 1988 release of the NeXTcube and NeXTSTEP , when other companies started to emulate NeXT 's object @-@ oriented system . Apple started the Taligent project in 1989 , with the goal of building a NeXT @-@ like operating system for the Macintosh , with collaboration from both Hewlett @-@ Packard and IBM .
Microsoft announced the Cairo project in 1991 ; the Cairo specification included similar object @-@ oriented user interface features for a coming consumer version of Windows NT . Although the project was ultimately abandoned , some elements were integrated into other projects . By 1994 , Microsoft and NeXT were collaborating on a Windows NT @-@ port of OpenStep ; the port , however , was never released .
WebObjects failed to achieve wide popularity partly because of the initial high price of US $ 50 @,@ 000 , but it remains the first and most prominent early example of a web application server which enabled dynamic page generation based on user interactions as opposed to static content . WebObjects is now bundled with OS X Server and Xcode .
= R v Secretary of State for Home Affairs , ex p O 'Brien =
R v Secretary of State for Home Affairs ex parte O 'Brien [ 1923 ] 2 KB 361 was a 1923 test case in English law that sought to have the internment and deportation of Irish nationalist sympathisers earlier that year declared legally invalid . In March 1923 between 80 and 100 suspected Irish nationalists in Britain were arrested by the police and sent to the Irish Free State under the Restoration of Order in Ireland Act 1920 ( ROIA ) . One of the detainees , Art O 'Brien , challenged his detention in a test case at the Divisional Court . The case eventually went to both the Court of Appeal and House of Lords , who decided that the internments were illegal because the Irish Free State was an independent nation and so British Acts of Parliament no longer applied to it .
The decision effectively illegalised the ROIA and led to the immediate release of O 'Brien and the other detained individuals , who sued the British Government for false imprisonment . The government pushed through the Restoration of Order in Ireland ( Indemnity ) Act 1923 , which limited the money they had to pay the detainees , who eventually received £ 43 @,@ 000 . O 'Brien himself was re @-@ arrested and found guilty of sedition , and was imprisoned until 1924 .
= = Background = =
Following the Irish War of Independence the Irish Free State was set up as an independent British Dominion covering most of the island of Ireland . After a brief civil war between the pro @-@ Free State forces and members of the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) who wanted any independent nation to cover the entire island the status of the Irish Free State was confirmed , and the IRA forced underground . The IRA had supporters in the United Kingdom , working openly as the Irish Self @-@ Determination League ( ISDL ) , and the Free State government shared the names of these supporters with the British authorities , who kept a close eye on them . Between February and March they provided information on individuals that they said were part of widespread plots against the Irish Free State being prepared on British soil . On 11 March 1923 the police in Britain arrested IRA sympathisers living in Britain including Art O 'Brien , the head of the ISDL . Sources disagree on numbers , giving either approximately eighty or approximately 100 . The arrested men were placed on special trains and sent to Liverpool , where they were transferred to Dublin via a Royal Navy destroyer . It later transpired that not only were many British citizens ( Art O 'Brien himself had been born in England ) , at least six had never even been to Ireland before .
The next day the arrests were publicly queried in the House of Commons , and a Labour backbencher Jack Jones started a debate on the subject in the afternoon . W.C. Bridgeman , the Home Secretary , said that he had directly ordered the police to arrest the ISDL members under the Restoration of Order in Ireland Act 1920 , and that he had consulted the Attorney General who considered it legal .
= = Divisional Court = =
A few days after the arrests the solicitors for one of the deported men , Art O 'Brien , got in contact with Sir Patrick Hastings KC , a Member of Parliament for the Labour Party and a noted barrister . On 23 March 1923 Hastings represented O 'Brien in front of a Divisional Court consisting of Mr Justice Avory and Mr Justice Salter to apply for a writ of habeas corpus for O 'Brien as a test case to allow the release of the others . The initial hearing did not go anywhere because Hastings was unable to provide an affidavit from O 'Brien ( who was in Mountjoy Prison ) , which was required for a writ of habeas corpus to be considered , but by the time the hearing was resumed on 10 April he had managed to obtain one . Hastings argued that because the Irish Free State was an independent nation the British laws governing it , such as the 1920 act , were effectively repealed . In addition the Home Secretary had no power to order an individual to be detained overseas because he had no control over what happened to them there .
The court eventually declared that they could not issue a writ , because the Habeas Corpus Act 1862 prevented them from issuing a writ to any colony possessing a court which could also issue a writ . Since Ireland possessed such a court , the English Divisional Court could not act . Hastings attempted to argue that the writ could be issued against the Home Secretary but this also failed , since the Home Secretary did not actually possess O 'Brien .
= = Court of Appeal and House of Lords = =
The decision was then appealed to the Court of Appeal and argued on 23 and 24 April . The Court of Appeal reversed the Divisional Court 's decision . The court decided that the Restoration of Order in Ireland Act 1920 had been implicitly repealed when the Irish Free State , an independent nation , came into existence . In addition it was not proper for the Home Secretary to order the detention and deportation of someone overseas , since they had no control over what happened to them . It was completely appropriate to issue a writ of habeas corpus against the Home Secretary because , even though he did not physically have O 'Brien , he was considered responsible for him . The Home Secretary was accordingly ordered to produce O 'Brien before the court on 16 May .
He appealed to the House of Lords , who decided ( led by Lord Birkenhead ) that they did not have the jurisdiction to hear the appeal , since a rule of English law specifies that once a writ of habeas corpus is issued ( as it was by the Court of Appeal ) no superior court can overrule it . After a further attempt to keep O 'Brien in custody ( simply by not letting him out of prison ) he was finally released on 16 May .
= = Aftermath = =
O 'Brien immediately sued the British Government for false imprisonment , and to avoid any liability the government prepared the Restoration of Order in Ireland ( Indemnity ) Act 1923 which would indemnify them against any claims for damages by the imprisoned sympathisers . The Labour Party whittled it down when it was being prepared so that it would only limit compensation rather than remove it entirely . A tribunal was set up under Lord Atkin to assess damages , and the sympathisers as a whole were eventually paid £ 43 @,@ 000 . Art O 'Brien himself was arrested soon after release and convicted of sedition . He was released in 1924 .
= Amanita australis =
Amanita australis is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family . It is found only in New Zealand , where it occurs in Leptospermum and Nothofagus forest . The species was first described by New Zealand mycologist Greta Stevenson in 1962 ; in the same publication Stevenson also described what she thought was a unique species , Limacella macrospora , but over 30 years later this was reduced to synonymy with A. australis .
Amanita australis produces small- to medium @-@ sized fruit bodies , with brown caps up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) in diameter covered with pyramidal warts . The gills on the underside of the cap are white , closely crowded together , and free from attachment to the stem . The stem , which is up to 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) long and 26 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , has a ring and a bulbous base . The mushroom may be confused with another endemic New Zealand species , A. nothofagi , but can be distinguished by differences in microscopic characteristics .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
Amanita australis was first described by Greta Stevenson in 1962 , based on specimens she collected in April 1954 around Lake Rotoiti in Nelson Lakes National Park , in New Zealand . In the same publication , Stevenson described Limacella macrospora , collected in 1952 at Day 's Bay near Wellington . Stevenson thought this was a new species different from any previously described Limacella because of its larger size and amyloid spores . Austrian mycologist Egon Horak later transferred it to the genus Oudemansiella , but did not provide a reason for making the new combination . In 1986 , Pegler and Young proposed a classification for Oudemansiella based largely on spore structure , but they excluded O. macrospora , considering it a species of Amanita . Geoff Ridley examined Stevenson 's holotype material and reduced L. macrosporus to synonymy with A. australis in 1993 , explaining :
The size , shape and amyloid reaction of the spores , the dimensions of the basidia , the presence of clamp connections and lamella margin cells indicate that this is Amanita australis Stevenson and easily fits into the concept of this taxon . ... Macroscopically the specimen lacks the typical pronounced basal bulb to the stipe and volva remnants on the pileus ; however , it is not an unknown condition in this taxon .
Although Stevenson originally placed the species in Amanita section Phalloideae because of a perceived similarity to A. citrina , it is now classified in section Validae ; many species in this section have bulbous stem bases . Ridley suggests an appropriate common name would be the " straw flycap " , while Rodham Tulloss calls it the " far south Amanita " . The specific epithet australis means " southern " .
= = Description = =
The shape of the A. australis cap is initially convex , later flattening out or even developing a central depression , and reaching diameters of 20 – 90 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 4 in ) wide . The cap margin sometimes splits and rolls back to give a ragged appearance . The centre of the cap is dark buff , honey or isabelline , becoming paler to buff at the margin . The surface is sticky when young or wet , but dries out with age . The remnants of the volva form conical to pyramidal warts that are most densely aggregated in the center , but become sparse and low towards the margin . They are initially white then greyish @-@ sepia or isabelline with white to buff tips .
The gills are crowded closely together , free from attachment to the stem , 6 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 0 @.@ 39 in ) wide , and white . The lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap edge to the stem ) have truncated ends . The stem is 37 – 90 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) tall , 6 – 26 mm ( 0 @.@ 24 – 1 @.@ 02 in ) in diameter , and narrowest at center . It is hollow , and has an abruptly bulbous base that is between 14 and 38 mm ( 0 @.@ 55 and 1 @.@ 50 in ) in diameter . The surface of the stem above the level of the ring is white and covered in woolly tufts of mycelia ; below the ring it is white with buff to greyish transverse , grooved bands . The base may or may not have a rim of volval remnants that are powdery , and a greyish @-@ buff to greyish @-@ sepia colour . The ring is membranous , white to buff , first hanging freely then later adhering to the stem . The flesh of the cap is white , occasionally pale isabelline under the center of the cap ; the flesh of the stem is white .
The spore print is white . The spores are typically 9 – 12 by 8 – 10 @.@ 5 µm , spherical to ellipsoid , and thin @-@ walled . They are hyaline ( translucent ) , and amyloid — meaning they will stain bluish @-@ black to black in Melzer 's reagent . The basidia are 43 @.@ 5 – 76 @.@ 5 by 10 @.@ 5 – 17 µm , mostly four @-@ spored , and clamped at their bases . There are abundant spherical , elliptic or club @-@ shaped hyaline cells on the gill edges , measuring 16 – 39 @.@ 5 by 10 @.@ 5 – 27 @.@ 5 µm . The cap cuticle is 220 – 270 µm wide , consisting of a gelatinised suprapellis ( upper layer ) and non @-@ gelatinised subpellis ( lower layer ) . The volval remnants on the cap consist of abundant spherical , club @-@ shaped , or turnip @-@ shaped cells , measuring 10 – 86 by 9 – 85 µm . These cells are umber in colour , and arranged in chains perpendicular to the cap surface , becoming smaller and paler at tip of the wart , subtended by moderately abundant hyphae that are 4 – 10 µm wide . Clamp connections are abundant in the hyphae .
= = = Similar species = = =
Amanita australis mushrooms that have lost their warts and have had the colours faded may resemble another New Zealand species , A. nothofagi . The two species may be distinguished reliably using microscopy — A. nothofagi does not have clamp connections at the base of the basidia , unlike A. australis.A. australis also bears some resemblance to the eastern North American and east Asian species A. abrupta , which also has an abruptly bulbous stem base .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Amanita australis is found only on the north and south islands of New Zealand , where it grows in a mycorrhizal association with Southern Beech ( genus Nothofagus ) ( including New Zealand Red Beech , Silver beech , New Zealand Black Beech , Hard Beech ) , Manuka , and Kānuka . The mushroom usually grows solitarily , but has on rare occasions been found growing in groups .
= Jaws 3 @-@ D =
Jaws 3 @-@ D ( also known as Jaws 3 or Jaws III ) is a 1983 American thriller film directed by Joe Alves and starring Dennis Quaid , Bess Armstrong , Lea Thompson and Louis Gossett , Jr . It is the second sequel to Steven Spielberg 's Jaws and the third installment in the Jaws franchise . The film follows the Brody children from the previous films at SeaWorld , a Florida marine park with underwater tunnels and lagoons . As the park prepares for opening , a young great white shark infiltrates the park from the sea , seemingly attacking and killing the park 's employees . Once the shark is captured , it becomes apparent that it was a second , much larger shark who also entered the park , that was the real culprit .
The film is notable for making use of 3D film during the revived interest in the technology in the 1980s , amongst other horror films such as Friday the 13th Part III and Amityville 3D . Cinema audiences could wear disposable cardboard polarized 3D glasses to create the illusion that elements penetrate the screen . Several shots and sequences were designed to utilise the effect , such as the shark 's destruction . Since 3D was ineffective in home viewing until the advent of 3D televisions in the late 2000s , the alternative title Jaws III is used for television broadcasts , VHS and DVD . Jaws 3 @-@ D received negative reviews and was followed by Jaws : The Revenge in 1987 .
= = Plot = =
The film begins with a great white shark moving throughout the ocean as it starts to follow an unsuspecting team of water skiers . The driver , Richie , stalls the boat and manages to get it going again before the shark can attack anyone . The shark follows the water skiers into the park and throws the gate off its rails while it is closing . Meanwhile , Florida announces the opening of SeaWorld 's new underwater tunnels .
Kathryn " Kay " Morgan , the senior marine biologist , and her assistants wonder why the dolphins , Cindy and Sandy , are so afraid of leaving their dolphin pen . Shelby Overman , one of the mechanics , dives into the water to repair and secure the gates . He is attacked by a shark and killed , leaving only his severed right arm . Additionally that night , two men in diving equipment sneak into the park in a small inflatable boat to steal coral they intend to sell . One slips into the water quietly , but is taken by the shark , leaving only his diving mask drifting in the water . The other man is pulled into the water also ; then something sinks the inflatable .
The next day , Michael Brody and Kay are informed of Overman 's disappearance . They go down in a submarine to look in the tunnels to find Overman 's body . Kay suggests the filtration pipe but Mike says that the current is too strong and that it flows into the lagoon every hour . They decide to go into a piece of scenery , the Spanish Galleon , despite the two dolphins attempting to keep them out . As they search the Spanish Galleon they encounter a small great white shark . The dolphins rescue Kay and Mike but the shark escapes back into the park .
The news of the shark is disbelieved by Calvin Bouchard , the SeaWorld park manager , although the news is exciting to his hunter friend , Phillip FitzRoyce , who states his intention to kill the shark on network television . Kay protests , arguing that while killing the shark would be good for one headline , capturing and keeping a great white shark alive in captivity would guarantee TV crews and money constantly rolling into SeaWorld . The young shark is captured and Kay and her staff nurse it to health . Calvin , desperate to start the money rolling in immediately , orders it moved to an exhibit as " the first great white in captivity " . However , the shark dies in the exhibit .
At the underwater tunnel , a girl is terrified when she sees part of Overman 's corpse bob up to a window . Forcing Mike and a paramedic to let her review Overman 's corpse , Kay realizes that the shark that killed him must be the young shark 's mother , and that since Overman was killed inside the park , the mother shark must also be inside the park ; the shape of the bite shows that the shark 's mouth must be about 3 feet wide and thus the shark about 35 feet long . She captures the attention of FitzRoyce , but she cannot convince Calvin until the enormous shark herself shows up at the window of their underwater cafe , terrifying the customers .
Flushed out from her refuge inside the filtration pipe , the shark begins to wreak havoc on the park and attacks water skier Kelly Ann Bukowski and Sean Brody . The shark injures Kelly in the left leg and leaves . Sean is unharmed but the shark causes a leak that nearly drowns everyone in the underwater tunnel . FitzRoyce and his assistant Jack go down to the filtration pipe in an attempt to trap the shark back inside to kill it . FitzRoyce leads the shark into the pipe but his lifeline rope snaps and the shark attacks him . FitzRoyce grabs a grenade and prepares to use it , but before he can get his other hand to the grenade to pull its safety pin he is crushed and chewed , in the shark 's mouth as it swallows him fins first , cylinder and all as far as it can .
Hearing the shark has been lured into the pipe , Michael goes down to repair the underwater tunnel so the technicians can restore air pressure and drain the water , with Kay to watch his back . He welds the repair piece and Calvin orders the pump shut down to suffocate the shark , but all shutting the pump down does is let her break free from the pipe and attack Mike and Kay . They escape thanks to help from Cindy and Sandy , who attack the shark to distract her briefly .
They make their way back to the control room with Calvin and the technicians , but the shark appears in front of the window and smashes its way through the glass and floods the room . Calvin manages to swim out and rescue one technician but another technician is killed in the process . Mike notices FitzRoyce 's corpse still in the shark 's throat with the grenade in his hand trailing into its mouth , and uses a bent pole to pull the grenade 's pin , killing the shark . Its jaws then float through the blood and water and are shown to the viewer in 3D .
In the aftermath , Mike and Kay celebrate with Cindy and Sandy , who survived their brush with the shark at the snapshot to portraits as the background and screen fades to black and the movie ends .
= = Cast = =
Dennis Quaid as Michael ' Mike ' Brody
Bess Armstrong as Kathryn " Kay " Morgan
Simon MacCorkindale as Philip FitzRoyce , 16th Earl of Haddenfield
Louis Gossett , Jr. as Calvin Bouchard
John Putch as Sean Brody
John W. Wilson as 3D Shark
Lea Thompson as Kelly Ann Bukowski
Harry Grant as Shelby Overman
P. H. Moriarty as Jack Tate
Dan Glasko as Danny
Liz Morris as Liz
Lisa Maurer as Ethal
Kaye Stevens as Mrs Kellender
= = Production = =
David Brown and Richard Zanuck , the producers for the first two films , originally pitched the second Jaws sequel as a spoof named Jaws 3 , People 0 . Matty Simmons , fresh off the success of National Lampoon 's Animal House , was brought in as producer , with Brown and Zanuck taking on executive producer roles . Simmons outlined a story and commissioned National Lampoon writers John Hughes and Todd Carroll for a script . Joe Dante was briefly pursued as a director . The project was shut down due to conflicts with Universal Studios . David Brown later said that the studio attitude was that a spoof would have been a mistake and that it would be like " fouling in your own nest . We should have fouled the nest . It would have been golden , maybe even platinum . "
Alan Landsburg bought the rights to produce the film . He attempted to involve experimental filmmaker Murray Lerner in Jaws 3 , telling him that people at the Marineland theme park in Florida had seen his 1978 3D film Sea Dream . Lerner said that his " heart sank " when he was sent the first script of Jaws 3 @-@ D , saying " I can 't really get involved in this " . As the production already had an art director , Lerner , who didn 't like the script , declined to be involved in the film .
The film was directed by Joe Alves , who was the production designer for the first two films and was the second unit director for Jaws 2 . It had been suggested that Alves co @-@ direct the first sequel with Verna Fields when first director John D. Hancock left the project . It was filmed at SeaWorld Orlando , a landlocked water park ; and Navarre , Florida , a community in the Florida Panhandle near Pensacola .
As with the first two films in the series , many people were involved in writing the film . Richard Matheson , who had written the script for Steven Spielberg 's celebrated 1971 television film Duel , says that he wrote a " very interesting " outline , although the story is credited to " some other writer " . Universal forced Matheson to include Brody 's two sons , which the writer " thought was dumb " . They also wanted it to be the same shark that was electrocuted in Jaws 2 . Matheson was also requested to write a custom @-@ role for Mickey Rooney , " which I did so successfully that when Mickey Rooney turned out not to be available , the whole part was pointless " . The writer was unhappy with the finished film .
I 'm a good storyteller and I wrote a good outline and a good script . And if they had done it right and if it had been directed by somebody who knew how to direct , I think it would have been an excellent movie . Jaws 3 @-@ D was the only thing Joe Alves ever directed ; the man is a very skilled production designer , but as a director , no . And the so @-@ called 3D just made the film look murky – it had no effect whatsoever . It was a waste of time .
Guerdon Trueblood is credited for the story ; a reviewer for the website SciFilm says that the screenplay was based upon Trueblood 's story about a white shark swimming upstream and becoming trapped in a lake . Carl Gottlieb , who had also revised the screenplays for the first two Jaws films , was credited for the script alongside Richard Matheson . Matheson has reported in interviews that the screenplay was revised by script doctors .
The film did not use any actors from the first two Jaws films . Roy Scheider , who played Police Chief Martin Brody in the first two films , laughed at the thought of Jaws 3 , saying that " Mephistopheles ... couldn 't talk me into doing [ it ] ... They knew better than to even ask " . He agreed to do Blue Thunder to ensure his unavailability for Jaws 3 @-@ D.
= = = 3D = = =
There was a revival in popularity of 3D at this time , with many films using the technique . Jaws ' second sequel integrated the technology into its title , as did Amityville 3D . Friday the 13th Part III could also make dual use of the number three . The gimmick was also advertised in the tagline " the third dimension is terror . " As it was Joe Alves ' first film as director , he thought that 3D would " give him an edge " .
Cinema audiences could wear disposable polarized glasses to view the film , creating the illusion that elements from the film were penetrating the screen to come towards the viewers . The opening sequence makes obvious use of the technique , with the titles flying to the forefront of the screen , leaving a trail . There are more subtle instances in the film where props are meant to leave the screen . The more obvious examples are in the climactic sequence of the shark attacking the control room and its subsequent destruction . The glass as the shark smashes into the room uses 3D , as does the shot where the shark explodes , with fragmented parts of it apparently bursting through the screen , ending with its jaws . There were many difficulties in making the green screen compositing work in 3D , and a lot of material had to be reshot .
Jaws 3 @-@ D had two 3D consultants : the production started with Chris Condon , president of StereoVision , and Stan Loth was later added to the team for the Arrivision 3D . Production began using the StereoVision , but this was dropped after a week for the Arrivision system , " which Alves believed was a superior system because it has a wider variety of lenses " . According to Alves , inferior systems lead to ghosting and blurring , leaving audiences with headaches . He says that " the left and right images [ in Jaws 3 @-@ D ] are very well @-@ matched , and the photography is very clean ; it 's restful to the eye , and though we do have the occasional effects where things do emerge toward the audience from the plane of projection , you come out of the film without a headache . " Historian R. M. Hayes says that the film was shot using both the Arrivision and StereoVision single strip @-@ over @-@ and @-@ under units . Both cameras were used in conjunction with each other . This is a means of shooting 3D movies in normal color with a single camera and single strip of film : the Arrivision 3D technique uses a special twin @-@ lens adapter fitted to the film camera , and divides the 35 mm film frame in half along the middle , capturing the left @-@ eye image in the upper half of the frame and the right @-@ eye image in the lower half – this is known as " over / under " . This allows filming to proceed as for any standard 2D film , without the considerable additional expense of having to double up on cameras and film stock for every shot . When the resultant film is projected through a normal projector ( albeit one requiring a special lens that combines the upper and lower images ) , a true polarised 3D image is produced . This system allows 3D films to be shown in almost any cinema since it does not require two projectors running simultaneously through the presentation – something most cinemas are not equipped to handle . What is required of the theatre is both the special projection lens and a reflective " silver " screen to enable the polarized images to reflect back to the viewer with the appropriate filter on each eye blocking out the wrong image , thus leaving the viewer to see the film from two angles as the eyes naturally see the world . According to the company that built the underwater camera housings for Jaws 3 @-@ D , the underwater sequences were shot using an Arriflex 35 – 3 camera with Arrivision 18 mm over / under 3D lens .
This kind of 3D effect does not work on television without special electronic hardware at the viewer 's end , and so with two exceptions , the home video and broadcast TV versions of Jaws 3 @-@ D were created using just the left @-@ eye image , and with the title changed to " Jaws 3 " or " Jaws III " . Because the left @-@ eye image only takes up half the 35 mm film frame , the picture resolution is noticeably poorer than would normally be expected of a film shot on 35 mm .
One of the above @-@ mentioned exceptions was a 1986 release of the film for the now @-@ obsolete VHD video disc system ( not to be confused with LaserDisc ) . This required a special 3D VHD player , or a standard VHD player with a hardware 3D adapter , and a set of LCD glasses that shuttered the viewer 's eyes according to control signals sent by the player , allowing the polarised 3D effect to work . The other exception was the Sensio 3D DVD of Jaws 3 @-@ D released in February 2008 . The Sensio 3D Processor is needed for 3D home viewing .
SCTV in Indonesian television broadcast the 3D version of the film on HD by 30 September 1994 at 21 : 30 to 22 : 30 WIB , STAR TV Xing Kong in Chinese satellite television broadcast on Chinese New Year 's Eve Rabbit 2011 ( 22 January 2012 ) at 22 : 00 to 00 : 00 CST and TVB Pearl in Hong Kong English television broadcast on 3 July 2016 at 21 : 30 to 23 : 40 Hong Kong Time before News Roundup programme . The event was advertised heavily and required viewers to buy or obtain a pair of anaglyph glasses to fully enjoy the movie ; this was an anaglyph 3D version of the film created from the Arrivision original .
On June 14 , 2016 Universal released a Blu Ray transfer of the film . Though advertised as a 2 @-@ D release a complete Blu @-@ Ray 3D version is included as a special feature .
= = Music = =
The score was composed and conducted by Alan Parker , who had previously provided music for British television shows including Van der Valk and Minder . It was Parker 's first feature score , but he would later work on What 's Eating Gilbert Grape and American Gothic . John Williams ' original shark motif is , however , integrated into the score . The soundtrack album was released by MCA Records which was absorbed by Geffen Records . The soundtrack was later released on CD by Intrada and was limited to only 3000 copies .
= = = Track listing = = =
" Jaws 3 @-@ D Main Title " ( 2 : 59 )
" Kay and Mike 's Love Theme " ( 2 : 18 )
" Panic at Seaworld " ( 2 : 07 )
" Underwater Kingdom and Shark Chase " ( 4 : 20 )
" Shark Chase and Dolphin Rescue " ( 1 : 22 )
" Saved by the Dolphins " ( 2 : 05 )
" The Shark 's Gonna Hit Us ! " ( 2 : 42 )
" It 's Alive / Seaworld Opening Day / Silver Bullet " ( 2 : 34 )
" Overman 's Last Dive " ( 1 : 18 )
" Philip 's Demise " ( 4 : 59 )
" Night Capture " ( 4 : 53 )
" Jaws 3 @-@ D End Titles " ( 4 : 06 )
= = Reception = =
The film opened in more than a thousand screens across the U.S. There were many promotions to accompany the release of the film . As with Jaws 2 , Topps produced a series of trading cards . Television stations were encouraged to broadcast the featurette , Making of Jaws 3 @-@ D : Sharks Don 't Die , in a prime @-@ time slot between July 16 and 22 , 1983 to take advantage of an advertisement in that week 's issue of TV Guide . Alan Landsburg Productions found itself in trouble for using 90 seconds of footage from the National Geographic 's 1983 documentary film The Sharks in the featurette without authorization .
= = = Box office = = =
The film grossed $ 13 @,@ 422 @,@ 500 on its opening weekend , playing to 1 @,@ 311 theaters at its widest release . This was 29 @.@ 5 % of its total gross . It has achieved total lifetime worldwide gross of $ 87 @,@ 987 @,@ 055 . Despite being No. 1 at the box office , this illustrates the series ' diminishing returns , since Jaws 3 @-@ D has earned nearly $ 100 million less than the total lifetime gross of its predecessor and $ 300 million less than the original film . The final sequel would attract an even lower income , with around two thirds of Jaws 3 @-@ D 's total lifetime gross . However , the film was still drawing huge audiences when it was pulled from theaters ; film historian R.M. Hayes says this action " was pure nonsense considering some cinemas were actually turning over more money per screen than the latest Star Wars film " .
= = = Critical response = = =
Reception for the movie was generally poor . Variety calls it " tepid " and suggests that Alves " fails to linger long enough on the Great White . " It has a 12 % ' rotten ' rating at Rotten Tomatoes . The 3D was criticized as being a gimmick to attract audiences to the aging series and for being ineffective . Allrovi , however , says that " the suspense sequences were made somewhat more memorable during the film 's original release with 3D photography , an attribute lost on video , thereby removing the most distinctive element of an otherwise run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ mill sequel . " Derek Winnert says that " with Richard Matheson 's name on the script you 'd expect a better yarn " although he continues to say that the film " is entirely watchable with a big pack of popcorn . " Others are disappointed that Matheson and Gottlieb produced this script given their previous success .
Although most critics are in agreement that Jaws 2 is the best of the Jaws sequels , some are unsure if Jaws @-@ 3D is better than Jaws : The Revenge . One reviewer says of Jaws 3 @-@ D :
Campy performances , cheesy special effects , and downright awful dialogue all contribute to making Jaws 3 a truly dismal experience for just about everyone . It 's not only hard to believe that a sequel this downright abominable didn 't kill the franchise , but that it actually would be followed by a movie that was arguably worse — Jaws : the Revenge .
Amongst some flaws , some critics describe the film as " marginally entertaining . " The sound design has been commended , however . The moment when an infant 's cry is heard when the baby shark dies in the pool is particularly praised by one reviewer . Gossett , Jet magazine says , was the " only cast member to survive the generally negative reviews " .
In her screenwriting textbook , Linda Aronson suggests that its protagonist , played by Quaid , is a major problem with the film . She says that after taking too long for him to be introduced , the character is " essentially a passive onlooker . " There is no hunt until the climax when the shark is terrorizing the people in the aquarium ; only then does Mike Brody become centre of the action . She also highlights inaccuracies in the plot . For instance , she refutes the idea of a " mother shark protecting her offspring [ as ] sharks do not mother their young , " and points out that dolphins can attack sharks .
Leonard Maltin calls the film a " road @-@ company Irwin Allen type @-@ disaster film " and notes that its premise is similar to the 1955 sequel to The Creature from the Black Lagoon .
Jaws 3 @-@ D was nominated for five 1983 Golden Raspberry Awards , including Worst Picture , Director , Supporting Actor ( Lou Gossett , Jr . ) , Screenplay , and Newcomer ( Cindy and Sandy , " The Shrieking Dolphins " ) , but received none .
= = DVD release = =
The film was released in a standard 2 @-@ D format on DVD by Universal on June 3 , 2003 under the title Jaws 3 . With the exception of one theatrical trailer , no bonus features were included . Universal Studios Home Entertainment has released The Jaws flims on Blu @-@ ray ( 2016 )
= Ralph Waldo Christie =
Ralph Waldo Christie ( 30 August 1893 – 19 December 1987 ) was an admiral in the United States Navy who played a pivotal role in the development of torpedo technologies . During World War II , he commanded submarine operations out of the Australian ports of Brisbane and Fremantle .
A 1915 graduate of the United States Naval Academy , Christie served on a variety of warships beginning with the battleship New Jersey in 1915 . He was trained in torpedo design and implementation and became one of the first members of the Submarine School at New London . In 1923 Christie graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with a Master 's degree in Mechanical Engineering , specializing in torpedoes . During the 1920s , he was involved with project G @-@ 53 , a highly secret program to develop a magnetic influence exploder for torpedoes . The result of this was the development of the Mark 6 exploder and the Mark 14 torpedo . Christie also developed a design for an oxygen torpedo , designated project G @-@ 49 or " Navol " .
After the United States entered World War II , Christie was posted to Brisbane and commanded submarine operations during the Solomon Islands campaign . He then returned to the U.S. as Inspector of Ordnance at the Newport Torpedo Station . In January 1943 , Christie returned to Australia as commander of submarine operations in Fremantle . Despite growing evidence of problems with the Mark 6 exploder and the Mark 14 torpedo , he remained convinced of their effectiveness . During 1944 , he accompanied war patrols on the submarines USS Bowfin and USS Harder . In November 1944 , Christie was relieved of command of submarine operations at Fremantle by Vice Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid and returned to the United States , where he commanded the Puget Sound Navy Yard . He retired from the Navy in August 1949 with the rank of vice admiral .
= = Early career = =
Ralph W. Christie was born in Somerville , Massachusetts on 30 August 1893 . He graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1915 and served on a variety of warships beginning with the battleship New Jersey . Aboard the cruiser Montana in 1916 , he was trained in torpedo design and implementation . Christie was one of the first students of the Submarine School at New London . He went on to command the submarines USS Octopus in 1918 , USS R @-@ 6 in 1920 , USS S @-@ 1 in 1923 and USS S @-@ 17 in 1924 . Christie served as Commander , Submarines at Cavite from 1925 to 1926 . In 1923 , he graduated from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology with a Master 's degree in Mechanical Engineering , specializing in torpedoes .
= = = Development of the Mark 6 magnetic exploder = = =
In 1922 , as Christie was completing his graduate studies , the Bureau of Ordnance initiated project G @-@ 53 , a highly secret program to develop a magnetic influence exploder for torpedoes . In the summer of 1926 , Christie became intimately involved in the project , and was substantially involved in the technical development of the weapon system . By 1926 , the exploder was far enough advanced to permit its first test . On 8 May , the obsolete submarine USS L @-@ 8 was used as a target , and destroyed with an influence torpedo . Despite this early success , the influence exploder , which would become the Mark 6 , needed significant refinement .
Christie urged the Navy Department to allocate a target ship for extensive field tests of the torpedo and exploder . The Chief of Naval Operations authorized the use of the obsolete destroyer USS Ericsson , but placed so many restrictions on its use , Newport was forced to decline the offer . As a result , neither the Mark 6 exploder nor the Mark 14 torpedo ever underwent a live test , and their shortcomings would not become apparent until the outbreak of hostilities . It would be twenty months before the problems were corrected , over Christie 's objections .
= = = Development of the oxygen torpedo = = =
During the 1920s and 1930s , Christie carried out experimental work on an oxygen torpedo with the Ordnance Laboratory , in Alexandria , Virginia . Designated project G @-@ 49 or “ Navol ” , this torpedo used hydrogen peroxide instead of compressed air . Christie ’ s design had the experimental torpedo propel a 500 lb ( 230 kg ) warhead at 50 kn ( 93 km / h ; 58 mph ) to a maximum range of 15 @,@ 000 yd ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) . The Navol design was subsequently designated Mark 16 for submarines and Mark 17 for surface ships . The hydrogen peroxide system was test fitted to a Mark 14 torpedo in the mid @-@ 1930s , where Christie ’ s design propelled a 500 lb ( 230 kg ) warhead to a range of 16 @,@ 500 yd ( 15 @,@ 100 m ) at 46 kn ( 53 mph ; 85 km / h ; 53 mph ) .
Despite the promise of the design , many operational officers were opposed to the use of volatile hydrogen peroxide aboard ship . Ultimately , the Mark 16 went into limited production while work on the Mark 17 was suspended in 1941 , but resumed in 1944 . Admiral Ernest King favored focusing research efforts on electric torpedoes so work on the oxygen system was downgraded . As such , the U.S. Navy made no combat use of the oxygen torpedo design during the Second World War .
By May 1938 , Christie was head of the Torpedo Section at BuOrd and involved in providing torpedoes to the fleet . He would take command of Newport Torpedo Station in 1943 , shortly before the death of Admiral Robert English on 21 January 1943 .
= = = Other pre @-@ war assignments = = =
In 1939 , Christie was given command of Submarine Division 15 , consisting of all six Salmon @-@ class submarines . By 1941 , Germany and the United Kingdom were engaged in the Battle of the Atlantic . Although the United States was neutral , President Franklin D. Roosevelt ordered the U.S. Atlantic Fleet to enforce the Neutrality Patrol to assist UK @-@ bound convoys . As part of secret agreements with Britain , the United States agreed to provide the former with submarines under Royal Navy control , should America enter the conflict . Admiral Richard S. Edwards , Commander , Submarines , Atlantic Fleet ( ComSubLant ) , selected the now Captain Christie as tactical commander for the proposed submarine force in British waters . Christie wanted the new Tambor @-@ class submarines to be assigned to the Atlantic Fleet , but was overruled by Admiral Harold R. Stark , who selected the older S and Barracuda classes instead . As war seemed increasingly likely toward the end of 1941 , Christie placed his boats on full war footing .
= = World War Two service = =
= = = Brisbane = = =
At the outbreak of the Pacific War , remnants of the United States Asiatic Fleet fled to Australia , on orders from Washington . The S @-@ boats from the Philippines were organized into a fighting force at Brisbane , and Admiral Ernest King ordered S @-@ boats from the Atlantic Fleet to supplement the force in Australia . Christie went along , arriving in April 1942 , just in time for the Battle of the Coral Sea . During the Solomon Islands campaign , he ordered his boats to patrol around harbors which , while being key points for shipping , also tended to be heavily patrolled by aircraft and anti @-@ submarine craft . In step with then @-@ current U.S. Navy submarine doctrine , he made capital ships the prime targets , rather than have his boats focus on merchant shipping .
Almost as soon as the war began , submarine captains indicated there were problems with the Mark 14 torpedo and the influence feature of the Mark 6 exploder . Torpedoes would fail to explode , or explode prematurely . Despite these reports , Christie was not fully aware of the impact of the situation , because his S @-@ boats used the older Mark 10 torpedo , with a contact @-@ only pistol . Christie acknowledged Mark 14s were running deeper than set , but attributed the failures to poor maintenance and errors on the part of the captain and crew . He was convinced the Mark 6 was satisfactory , and ordered all fleet boats to continue to use it . In November 1942 , Christie was ordered to return to Newport as Inspector of Ordnance at the Torpedo Station . Newport had become a bottleneck for torpedo manufacture , and the Bureau of Ordnance wanted to advance development of the Mark 18 electric torpedo . Christie resisted leaving his command at Brisbane , but was considered of more use to resolve the torpedo issue . He was replaced by Captain James Fife . For his service at Brisbane , Christie was awarded the Legion of Merit .
Christie was promoted to rear admiral as part of his move back to Newport . In January 1943 , however , Rear Admiral Robert English , Commander , Submarines , U.S. Pacific Fleet , was killed in a plane crash . Christie hoped to get the position but the job went to Rear Admiral Charles A. Lockwood , commander of submarine operations in Fremantle , and the Bureau of Personnel selected Christie to take over Lockwood 's old command . Christie lobbied Vice Admiral Arthur ' Chips ' Carpender , Douglas MacArthur 's Commander Allied Naval Forces , to allow him to replace Fife as commander of the larger submarine force at Brisbane . Carpender refused , and Christie went on to Fremantle . Nevertheless , Christie continued to try for some time to take the Brisbane force under his control .
By the middle of 1943 , Lockwood had received enough reports from submarine officers to convince him the Mark 6 was significantly flawed . On 24 June 1943 , he formally ordered all submarines operating out of Pearl Harbor to deactivate the magnetic influence feature . However , Christie was still committed to the exploder , and ordered Fremantle boats to continue using the influence feature . Submarines operating between the two commands were required to either enable or disable it , depending on which command area they were in . This difference of opinion strained relations between the two admirals .
In November 1943 , Carpender was replaced by Vice Admiral Thomas C. Kinkaid , who ordered the final deactivation of the Mark 6 in all combat commands . Christie abided by the order , commencing on 20 January 1944 , but was still convinced the Mark 6 had potential . He had Commanders Chester Nimitz , Jr. and James McCallum continue technical studies of the Mark 6 and to develop improvements , but these revised exploders were just as unreliable as the earlier versions .
= = = Fremantle = = =
It was common for Christie to greet a returning submarine at the pier , and to award decorations to the crew on the spot . This bypassed naval award boards , and annoyed Kinkaid and Lockwood , possibly because confirmation of sinkings was accomplished by Ultra , the reading of coded Japanese radio traffic , and news of awards given so quickly could constitute a security breach . Complicating the matter was the fact MacArthur awarded army decorations to naval personnel ; like Christie , he took it upon himself to authorize the decorations rather than to go through the standard review procedures . These events compelled Kinkaid to forbid Christie to give pierside awards , and to keep Christie from recommending the award of army medals to navy personnel . These events would ultimately contribute to Christie 's dismissal as Commander of Submarines in Fremantle .
In early 1944 , Christie decided he wanted to make a war patrol and selected to ride with Walt Griffith in USS Bowfin . The admiral joined the boat on 29 January 1944 and , during the patrol , conducted standard duties such as standing watch . He departed Bowfin after an active 29 @-@ day patrol . In June 1944 , Christie decided he wanted to make a second patrol , and selected USS Guitarro . However , that boat was having engine troubles , so Christie decided to go in USS Harder , commanded by Samuel D. Dealey . Dealey had just finished up Harder 's epic fifth war patrol , in which he was credited with sinking five Japanese destroyers ( reduced post @-@ war to three destroyers ) . Despite the fact the crew was exhausted , Dealey agreed to extend his fifth patrol and take Christie on board . When Harder returned to port on 3 July 1944 , Christie was concerned about its commander . Dealey was one of the leading submarine skippers but , having completed five war patrols , he was showing signs of strain . The admiral believed Dealey should step down from command of Harder , but Dealey felt he should make one more patrol before leaving the boat .
After Christie 's return from his second combat patrol , Admiral Chester Nimitz recommended he and Lockwood meet in Brisbane and discuss joint submarine operations . During the visit , Lockwood and Christie discussed technical issues , as well as the establishment of advanced bases in Mios Woendi and Saipan . However , the meeting also resulted in some kind of personal rift between the two men . They had already clashed over the Mark 6 exploder and the Mark 14 torpedo , and some of Lockwood 's staff believed Christie 's ride in Harder was a risky and unnecessary stunt . After meeting with Lockwood , Christie met with MacArthur and related the events of Dealey 's fifth war patrol to the general . MacArthur then decided to award Dealey a Distinguished Service Cross , and Christie the Silver Star . Additionally at this meeting , Christie found out his earlier recommendation for an army decoration to Griffith had apparently been blocked by Kinkaid . Despite Kinkaid 's order regarding army decorations , MacArthur insisted on granting medals to the two men . Although Christie did not request the decorations , he was put on the spot and felt compelled to report the entire affair to Kinkaid . In the end , the general awarded the medals , displeasing Kinkaid .
On 5 August , Dealey took Harder out for a sixth patrol . His former executive officer , Frank C. " Tiny " Lynch , believed Dealey was mentally exhausted . Christie also had reservations , but Dealey seemed to recuperate while Harder was being refitted in port . The admiral therefore allowed Dealey to retain command . On 24 August , Harder was sunk with all hands off Dasol Bay . Dealey 's loss was a great shock to Christie , and the event worsened his relationship with Kinkaid . Christie recommended Dealey for the Medal of Honor for Harder 's fifth patrol and the supposed sinking of five Japanese destroyers . Kinkaid turned down the recommendation on the grounds Dealey had already received the Distinguished Service Cross for the same patrol . Christie was angered by this , and sent dispatches to Admiral Edwards , MacArthur , and Kinkaid himself . The radio dispatch to Kinkaid was sent in a low @-@ grade code that was easily decipherable ; it criticized Kinkaid and urged him to reconsider . The message was so blunt and public , it was viewed as bordering on insubordination .
In October and November 1944 , Christie received intelligence regarding German plans to operate a wolfpack of U @-@ boats in Australian waters . He directed Allied forces to detect and eliminate the threat , resulting in the Dutch submarine Zwaardvisch ( swordfish ) sinking U @-@ 168 on 6 October near Surabaya and USS Flounder 's sinking of U @-@ 537 on 10 November near the northern end of the Lombok Strait . Another U @-@ boat disappeared en route while a fourth , U @-@ 862 , evaded searchers to slip around the south coast of Australia and sink a Liberty ship south of Sydney in late December .
In November 1944 , Kinkaid relieved Christie of command of submarine operations at Fremantle , and assigned the position to Fife commencing 30 December . Although no specific reason was given , Christie was convinced it was because he pushed Kinkaid too hard for Dealey 's Medal of Honor , and for his process of awarding decorations in general . However , Christie 's losses , which included Dealey and Kinkaid 's nephew , Lieutenant Commander Manning Kimmel in USS Robalo in July 1944 , may have also influenced Kinkaid 's decision .
Christie returned to the United States , and went on to command Puget Sound Navy Yard . Now that he was no longer under Kinkaid 's command , Christie renewed his push to get Dealey awarded the Medal of Honor , this time by getting the endorsement for the decoration from MacArthur . The general agreed , and Dealey was posthumously awarded the medal .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
After the war , Christie attempted to get command of operations for Atlantic submarines , but that job went to James Fife instead . However , Christie was given command of naval forces in the Philippines . He retired from the Navy on 1 August 1949 , with tombstone promotion to the rank of vice admiral . He sold life insurance and dabbled in other ventures for some time . In his final years , he lived on the west coast of the United States and in Hawaii . Christie died in Honolulu , Hawaii on 19 December 1987 at the age of 94 . His wife , LaRene , joined him at the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific following her death on 31 May 2002 . His papers are in the Library of Congress .
= U.S. Route 2 in Washington =
U.S. Route 2 ( US 2 ) is a component of the United States Numbered Highway System that connects the city of Everett in the U.S. state of Washington to the Upper Peninsula of Michigan , with a separate segment that runs from Rouses Point , New York , to Houlton , Maine . Within Washington , the highway travels on a 326 @.@ 36 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 525 @.@ 23 km ) route that connects the western and eastern regions of the state as a part of the state highway system and the National Highway System . US 2 forms parts of two National Scenic Byways , the Stevens Pass Greenway from Monroe to Cashmere and the Coulee Corridor Scenic Byway near Coulee City , and an All @-@ American Road named the International Selkirk Loop within Newport .
US 2 begins in Everett at an intersection with State Route 529 ( SR 529 ) in Everett and travels east to an interchange with Interstate
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's company at Lyon , where Wilfrid stayed under the patronage of Annemund , the archbishop . Stephen says that Annemund wanted to marry Wilfrid to the archbishop 's niece , and to make Wilfrid the governor of a Frankish province , but that Wilfrid refused and continued on his journey to Rome . There he learned the Roman method of calculating the date of Easter , and studied the Roman practice of relic collecting . After an audience with the pope , Wilfrid returned to Lyon .
Stephen of Ripon says that Wilfrid stayed in Lyon for three years , leaving only after the archbishop 's murder . However , Annemund 's murder took place in 660 and Wilfrid returned to England in 658 , suggesting that Stephen 's chronology is awry . Stephen says that Annemund gave Wilfrid a clerical tonsure , although this does not appear to mean that he became a monk , merely that he entered the clergy . Bede is silent on the subject of Wilfrid 's monastic status , although Wilfrid probably became a monk during his time in Rome , or afterwards while he was in Gaul . Some historians , however , believe that Wilfrid was never a monk . While in Gaul , Wilfrid absorbed Frankish ecclesiastical practices , including some aspects from the monasteries founded by Columbanus . This influence may be seen in Wilfrid 's probable adoption of a Frankish ceremony in his consecration of churches later in his life , as well as in his employment of Frankish masons to build his churches . Wilfrid would also have learned of the Rule of Saint Benedict in Gaul , as Columbanus ' monasteries followed that monastic rule .
= = = Abbot of Ripon = = =
After Wilfrid 's return to Northumbria in about 658 , Cenwalh , King of Wessex , recommended Wilfrid to Alhfrith , Oswiu 's son , as a cleric well @-@ versed in Roman customs and liturgy . Alhfrith was a sub @-@ king of Deiria under his father 's rule , and the most likely heir to his father 's throne as his half @-@ brothers were still young . Shortly before 664 Alhfrith gave Wilfrid a monastery he had recently founded at Ripon , formed around a group of monks from Melrose Abbey , followers of the Irish monastic customs . Wilfrid ejected the abbot , Eata , because he would not follow the Roman customs ; Cuthbert , later a saint , was another of the monks expelled . Wilfrid introduced the Rule of Saint Benedict into Ripon , claiming that he was the first person in England to make a monastery follow it , but this claim rests on the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi and does not say where Wilfrid became knowledgeable about the Rule , nor exactly what form of the Rule was being referred to . Shortly afterwards Wilfrid was ordained a priest by Agilbert , Bishop of Dorchester in the kingdom of the Gewisse , part of Wessex . Wilfrid was a protégé of Agilbert , who later helped in Wilfrid 's consecration as a bishop . The monk Ceolfrith was attracted to Ripon from Gilling Abbey , which had recently been depopulated as a result of the plague . Ceolfrith later became Abbot of Wearmouth @-@ Jarrow during the time the medieval chronicler and writer Bede was a monk there . Bede hardly mentions the relationship between Ceolfrith and Wilfrid , but it was Wilfrid who consecrated Ceolfrith a priest and who gave permission for him to transfer to Wearmouth @-@ Jarrow .
= = Whitby = =
= = = Background to Whitby = = =
The Roman churches and those in the British Isles ( often called " Celtic churches " ) used different methods to calculate the date of Easter . The church in Northumbria had traditionally used the Celtic method , and that was the date observed by King Oswiu . His wife Eanflæd and a son , Alhfrith , celebrated Easter on the Roman date however , which meant that while one part of the royal court was still observing the Lenten fast , another would be celebrating with feasting .
Oswiu called a church council held at Whitby Abbey in 664 in an attempt to resolve this controversy . Although Oswiu himself had been brought up in the " Celtic " tradition , political pressures may have influenced his decision to call a council , as well as fears that if dissent over the date of Easter continued in the Northumbrian church it could lead to internal strife . The historian Richard Abels speculates that the expulsion of Eata from Ripon may have been the spark that led to the king 's decision to call the council . Regional tensions within Northumbria between the two traditional divisions , Bernicia and Deira , appear to have played a part , as churchmen in Bernicia favoured the Celtic method of dating and those in Deira may have leaned towards the Roman method . Abels identifies several conflicts contributing to both the calling of the council and its outcome , including a generational conflict between Oswiu and Alhfrith and the death of the Archbishop of Canterbury , Deusdedit . Political concerns unrelated to the dating problem , such as the decline of Oswiu 's preeminence among the other English kingdoms and the challenge to that position by Mercia , were also factors .
= = = Synod = = =
Wilfrid attended the synod , or council , of Whitby , as a member of the party favouring the continental practice of dating Easter , along with James the Deacon , Agilbert , and Alhfrith . Those supporting the " Celtic " viewpoint were King Oswiu , Hilda , the Abbess of Whitby , Cedd , a bishop , and Colmán of Lindisfarne , the Bishop of Lindisfarne .
Wilfrid was chosen to present the Roman position to the council ; he also acted as Agilbert 's interpreter , as the latter did not speak the local language . Bede describes Wilfrid as saying that those who did not calculate the date of Easter according to the Roman system were committing a sin . Wilfrid 's speech in favour of adopting Roman church practices helped secure the eclipse of the " Celtic " party in 664 , although most Irish churches did not adopt the Roman date of Easter until 704 , and Iona held out until 716 . Many of the Irish monasteries did not observe the Roman Easter , but they were not isolated from the continent ; by the time of Whitby the southern Irish were already observing the Roman Easter date , and Irish clergy were in contact with their continental counterparts . Those monks and clergy unable to accept the Whitby decision left Northumbria , some going to Ireland and others to Iona .
= = York = =
= = = Elevation to the episcopate = = =
After the supporters of the " Celtic churches " had withdrawn following the Council of Whitby , Wilfrid became the most prominent Northumbrian cleric . As a result , and because of his performance at Whitby , Wilfrid was elected to a bishopric in Northumbria about a year after the council . It is unclear where his diocese was located , although he was considered to be Alhfrith 's bishop . The Vita Sancti Wilfrithi states that , nominated by both Oswiu and Alhfrith , he was made bishop at York , and that he was a metropolitan bishop , but York at that time was not a metropolitan diocese . Bede says that Alhfrith alone nominated Wilfrid , and that Oswiu subsequently proposed an alternative candidate , " imitating the actions of his son " . Several theories have been suggested to explain the discrepancies between the two sources . One is that Alhfrith wished the seat to be at York , another is that Wilfrid was bishop only in Deira , a third supposes that Wilfrid was never bishop at York and that his diocese was only part of Deira . However , at that time the Anglo @-@ Saxon dioceses were not strictly speaking geographical designations , rather they were bishoprics for the tribes or peoples .
Wilfrid refused to be consecrated in Northumbria at the hands of Anglo @-@ Saxon bishops . Deusdedit had died shortly after Whitby , and as there were no other bishops in Britain whom Wilfrid considered to have been validly consecrated he travelled to Compiègne , to be consecrated by Agilbert , the Bishop of Paris . During his time in Gaul Wilfrid was exposed to a higher level of ceremony than that practised in Northumbria , one example of which is that he was carried to his consecration ceremony on a throne supported by nine bishops .
= = = Delays and difficulties = = =
Wilfrid delayed his return from Gaul , only to find on his arrival back in Northumbria that Ceadda had been installed as bishop in his place . The reason for Wilfrid 's delay has never been clear , although the historians Eric John and Richard Abels theorise that it was caused by Alhfrith 's unsuccessful revolt against Oswiu . They suggest that the rebellion happened shortly after Whitby , perhaps while Wilfrid was in Gaul for his consecration . Because Oswiu knew that Alhfrith had been a supporter of Wilfrid 's , Oswiu prevented Wilfrid 's return , suspecting Wilfrid of supporting his rivals . That Ceadda was supported by Oswiu , and Wilfrid had been a supporter of Oswiu 's son , lends further credence to the theory that Alhfrith 's rebellion took place while Wilfrid was in Gaul . Stephen of Ripon reported that Wilfrid was expelled by " Quartodecimans " , or those who supported the celebration of Easter on the 14th day of the Jewish month Nisan , whether or not this was a Sunday . However , as the Irish church had never been Quartodecimans , Stephen in this instance was constructing a narrative to put Wilfrid in the best light .
During his return to Northumbria Wilfrid 's ship was blown ashore on the Sussex coast , the inhabitants of which were at that time pagan . On being attacked by the locals , Wilfrid 's party killed the head priest before refloating their ship and making their escape . The historian Marion Gibbs suggests that after this episode Wilfrid visited Kent again , and took part in the diplomacy related to Wigheard 's appointment to the see of Canterbury . Wilfrid may also have taken part in negotiations to persuade King Cenwalh of Wessex to allow Agilbert to return to his see .
= = = Favourable outcome = = =
Denied episcopal office , Wilfrid spent the three years from 665 to 668 as abbot of the monastery at Ripon . He occasionally performed episcopal functions in Mercia and Kent , but never did so north of the river Humber . The historian James Fraser argues that Wilfrid may not have been allowed to return to Northumbria and instead went into exile at the Mercian court , but most historians have argued that Wilfrid was at Ripon .
Wilfrid 's monasteries in Mercia may date from this time , as King Wulfhere of Mercia gave him large grants of land in Mercia . Wilfrid may have persuaded King Ecgberht of Kent in 669 to build a church in an abandoned Roman fort at Reculver . When Theodore , the newly appointed Archbishop of Canterbury , arrived in England in 669 it was clear that something had to be done about the situation in Northumbria . Ceadda 's election to York was improper , and Theodore did not consider Ceadda 's consecration to have been valid . Consequently , Theodore deposed Ceadda , leaving the way open for Wilfrid , who was finally installed in his see in 669 , the first Saxon to occupy the see of York . Wilfrid spent the next nine years building churches , including at the monastery at Hexham , and attending to diocesan business . He continued to exercise control over his monastic houses of Ripon and Hexham while he was bishop . Oswiu 's death on 15 February 670 eliminated a source of friction and helped to assure Wilfrid 's return .
While at York , Wilfrid was considered the " bishop of the Northumbrian peoples " ; Bede records that Wilfrid 's diocese was contiguous with the area ruled by Oswiu . The diocese was restricted to north of the Humber , however . Wilfrid may also have sought to exercise some ecclesiastical functions in the Pictish kingdom , as he is accorded the title " bishop of the Northumbrians and the Picts " in 669 . Further proof of attempted Northumbrian influence in the Pictish regions is provided by the establishment for the Picts in 681 of a diocese centred on Abercorn , in the old territory of the British kingdom of Gododdin . The grants of land to Wilfrid west of the Pennines testify to Northumbrian expansion in that area . The Vita Sancti Wilfrithi claims that Wilfrid had ecclesiastical rule over Britons and Gaels . In 679 , while Wilfrid was in Rome , he claimed authority over " all the northern part of Britain , Ireland and the islands , which are inhabited by English and British peoples , as well as by Gaelic and Pictish peoples " .
= = = Diocesan affairs = = =
Wilfrid did not attend the Council of Hertford held in September 672 , but he did send representatives . Among the council 's resolutions was one postponing a decision on the creation of new dioceses , which affected Wilfrid later . Another ruling confirmed that the Roman calculation for the date of Easter should be adopted , and that bishops should act only in their own dioceses . During the middle 670s Wilfrid acted as middleman in the negotiations to return a Merovingian prince , Dagobert II , from his exile in Ireland to Gaul . Wilfrid was one of the first churchmen in Northumbria to utilise written charters as records of gifts to his churches . He ordered the creation of a listing of all benefactions received by Ripon , which was recited at the dedication ceremony .
Wilfrid was an advocate for the use of music in ecclesiastical ceremonies . He sent to Kent for a singing master to instruct his clergy in the Roman style of church music , which involved a double choir who sang in antiphons and responses . Bede says that this singing master was named Æddi ( or Eddius in Latin ) and had the surname Stephen . Traditionally historians have identified Æddi as Stephen of Ripon , author of the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi , which has led to the assumption that the Vita was based on the recollections of one of Wilfrid 's long @-@ time companions . However , recent scholarship has come to believe that the Vita was not authored by the singing master , but by someone who joined Wilfrid in the last years of Wilfrid 's life , not a close companion .
Wilfrid introduced the Rule of Saint Benedict into the monasteries he founded . It appears likely that he was the first to introduce the Benedictine Rule into England , as evidence is lacking that Augustine 's monastery at Canterbury followed the Rule . He also was one of the first Anglo @-@ Saxon bishops to record the gifts of land and property to his church , which he did at Ripon . Easter tables , used to calculate the correct date to celebrate Easter , were brought in from Rome where the Dionysiac Easter tables had been recently introduced . He set up schools and became a religious advisor to the Northumbrian queen Æthelthryth , first wife of Ecgfrith . Æthelthryth donated the land at Hexham where Wilfrid founded a monastery and built a church using some recycled stones from the Roman town of Corbridge . When Wilfrid arrived in York as bishop the cathedral 's roof was on the point of collapse ; he had it repaired and covered in lead , and had glass set in the windows .
The historian Barbara Yorke says of Wilfrid at this time that he " seems to have continued a campaign against any survival of ' Irish errors ' and distrusted any communities that remained in contact with Iona or other Irish religious houses which did not follow the Roman Easter " . He also worked to combat pagan practices , building a church at Melrose on a pagan site . Contemporaries said of him that he was the first native bishop to " introduce the Catholic way of life to the churches of the English " . He did not neglect his pastoral duties in his diocese , making visits throughout the diocese to baptise and perform other episcopal functions , such as consecrating new churches . Some of the monasteries in his diocese were put under his protection by their abbots or abbesses , who were seeking someone to help protect their endowments . In ruling over such monasteries , Wilfrid may have been influenced by the Irish model of a group of monasteries all ruled by one person , sometimes while holding episcopal office .
Wilfrid was criticised for dressing his household and servants in clothing fit for royalty . He was accompanied on his travels by a retinue of warriors , one of whom , while at York , Wilfrid sent to abduct a young boy who had been promised to the church but whose family had changed their mind . Wilfrid also educated young men , both for clerical and secular careers .
= = Expulsion = =
= = = Dispute with the king = = =
In 677 or 678 , Wilfrid and Ecgfrith quarrelled , and Wilfrid was expelled from his see . Abbess Hilda of Whitby was a leader in a faction of the Northumbrian church that disliked Wilfrid , and her close ties with Theodore helped to undermine Wilfrid 's position in Northumbria . Another contributory factor in Wilfrid 's expulsion was his encouragement of Æthelthryth 's entry into a nunnery ; he had personally given her the veil , the ceremony of entering a nunnery , on her retirement to Ely Abbey . Æthelthryth had donated the lands Wilfrid used to found Hexham Abbey , and the historian N. J. Higham argues that they had been part of the queen 's dower lands , which , when Ecgfrith remarried , his new queen wanted to recover . The historian Eric John feels that Wilfrid 's close ties with the Mercian kingdom also contributed to his troubles with Egfrith , although John points out that these ties were necessary for Wilfrid 's monastic foundations , some of which were in Mercia . Wilfrid not only lost his diocese , he lost control of his monasteries as well .
Theodore took advantage of the situation to implement decrees of some councils on dividing up large dioceses . Theodore set up new bishoprics from Wilfrid 's diocese , with seats at York , Hexham , Lindisfarne , and one in the region of Lindsey . The Lindsey see was quickly absorbed by the Diocese of Lichfield , but the other three remained separate . The bishops chosen for these sees , Eata at Hexham , Eadhæd at Lindsey , and Bosa at York , had all either been supporters of the " Celtic " party at Whitby , or been trained by those who were . Eata had also been ejected from Ripon by Wilfrid . The new bishops were unacceptable to Wilfrid , who claimed they were not truly members of the Church because of their support for the " Celtic " method of dating Easter , and thus he could not serve alongside them . Another possible problem for Wilfrid was that the three new bishops did not come from Wilfrid 's monastic houses nor from the communities where the bishops ' seats were based . This was contrary to the custom of the time , which was to promote bishoprics from within the locality . Wilfrid 's deposition became tangled up in a dispute over whether or not the Gregorian plan for Britain , with two metropolitan sees , the northern one set at York , would be followed through or abandoned . Wilfrid seems to have felt that he had metropolitan authority over the northern part of England , but Theodore never acknowledged that claim , instead claiming authority over the whole of the island of Britain .
= = = Appeal to Rome = = =
Wilfrid went to Rome after his expulsion to appeal against Theodore and Ecgfrith 's decisions , the first Englishman to challenge a royal or ecclesiastical decision by petitioning the papacy . On the way he stopped at the court of Aldgisl , the Frisian king in Utrecht for most of 678 . Wilfrid had been blown off course on his trip from England to the continent , and ended up in Frisia according to some historians . Others state that he intended to journey via Frisia to avoid Neustria , whose mayor of the palace , Ebroin , disliked Wilfrid . He wintered in Frisia , avoiding the diplomatic efforts of Ebroin , who according to Stephen attempted to have Wilfrid killed . During his stay , Wilfrid attempted to convert the Frisians , who were still pagan at that time . Wilfrid 's biographer says that most of the nobles converted , but the success was short @-@ lived . After Frisia , he stopped at the court of Dagobert II in Austrasia , where the king offered Wilfrid the Bishopric of Strasbourg , which Wilfrid refused . Once in Italy , Wilfrid was received by Perctarit , a Lombard king , who gave him a place at his court .
Pope Agatho held a synod in October 679 , which although it ordered Wilfrid 's restoration and the return of the monasteries to his control , also directed that the new dioceses should be retained . Wilfrid was , however , given the right to replace any bishop in the new dioceses to whom he objected . The council had been called to deal with the Monothelete controversy , and Wilfrid 's concerns were not the sole focus of the council . In fact , the historian Henry Chadwick thought that one reason Wilfrid secured the mostly favourable outcome was that Agatho wished for Wilfrid 's support and testimony that the English Church was free of the monothelete heresy . Although Wilfrid did not win a complete victory , he did secure a papal decree limiting the number of dioceses in England to 12 . Wilfrid also secured the right for his monasteries of Ripon and Hexham to be directly supervised by the pope , preventing any further interference in their affairs by the diocesan bishops .
Wilfrid returned to England after the council via Gaul . According to Stephen of Ripon , after the death of Dagobert II , Ebroin wished to imprison Wilfrid , but Wilfrid miraculously escaped . In 680 Wilfrid returned to Northumbria and appeared before a royal council . He produced the papal decree ordering his restoration , but was instead briefly imprisoned and then exiled by the king . Wilfrid stayed for a short time in the kingdom of the Middle Angles and at Wessex , but soon took refuge in Sussex with King Æthelwealh of Sussex .
= = Missions in Sussex = =
Wilfrid spent the next five years preaching to , and converting the pagan inhabitants of Sussex , the South Saxons . He also founded Selsey Abbey , on an estate near Selsey of 87 hides , given to Wilfrid by Æthelwealh , king of the South Saxons . Bede attributes Wilfrid 's ability to convert the South Saxons to his teaching them how to fish , and contrasts it with the lack of success of the Irish monk Dicuill . Bede also says that the Sussex area had been experiencing a drought for three years before Wilfrid 's arrival , but miraculously when Wilfrid arrived , and started baptising converts , rain began to fall . Wilfrid worked with Bishop Erkenwald of London , helping to set up the church in Sussex . Erkenwald also helped reconcile Wilfrid and Theodore before Theodore 's death in 690 . The mission was jeopardised when King Æthelwealh died during an invasion of his kingdom by Cædwalla of Wessex . Wilfrid previously had contact with Cædwalla , and may have served as his spiritual advisor before Cædwalla 's invasion of Sussex . After Æthelwealh 's death and Cædwalla 's accession to the throne of Wessex , Wilfrid became one of the new king 's advisors , and the king was converted . Cædwalla confirmed Æthelwealh 's grant of land in the Selsey area and Wilfrid built his cathedral church near the entrance to Pagham Harbour believed to be what is now Church Norton .
Cædwalla sent Wilfrid to the Isle of Wight , which was still pagan , with the aim of converting the inhabitants . The king also gave Wilfrid a quarter of the land on the island as a gift . In 688 , the king relinquished his throne and went on a pilgrimage to Rome to be baptised , but died shortly after the ceremony . Wilfrid was probably influential in Cædwalla 's decision to be baptised in Rome .
During his time in Sussex Wilfrid was reconciled with Archbishop Theodore ; the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi says that Theodore expressed a desire for Wilfrid to succeed him at Canterbury . Wilfrid may have been involved in founding monasteries near Bath as well as in other parts of Sussex , but the evidence backing this is based on the wording used in the founding charters resembling wording used by Wilfrid in other charters , not on any concrete statements that Wilfrid was involved .
= = Return to Northumbria and exile = =
= = = Return from exile = = =
In 686 Wilfrid was recalled to Northumbria after the death of Ecgfrith in battle with the Picts . During the 680s Theodore had created two more dioceses in Northumbria , at Ripon , and at Abercorn in the Pictish kingdom , but both were short @-@ lived . After Ecgfrith 's death , Theodore wrote to the new king of Northumbria , Aldfrith , and to Æthelred , king of Mercia and the Abbess of Whitby , Ælfflæd , suggesting that an agreement be made allowing Wilfrid 's return to Northumbria . Aldfrith agreed , Wilfrid returned to the north , and Bosa was removed from York . Wilfrid did not recover the whole of his previous bishopric however , as Hexham and Lindisfarne remained separate sees .
Wilfrid appears to have lived at Ripon , and for a time he acted as administrator of the see of Lindisfarne after Cuthbert 's death in 687 . In 691 , the subdivision issue arose once more , along with quarrels with King Aldfrith over lands , and attempts were made to make Wilfrid either give up all his lands or to stay confined to Ripon . A proposal to turn Ripon into a bishopric was also a source of dispute . When no compromise was possible Wilfrid left Northumbria for Mercia , and Bosa was returned to York .
Something of the reception to Wilfrid 's expulsion can be picked up in a Latin letter which has survived only in an incomplete quotation by William of Malmesbury in his Gesta pontificum Anglorum . We have it on William 's authority that the letter was written by Aldhelm of Malmesbury and addressed to Wilfrid 's abbots . In it , Aldhelm asks the clergymen to remember the exiled bishop " who , nourishing , teaching , reproving , raised you in fatherly love " and appealing to lay aristocratic ideals of loyalty , urges them not to abandon their superior . Neither William nor the citation itself gives a date , but the letter has been assigned to Wilfrid 's exile under Aldfrith in the 690s .
= = = Mercia = = =
During his stay in Mercia Wilfrid acted as bishop with the consent of King Æthelred . Information on Wilfrid 's life at this time is meagre , as the Vita Sancti Wilfrithi says little of this period . He is generally considered to have been Bishop of Leicester until about 706 , when he is held to have been transferred to Hexham . Wilfrid became involved in the missionary efforts to the Frisians , which he had started in 678 during his stay in Frisia . Wilfrid helped the missionary efforts of Willibrord , which were more successful than his own earlier attempts . Willibrord was a monk of Ripon who was also a native of Northumbria .
Wilfrid was present at the exhumation of the body of Queen Æthelthryth at Ely Abbey in 695 . He had been her spiritual adviser in the 670s , and had helped the queen become a nun against the wishes of her husband King Ecgfrith of Northumbria . The queen had joined Ely Abbey , where she died in 679 . The ceremony in 695 found that her body had not decayed , which led to her being declared a saint . Wilfrid 's testimony as to the character and virginity of Æthelthryth was recorded by Bede .
In about 700 , Wilfrid appealed once more to Pope Sergius I over his expulsion from York , and the pope referred the issue back to a council in England . In 702 King Aldfrith held a council at Austerfield that upheld Wilfrid 's expulsion , and once more Wilfrid travelled to Rome to appeal to the pope . The Vita Sancti Wilfrithi gives a speech , supposedly delivered by Wilfrid there , in defence of Wilfrid 's record over the previous 40 years . The council was presided over by Berhtwald , the new Archbishop of Canterbury , and the decision of the council was that Wilfrid should be deprived of all his monasteries but Ripon , and that he should cease to perform episcopal functions . When Wilfrid continued his appeal to the papacy , his opponents had him and his supporters excommunicated .
= = = Rome and final return to Northumbria = = =
On his way to Rome Wilfrid stopped in Frisia to visit Willibrord . Following Wilfrid 's arrival in Rome the pope held a council , which declared that the King of Northumbria should follow the earlier papal decrees restoring Wilfrid to his see . Wilfrid was disconcerted to find that the papal court spoke Greek , and his biographer noted that Wilfrid was displeased when the pope discussed the appeal with advisers in a language Wilfrid could not understand . The pope also ordered another council to be held in Britain to decide the issue , and ordered the attendance of Bosa , Berhtwald and Wilfrid . On his journey back to England Wilfrid had a seizure at Meaux , but he had returned to Kent by 705 .
Aldfrith died soon after Wilfrid 's arrival back in England . The new king , Eadwulf , had been considered one of Wilfrid 's friends , but after his accession to the throne he ordered Wilfrid to stay out of Northumbria . Eadwulf 's reign lasted only a few months however , before he was expelled to make way for Aldfrith 's son Osred , to whom Wilfrid acted as spiritual adviser . Wilfrid may have been one of Osred 's chief supporters , along with Oswiu 's daughter Abbess Ælfflæd of Whitby , and the nobleman Beornhæth . Once Osred was secure on the throne Wilfrid was restored to Ripon and Hexham in 706 . When Bosa of York died , however , Wilfrid did not contest the decision to appoint John of Beverley to York . This appointment meant John 's transfer from Hexham , leaving Wilfrid free to perform episcopal functions at Hexham , which he did until his death .
= = Other aspects = =
= = = Cult of St Oswald = = =
Sometime after the translation of the relics of Oswald of Northumbria to Bardney Abbey by Osthryth between 675 and 679 , Wilfrid , along with Hexham Abbey , began to encourage and promote the cult of the dead king . Barbara Yorke sees this advocacy as a major factor in the prominence given to Oswald in Bede 's Historia ecclesiastica gentis Anglorum . Historian D. P. Kirby regards Wilfrid 's championing of Oswald as being a contributing factor in Wilfrid 's expulsion from York in 678 . Kirby believes that Ecgfrith felt Wilfrid was promoting Oswald 's branch of the Northumbrian royal family over his own . One of Wilfrid 's protégés , Willibrord , became a missionary to the Frisians in 695 , perhaps inspired by Wilfrid 's example . Willibrord may have felt it expedient to leave Northumbria , where he was known as one of Wilfrid 's followers .
= = = Monastic network = = =
Wilfrid 's network of monasteries extended across at least three of the kingdoms of England in his day . They included Hexham , Ripon , Selsey , and Oundle , as well as possibly Peterborough , Brixworth , Evesham , Wing , and Withington . At his monasteries and dioceses he built churches in a style akin to that of the continent and Rome , travelling between them with a large entourage of up to 120 followers . He made many contacts and friends , not only in Northumbria and the other English kingdoms , but also in Gaul , Frisia , and Italy . Nobles sent their sons to him for fostering , and Wilfrid was known to help his protégés , no matter if they became clerics or not . The historian Peter Brown speculated that one reason for Wilfrid 's exile in 678 was that he was overshadowing the king as a patron . His contacts extended to the Lombard kingdom in Italy , where they included King Perctarit and his son Cunipert .
Wilfrid was a prolific founder of churches , which he then controlled until his death , and was a great fundraiser , acquiring lands and money from many of the kings he was in contact with . He was also noted for his ability to attract support from powerful women , especially queens . Queen Eanflæd , his first patron , introduced him to a number of helpful contacts , and he later attracted the support of Queen Æthelthryth , who gave the endowment for Hexham Abbey . Ælfflæd , sister of King Aldfrith of Northumbria and daughter of Wilfrid 's old patron Queen Eanflæd , helped to persuade the Northumbrians to allow Wilfrid to return from his last exile .
= = = Builder and artistic patron = = =
Wilfrid built a church capable of accommodating a congregation of 2 @,@ 000 at Hexham , using stone from Hadrian 's Wall . The 12th @-@ century writer Ailred of Rievaulx , whose family helped restore Hexham , credited Wilfrid as the designer of a church beautifully embellished with paintings and sculpture . It appears that the churches at Hexham and Ripon ( which Wilfrid also built ) were aisled basilicas , of the type that was common on the continent . Ripon was the first church in Northumbria to incorporate a porticus , similar to those of churches in Kent . 12th @-@ century pilgrims ' accounts declared that the church at Hexham rivalled those of Rome . The crypts at both Ripon and Hexham are unusual , and perhaps were intended by Wilfrid to mimic the Roman catacombs which he had seen on his travels . They are still extant , although the fabric of Wilfrid 's churches above ground has been replaced by later structures . The churches were finished with glazed windows , made by glassmakers brought over from the continent .
As well as his building projects Wilfrid also commissioned works to embellish the churches , including altar cloths made of silk woven with gold threads , and a gospel book written on parchment dyed purple , with gold lettering . The gospels were then enclosed in a gold book cover set with gems . When the church he had built at Ripon was consecrated , a three @-@ day feast was held to accompany the ceremony .
= = Resignation and death = =
After his final return to Northumbria Wilfrid retired to the monastery at Ripon , where he lived until his death during a visit to Oundle , at the age of 75 . A little over a year before his death in either 709 or 710 Wilfrid suffered another stroke or seizure , which led him to make arrangements for the disposition of his monasteries and possessions . He was buried near the altar of his church in Ripon . Bede records the epitaph that was placed on the tomb . Wilfrid was succeeded at Hexham by Acca of Hexham , a protégé who had accompanied him to Rome in 703 . The monastery at Ripon celebrated the first anniversary of Wilfrid 's death with a commemoration service attended by all the abbots of his monasteries and a spectacular white arc was said to have appeared in the sky starting from the gables of the basilica where his bones were laid to rest .
Wilfrid left large sums of money to his monastic foundations , enabling them to purchase royal favour . Soon after his death a Vita Sancti Wilfrithi , was written by Stephen of Ripon , a monk of Ripon . The first version appeared in about 715 followed by a later revision in the 730s , the first biography written by a contemporary to appear in England . It was commissioned by two of Wilfrid 's followers , Acca of Hexham , and the Abbot of Ripon , Tatbert . Stephen 's Vita is concerned with vindicating Wilfrid and making a case for his sainthood , and so is used with caution by historians , although it is nevertheless an invaluable source for Wilfrid 's life and the history of the time .
= = Legacy = =
Wilfrid 's feast day is 12 October or 24 April . Both dates were celebrated in early medieval England , but the April date appeared first in the liturgical calendars . The April date is the date when his relics were translated to a new shrine . Immediately after his death Wilfrid 's body was venerated as a cult object , and miracles were alleged to have happened at the spot where the water used to wash his body was discarded . A cult grew up at Ripon after his death and remained active until 948 , when King Eadred destroyed the church at Ripon ; after the destruction , Wilfrid 's relics were taken by Archbishop Oda of Canterbury , and held in Canterbury Cathedral . This account appears in a foreword written by Oda for Frithegod 's later poem on Wilfrid 's life . However , according to Byrhtferth 's Vita Sancti Oswaldi , or Life of Saint Oswald , Oda 's nephew , Oswald , Archbishop of York , preserved the relics at Ripon and restored the community there to care for them . The two differing accounts are not easily reconciled , but it is possible that Oswald collected secondary relics that had been overlooked by his uncle and installed those at Ripon . The relics that were held at Canterbury were originally placed in the High Altar in 948 , but after the fire at Canterbury Cathedral in 1067 , Wilfrid 's relics were placed in their own shrine .
After the Norman Conquest of England , devotion continued to be paid to Wilfrid , with 48 churches dedicated to him and relics distributed between 11 sites . During the 19th century , the feast of Wilfrid was celebrated on the Sunday following Lammas in the town of Ripon with a parade and horse racing , a tradition which continued until at least 1908 . Wilfrid is venerated in the Roman Catholic Church , Eastern Orthodox Church and the Anglican Communion . He is usually depicted either as a bishop preaching and baptising or else as a robed bishop holding an episcopal staff .
Wilfrid was one of the first bishops to bring relics of saints back from Rome . The papacy was trying to prevent the removal of actual body parts from Rome , restricting collectors to things that had come in contact with the bodily remains such as dust and cloth . Wilfrid was known as an advocate of Benedictine monasticism , and regarded it as a tool in his efforts to " root out the poisonous weeds planted by the Scots " . He built at Ripon and Hexham , and lived a majestic lifestyle . As a result of his various exiles , he founded monastic communities that were widely scattered over the British Isles , over which he kept control until his death . These monastic foundations , especially Hexham , contributed to the blending of the Gaelic and Roman strains of Christianity in Northumbria , which inspired a great surge of learning and missionary activity ; Bede and Alcuin were among the scholars who emerged from Northumbrian monasteries influenced by Wilfrid . Missionaries inspired by his example went from Northumbria to the continent , where they converted pagans in Germany and elsewhere .
One commentator has said that Wilfrid " came into conflict with almost every prominent secular and ecclesiastical figure of the age " . Hindley , a historian of the Anglo @-@ Saxons , states that " Wilfrid would not win his sainthood through the Christian virtue of humility " . The historian Barbara Yorke said of him that " Wilfrid 's character was such that he seems to have been able to attract and infuriate in equal measure " . His contemporary , Bede , although a partisan of the Roman dating of Easter , was a monk and always treats Wilfrid a little uneasily , showing some concern about how Wilfrid conducted himself as a clergyman and as a bishop . The historian Eric John feels that it was Wilfrid 's devotion to monasticism that led him to believe that the only way for the Church to be improved was through monasticism . John traces Wilfrid 's many appeals to Rome to his motivation to hold together his monastic empire , rather than to self @-@ interest . John also challenges the belief that Wilfrid was fond of pomp , pointing out that the comparison between the Irish missionaries who walked and Wilfrid who rode ignores the reality that the quickest method of travel in the Middle Ages was on horseback .
The historian Peter Hunter Blair summarises Wilfrid 's life as follows : " Wilfrid left a distinctive mark on the character of the English church in the seventh century . He was not a humble man , nor , so far as we can see , was he a man greatly interested in learning , and perhaps he would have been more at home as a member of the Gallo @-@ Roman episcopate where the wealth which gave him enemies in England would have passed unnoticed and where his interference in matters of state would have been less likely to take him to prison . " R. W. Southern , another modern historian , says that Wilfrid was " the greatest papal enthusiast of the century " . James Campbell , a historian specialising in the Anglo @-@ Saxon period , said of him " He was certainly one of the greatest ecclesiastics of his day . Ascetic , deemed a saint by some , the founder of several monasteries according to the rule of St Benedict , he established Christianity in Sussex and attempted to do so in Frisia . At the same time , his life and conduct were in some respects like those of a great Anglo @-@ Saxon nobleman . "
= Chitinozoan =
Chitinozoa ( singular : chitinozoan , plural : chitinozoans ) are a taxon of flask @-@ shaped , organic walled marine microfossils produced by an as yet unknown animal . Common from the Ordovician to Devonian periods ( i.e. the mid @-@ Paleozoic ) , the millimetre @-@ scale organisms are abundant in almost all types of marine sediment across the globe . This wide distribution , and their rapid pace of evolution , makes them valuable biostratigraphic markers .
Their bizarre form has made classification and ecological reconstruction difficult . Since their discovery in 1931 , suggestions of protist , plant , and fungal affinities have all been entertained . The organisms have been better understood as improvements in microscopy facilitated the study of their fine structure , and there is mounting evidence to suggest that they represent either the eggs or juvenile stage of a marine animal .
The ecology of chitinozoa is also open to speculation ; some may have floated in the water column , where others may have attached themselves to other organisms . Most species were particular about their living conditions , and tend to be most common in specific paleoenvironments . Their abundance also varied with the seasons .
= = Appearance = =
Chitinozoa range in length from around 50 to 2000 micrometres . They appear dark to almost opaque when viewed under an optical microscope . External ornamentation is often preserved on the surface of the fossils , in the form of hairs , loops or protrusions , which are sometimes as large as the chamber itself . The range and complexity of ornament increased with time , against a backdrop of decreasing organism size . The earliest Ordovician species were large and smooth @-@ walled ; by the mid @-@ Ordovician a large and expanding variety of ornament , and of hollow appendages , was evident . While shorter appendages are generally solid , larger protrusions tend to be hollow , with some of the largest displaying a spongy internal structure . However , even hollow appendages leave no mark on the inner wall of the organisms : this may suggest that they were secreted or attached from the outside . There is some debate about the number of layers present in the organisms ' walls : up to three layers have been reported , with the internal wall often ornamented ; some specimens only appear to display one . The multitude of walls may indeed reflect the construction of the organism , but could be a result of the preservational process .
" Immature " or juvenile examples of Chitinozoans have not been found ; this may suggest that they didn 't " grow " , that they were moults ( unlikely ) , or that the fossilisable parts of the organism only formed after the developmental process was complete .
Most chitinozoans are found as isolated fossils , but chains of multiple tests , joined from aperture to base , have been reported from all genera . Very long chains tend to take the form of a spring . Occasionally , clusters or condensed chains are found , packed in an organic " cocoon " .
= = Classification = =
Alfred Eisenack 's original description of the Chitinozoans placed them in three families , spanning seven genera , based on morphological grounds . Further genera were identified , at first on an annual basis , as time progressed . Since its publication in 1931 , Eisenack 's original classification has been much honed by these additional discoveries , as well as advances in microscopy . The advent of the scanning electron microscope in the 1970s allowed the improved detection of surface ornamentation which is hugely important in identification - as can be appreciated by a comparison of the images on this page . Even the light microscope image here is of far greater quality than could have been achieved earlier in the century , using poorly preserved specimens and less advanced microscopes . The original three families proposed by Eisenack represented the best classification possible with available data , based largely on the presence or absence of chains of organisms and the chamber 's shape . The orders were subsequently revised to conform better to Linnean taxonomy , placing related organisms more closely together . This was made possible as scientific advances permitted the identification of distinctive traits in organisms across Eisenack 's groups . Features of the base and neck , the presence of spines , and perforations or connections are now considered the most useful diagnostic features .
= = Relationships = =
= = = Amoebæ = = =
Alfred Eisenack 's original guess was that the Chitinozoa were of the rhizopod order Testacea , since similar chitin @-@ based tests were produced by the extant members of this group . However , the chemistry of these tests differs from that of the fossils , and modern Testacea are almost exclusively fresh @-@ water - an extremely different environment . Within a year , he had abandoned this initial idea .
= = = Photosynthesisers = = =
Arguments put forwards by Obut ( 1973 ) proposed that the organisms were one @-@ celled " plants " similar to the dinoflagellates , which would now be grouped into the chromalveolata . However , as mentioned previously , spines and appendages are attached from the exterior of the vessel : only animals have the cellular machinery necessary to perform such a feat . Further , no analogy for the cocoon envelope can be found in this kingdom .
= = = Young graptolites = = =
The graptolites are colonial organic walled fossils which also occurred from the Ordovician to the Devonian ; only part of their life cycle is known and it is not clear how they reproduced . It has been suggested that the Chitinozoa may represent the pre @-@ sicula stages of graptolites - the period between the colony 's sexual reproduction , and the formation of a new colony . This hypothesis appears to be supported by the co @-@ occurrence of graptolite and chitinozoan fossils , whose abundances appear to mirror one another . The similar chemical composition of the fossils has been seized by both sides of the argument . Proponents suggest that the use of the same chemical framework is an indicator that the two may be related . However , this factor means that situations favouring the preservation of one will also tend to preserve the other - and the preparation techniques used to extract the fossils will also favour or disfavour the two groups equally . Therefore , the apparent co @-@ occurrence of the two fossils may merely be an artifact of their similar composition . The hypothesis struggles to explain the continuing abundance of chitinozoans after the middle Devonian , when graptolites became increasingly rare .
= = = Tintinnids = = =
The cyst forms of a particular group of ciliates , the tintinnids have been suggested to be affiliated to Chitinozoans .
= = = Eggs = = =
The test of the Chitinozoa was fixed - there was no scope for any parts of it to move or rotate . This makes it seem likely that the tests were containers , to protect whatever was inside - whether that was a " hibernating " or encysted organism , or a clutch of hatching eggs . There are several arguments behind an association of the chitinozoans with annelids or gastropods , and it is not impossible that the chitinozoans are a convergent phenomenon laid by both groups . In fact , the spirally coiled nature of chitinozoan chains has been used to suggest that they were laid by a spirally coiled organism , such as the gastropods ; were this inference true , uncoiled chains could be to be attributed to the ( straight ) annelid worms or other organisms .
Recent excavations of the Soom Shale , an Ordovician konservat @-@ lagerstätten in South Africa , have yielded chitinozoans alongside a wide range of other organisms . It has been suggested that if whatever organism created the Chitinozoa was fossilisable , it would be present in the Soom biota — from which gastropods and graptolites are notable in their absence . Most organisms present in the shale can be ruled out for a variety of reasons , but polychaete worms , Promissum conodonts and orthocone cephalopods remain as likely candidates . However , further evidence connecting chitinozoans to any of these groups is circumstantial at best .
= = Ecology = =
It is not immediately clear what mode of life was occupied by these improbably shaped fossils , and an answer only becomes apparent after following several lines of reasoning .
The fossils ' restriction to marine sediments can be taken as sound evidence that the organisms dwelt in the Palæozoic seas - which presents three main modes of life :
Infaunal — living within the sediment - the " burrowers "
Benthic — dwelling upon the sea floor , perhaps anchored in place - the " sitters "
Pelagic — free @-@ floating in the water column - the " drifters "
An infaunal mode of life can be quickly ruled out , as the fossils are sometimes found in alignment with the depositing current ; as nothing attached them to the bottom , they must have fallen from the water column .
The ornament of the chitinozoans may cast light on the question . Whilst in some cases a defensive role - by making the vessel larger , and thus less digestible by would @-@ be predators - seems probable , it is not impossible that the protrusions may have anchored the organisms to the sea floor . However , their low @-@ density construction makes this unlikely : perhaps more plausible is that they acted to attach to other organisms . Longer spines also make the organisms more buoyant , by decreasing their Rayleigh number ( i.e. increasing the relative importance of water 's viscosity ) — it is therefore possible that at least the long @-@ spined chitinozoans were planktonic " floaters " . On the other hand , the walls of some chitinozoans were probably too thick and dense to allow them to float .
Whilst little is known about their interactions with other organisms , small holes in the tests of some chitinozoans are evidence that they were hosts to some parasites . Although some forms have been reinterpreted as " pock @-@ marks " caused by the disintegration of the diagenetic mineral pyrite , the clustering of cylindrical holes around the chamber — where the flesh of the organism was likely to be concentrated — is evidence for a biological cause .
Corals in Gotland with daily growth markings have been found in association with abundant chitinozoans , which allow the detection of seasonal variation in chitinozoan abundance . A peak in abundance during the late autumn months is observed , with the maxima for different species occurring on different dates . Such a pattern is also observed in modern @-@ day tropical zooplankton . The diversity of living habits is also reflected by the depth of water and distance from the shore . Different species are found in highest abundance at different depths . While deeper waters around 40 km
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four other Lancashire clubs , Accrington , Lower Darwen , Darwen Ramblers , and Church , to reach the fifth round . At this stage the " Light Blues " were drawn to play Welsh team Druids . Olympic defeated the Ruabon @-@ based team 4 – 1 to progress to the semi @-@ final stage , where for the first time they faced opponents from the south of England — Old Carthusians . The Carthusians , the team for former pupils of Charterhouse School , had won the cup two years earlier and even the local newspapers in Blackburn considered them strong favourites to reach the final again . Olympic , however , won 4 – 0 in a match played at a neutral venue in Whalley Range , Manchester , to set up a match with another of the great amateur teams , Old Etonians , in the final at Kennington Oval . The Etonians had defeated Olympic 's close rivals Blackburn Rovers in the final a year earlier , the first time a northern team had reached the final .
Before the final , former England player Jack Hunter , who had joined the club in 1882 in the twin roles of player and coach , arranged to take the team to Blackpool for several days ' special training . Such an undertaking had never before been made by a club , and it was considered an extremely novel idea .
The Etonians took the lead in the final when Harry Goodhart scored during the first half , however Arthur Matthews equalised for Olympic in the second half . Soon afterwards , Arthur Dunn was injured and forced to leave the field , reducing the Etonians to ten men for the rest of the match . The scores remained level at the end of the regulation ninety minutes . Under the regulations of the FA Cup , thirty minutes of extra time could be played in the event of a draw , at the referee 's discretion , and in response to the fervent mood of the crowd the captains asked to play on to try to secure a result . During the extra period , Olympic 's superior stamina began to show . Around twenty minutes into extra time , Jimmy Costley received a pass from John Yates and kicked the ball past Etonian goalkeeper John Rawlinson to score the winning goal . Upon the team 's return to Blackburn , the players took part in a celebratory parade and received a civic reception at which team captain Albert Warburton reportedly proclaimed " The Cup is very welcome to Lancashire . It 'll have a good home and it 'll never go back to London . "
In the south , however , Olympic 's victory over one of the great amateur teams provoked consternation . At the time , The Football Association ( the FA ) , the sport 's governing body , prohibited clubs from paying their players . Despite this , working @-@ class clubs , especially those based in Lancashire , had been widely suspected of making illicit payments to players since at least 1876 . In the wake of Olympic 's high @-@ profile victory , journalists and officials affiliated with southern amateur clubs intensified their calls for the FA to investigate the finances of northern clubs . They focussed in particular on Olympic 's training excursion to Blackpool , suggesting that the players would not have been able to take so much time off work unless the club was paying them some form of wage . Questions were also asked about players who had relocated from one town to another seemingly for the sole purpose of playing for a new football team . In Olympic 's case Jack Hunter had moved from Sheffield to join the club . Ultimately no action was taken against Olympic , although punishments were imposed on other clubs , including Preston North End , who were expelled from the FA Cup . This in turn prompted the northern clubs to make plans to break away from the FA and form a rival governing body which would not impose the so @-@ called " amateur ideal " on clubs .
= = = Decline and collapse = = =
The following season , Olympic again reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup , as did Blackburn Rovers . When the draw for the semi @-@ finals was made , the club was paired with Queen 's Park in one match and Rovers with Notts County in the other , setting up the possibility of the two teams meeting in the final . The Olympic team , however , were outclassed and defeated 4 – 0 by their Scottish opponents . The club lodged an appeal with the FA based on the encroachment onto the pitch of some of the 16 @,@ 000 spectators , but to no avail . Rovers went on to defeat Queen 's Park in the final .
The club was never again able to achieve this level of success . In the 1884 – 85 season , Olympic lost in the second round of the FA Cup to rivals Rovers , who went on to cement their position as the town 's leading team by winning the competition for the second consecutive season . The threat of a schism within the sport was averted in 1885 when the FA agreed to legalise professionalism . In a town the size of Blackburn , however , Olympic found it hard to compete for spectators and sponsors with the longer @-@ established and more successful Rovers , and as a result could not pay wages on a par with those offered by that club or by other professional clubs in Lancashire . In 1886 the club 's committee was forced to reduce the players ' wages to a quarter of what was being offered by Preston North End . Many of the team 's key players walked out in response and were quickly signed by wealthier clubs .
The Football League , the world 's first association football league , was formed in 1888 by the leading clubs of the Midlands and North . Aston Villa chairman William McGregor , the driving force behind the new competition , put in place a rule stating that only one club from each town or city could join , and chose Rovers , rather than Olympic , to be Blackburn 's entrant . Some of the clubs not invited to join the League , including Olympic , formed The Combination , but this was a poorly organised competition which attracted only small crowds and collapsed before the end of the 1888 – 89 season . Beset by heavy debts , the club 's committee announced in early 1889 that all professional players were being released from their contracts with immediate effect and that henceforth the club would employ only amateur players . This desperate measure came too late to save the club , which closed down in September 1889 . Blackburn Olympic 's last match was a defeat away to Everton .
= = Stadia and supporters = =
Olympic 's first match took place on a pitch owned by the Blackburn Cricket Club , situated in open countryside at Higher Oozebooth . For the first eighteen months of the club 's existence , Olympic played home matches at various sites in Blackburn , including Roe Lee and Cob Wall . In 1879 the club 's committee secured the lease on a pitch adjacent to the Hole @-@ i ' -th ' -Wall public house , at the top of the Shear Brow hill . The site had previously been used by another club , Queen 's Own , but had been left vacant when that club folded after most of its players defected to Blackburn Rovers .
The playing surface sloped downwards and was initially known for being exceptionally muddy , but in 1880 the club 's committee spent £ 100 improving the drainage . Facilities were minimal and most spectators simply stood around the perimeter of the pitch , as was the case at most football grounds at the time . A grandstand was erected behind one goal in 1881 , but it was severely damaged in a storm in 1884 and was replaced by a more elaborate structure along one of the long sides of the playing area . At the same time several other shelters were erected to give spectators in other areas cover from the elements . The largest crowd registered at Hole @-@ i ' -th ' -Wall was approximately 10 @,@ 000 for a match against Preston North End in November 1884 , but crowds of between 1 @,@ 000 and 2 @,@ 000 spectators were the norm at Olympic matches . After the club 's demise the pitch was taken over by the Blackburn Railway Clerks Club . It is now the site of St. Mary 's College .
= = Colours = =
At the start of the club 's existence , the players usually wore magenta shirts , although the rules regarding kits were less rigid at the time , and half @-@ back Tommy Gibson insisted on wearing a supposedly lucky amber and black hooped shirt , a practice later copied by team @-@ mate Alf Astley . When the club entered the FA Cup for the first time in 1880 , competition regulations meant that all the players in the team had to wear matching colours , and a new combination of light blue shirts and white shorts was chosen . When there was a clash of colours with the opposition and Olympic were the team obliged to change , the players wore dark blue shirts and white shorts . There is no record of the club having a badge or crest , although photographs of the FA Cup @-@ winning team show several players with the crest of the Lancashire FA sewn onto their shirts , indicating that they had represented Lancashire in inter @-@ county matches .
= = Players = =
The club 's FA Cup winning team of 1883 comprised eleven players born in England , the first time an all @-@ English XI had won the competition . The team lined up as follows :
James Ward was the only player to be selected for the England team while on the books of the club . He won one cap , against Wales in 1885 . Tommy Dewhurst was originally chosen for an international match in 1884 , but was deselected after he was involved in a fight with an opposition player during a match between Olympic and Northwich Victoria . Six other Olympic players represented England either before or after their time with the club : Joe Beverley , Edgar Chadwick , Jack Hunter , Jack Southworth , William Townley and John Yates .
= = Officials = =
The concept of a football manager did not exist in the 19th century , although some modern sources identify Jack Hunter as having been the team 's manager . Hunter 's main responsibility was for the coaching of the players , although in the club 's later years he also took charge of seeking out and signing promising amateur players . The club 's benefactor , Sydney Yates , held the post of president and his brother Fred served as chairman of the club 's committee . The majority of the administration of the club was handled by the secretary , a post held for most of the club 's existence by Bill Bramham .
= = Honours = =
The club won the following trophies :
FA Cup
1883
East Lancashire Charity Cup
1882
Blackburn Association Challenge Cup
1879 , 1880
Livesey United Cup
1878
The only competition the club entered but never won , other than the unfinished Combination , was the Lancashire Senior Cup .
= = Rivalries = =
Blackburn Olympic 's chief rivalry was with Blackburn Rovers . The first match between the two clubs was a game in February 1879 , which resulted in a 3 – 1 win for Olympic . The clubs played each other forty times , but Olympic won only six of these matches . The rivalry became especially fierce in September 1884 , when , amid accusations that the clubs were using underhand tactics in attempts to " poach " each other 's star players , the Rovers ' secretary sent a telegram to his opposite number stating that his club would play no matches against Olympic in the 1884 – 85 season . In December , however , the clubs were drawn against each other in the FA Cup , and matches between the rivals resumed later that season . Their final meeting was a benefit match for Olympic in February 1889 , which Rovers won 6 – 1 . Rovers agreed to allow the financially embarrassed Olympic to keep all available gate money , instead of sharing it .
= Wolf : The Journey Home =
Wolf : The Journey Home , originally titled Hungry for Home : A Wolf Odyssey , is a 1997 American young @-@ adult novel written by ' Asta Bowen . Originally published by Simon & Schuster with line drawings by Jane Hart Meyer , it was retitled and reprinted without illustrations in 2006 by Bloomsbury Publishing . Based on true accounts of the Pleasant Valley , Montana , wolf pack , the novel traces the life of a female alpha wolf named Marta after the forced relocation of her pack in 1989 to an unfamiliar territory . Terrified , Marta abandons her pack and begins a journey in search of her home ; she eventually arrives in Ninemile Valley , where she finds a new mate with whom she starts a new pack .
Bowen was prompted to write the story of the relocated wolves after becoming outraged over the continued poaching of wolves in the protected areas of Ninemile Valley . She spent four years researching wolves while working on the novel . In recounting the fates of the animals at the end , she expresses hope in the ideals behind efforts to restore wolf populations . Nominated for a 2006 Teens ' Top Ten award by the American Library Association , the novel was praised by critics . Two praised Bowen 's ability to avoid anthropomorphism while capturing the essence of wolf behavior and life . Another also praised the story 's highlighting of the difficulties in wolf relocation programs .
= = Plot = =
Marta , a black gray wolf , is alpha female in a small pack in Pleasant Valley , Montana , that consists of her mate , Calef , their three pups Rann , Sula , and Annie , and a seven @-@ year @-@ old wolf named Oldtooth . One morning Calef is killed by poachers , leaving Marta and Oldtooth to try to feed and raise the pups on their own . Though an experienced hunter , Oldtooth is unable to bring down large game as he lost most of his teeth chewing a steel leg trap off his leg years ago . Once the cubs are old enough to be left alone for short periods of time , Marta takes over the bulk of the hunting . Though it is difficult , the two adults successfully keep all three cubs alive and begin weaning them and teaching them the ways of the wolf . In the summer , traps begin appearing in the area as human populations increase . Annie and Sula are caught and are taken away by humans , but reappear a few days later , locked in cages . Marta tries to free her pups but is unsuccessful ; however humans come regularly to keep them fed and ensure they have water . Oldtooth is later captured , while Marta is tranquilized from a helicopter . Rann escapes and is not seen again .
The wolves are kept in a human facility for a couple of months to be examined , and a wound on Oldtooth 's paw is treated . In early winter , the wolves are sedated again and awaken to find themselves in a strange high place with radio collars around their necks . Still groggy from the tranquilizer , the strangeness of the events and the smell of grizzly bear in the area triggers Marta 's flight instincts and she runs blindly downward , leaving Oldtooth and the cubs behind . When Oldtooth awakens , he quietly abandons Annie and Sula , following Marta 's trail , but at a much slower pace .
Marta continues running in the direction she believes will lead back to Pleasant Valley , swimming across Middle Fork River , crossing the nearby highway and railroad tracks , and running through various woodlands in between . Pausing only to drink water and tend her paws , she crosses Pyramid Peak and swims across the Hungry Horse Reservoir , before a week without food and exhaustion cause her to collapse on the shore . After resting , she continues her run , though hunger now spurs her to pause to hunt when she can but she eventually collapses by Flathead Lake , where she remains unconscious for days . Meanwhile , unskilled at hunting and without the adults to teach them how to survive , Annie and Sula slowly starve to death . Oldtooth reaches Middle Fork Valley , where illness and his lame foot drive him to hunt local livestock . He is shot and killed by a human .
When Marta recovers , her instincts to return home are dulled and she begins traveling more slowly . She makes her way through Swan Valley to cross the Swan Range and Mission Mountains . As winter settles in , she makes a winter home around Lindbergh Lake , where hunting is good and humans few . Near the end of winter , she meets another lone wolf , Greatfoot , a large male . Initially they maintain their distance from one another , until Greatfoot hunts the elk herd in Marta 's range , specifically the aging leader that Marta favored and refused to hunt herself . She stops the other wolf 's hunt , and after a brief skirmish they forget the elk and become friendly . They form a pack of two and leave the area , heading south . After mating , their travels become more urgent to find a home to raise young .
They settle in Ninemile Valley , a large forested region that while inhabited by humans , has few roads and homes . Several weeks after they make their den , Marta gives birth to seven pups , though one dies shortly after birth . As spring arrives , the pups grow well under their parents care and begin making their first explorations outside of the den . In early summer , Marta leaves the den to hunt and is killed by a poacher . Greatfoot is left as the sole provider for the pups . Though they were not fully weaned , they soon learn to eat the meat their father provides and he slowly begins teaching them how to avoid humans and how to survive . The only human the pack ignores is a human scent they frequently find on their trails , as no human ever appears with it , only the occasional sound of a truck nearby .
Near the end of summer , Greatfoot is run over and killed while crossing a freeway during a hunt . The pups begin hearing a strange wolf howl , but when they track it they find a fresh kill and the familiar human scent . New kills appear every few days as the young wolves grow larger and stronger . One night when they hear the unusual howl , they are closer than usual to it and reach the kill in time to meet their benefactor , a human male . The pack stares at the man , before disappearing back into the forest , ignoring his howl . As he goes to leave , however , the six return to the edge of the clearing and howl .
= = Development and publication = =
According to Bowen , she was " not a wolf person " before penning Wolf : The Journey Home . A language arts teacher at Flathead High School in northwest Montana and a former op @-@ ed columnist for the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer , she stated that she read news reports about the Pleasant Valley wolf pack in the Daily Inter Lake , but it was the death of one of the Ninemile pups that spurred her to write the novel . In her words , it was " one death too many " from the many non @-@ accidental deaths of the wolves , and she felt the " story needed to be told " . She spent four years studying wolves in preparation for writing the novel , particularly the lives of a pack of wolves that were part of the federal wolf relocation program and who were documented in records kept by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service . The pack formed in the spring of 1989 in Pleasant Valley , Montana . As in the novel , the alpha male was killed , mistaken for a dog by a rancher , and the rest of the pack was trapped , except the one pup that escaped . They were held in Kalispell until they could be transferred to Glacier Park . Using radio collars , biologists were able to track the pack members from their release to their eventual fates , as depicted in the novel . The pups born to Marta and Greatfoot were born in Spring 1990 in Ninemile Valley , an area near Missoula . When they stopped receiving a signal for Marta , authorities searched for her body for weeks until her broken radio collar was found in a creek . Mike Jimenez , then a wildlife biologist and the Wyoming Wolf Recovery Project Leader , was the man in the blue truck who tracked and monitored the pack in the novel and fed the pups after the death of Greatfoot .
The novel , then titled Hungry for Home : A Wolf Odyssey , was first published by Simon & Schuster in hardback format on January 13 , 1997 . The first edition included ink illustrations by Jane Hart Meyer . The novel was reprinted in paperback format on January 30 , 1998 . The novel later went out of print , after enjoying modest success in the Netherlands . A few years later , Bowen 's attorney convinced her to rework the novel for young @-@ adult readers , and on December 27 , 2005 , Bloomsbury USA reprinted the edited novel with the new title of Wolf : The Journey Home in hardback format , without the illustrations of the previous edition and with a new photographic cover . The new edition of the novel has been translated and reprinted in China .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Jimenez stopped feeding the pups after Thanksgiving that same year . Though the pups learned to hunt , Silver and Pikuni left the pack and the other four began killing livestock . They were captured to be relocated , much as their parents had been . One , Camas , escaped after waking up from the tranquilizer early . Chinook was killed for continuing to hunt livestock and Timber was killed by a poacher . Tenino , who also continued hunting livestock , was recaptured and sent to Wolf Haven International , a sanctuary in Washington State , where he lived until his death in 2001 . The fates of the other cubs , as well as Rann , the cub who escaped the initial relocation , are unknown . In the epilogue of the novel , Bowen expresses hope that they survived and bred , enabling the bloodlines started with Marta and Greatfoot to continue in the wolf packs that now inhabit the area . Jimenez continued working as the Wyoming Wolf Recovery Project Leader for the United States Fish and Wildlife Service until 2008 , when he was selected to be the Wyoming Game and Fish Department 's Wolf Program Coordinator .
= = Reception = =
Wolf : The Journey Home was nominated for the 2006 Teens ' Top Ten award by the American Library Association . Publishers Weekly 's Sybil Steinberg called it a " powerful first novel " and a " genuinely eye @-@ opening tale " . She praised Bowen for " striving to inhabit the wild psyche of Marta with a minimum of anthropomorphic sentimentality , " and felt the author conveyed " both a reverence for the ways of the wild and a realistic grasp of wolves ' fear of humans . " Reviewing the title for The Detroit Free Press , Judy Rose considered it a " fact @-@ and @-@ fiction book " written " with a wolf 's @-@ eye view " . She praised the work 's factual basis and Bowen 's extensive research into the topic , and felt the novel 's release was " well @-@ timed " , coinciding with growing interest in wolf research and the reintroduction programs , particularly those at Yellowstone Park . While noting the novel is not for everyone , she felt it would be enjoyable to " wildlife lovers " and that readers will " howl with [ the wolves ] pain " . David Seideman of the Chicago Tribune considered the novel to be in the same " vein [ as ] the classic The Incredible Journey " , praising the author 's " faithfully [ capturing of ] their indomitable spirit " . He thought that " Bowen 's first @-@ rate skills as a nature writer keep her from falling off the edge into anthropomorphism " , though he criticized the scenes in which Marta refuses to hunt and even defends an old buck , feeling that she allowed " her sympathies to distort reality " and contradicted her own assertion that wolves are " always looking for an easy meal . " Jennifer Henderson , of the Booklist , found it to be a " memorable tale " that highlights the difficulties in reintroducing wolves even to protected areas . Calling it a " beautifully told wolf story " with a " tragic outcome " , she recommended the novel for teenage readers who love animals . In Gentle Reads : Great Books to Warm Hearts and Lift Spirits , Deanna McDaniel recommends the novel in her list of 500 inspiring stories for young adults , considering it to be an engaging and " vivid " tale of survival that contains a " strong message of hope " in the legacy Marta leaves behind .
= Bad Day ( Daniel Powter song ) =
" Bad Day " is a pop song from Canadian singer Daniel Powter 's self @-@ titled debut studio album ( 2005 ) . It was written by Powter and produced by Jeff Dawson and Mitchell Froom . Powter and Dawson recorded the song in 2002 but could not find a record label to release it at first . The song was first used in a French Coca @-@ Cola television advertisement in Christmas 2004 before its official release . Tom Whalley , Warner Bros. Records ' chairman and CEO , offered Powter a contract after hearing a demo tape of it . This track ended up being released as the lead single in Europe in early 2005 .
Although " Bad Day " received mixed critical reviews , with some music critics finding a " universal appeal " and others claiming a lack of depth in its lyrics , it was a commercial success . In 2005 , the single charted in the top five in more than ten countries worldwide , and became the most played song on European radio . After its European success , it was released in the United States where it topped Billboard 's Hot 100 , Pop 100 , Adult Top 40 , and Adult Contemporary charts . In 2006 , it became the first song ever to sell two million digital copies in the United States . After another million were sold , it was certified three @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) in 2009 . It was certified platinum in Australia and Canada , gold in Denmark , Germany and the United Kingdom , and also received a certification in France and Japan .
The accompanying music video for " Bad Day " was directed by Marc Webb and reached 9 @.@ 8 million views in 2006 . The video depicts two downcast people sharing a similar routine until they meet each other at the end of the video . The song was used for advertisements and television programs , most prominently as American Idol 's elimination song . Different shows and artists covered and parodied " Bad Day " , including Saturday Night Live and Alvin and the Chipmunks . Powter has also performed the song on television shows including The Tonight Show with Jay Leno and The Ellen DeGeneres Show , and during his concert tours in North America and Europe . The song 's success made it Powter 's " anthem " and would be included on his later compilation albums B @-@ Sides ( 2007 ) and Best of Me ( 2010 ) .
= = Background and writing = =
After leaving MacEwan University in Edmonton at 20 , Powter moved to Vancouver , British Columbia where he played keyboards before he started composing songs . In 1997 , he partnered with music producer Jeff Dawson ; they recorded " Bad Day " in 2002 . For two weeks , Powter had a melody that " wouldn 't go away " from his mind . Thinking of a lyric that would fit the melody , he thought an " up and poppy " lyric would make it " the cheesiest song of all time " . He then thought " bad day " would be a good choice for the chorus , and wrote the lyrics partly based on his life as " a struggling musician " . It was the last song to be composed for his album , with Powter writing it in an hour during a ferry journey between Victoria and Vancouver . Powter said it was not a lyrically elaborate song , but that : " mostly it 's about phonics . It 's about words that sing great . I was mumbling something , and those words came out . "
Dawson and Powter included the song on a disc that was offered to record labels that asked Powter to audition in New York ; but his lack of stage presence led to the labels turning him down . Disappointed , he returned to Vancouver to move on because : " once a record company says no , it 's difficult to come around again " . After this failure , his new representative , Gary Stamler , played a demo tape for Tom Whalley , chairman and CEO of Warner Bros. Records . Whalley offered Powter a contract but he was reluctant to sign it because he considered himself primarily a songwriter . He accepted the offer in April 2003 and , along with Dawson and producer Mitchell Froom , worked on his album and the song in Los Angeles , California . The album was originally recorded in Powter 's Vancouver apartment but Warner Bros. asked that it be rerecorded . However , because Froom wanted to keep its " original feel [ ing ] " , in Powter 's words it was just " touch [ ed ] up " .
= = Composition = =
" Bad Day " is a " midtempo pop " power ballad , performed in a moderate groove and accompanied by a piano . The song is composed in the key E ♭ major , and uses syncopated 16th @-@ note rhythms . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Warner Bros. , Powter 's vocals range from the note of E ♭ 4 and D ♭ 6 . Its instrumentation differs from " the scores of adolescent thrust @-@ rockers " and includes , as Powter referred to it , " aggressive " drums . David Browne of Entertainment Weekly said it is : " addressed to anyone who 's feeling depressed ... but [ in contrast ] its grand , panoramic arrangement wants to pump you up " . Simon Donohue of the Manchester Evening News commented its sound " seagues [ sic ] from boy band banality to Foo Fighters @-@ style raucous rock " . According to Winston Kung of PopMatters , it is " in tune with the zeitgeist " .
The lyrics of " Bad Day " were said to have a universal appeal by Alan Connor of BBC News Magazine as they have an " everyman breeziness " because the song 's subject can be any person going through a bad daytime . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic described it as : " a loping , sunny tune that pretty much has the opposite sentiment of its title " . Although About.com 's Bill Lamb described its lyrics as having a " reassuring , comforting " tone , Powter said the song " mak [ es ] fun of self @-@ absorbed and narcissistic people who bitch and gripe " . He also affirmed : " It 's not literally about having a bad day , it 's more about not taking yourself too seriously and complaining about trivial things " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received mixed reviews by commentators ; some reviewers praised it for its composition , while other critics felt that the lyrics were not profound . Billboard 's Chuck Taylor called the song " instantly memorable " and praised its instrumentation for being different " from the scores of adolescent thrust @-@ rockers currently dominating the scene . " Dubbing it " elegant , timeless pop / rock " , Taylor qualified it as " one of the great discoveries of the year " , while Pete Waterman , writing for The Guardian in 2007 , stated it was " one of [ his ] favourite songs of recent years " . Eric R. Danton from the Hartford Courant classified it as the best track on the album , while Erlewine called it " the template for the rest of his debut " . In contrast , Wilson Kung said the song " pales in comparison to some of the truly strong songs " on the album Daniel Powter . Alan Connor of BBC News Magazine said it is a typical sentimental song but that in " Bad Day " ' s case " there 's even less detail " . He said the song " is so low on the specifics , there are some couplets that feel like they 've been translated from a foreign language , possibly by a computer " . A writer for The Daily Edge called it " a song so sweet it gave you a toothache " , while a reviewer from The Scotsman called it a " horrible song " . Bill Lamb said it " feels genuine " but " if you are looking for depth , this is not your song " , Chris Lee of the Los Angeles Times said the song is " baleful but soulful " , and People commented : " ' Bad Day ' may be catchy enough to overcome its trite lyrics " .
= = = Accolades = = =
" Bad Day " won an award from the Society of Composers , Authors and Music Publishers of Canada as one of six Canadian pop songs with the most radio airplay in 2005 . In 2006 , it won the Tokio Hot 100 Award for Best Song , and guaranteed Powter the Canadian Radio Music Award for Best New Group or Solo Artist — Mainstream AC . In the following year , the song won a BMI Pop Award , and shared the 2007 Japan Gold Disc Award for the most @-@ downloaded international song with " You Raise Me Up " by Celtic Woman and " Dani California " by Red Hot Chili Peppers . The song was nominated for Hot 100 Single of the Year at the 2006 Billboard Music Awards losing to Nelly Furtado 's " Promiscuous " . At the APRA Music Awards of 2006 , it was nominated for Most Performed Foreign Work but lost to Rob Thomas 's " Lonely No More " . In 2007 , it was nominated for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards but John Mayer 's performance on " Waiting on the World to Change " won him the award . It received a nomination for Best Song at the 2007 Kids ' Choice Awards but lost to Beyoncé 's " Irreplaceable " .
= = Chart performance = =
" Bad Day " topped Nielsen Music Control 's Pan European Airplay 100 as the most played song on European radio stations in 2005 . It was also the third most downloaded song that year in Europe . On Billboard 's European Hot 100 Singles it peaked at number two on the weekly chart , while it placed seventh on its year @-@ end chart . The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart issue dated August 6 , 2005 , at number two , its peak position , spending 38 weeks on the chart . " Bad Day " was the eleventh best @-@ selling single and the third most downloaded song in the UK in 2005 . It was the most played song on UK radio during the period 2003 – 08 . The song debuted on the Irish Singles Chart at number 13 on July 28 , 2005 , and topped it for three weeks , spending 19 weeks on the chart . The song peaked at number three on the French Singles Chart , and was the most played song on French radio in 2005 . It was the most played song on the German Airplay Chart in 2005 . It sold 143 @,@ 600 copies and was certified silver in France , and in Germany it was certified gold for the shipment of over 150 @,@ 000 copies . It peaked at number one in the Czech Republic , at number three in Italy , at number 5 in Denmark , and reached the top 10 on the singles chart in eight other European territories .
" Bad Day " debuted at number 55 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart issue dated February 25 , 2006 . On March 30 , 2006 it reached the top spot on the chart . A week before , the song had reached the top of the Hot Digital Songs chart . In the following weeks , it reached number one on the Pop 100 and the Adult Top 40 . It topped the Adult Top 40 for 12 weeks , the longest period a song by a lead male artist had spent on the chart . It remained at number one on the Adult Contemporary chart for 19 weeks , making it the song that spent the most time on the Adult Contemporary chart that year , tying Phil Collins ' " You 'll Be in My Heart " as the longest @-@ running number @-@ one song by a solo male artist to that date . " Bad Day " became the first song to sell two million digital copies in the United States in December 2006 , and was the best @-@ selling " digital track " and " digital song " for 2006 . " Bad Day " received a three @-@ times platinum certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for digital sales of over 3 million in September 2009 . It was the seventh most played song on the American radio in 2006 , and was the number one song of 2006 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It also performed well on other year @-@ end charts , ranking first on Hot Digital Songs , second on Hot Adult Pop Songs , and third on Hot Adult Contemporary Songs . Media considered its exposure on American Idol as a major factor in its success in the United States .
In Canada , the song was certified platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association for the sale 20 @,@ 000 downloads . " Bad Day " peaked at number seven on the Canadian Singles Chart and at number six on the Hot Canadian Digital Singles chart . In Japan , a ringtone version was certified by the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) for shipment of over one million copies . Its full @-@ length ringtone version was certified platinum for shipment of over 250 @,@ 000 copies , while its single track version was certified double platinum for shipment of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . " Bad Day " was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipment of over 70 @,@ 000 copies . The song debuted at number 21 on the ARIA Charts issue dated July 4 , 2005 , peaked at number three on the issue dated August 15 , 2005 , and spent 20 weeks on the chart . It was the 18th top single of 2005 in the year @-@ end ARIA Charts , and was the second most @-@ played song in the country in 2006 . It peaked at number 7 in New Zealand appearing for 23 weeks , and was on Venezuela 's Pop Rock chart for 19 .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Marc Webb and premiered on Yahoo ! ' s website in early 2005 . As of August 2005 , it had been streamed over a million times . It was released on VH1.com on April 28 , 2005 , and at the iTunes Store for digital download on December 13 , 2005 . It debuted on television channel VH1 on January 23 of the following year , reaching the Top 20 Countdown for two weeks in March . It was subsequently put on heavy rotation in April 2006 , when it was played more than 50 times a week , reduced to 30 weekly airings in May . The video was the eighth most @-@ watched music video on the Internet , with over 9 @.@ 8 million views in 2006 . Warner Bros. Records released the video on YouTube on October 26 , 2009 .
The music video accompanying " Bad Day " features a man ( Jason Adelman ) and a woman ( Samaire Armstrong ) going about their daily routines over a three @-@ day period . Parts of the video are shown in split screen as they do exactly the same thing at different times , sometimes in the same location . The central point of the video occurs when they paint separately on the same billboard . Armstrong character shows her negativeness by adding rain and a car running through puddle of water while Adelman adds an umbrella and a man with a coat to protect the woman in the billboard . At some point , he draws half a heart and she completes it . At the end of the video , they finally meet when the man offers the woman an umbrella during a rain shower as a taxi cab stops for them . Throughout the video , Powter is shown playing a piano while wearing a tuque — a type of knitted hat .
Chuck Taylor said the video is " strikingly good " and " brings emotion and clarity to an artist that we are meeting for the first time " . The Daily Edge disagreed calling the video " drippy " . VH1 ranked it 17th on its Top 40 Videos of the Year in 2006 . It was nominated for the MuchMoreMusic Award at the 2006 MuchMusic Video Awards , but lost to Michael Bublé 's " Save the Last Dance for Me " . It was nominated for Best Male Video at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards Japan , but " Age Age Every Knight " by DJ Ozma was the winner .
= = Usage in other media = =
" Bad Day " was much @-@ used in the media to the point where Powter declared he felt " quite detached from th [ e ] song . It 's more like it 's everybody 's song . " According to Alan Connor : " ... turning off the radio isn 't enough to escape the tune . It can be heard everywhere from in shops , on mobiles and especially on TV . " During Christmas 2004 , the song was used in a Coca @-@ Cola advertisement which played in France for two weeks . It was also featured in a television advertisement for Right Guard deodorant in the United Kingdom .
The fifth season of American Idol used " Bad Day " to underscore a montage of each contestant shown when they were eliminated . Although it was not his decision to have it on the show , Powter said : " I need every opportunity that I can to get the music out there " . " Bad Day " was subsequently used in other shows , including the Brazilian series Malhação in 2005 , and TV Asahi 's 2006 Japanese drama Regatta : Kimi to Ita Eien . It was featured in Veronica Mars episode " The Bitch Is Back " in 2007 , and in a 2012 episode of the German show Danni Lowinski . In 2014 , the song was used as a ringtone for Sherlock Holmes and Joan Watson in an episode of Elementary titled " The One Percent Solution " . A FX promotional trailer for Fargo featured a muzak version of " Bad Day " .
" Weird Al " Yankovic wanted to record a parody of the song in 2006 but Powter refused his proposal . Later , Powter decided to give him permission to record the parody , which was to have been called " You Had a Bad Date " , but was told by Yankovic told that " the train had left the station " ; he had recorded " White & Nerdy " the day before instead . In April 2006 , " Bad Day " was parodied on an episode of the television series Saturday Night Live , featuring a montage of former member of the United States House of Representatives Tom DeLay . The Daily Show used the song for an American Idol @-@ based montage satirizing the June 2006 death of Abu Musab al @-@ Zarqawi , leader of Al @-@ Qaeda in Iraq . It was parodied by comedy group Moron Life titled " Overplayed " and was released on MySpace in August 2006 . " Bad Day " was also covered by the fictional music group Alvin and the Chipmunks for their 2007 film Alvin and the Chipmunks . Their version made the charts in January 2008 , peaking at number 67 on the Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Live performances = =
Powter performed " Bad Day " during the Live 8 concert in Berlin on July 2 , 2005 , at the Siegessäule . He also performed the song at the MTV Asia Awards 2006 on May 6 at the Siam Paragon in Bangkok . During the penultimate episode of American Idol on May 23 , 2006 , Powter performed " Bad Day " at the Kodak Theatre . On May 26 , 2007 , he performed the song at the Saitama Super Arena during the MTV Video Music Awards Japan . Powter performed it in a duo with Japanese singer Ayaka on November 26 , 2008 , at Astro Hall in Harajuku , Japan .
Powter has performed the song on several television shows , including CD USA in February 2006 , and Total Request Live on April 6 , 2006 . On April 14 , he sang it during the The Today Show at the Rockfeller Center in the morning , and , at night , on the Late Night with Conan O 'Brien . He sang it on Live with Regis and Kelly on April 18 , on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on April 24 and , on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on April 27 . He performed again on Leno 's and DeGeneres 's shows on June 1 and on July 7 respectively , and appeared on The CBS Early Show to sing it on August 9 .
The song was included on the set lists for Powter 's European tour , in the United Kingdom , and in the United States to promote its parent album . In a performance in Chicago 's Park West venue during the American tour , Andy Downing of the Chicago Tribune called the song " a high point " of the show , and said the slower version was prettier than the original record but that it was " the spartan arrangement " that saved it from " montage hell .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Daniel Powter .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= = = Process = = =
" Bad Day " was first released to three French radio stations — RTL , NRJ , and Europe 2 — in early 2005 . On February 8 , Barnes & Noble released it on an exclusive extended play ( EP ) , which also contained " Free Loop " , " Lie to Me " , and " Song 6 " . In the United States it was digitally released on February 22 , 2005 . In 2005 , Warner Bros. Records released it as a CD single in Switzerland on March 4 , in France on March 22 , in Italy on May 18 , in Germany on May 30 , in Australia on June 27 , in the United Kingdom on July 25 , and in Canada on July 28 . The Swiss and Canadian release also included " Stupid Like This " , a non @-@ album track , while the Italian , German , and Australian versions included " Stupid Like This " and " Lost on The Stoop " . In France and the United Kingdom , both versions were released , and the British release also contained the music video for " Bad Day " . A live @-@ recorded version for Austrian radio station Hitradio Ö3 was included on the 2005 EP Free Loop . On August 6 , 2008 an EP live from Tokyo was released exclusively on iTunes and it included " Song 6 " , " Free Loop " , " Best of Me " , " Love You Lately " and " Bad Day " . " Bad Day " was also included on Powter 's compilation albums B @-@ Sides ( 2007 ) and Best of Me ( 2010 ) .
= = = History = = =
= Hurricane Doreen ( 1977 ) =
Hurricane Doreen was considered the worst tropical cyclone to affect California in 32 years . The tenth tropical cyclone , fourth named storm , and second hurricane of the otherwise inactive 1977 Pacific hurricane season , it developed on August 13 . The depression tracked northwestward , intensifying into Tropical Storm Doreen later that day . Further strengthening occurred over the subsequent days , and Doreen attained its peak as a minimal hurricane early on August 15 . Executing a turn towards the north @-@ northwest , Doreen made its first landfall as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale near Puerto San Carlos . Drifting offshore , Doreen made a second and final landfall near the northern portion of the Baja California as a tropical storm before rapidly weakening to a tropical depression . The tropical depression dissipated south of southern California on August 18 .
Hurricane Doreen and its remnants caused severe flooding in northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States . In Mexico , heavy rainfall was reported on both Baja California and the mainland of Mexico . Flooding left 2 @,@ 000 people homeless in Mexicali along the United States @-@ Mexico border , in addition , 325 homes and businesses were destroyed in southern California . Several highways were also flooded during the passage of the storm , most notably , lanes on Interstate 8 and Interstate 15 were washed out . In San Diego and Imperial
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County , the total damage to agricultural interests was $ 25 million ( 1977 USD ) . In addition , eight fatalities were reported in California . Elsewhere , impact from Doreen was relatively light .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Hurricane Doreen were a tropical disturbance which formed 115 mi ( 185 km ) west of Acapulco , on August 11 . Over the next two days , the system drifted westward at 7 mph ( 11 km / h ) . By 0000 UTC August 13 , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center began classifying the system as Tropical Depression Ten , centered 460 mi ( 740 km ) west of Acapulco , Mexico . Immediately after developing , the depression curved northwestward , and began slowly intensifying over sea surface temperatures ( SST 's ) of 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) . By 1800 UTC , winds increased to 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , and the depression was then upgraded to Tropical Storm Doreen , which was centered about 530 mi ( 850 km ) west @-@ northwest of Acapulco . Air Force reconnaissance began investigating Doreen late on August 14 , and located the center about 185 mi ( 298 km ) south of the tip of Baja California . Another flight into the storm shortly thereafter confirmed that Doreen had intensified into a hurricane at 1800 UTC .
At that time , the eye of Doreen was around 17 mi ( 27 km ) in diameter . After becoming a hurricane , Doreen re @-@ curved to the north @-@ northwest as it sped up slightly to 10 mph ( 16 km / h ) . Doreen approached the Baja California Peninsula , as it maintained minimal hurricane status . By August 18 at 1800 UTC , Doreen was centered only 17 mi ( 27 km ) when it curved northwestward . Late on August 18 , the storm made landfall on the western coast of Baja California as a minimal hurricane . Unlike Hurricane Kathleen in 1976 which accelerated inland , Doreen moved slowly and re @-@ emerged into the Pacific Ocean , over SST 's of less than 72 ° F ( 22 ° C ) . As a result , Doreen weakened to a tropical storm before making another landfall on the Port Eugenia Peninsula on August 16 shortly after 0600 UTC . Once again , Doreen quickly re @-@ emerged into the Pacific Ocean over the Bay of Sebastian Vizcaino . Due to SST 's as low as 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) , Doreen continued to weaken , and was downgraded to a tropical depression early on August 17 . After satellite imagery noted a poorly @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation , the final advisory was issued on Doreen , which was centered about 29 miles ( 47 km ) west of San Clemente Island , California at 0000 UTC on August 18 . The remnants of the storm tracked into the Southwestern United States and dissipated over the Colorado River Valley .
= = Impact = =
= = = Mexico = = =
Hurricane Doreen dropped heavy rainfall along the western portions of Mexico and the Southwestern Region of the United States . In Mexico , Doreen produced heaviest precipitation along the Baja California peninsula , where rainfall peaked at 14 @.@ 80 in ( 376 mm ) in the Los Cabos Area . The mainland of Mexico also received heavy rainfall , especially in the Sierra Madre Oriental mountains . In the city of Mexicali , the storm left more than 2 @,@ 000 people homeless , many of which were shanty @-@ style homes .
= = = California = = =
In anticipation of the storm , flash flood warnings were issued in the Colorado River Valley area , and were extended into southern California on August 16 , including places such as Santa Barbara County , the mountains of San Diego County , Riverside County , and portions of the Mohave Desert . Heavy rainfall fell in southern California on August 16 . An average of 2 – 4 in ( 51 – 102 mm ) of rain fell over low @-@ lying areas of southern California for a period of three days . Heavier precipitation was reported in the mountainous areas , where rainfall peaked at 7 @.@ 45 in ( 189 mm ) on San Jacinto Peak . Several other locations also reported heavy rainfall ; 3 @.@ 78 in ( 96 mm ) was reported in Calexico and 6 in ( 150 mm ) fell at Mitchell Caverns . At Edwards Air Force Base , the launch of Space Shuttle Enterprise on August 31 was delayed to September 7 after rainfall from Doreen flooded the runway of the previous flight .
In addition to heavy rain , high winds were reported . In Palm Springs , wind gusts were reported as high as 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . As a result , several trees were felled and power outages occurred . Highway 88 and 111 were under water from Brawley , near the Mexican border to the Salton Sea . California State Route 98 was also flooded from Brawly to Blythe . Two of the four lanes on Interstate 15 were washed out from Los Angeles to Las Vegas , stranding thousands of gamblers in places like Barstow . Ocotillo , a town that was devastated during Hurricane Kathleen in 1976 , was flooded again . Buses were sent to evacuate the townspeople , but the residents declined to evacuate . Overall , damage totaled $ 25 million , mostly in agricultural losses in San Diego and Imperial Counties . Eight deaths were reported . Six children were swept away in the Los Angeles River . Five of them were rescued , but the sixth was later presumed dead .
= = = Arizona = = =
Doreen also produced heavy rainfall in a small area of southwestern Arizona , limited to the Yuma area . Along the border of Arizona , California , and Mexico , rainfall was recorded between 2 and 7 in ( 51 and 178 mm ) . Rainfall in the state of Arizona had peaked at 7 @.@ 01 in ( 178 mm ) in that area . Light to moderate rainfall was also occurred in other areas of the state , such as Nogales , where 3 @.@ 10 in ( 79 mm ) of precipitation was recorded . Damage to roads , levees , houses , dikes were reported throughout the state , especially in the Bullhead City area .
While surveying damage in southwestern Arizona , a request was made to then @-@ Governor Raul Hector Castro for $ 750 @,@ 000 in emergency services funds . The American Red Cross had been in the area and spent $ 12 @,@ 000 to assist families that were left homeless after the flood .
= = = Elsewhere in the United States = = =
Further west , larger swaths of rainfall occurred in Nevada , though precipitation was generally light with many areas experiencing less than 3 in ( 76 mm ) . Rainfall in Nevada had peaked at 4 @.@ 14 in ( 105 mm ) in Avaden , making Doreen the wettest tropical cyclone for the state of Nevada as of 2011 . In Las Vegas , major intersections were flooded due to precipitation amounts of about 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) . In addition to street flooding , some roofs of houses and buildings collapsed .
In New Mexico , lesser amounts of rainfall were reported , and precipitation was limited to the northeastern and southwestern portions of the state . Much it the rainfall was between 1 to 2 in ( 25 to 51 mm ) , and precipitation with the state peaked at 2 @.@ 05 in ( 52 mm ) in the city of Florida . Rainfall was also minimal in the state of Utah , with only a few isolated areas reporting light precipitation , and generally did not exceed 3 in ( 76 mm ) . However , rainfall peaked at 4 @.@ 31 in ( 109 mm ) in Logan .
= Book of the Dead =
The Book of the Dead is an ancient Egyptian funerary text , used from the beginning of the New Kingdom ( around 1550 BCE ) to around 50 BCE . The original Egyptian name for the text , transliterated rw nw prt m hrw is translated as Book of Coming Forth by Day . Another translation would be Book of emerging forth into the Light . " Book " is the closest term to describe the loose collection of texts consisting of a number of magic spells intended to assist a dead person 's journey through the Duat , or underworld , and into the afterlife and written by many priests over a period of about 1000 years .
The Book of the Dead was part of a tradition of funerary texts which includes the earlier Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts , which were painted onto objects , not papyrus . Some of the spells included were drawn from these older works and date to the 3rd millennium BCE . Other spells were composed later in Egyptian history , dating to the Third Intermediate Period ( 11th to 7th centuries BCE ) . A number of the spells which made up the Book continued to be inscribed on tomb walls and sarcophagi , as had always been the spells from which they originated . The Book of the Dead was placed in the coffin or burial chamber of the deceased .
There was no single or canonical Book of the Dead . The surviving papyri contain a varying selection of religious and magical texts and vary considerably in their illustration . Some people seem to have commissioned their own copies of the Book of the Dead , perhaps choosing the spells they thought most vital in their own progression to the afterlife . The Book of the Dead was most commonly written in hieroglyphic or hieratic script on a papyrus scroll , and often illustrated with vignettes depicting the deceased and their journey into the afterlife .
= = Development = =
The Book of the Dead developed from a tradition of funerary manuscripts dating back to the Egyptian Old Kingdom . The first funerary texts were the Pyramid Texts , first used in the Pyramid of King Unas of the 5th dynasty , around 2400 BCE . These texts were written on the walls of the burial chambers within pyramids , and were exclusively for the use of the Pharaoh ( and , from the 6th dynasty , the Queen ) . The Pyramid Texts were written in an unusual hieroglyphic style ; many of the hieroglyphs representing humans or animals were left incomplete or drawn mutilated , most likely to prevent them causing any harm to the dead pharaoh . The purpose of the Pyramid Texts was to help the dead King take his place amongst the gods , in particular to reunite him with his divine father Ra ; at this period the afterlife was seen as being in the sky , rather than the underworld described in the Book of the Dead . Towards the end of the Old Kingdom , the Pyramid Texts ceased to be an exclusively royal privilege , and were adopted by regional governors and other high @-@ ranking officials .
In the Middle Kingdom , a new funerary text emerged , the Coffin Texts . The Coffin Texts used a newer version of the language , new spells , and included illustrations for the first time . The Coffin Texts were most commonly written on the inner surfaces of coffins , though they are occasionally found on tomb walls or on papyri . The Coffin Texts were available to wealthy private individuals , vastly increasing the number of people who could expect to participate in the afterlife ; a process which has been described as the " democratization of the afterlife " .
The Book of the Dead first developed in Thebes towards the beginning of the Second Intermediate Period , around 1700 BCE . The earliest known occurrence of the spells included in the Book of the Dead is from the coffin of Queen Mentuhotep , of the 13th dynasty , where the new spells were included amongst older texts known from the Pyramid Texts and Coffin Texts . Some of the spells introduced at this time claim an older provenance ; for instance the rubric to spell 30B states that it was discovered by the Prince Hordjedef in the reign of King Menkaure , many hundreds of years before it is attested in the archaeological record .
By the 17th dynasty , the Book of the Dead had become widespread not only for members of the royal family , but courtiers and other officials as well . At this stage , the spells were typically inscribed on linen shrouds wrapped around the dead , though occasionally they are found written on coffins or on papyrus .
The New Kingdom saw the Book of the Dead develop and spread further . The famous Spell 125 , the ' Weighing of the Heart ' , is first known from the reign of Hatshepsut and Thutmose III , c.1475 BCE . From this period onward the Book of the Dead was typically written on a papyrus scroll , and the text illustrated with vignettes . During the 19th dynasty in particular , the vignettes tended to be lavish , sometimes at the expense of the surrounding text .
In the Third Intermediate Period , the Book of the Dead started to appear in hieratic script , as well as in the traditional hieroglyphics . The hieratic scrolls were a cheaper version , lacking illustration apart from a single vignette at the beginning , and were produced on smaller papyri . At the same time , many burials used additional funerary texts , for instance the Amduat .
During the 25th and 26th dynasties , the Book of the Dead was updated , revised and standardised . Spells were consistently ordered and numbered for the first time . This standardised version is known today as the ' Saite recension ' , after the Saite ( 26th ) dynasty . In the Late period and Ptolemaic period , the Book of the Dead remained based on the Saite recension , though increasingly abbreviated towards the end of the Ptolemaic period . New funerary texts appeared , including the Book of Breathing and Book of Traversing Eternity . The last use of the Book of the Dead was in the 1st century BCE , though some artistic motifs drawn from it were still in use in Roman times .
= = Spells = =
The Book of the Dead is made up of a number of individual texts and their accompanying illustrations . Most sub @-@ texts begin with the word ro , which can mean mouth , speech , a chapter of a book , spell , utterance , or incantation . This ambiguity reflects the similarity in Egyptian thought between ritual speech and magical power . In the context of the Book of the Dead , it is typically translated as either " chapter " or " spell " . In this article , the word " spell " is used .
At present , some 192 spells are known , though no single manuscript contains them all . They served a range of purposes . Some are intended to give the deceased mystical knowledge in the afterlife , or perhaps to identify them with the gods : for instance , Spell 17 , is an obscure and lengthy description of the god Atum . Others are incantations to ensure the different elements of the dead person 's being were preserved and reunited , and to give the deceased control over the world around him . Still others protect the deceased from various hostile forces , or guide him through the underworld past various obstacles . Famously , two spells also deal with the judgement of the deceased in the Weighing of the Heart ritual .
Such spells as 26 @-@ 30 , and sometimes spells 6 and 126 relate to the heart , and were inscribed on scarabs .
The texts and images of the Book of the Dead were magical as well as religious . Magic was as legitimate an activity as praying to the gods , even when the magic was aimed at controlling the gods themselves . Indeed , there was little distinction for the Ancient Egyptians between magical and religious practice . The concept of magic ( heka ) was also intimately linked with the spoken and written word . The act of speaking a ritual formula was an act of creation ; there is a sense in which action and speech were one and the same thing . The magical power of words extended to the written word . Hieroglyphic script was held to have been invented by the god Thoth , and the hieroglyphs themselves were powerful . Written words conveyed the full force of a spell . This was even true when the text was abbreviated or omitted , as often occurred in later Book of the Dead scrolls , particularly if the accompanying images were present . The Egyptians also believed that knowing the name of something gave power over it ; thus , the Book of the Dead equips its owner with the mystical names of many of the entities he would encounter in the afterlife , giving him power over them .
The spells of the Book of the Dead made use of several magical techniques which can also be seen in other areas of Egyptian life . A number of spells are for magical amulets , which would protect the deceased from harm . In addition to being represented on a Book of the Dead papyrus , these spells appeared on amulets wound into the wrappings of a mummy . Everyday magic made use of amulets in huge numbers . Other items in direct contact with the body in the tomb , such as headrests , were also considered to have amuletic value . A number of spells also refer to Egyptian beliefs about the magical healing power of saliva .
= = = Organization = = =
Almost every Book of the Dead was unique , containing a different mixture of spells drawn from the corpus of texts available . For most of the history of the Book of the Dead there was no defined order or structure . In fact , until Paul Barguet 's 1967 " pioneering study " of common themes between texts , Egyptologists concluded there was no internal structure at all . It is only from the Saite period ( 26th dynasty ) onwards that there is a defined order .
The Books of the Dead from the Saite period tend to organize the Chapters into four sections :
Chapters 1 – 16 * The deceased enters the tomb , descends to the underworld , and the body regains its powers of movement and speech .
Chapters 17 – 63 Explanation of the mythic origin of the gods and places , the deceased are made to live again so that they may arise , reborn , with the morning sun .
Chapters 64 – 129 The deceased travels across the sky in the sun ark as one of the blessed dead . In the evening , the deceased travels to the underworld to appear before Osiris .
Chapters 130 – 189 Having been vindicated , the deceased assumes power in the universe as one of the gods . This section also includes assorted chapters on protective amulets , provision of food , and important places .
= = Egyptian concepts of death and afterlife = =
The spells in the Book of the Dead depict Egyptian beliefs about the nature of death and the afterlife . The Book of the Dead is a vital source of information about Egyptian beliefs in this area .
= = = Preservation = = =
One aspect of death was the disintegration of the various kheperu , or modes of existence . Funerary rituals served to re @-@ integrate these different aspects of being . Mummification served to preserve and transform the physical body into sah , an idealised form with divine aspects ; the Book of the Dead contained spells aimed at preserving the body of the deceased , which may have been recited during the process of mummification . The heart , which was regarded as the aspect of being which included intelligence and memory , was also protected with spells , and in case anything happened to the physical heart , it was common to bury jewelled heart scarabs with a body to provide a replacement . The ka , or life @-@ force , remained in the tomb with the dead body , and required sustenance from offerings of food , water and incense . In case priests or relatives failed to provide these offerings , Spell 105 ensured the ka was satisfied . The name of the dead person , which constituted their individuality and was required for their continued existence , was written in many places throughout the Book , and spell 25 ensured the deceased would remember their own name . The ba was a free @-@ ranging spirit aspect of the deceased . It was the ba , depicted as a human @-@ headed bird , which could " go forth by day " from the tomb into the world ; spells 61 and 89 acted to preserve it . Finally , the shut , or shadow of the deceased , was preserved by spells 91 , 92 and 188 . If all these aspects of the person could be variously preserved , remembered , and satiated , then the dead person would live on in the form of an akh . An akh was a blessed spirit with magical powers who would dwell among the gods .
= = = Afterlife = = =
The nature of the afterlife which the dead person enjoyed is difficult to define , because of the differing traditions within Ancient Egyptian religion . In the Book of the Dead , the dead were taken into the presence of the god Osiris , who was confined to the subterranean Duat . There are also spells to enable the ba or akh of the dead to join Ra as he travelled the sky in his sun @-@ barque , and help him fight off Apep . As well as joining the Gods , the Book of the Dead also depicts the dead living on in the ' Field of Reeds ' , a paradisiac likeness of the real world . The Field of Reeds is depicted as a lush , plentiful version of the Egypt of the living . There are fields , crops , oxen , people and waterways . The deceased person is shown encountering the Great Ennead , a group of gods , as well as his or her own parents . While the depiction of the Field of Reeds is pleasant and plentiful , it is also clear that manual labour is required . For this reason burials included a number of statuettes named shabti , or later ushebti . These statuettes were inscribed with a spell , also included in the Book of the Dead , requiring them to undertake any manual labour that might be the owner 's duty in the afterlife . It is also clear that the dead not only went to a place where the gods lived , but that they acquired divine characteristics themselves . In many occasions , the deceased is mentioned as " The Osiris - [ Name ] " in the Book of the Dead .
The path to the afterlife as laid out in the Book of the Dead was a difficult one . The deceased was required to pass a series of gates , caverns and mounds guarded by supernatural creatures . These terrifying entities were armed with enormous knives and are illustrated in grotesque forms , typically as human figures with the heads of animals or combinations of different ferocious beasts . Their names — for instance , " He who lives on snakes " or " He who dances in blood " — are equally grotesque . These creatures had to be pacified by reciting the appropriate spells included in the Book of the Dead ; once pacified they posed no further threat , and could even extend their protection to the dead person . Another breed of supernatural creatures was ' slaughterers ' who killed the unrighteous on behalf of Osiris ; the Book of the Dead equipped its owner to escape their attentions . As well as these supernatural entities , there were also threats from natural or supernatural animals , including crocodiles , snakes , and beetles .
= = = Judgment = = =
If all the obstacles of the Duat could be negotiated , the deceased would be judged in the " Weighing of the Heart " ritual , depicted in Spell 125 . The deceased was led by the god Anubis into the presence of Osiris . There , the dead person swore that he had not committed any sin from a list of 42 sins , reciting a text known as the " Negative Confession " . Then the dead person 's heart was weighed on a pair of scales , against the goddess Maat , who embodied truth and justice . Maat was often represented by an ostrich feather , the hieroglyphic sign for her name . At this point , there was a risk that the deceased 's heart would bear witness , owning up to sins committed in life ; Spell 30B guarded against this eventuality . If the scales balanced , this meant the deceased had led a good life . Anubis would take them to Osiris and they would find their place in the afterlife , becoming maa @-@ kheru , meaning " vindicated " or " true of voice " . If the heart was out of balance with Maat , then another fearsome beast called Ammit , the Devourer , stood ready to eat it and put the dead person 's afterlife to an early and unpleasant end .
This scene is remarkable not only for its vividness but as one of the few parts of the Book of the Dead with any explicit moral content . The judgment of the dead and the Negative Confession were a representation of the conventional moral code which governed Egyptian society . For every " I have not ... " in the Negative Confession , it is possible to read an unexpressed " Thou shalt not " . While the Ten Commandments of Judeo @-@ Christian ethics are rules of conduct laid down by a perceived divine revelation , the Negative Confession is more a divine enforcement of everyday morality . Views differ among Egyptologists about how far the Negative Confession represents a moral absolute , with ethical purity being necessary for progress to the Afterlife . John Taylor points out the wording of Spells 30B and 125 suggests a pragmatic approach to morality ; by preventing the heart from contradicting him with any inconvenient truths , it seems that the deceased could enter the afterlife even if their life had not been entirely pure . Ogden Goelet says " without an exemplary and moral existence , there was no hope for a successful afterlife " , while Geraldine Pinch suggests that the Negative Confession is essentially similar to the spells protecting from demons , and that the success of the Weighing of the Heart depended on the mystical knowledge of the true names of the judges rather than on the deceased 's moral behaviour .
= = Producing a Book of the Dead = =
A Book of the Dead papyrus was produced to order by scribes . They were commissioned by people in preparation for their own funeral , or by the relatives of someone recently deceased . They were expensive items ; one source gives the price of a Book of the Dead scroll as one deben of silver , perhaps half the annual pay of a labourer . Papyrus itself was evidently costly , as there are many instances of its re @-@ use in everyday documents , creating palimpsests . In one case , a Book of the Dead was written on second @-@ hand papyrus .
Most owners of the Book of the Dead were evidently part of the social elite ; they were initially reserved for the royal family , but later papyri are found in the tombs of scribes , priests and officials . Most owners were men , and generally the vignettes included the owner 's wife as well . Towards the beginning of the history of the Book of the Dead , there are roughly 10 copies belonging to men for every one for a woman . However , during the Third Intermediate Period , 2 / 3 were for women ; and women owned roughly a third of the hieratic paypri from the Late and Ptolemaic Periods .
The dimensions of a Book of the Dead could vary widely ; the longest is 40m long while some are as short as 1m . They are composed of sheets of papyrus joined together , the individual papyri varying in width from 15 cm to 45 cm . The scribes working on Book of the Dead papyri took more care over their work than those working on more mundane texts ; care was taken to frame the text within margins , and to avoid writing on the joints between sheets . The words peret em heru , or ' coming forth by day ' sometimes appear on the reverse of the outer margin , perhaps acting as a label .
Books were often prefabricated in funerary workshops , with spaces being left for the name of the deceased to be written in later . For instance , in the Papyrus of Ani , the name " Ani " appears at the top or bottom of a column , or immediately following a rubric introducing him as the speaker of a block of text ; the name appears in a different handwriting to the rest of the manuscript , and in some places is mis @-@ spelt or omitted entirely .
The text of a New Kingdom Book of the Dead was typically written in cursive hieroglyphs , most often from left to right , but also sometimes from right to left . The hieroglyphs were in columns , which were separated by black lines - a similar arrangement to that used when hieroglyphs were carved on tomb walls or monuments . Illustrations were put in frames above , below , or between the columns of text . The largest illustrations took up a full page of papyrus .
From the 21st Dynasty onward , more copies of the Book of the Dead are found in hieratic script . The calligraphy is similar to that of other hieratic manuscripts of the New Kingdom ; the text is written in horizontal lines across wide columns ( often the column size corresponds to the size of the papyrus sheets of which a scroll is made up ) . Occasionally a hieratic Book of the Dead contains captions in hieroglyphic .
The text of a Book of the Dead was written in both black and red ink , regardless of whether it was in hieroglyphic or hieratic script . Most of the text was in black , with red ink used for the titles of spells , opening and closing sections of spells , the instructions to perform spells correctly in rituals , and also for the names of dangerous creatures such as the demon Apep . The black ink used was based on carbon , and the red ink on ochre , in both cases mixed with water .
The style and nature of the vignettes used to illustrate a Book of the Dead varies widely . Some contain lavish colour illustrations , even making use of gold leaf . Others contain only line drawings , or one simple illustration at the opening .
Book of the Dead papyri were often the work of several different scribes and artists whose work was literally pasted together . It is usually possible to identify the style of more than one scribe used on a given manuscript , even when the manuscript is a shorter one . The text and illustrations were produced by different scribes ; there are a number of Books where the text was completed but the illustrations were left empty .
= = Discovery , translation , interpretation and preservation = =
The existence of the Book of the Dead was known as early as the Middle Ages , well before its contents could be understood . Since it was found in tombs , it was evidently a document of a religious nature , and this led to the widespread misapprehension that the Book of the Dead was the equivalent of a Bible or Qur 'an . They didn 't recognize them as a funerary ritual .
In 1842 Karl Richard Lepsius published a translation of a manuscript dated to the Ptolemaic era and coined the name " Book of The Dead " . He also introduced the spell numbering system which is still in use , identifying 165 different spells . Lepsius promoted the idea of a comparative edition of the Book of the Dead , drawing on all relevant manuscripts . This project was undertaken by Édouard Naville , starting in 1875 and completed in 1886 , producing a three @-@ volume work including a selection of vignettes for every one of the 186 spells he worked with , the more significant variations of the text for every spell , and commentary . In 1867 Samuel Birch of the British Museum published the first extensive English translation . In 1876 he published a photographic copy of the Papyrus of Nebseny .
The work of E. A. Wallis Budge , Birch 's successor at the British Museum , is still in wide circulation – including both his hieroglyphic editions and his English translations of the Papyrus of Ani , though the latter are now considered inaccurate and out @-@ of @-@ date . More recent translations in English have been published by T. G. Allen ( 1974 ) and Raymond O. Faulkner ( 1972 ) . As more work has been done on the Book of the Dead , more spells have been identified , and the total now stands at 192 .
In the 1970s , Ursula Rößler @-@ Köhler at the University of Bonn began a working group to develop the history of Book of the Dead texts . This later received sponsorship from the German state of North Rhine @-@ Westphalia and the German Research Foundation , in 2004 coming under the auspices of the German Academies of Sciences and Arts . Today the Book of the Dead Project , as it is called , maintains a database of documentation and photography covering 80 % of extant copies and fragments from the corpus of Book of the Dead texts , and provides current services to Egyptologists . It is housed at the University of Bonn , with much material available online . Affiliated scholars are authoring a series of monograph studies , the Studien zum Altägyptischen Totenbuch , alongside a series that publishes the manuscripts themselves , Handschriften des Altägyptischen Totenbuches . Both are in print by Harrassowitz Verlag . Orientverlag has released another series of related monographs , Totenbuchtexte , focused on analysis , synoptic comparison , and textual criticism .
Research work on the Book of the Dead has always posed technical difficulties thanks to the need to copy very long hieroglyphic texts . Initially , these were copied out by hand , with the assistance either of tracing paper or a camera lucida . In the mid @-@ 19th century , hieroglyphic fonts became available and made lithographic reproduction of manuscripts more feasible . In the present day , hieroglyphics can be rendered in desktop publishing software and this , combined with digital print technology , means that the costs of publishing a Book of the Dead may be considerably reduced . However , a very large amount of the source material in museums around the world remains unpublished .
= = = Chronology = = =
c . 3150 BCE - First preserved hieroglyphs , on small labels in the tomb of a king buried ( in tomb U @-@ j ) at Abydos
c . 3000 BCE - The beginning of the numbered dynasties of kings of ancient Egypt
'c . 2345 BCE - First royal pyramid , of King Unas , to contain the Pyramid Texts , carved precursors ( intended only for the king ) to the funerary literature from which the Book of the Dead ultimately developed
c . 2100 BCE - First Coffin Texts , developed from the Pyramid Texts and for a time painted on the coffins of commoners . Many spells of the Book of the Dead are closely derived from them
c . 1600 BCE - Earliest spells of the Book of the Dead , on the coffin of Queen Menthuhotep , a descendent of kings from the New Kingdom
c . 1550 BCE - From this time onward to the beginning of the New kingdom , papyrus copies of the Book of the Dead are used instead of inscribing spells on the walls of the tombs
c . 600 BCE - Approximately when the order of the spells became standard
2nd Century CE - Possibly the last copies of the Book of the Dead were produced , but it is a poorly documented era of history
313 CE - Christianity spreads to Egypt
1798 - Napoleon 's invasion of Egypt encourages European interests in ancient Egypt ; 1799 , Vivant Denon was handed a copy of the Book of the Dead
1805 - J. Marc Cadet makes the first publication , on 18 plates , of a Book of the Dead , Copie figurée d 'un Roleau de Papyrus trouvé à Thèbes dans un Thombeau des Rois , accompagnèe d 'une notice descriptive , Paris , Levrault
1822 - J. François Champollion announces the key to the decipherment of ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic writing , subsequently developed in his later publications , the most extensive after his death in 1832
1842 - C.R. Lepsius publishes the first major study of the Book of the Dead , begins the numbering of the spells or chapters , and brings the name ' Book of the Dead ' into general circulation
= Thor : The Dark World =
Thor : The Dark World is a 2013 American superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character Thor , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures . It is the sequel to 2011 's Thor and the eighth film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . The film was directed by Alan Taylor , with a screenplay by Christopher Yost and Christopher Markus & Stephen McFeely . It stars Chris Hemsworth , Natalie Portman , Tom Hiddleston , Anthony Hopkins , Stellan Skarsgård , Idris Elba , Christopher Eccleston , Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje , Kat Dennings , Ray Stevenson , Zachary Levi , Tadanobu Asano , Jaimie Alexander , and Rene Russo . In Thor : The Dark World , Thor teams up with Loki to save the Nine Realms from the Dark Elves led by the vengeful Malekith , who intends to plunge the universe into darkness .
Development of Thor : The Dark World began in April 2011 , when producer Kevin Feige announced plans for a sequel to follow the crossover film The Avengers . In July 2011 , Kenneth Branagh , the director of Thor , withdrew from the project . Brian Kirk and Patty Jenkins were considered to direct the film before Taylor was hired in January 2012 . The supporting cast filled out in August 2012 , with the hiring of Eccleston , Dennings , and Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje . Principal photography began in September 2012 in Surrey , England with filming continuing in Iceland and London , before wrapping up in December 2012 . Thor : The Dark World was converted to 3D in post @-@ production .
Thor : The Dark World premiered at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on October 22 , 2013 . It was released internationally on October 30 , 2013 , and on November 8 , 2013 , in the United States . The film received mixed reviews , but was a commercial success , grossing over $ 644 million worldwide . A third film , Thor : Ragnarok , is set for release on November 3 , 2017 .
= = Plot = =
Eons ago , Bor , father of Odin , clashes with the Dark Elf Malekith , who seeks to unleash a weapon known as the Aether on the nine realms . After conquering Malekith 's forces , including enhanced warriors called the Kursed , on their home world of Svartalfheim , Bor safeguards the Aether within a stone column . Unbeknownst to Bor , Malekith , his lieutenant Algrim , and a handful of Dark Elves escape into suspended animation .
In present @-@ day Asgard , Loki stands imprisoned for his war crimes on Earth.1 Meanwhile , Thor , alongside warriors Fandral , Volstagg , and Sif , repel marauders on Vanaheim , home of their comrade Hogun ; it is the final battle in a war to pacify the Nine Realms following the reconstruction of the Bifröst , the " Rainbow Bridge " between realms , which had been destroyed two years earlier.2 The Asgardians soon learn that the Convergence , a rare alignment of the Nine Realms , is imminent ; as the event approaches , portals linking the worlds appear at random .
In London , astrophysicist Dr. Jane Foster and her intern Darcy Lewis travel to an abandoned factory where such portals have appeared , disrupting the laws of physics around them . Separating from the group , Jane is teleported to another world , where she is infected by the Aether . Heimdall alerts Thor that Jane has moved beyond his near all @-@ seeing vision , leading Thor to Earth . When Thor finds Jane , she inadvertently releases an unearthly force , and Thor returns with her to Asgard . Odin , recognizing the Aether , warns that the Aether will not only kill Jane , but that its return heralds a catastrophic prophecy .
Malekith , awakened by the Aether 's release , turns Algrim into a Kursed and attacks Asgard . During the battle , Malekith and Algrim search for Jane , sensing that she contains the Aether . Thor 's mother Frigga is killed protecting Jane , and Malekith and Algrim are forced to flee without Jane . Despite Odin 's orders not to leave Asgard , Thor reluctantly enlists the help of Loki , who knows of a secret portal to Svartalfheim , where they will use Jane to lure and confront Malekith , away from Asgard . In return , Thor promises Loki vengeance on Malekith for killing their mother . With Volstagg and Sif stalling Asgardian soldiers and Fandral assisting their escape , Thor , Loki , and Jane head to Svartalfheim .
There , Loki tricks Malekith into drawing the Aether out of Jane , but Thor 's attempt to destroy the exposed substance fails . Malekith merges with the Aether and leaves in his ship as Loki is fatally wounded while killing Algrim . Thor , cradling Loki in his arms , promises to tell their father of his sacrifice . Afterwards , Thor and Jane discover another portal in a nearby cave and reunite in London with Darcy and Jane 's mentor Dr. Erik Selvig — who was briefly institutionalized due to the mental trauma he suffered during Loki 's attack on Earth . They learn that Malekith plans to restore the Dark Elves to dominance by unleashing the Aether at the center of the Convergence in Greenwich . Thor battles Malekith through various portals and across multiple worlds until one portal separates them , leaving Malekith unopposed on Earth . Thor returns in time to help his mortal comrades use their scientific equipment to transport Malekith to Svartalfheim , where he is crushed by his own damaged ship .
Thor returns to Asgard , where he declines Odin 's offer to take the throne and tells Odin of Loki 's sacrifice . As he leaves , Odin 's form transforms into Loki , who is alive and impersonating Odin .
In a mid @-@ credits scene , Volstagg and Sif visit the Collector and entrust the Aether to his care , commenting that with the Tesseract already in Asgard , having two Infinity Stones so close together would be dangerous . As they leave , the Collector remarks , " One down , five to go . " In a post @-@ credits scene , Jane and Thor reunite on Earth while somewhere in London a frost monster from Jotunheim , accidentally transported to Earth during the final battle , continues to run amok .
= = Cast = =
Chris Hemsworth as Thor :
The crown prince of Asgard , based on the Norse mythological deity of the same name . Hemsworth stated that the film addresses unresolved issues regarding Thor 's relationships from previous films , " For Thor and Jane , there are some unanswered questions now , since obviously he didn 't stop in and catch up with her in The Avengers . Thor might have some explaining to do in this one . And with Loki , we get down to the major bones of our conflict with everything that 's come from Thor to Avengers to now . " Hemsworth added , " Thor 's journey I think picks more so up from where we left the first one — About to take on the throne ... and now coming to the realization of what responsibility comes with that . Also , Alan [ Taylor ] keeps talking about the dark side of that responsibility , and the secrets of being king or becoming sort of very political about what people need to know and what they want to know . " Hemsworth especially enjoyed the role of Thor in this film as he was able to , " ... break him down and find his human qualities and his vulnerable side . "
Natalie Portman as Jane Foster :
An astrophysicist and Thor 's love interest , who is brought from Earth to Asgard by Thor after she is infected with a mysterious energy . Producer Kevin Feige said , " [ W ] hile Thor was a fish out of water on Earth in the first two films ( Thor and The Avengers ) , this time Jane is very much a fish out of water in Asgard . " Portman added , " It was a whole different adventure this time . Because Jane is the fish out of water . I didn 't want to make it like Bill & Ted , or like a valley girl dumped into Shakespeareland . " Portman also said the film finds Jane at a different place in her life , " Jane has moved , so she 's now in London , not in Santa Fe anymore . Obviously she has gone through missing Thor and also being upset at him because he didn 't come knock on her door when he was on her planet . She 's definitely been getting over that and trying to move on . " Hemsworth 's wife Elsa Pataky stood in for Portman during the final kissing scene due to a scheduling conflict .
Tom Hiddleston as Loki :
Thor 's adoptive brother and nemesis , based on the deity of the same name , who forms an uneasy alliance with Thor against the Dark Elves . On where he wished to take the character in the film , Hiddleston said , " I 'd like to take [ Loki ] to his absolute rock bottom . I 'd like to see him yield , essentially , to his darkest instincts . Then , having hit rock bottom , maybe come back up . I think the fascination for me about playing Loki is that , in the history of the mythology and the comic books and the Scandinavian myths , is he 's constantly dancing on this fault line of the dark side and redemption . " Hiddleston recalled , " When I met Alan [ Taylor ] , he asked me how I thought I could do Loki again without repeating myself and I remembered talking with Kevin Feige when we were on the Avengers promotional tour . I said , ' OK , you 've seen Thor and Loki be antagonistic for two films now . It would be amazing to see them fight side by side . I 've been the bad guy now twice , so I can 't be again , or otherwise I shouldn 't be in the film . So we have to find a new role for me to play . "
Anthony Hopkins as Odin :
The king of Asgard , father of Thor , and adoptive father of Loki , based on the deity of the same name , who disapproves of Jane Foster being in Asgard . Regarding Thor 's relationship with his father , Hemsworth said , " [ T ] he conflict between Thor and Odin was so great in the first one ... so , certainly they disagree as I think they always will at times but there 's a far greater respect from each other . So it becomes , I guess , a more mature conversation , but there 's more at stake this time , too . It 's not sort of just their individual egos , the whole universe is at stake . " As to his approach Hopkins said , " I just play Odin like a human being , with maybe a little more dimension . I grow a beard , look hopefully impressive and keep it as real as possible . "
Stellan Skarsgård as Erik Selvig :
Foster 's mentor and colleague . Skarsgård said , the film finds Selvig in a " disrupted mode " explaining , " Having a god in your head for a while creates some psychological problems " , referring to the character 's ordeal following The Avengers .
Idris Elba as Heimdall :
The all @-@ seeing , all @-@ hearing Asgardian sentry of the Bifröst Bridge , based on the mythological deity of the same name . Elba said he has a larger role in the sequel , " In the new film we 're going to get to know Heimdall the Asgardian a bit better , and we 're going to get to know Asgard a bit better . I can 't say too much , but the expansion of Thor in his world is going to be huge . My part was very small and functional in the first film " .
Christopher Eccleston as Malekith :
The ruler of the Dark Elves of Svartalfheim . About Malekith 's motivation , Eccleston said , " There is a kind of tragic quality to his quest . Because he 's lost his wife , he 's lost his children . He 's lost everything . And he returns for revenge . And the agent for his revenge is the Aether . If he gets hold of that , he is omnipotent . " Eccleston continued , " What I thought about a great deal was revenge — there 's huge amounts of revenge . One quote is : ' When you seek revenge , be sure to dig two graves . ' I did a film called Revengers Tragedy where I played a guy called Vindici — from the word ' vindictive ' — and he is the distillation of revenge . So , in a way , that was what I had to think of : how revenge can make you absolutely monomaniacal — though you 're still trying to make it recognizably motive @-@ led . It 's just the personification of movie evil . " However Taylor stated that a lot of scenes involving Malekith 's backstory had to be cut from the film to make it more efficient . Eccleston revealed that he speaks an invented language for the film explaining , " The Elvish language is definitely based on European languages . I think there ’ s probably some Finnish in there . It does have its logic and its rhythms . It also has many syllables and it 's very difficult to do while remaining naturalistic . It 's been a particular challenge for us but hopefully it gives the film some complexity and variety . " Eccleston also said the role required six hours of make @-@ up and 45 minutes in wardrobe .
Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje as Algrim / Kurse :
A Dark Elf , and Malekith 's trusted and loyal lieutenant , who is transformed into a monstrous creature in order to destroy Thor . Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje described Kurse as " an amalgamation of a bull and a lava @-@ like creature . He has very animalistic tendencies but with this insatiable and unstoppable power . As an actor , that 's one of the hardest things to embody . You have to realize you are probably the most powerful thing you could imagine . And you have to be that . You can 't pretend , so that when you face Thor , it 's real . " Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje stated the role required three hours of make @-@ up a day and had to put on heavy duty prosthetics explaining , " The outfit weighed about 40 pounds . I 'm sure there will be a certain amount of CGI but a good 80 % was me in that suit . " About the character Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje said , " I suppose Algrim and Kurse would be the quintessential baddies , but in reality they are what I perceive as the scorn and the victims of the story . They are the elves who have basically lost their planet and their race to another race , the Asgardians . Here is a man / alien who places a noble objective beyond his own life and I think there is something extremely inspiring about that because he looks at the bigger picture and sees himself as a means to that end . " Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje added , " I worked with director Alan Taylor in trying to maintain Algrim 's humanity all the way throughout Kurse 's transformation , so that even when you see Kurse the beast , you can still relate to him as being Algrim inside . And symbolically we did that by keeping the same piercing blue eyes throughout . "
Kat Dennings as Darcy Lewis :
A political science major who is interning for Foster . Her role in the film was expanded from the comic relief sidekick role she played in the first Thor film . Dennings said her character is " really bad at real science in this first movie . In the second movie , she 's more interested , but she still doesn 't know anything about it . She loves Jane , she really wants Jane and Thor to be together . It 's almost like her own little soap opera that she watches . "
Ray Stevenson as Volstagg :
A member of the Warriors Three ; a group of three Asgardian adventurers who are among Thor 's closest comrades , known for both his hearty appetite and wide girth . About the character Stevenson said , " He 's got a heart the size of a planet that he wears on his sleeve , so he 's like a big kid . " Regarding Volstagg 's role in this film , Stevenson said , " Volstagg is struggling , he has a brood , they [ the Warriors Three ] are fighting for hearth and home as much as for the idea of Asgard itself . That 's where he has trouble . " Explaining , " He 's all too aware of how potentially threatening this new enemy is on both the home front and the battlefield . "
Zachary Levi as Fandral :
A member of the Warriors Three , characterized as an irrepressible swashbuckler and romantic . Levi replaced Joshua Dallas in the role due to his commitment on Once Upon a Time . Levi had been up for the role in the first film , but bowed out due to his commitment on Chuck . Levi compared the character to Flynn Rider , the character he played in the animated feature , Tangled , " Fandral is a little similar to Rider in some ways ... He 's like this Lothario . He 's like Errol Flynn . He loves ladies , as do I " . Regarding the dynamic of the Warriors Three , Levi said , " The Warriors Three are here to support Thor . We are his confidants , his best friends . We 've all grown up together in a lot of ways and fought many a battle together , escaped death . To me it 's the way best friends ought to be — they 're there when you need to talk and they 're there if you don 't want to talk , and they 're there if you need to escape from your father 's place in a flying skiff ! "
Tadanobu Asano as Hogun :
A member of the Warriors Three , a native of Vanaheim primarily identified by his grim demeanor .
Jaimie Alexander as Sif :
An Asgardian warrior , Thor 's childhood friend and Jane Foster 's romantic rival , based on the deity of the same name . Alexander said there is more character development for Sif and the film explores the Sif @-@ Thor relationship . Alexander elaborated , " I really tried to bring a little bit more vulnerability in this film . Sif is very much in love with Thor and very much cares about his well @-@ being . So she kicks a lot of butt in this movie but she also opens her heart a lot . " Alexander suffered a severe back injury while on the set . About the injury , she said , " It was raining , it was dark outside , it was like 5 in the morning — and I went down a metal staircase and slipped and slipped a disc in my thoracic spine and chipped 11 of my vertebrae . I knocked my left shoulder out of place and tore my rhomboid on my right side ... It took me out of filming for a month " .
Rene Russo as Frigga :
The wife of Odin , queen of Asgard , mother of Thor and adoptive mother of Loki , based on the mythological deity of the same name . Russo said that her role was expanded and explores Frigga 's relationship with Loki , " You know , they cut me [ down ] in the first film . Kenneth Branagh sent me a nice note , because he understood , he 's an actor . You move on , what are you going to do ? But I think they 're going to need a good mom in the next film . Loki needs his mom . I have a lot of compassion for [ Loki ] . But we might have to have a conversation about what he just did " .
Additionally , Alice Krige portrays Eir , an Asgardian physician . Chris O 'Dowd was cast as Richard , a suitor of Jane Foster 's . Benicio del Toro , who plays the Collector in Marvel Studios ' Guardians of the Galaxy , appears in a mid @-@ credits scene with Ophelia Lovibond , who plays his aide Carina . Jonathan Howard plays Ian Boothby , Darcy 's intern . Tony Curran plays Bor , Odin 's father , based on the deity of the same name . Clive Russell plays Tyr , based on the deity of the same name . Richard Brake portrays a captain in the Einherjar . Chris Evans makes an uncredited cameo appearance as Loki masquerading as Captain America , while Thor co @-@ creator Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance as a patient in a mental ward .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In April 2011 before the release of Thor ( 2011 ) , Marvel Studios president Kevin Feige stated that following The Avengers ( 2012 ) , " Thor will go off into a new adventure . " Kenneth Branagh , director of Thor , responded to his comments , saying , " It is kind of news to me . Here 's what I would say to that : It 's that I 'm thrilled they 're that confident . I shall wait for the audience to tell us whether there should be a second one , and then if that 's a nice conversation to be had [ among ] all of us , that 'd be thrilling . But I 've got too much Irish superstitious blood in me to assume that Thor 2 will happen . But if Marvel says so , then I guess it must be true " . Feige later explained that Marvel Studios would gauge how well Thor did at the box office before announcing sequels , but stated , " Don Payne is working on story ideas for a part two . We 've got various options with Ken [ Branagh ] to discuss coming back , but right now the focus is on the first one . Don is , slowly but surely , thinking about where to take the character next should we be so lucky " .
In June 2011 , Walt Disney Studios set a July 26 , 2013 , release date for the Thor sequel with Chris Hemsworth reprising his role as the title hero . It was also reported that Branagh would not be returning as director but would likely be involved in a producing capacity . The Los Angeles Times cited the long commitment necessary for a special effects @-@ heavy epic and the pressure to start the script process right away as
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the mild winter there in 1780 ; the King made Weymouth his summer holiday residence on fourteen occasions between 1789 and 1805 , even venturing into the sea in a bathing machine . A painted statue of the King stands on the seafront , called the King 's Statue , which was renovated in 2007 / 8 by stripping 20 layers of paintwork , replacing it with new paints and gold leaf , and replacing the iron framework with a stainless steel one . A mounted white horse representing the King is carved into the chalk hills of Osmington .
Weymouth 's esplanade is composed of Georgian terraces , which have been converted into apartments , shops , hotels and guest houses . The buildings were constructed in the Georgian and Regency periods between 1770 and 1855 , designed by architects such as James Hamilton , and were commissioned by wealthy businessmen , including those that were involved in the growth of Bath . These terraces form a long , continuous arc of buildings which face Weymouth Bay along the esplanade , which also features the multi @-@ coloured Jubilee Clock , erected in 1887 to mark the 50th year of Queen Victoria 's reign . Statues of Victoria , George III and Sir Henry Edwards , Member of Parliament for the borough from 1867 to 1885 , and two war memorials stand along the Esplanade .
In the centre of the town lies Weymouth Harbour ; although it was the reason for the town 's foundation , the harbour separates the two areas of Melcombe Regis ( the main town centre ) and Weymouth ( the southern harbourside ) from each other . Since the 18th century they have been linked by successive bridges over the narrowest part of the harbour . The present Town Bridge , built in 1930 , is a lifting bascule bridge allowing boats to access the inner harbour . The Royal National Lifeboat Institution stationed a lifeboat at Weymouth for the first time on 26 January 1869 . A boathouse was built with a slipway by the harbour and is still in use , although the lifeboat is now moored at a pontoon .
During World War I , approximately 120 @,@ 000 ANZAC personnel convalesced in Weymouth after being injured at Gallipoli or other theatres of the war . Weymouth and Portland were bombed by German planes in World War II ; Portland harbour had a large naval base , and Weymouth was home to Nothe Fort , next to Nothe Gardens . 517 @,@ 816 troops embarked through the borough to fight at the Battle of Normandy . The Bouncing bomb was tested in the Fleet lagoon to the west of town . The history of the area is documented at the Timewalk museum in Brewers Quay .
= = Governance = =
The district of Weymouth and Portland was formed on 1 April 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , and merged the borough of Weymouth and Melcombe Regis and the nearby Portland urban district . For local elections the district is divided into 15 wards , 12 of them in Weymouth . Elections take place in a four @-@ year cycle ; one third of the councillors in all but three wards retire or seek re @-@ election in years one , two and three , and county council elections are held in year four . The Mayor of Weymouth and Portland is Ray Banham ( Liberal Democrat ) , Kate Wheller ( Labour Party ) is Deputy Mayor .
Weymouth , Portland and the Purbeck district are in the South Dorset parliamentary constituency , created in 1885 . The constituency elects one Member of Parliament ; currently Richard Drax ( Conservative ) .
For European Parliament elections , South Dorset , the rest of South West England , and Gibraltar form the South West England constituency .
Dorset South was the most marginal Labour seat in the 2001 general election , won by 153 votes . Jim Knight was expecting to have a difficult 2005 election , yet he won with a margin of 1 @,@ 812 votes — this was in contrast to other areas , where Labour suffered a decline in popularity . This was helped by a high @-@ profile anti @-@ Conservative campaign by musician Billy Bragg . The seat was gained from Labour by Drax for the Conservatives at the 2010 General Election .
Weymouth and Portland have been twinned with the town of Holzwickede in North Rhine @-@ Westphalia , Germany since 1986 , and the French town of Louviers , in the department of Eure in Normandy , since 1959 .
= = Geography = =
Weymouth is situated on the western shore of Weymouth Bay on the south coast of England , 195 kilometres ( 120 mi ) west @-@ southwest of London , at 50 ° 37 ′ N 2 ° 27 ′ W ( 50 @.@ 613 , − 2 @.@ 457 ) . The town is built on weak sand and clay rock which in most places along the Dorset coast , except for narrow bands at Lulworth Cove , Swanage and Durdle Door , has been eroded and transported away . This weak rock has been protected at Weymouth by Chesil Beach and the strong limestone Isle of Portland that lies offshore , 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) south of Wyke Regis . The island affects the tides of the area , producing a double low tide in Weymouth Bay and Portland Harbour . The maximum tidal range is small , at around 2 metres ( 7 ft ) .
There are two lakes in the borough , both RSPB Nature Reserves — Radipole Lake in the town centre , and Lodmoor between the town centre and Preston . Radipole Lake , the largest nature reserve , and mouth of the River Wey before it flows into Weymouth Harbour , is an important habitat for fish and migratory birds , and over 200 species of plants . Radipole is an important tourist attraction ; it and Weymouth Beach are situated very close to the main town centre . There are 11 Sites of Special Scientific Interest in the borough , which cover an area of 800 @.@ 87 hectares ( 1 @,@ 979 acres ) , and there are 37 other Nature Conservation Designations .
Situated approximately halfway along the Jurassic Coast , Weymouth is a gateway town to the UNESCO World Heritage Site , which includes 155 kilometres ( 96 mi ) of the Dorset and east Devon coast that is important for its geology and landforms . The South West Coast Path has two routes around Weymouth and Portland — one around its coast , and one along the South Dorset Downs , which reduces the path 's length by 31 @.@ 0 kilometres ( 19 @.@ 3 mi ) . The path is the United Kingdom 's longest national trail , at 1 @,@ 014 kilometres ( 630 mi ) .
Weymouth is the largest town in the area , larger than the county town of Dorchester , which lies just to the north , and hence is a centre of activity for the nearby population . A steep ridge of chalk called the South Dorset Downs , locally known as The Ridgeway , separates Dorchester and Weymouth ; they are less agricultural than the valleys in the centre and north of Dorset , but have dairy and arable farms . The nearest villages to Weymouth are part of the built @-@ up area , including Wyke Regis , Chickerell and Preston .
The sand and clay on which Weymouth is built is very low @-@ lying — large areas are below sea level , which allowed the eastern areas of the town to flood during extreme low pressure storms . In the 1980s and 1990s a sea wall was built around Weymouth Harbour and along the coast road in Preston ; a rip rap groyne in Greenhill and beach nourishment up to Preston have created a wide and artificially graded pebble beach , to ensure that the low @-@ lying land around Lodmoor does not flood . The defences at Preston , the extended ferry terminal and the widening of the Esplanade have changed the sediment regime in Weymouth Bay , narrowing the beach at Greenhill and widening the sands in Weymouth . A study conducted as part of the redevelopment of the Pavilion complex showed that the proposed marina will contribute slightly to this effect , but sand dredged out of the marina could be used to make the beach up to 40 metres ( 130 ft ) wider .
= = = Climate = = =
Due to its location on the south @-@ west coast of England , Weymouth has a temperate climate ( Köppen climate classification Cfb ) , with a small variation in daily and annual temperatures . The average annual mean temperature from 1981 to 2010 was 11 @.@ 2 ° C ( 52 @.@ 2 ° F ) . The warmest month is August , which has an average temperature range of 14 @.@ 1 to 20 @.@ 1 ° C ( 57 @.@ 4 to 68 @.@ 2 ° F ) , and the coolest is February , which has a range of 3 @.@ 7 to 8 @.@ 4 ° C ( 38 @.@ 7 to 47 @.@ 1 ° F ) . Maximum and minimum temperatures throughout the year are above England 's average , and Weymouth is in AHS Heat zone 1 . Mean sea surface temperatures range from 7 @.@ 0 ° C ( 44 @.@ 6 ° F ) in February to 17 @.@ 2 ° C ( 63 @.@ 0 ° F ) in August ; the annual mean is 11 @.@ 8 ° C ( 53 @.@ 2 ° F ) .
The low @-@ lying nature of the area , and the ameliorating effect of the lakes and mild seas that surround the town , act to keep night @-@ time temperatures above freezing for much of the winter , though frosts are recorded . The lowest temperature of − 9 @.@ 8 ° C ( 14 @.@ 4 ° F ) was recorded on 13 January 1987 . Days with snow lying are equally rare : on average zero to six days per year ; almost all winters have one day or less with snow lying . It may snow or sleet in winter , yet it rarely settles on the ground ; low @-@ lying coastal areas on the South Coast of England such as Weymouth experience milder winters than the rest of the United Kingdom . The growing season in Weymouth lasts for more than 310 days per year , and the borough is in Hardiness zone 9b .
Weymouth and Portland has one of the sunniest climates in the United Kingdom , along with many south coast towns . The resort averaged 1869 @.@ 8 hours of sunshine annually between 1981 and 2010 , which is 43 % of the maximum possible , and 40 % above the United Kingdom average of 1339 @.@ 7 hours . December is the cloudiest month ( 62 @.@ 9 hours of sunshine ) , November the wettest ( 88 @.@ 7 millimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) of rain ) and July is the sunniest and driest month ( 243 @.@ 6 hours of sunshine , 35 @.@ 9 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) of rain ) . Sunshine totals in all months are well above the United Kingdom average , and monthly rainfall totals throughout the year are less than the UK average , particularly in summer ; this summer minimum of rainfall is not experienced away from the south coast of England . The average annual rainfall of 730 @.@ 3 millimetres ( 28 @.@ 8 in ) is well below the UK average of 1 @,@ 125 millimetres ( 44 @.@ 3 in ) .
= = Demography = =
The mid @-@ year population of Weymouth in 2011 was 52 @,@ 323 , in a built @-@ up area of 18 @.@ 5 square kilometres ( 4 @,@ 600 acres ) , giving an approximate population density of 2 @,@ 800 residents per square kilometre ( 11 per acre ) , in 25 @,@ 174 dwellings . The population has grown steadily since the 1970s , mainly as a result of migration . There is an above average number of residents aged 60 – 84 ( 27 @.@ 4 % ) , however this is less than the Dorset average of 30 @.@ 2 % , and the proportion of the population between 18 and 59 is also above the Dorset average . The population is largely native to England — 94 @.@ 9 % of residents are White British , slightly below the Dorset average of 95 @.@ 5 % , and well above the England and Wales average of 80 @.@ 5 % . The most common religious identity in Weymouth and Portland is Christianity , at 61 @.@ 0 % , which is slightly above the England and Wales average of 59 @.@ 3 % . The next @-@ largest sector is those with no religion , at 29 @.@ 3 % , slightly above the average of 25 @.@ 1 % .
House prices in Weymouth and Portland are relatively high by UK standards , yet around average for the south of England — the average price of a detached house in 2010 was £ 303 @,@ 622 ; semi @-@ detached and terraced houses were cheaper , at £ 204 @,@ 647 and £ 203 @,@ 207 respectively , and an apartment or maisonette cost £ 155 @,@ 056 . The crime rate in Weymouth of 7 @.@ 6 burglaries per 1000 households is lower than that of England and Wales ( 11 @.@ 6 per 1000 ) , but above that of Dorset ( 3 @.@ 6 per 1000 ) . Unemployment levels are low , particularly in summer , at 2 @.@ 5 % of the economically active population in July 2011 , compared to the UK average of 7 @.@ 7 % .
= = Economy = =
Tourism has been the largest industry in Weymouth for decades , though the number of people employed in the sector has declined slightly since its peak in the late 1990s . Weymouth 's coast and beaches , lakes , museums , aquarium , and two shopping centres are the main attractions for visitors . The visitor accommodation consists of hotels on the seafront , guest houses around the town centre , and caravan and camping sites just out of town , including three sites owned by Haven and British Holidays : Littlesea , Seaview and Weymouth Bay .
There are over two hundred events held throughout the year in the borough , including firework festivals , dragon boat racing , beach volleyball , handball and motocross , and the annual carnival in mid @-@ August , which attracts around 70 @,@ 000 people each year . Weymouth is the only port in the world to have hosted the start of The Tall Ships ' Races three times — in 1983 , 1987 and 1994 ; the 1994 race attracting 300 @,@ 000 spectators .
The Pavilion Theatre was built in 1960 on a peninsula of reclaimed land between the harbour and the esplanade , after the Ritz Theatre was destroyed by fire in 1954 . The Pavilion was owned and operated by Weymouth and Portland Borough Council , providing a venue for local community groups and schools , and hosting seasonal ' end @-@ of @-@ the @-@ pier ' entertainment and year @-@ round shows and events . It was announced in 2006 that the Pavilion complex and 4 hectares ( 10 acres ) of its surroundings would be entirely redeveloped from 2008 to 2011 , in time for the 2012 Summer Olympics . The proposed complex was to include a refurbished theatre , a World Heritage Site visitors ' centre , a new ferry terminal , a 140 bed 4 @-@ star hotel , an underground car park , a shopping arcade , offices , around 340 luxury apartments , 110 affordable homes , public squares , promenades , and a 290 @-@ berth marina . Delays to the project mean it was unlikely to be completed in time for the 2012 Summer Olympics and the redevelopment never took place . In November 2012 Weymouth and Portland Borough Council announced the intended closure and demolition of the theatre , with the site closing on 31 May 2013 . Following a formal tender process the theatre was leased to local businessman Phil Say and reopened on 13 July 2013 . Weymouth Pavilion is now operated by Weymouth Pavilion CIC as a not @-@ for @-@ profit organisation .
As part of the regeneration of Weymouth and Portland , it was decided in 2007 that Weymouth 's esplanade will be redeveloped in time for the 2012 Olympic Games . Planned improvements include a public square around the restored statue of King George III , the restoration and extension the Art Deco pier bandstand , a Tourist information centre and café , Victorian @-@ style shelters and seasonal kiosks , a beach rescue centre , and a sand art pavilion for the sculptures of Mark Anderson . Other alterations to the promenade were made , particularly around key areas such as the Jubilee Clock and the pier bandstand , with the introduction of new cafes and bars that connect the promenade and beach using innovative design , shaped like an upturned boat , also including a lighting scheme and seating areas with planting , fountains and trees . A 2010 council report said there are " venues with an emphasis on an alcohol @-@ led night out . While these uses area positive attribute to the town , popular with both residents and visitors , they are also closely linked to a well @-@ documented crime and disorder problem in the town centre . "
Weymouth Harbour is long and narrow , and formed the estuary of the River Wey until the building of a bridge to Westham , which separated the harbour 's backwaters from Radipole Lake . For centuries the harbour was a passenger terminal and trade and cargo port : goods handled included wool and spices , and in the 20th century Weymouth was a bulk importer of fertiliser and cars . The old harbourside , on both sides of the seaward end of the harbour , still hosts a fishing fleet , with docks , unloading areas , and a cross @-@ channel ferry terminal . Fishing and cargo trading employ fewer people in the area since their peak in earlier centuries , but local fishermen catch the largest mass of fish in England and the third largest in the United Kingdom . The inner harbour has been refurbished in two phases , in 1994 – 1996 and in 2002 , to include a new marina with hundreds of berths for pleasure boats , cruisers and sailing boats . Local boats offer fishing and diving trips , pleasure cruises along the Jurassic Coast , and thrill @-@ rides to the Isle of Portland .
The main shopping centre in the area is in Melcombe Regis , consisting of two pedestrianised streets ( St. Thomas 's and St. Mary 's Street ) , shops along the esplanade , and a new precinct stretching from St. Thomas 's Street to the harbourside , built in the 1990s . There are shops and restaurants in the pedestrianised Hope Square and Brewers Quay , which are linked to the town centre by town bridge and a small passenger ferry service across the harbour . In 2005 the town centre had 292 shops and 37 @,@ 500 square metres ( 404 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of floorspace , and there was 0 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 100 acres ) of industrial estate in the area . The shopping catchment area , which extends for approximately 3 miles towards the north and seven miles east and west , has a population of 71 @,@ 700 ( mid @-@ 2001 ) . Weymouth , Portland and Chickerell have been a Fairtrade Zone since 2007 . Fashion company New Look has its global headquarters in Weymouth , and until 2005 the company 's regional distribution centre was based at the same site . Plans were approved in 2007 to develop the New Look site to include new headquarters , retail warehouses and industrial units , a hotel , fire station , and a medical centre with ambulance station .
= = Transport = =
Weymouth railway station is the terminus of a route from London Waterloo and of a route from Westbury and Bristol . There used to be a station to handle summer tourist traffic , but this traffic declined and it was demolished in 1986 . A smaller station took up part of the site , and the rest was given over to commercial development . Part of the South West Main Line west of Moreton Station to east of Dorchester South Station has been reduced from dual to single track . Local councils lobbied the Department for Transport , in connection with the 2012 Olympic Games , to relay the double track and increase services . Services to London Waterloo began running every 30 minutes from December 2007 , but services through Bristol to Cardiff were reduced .
An unusual feature of the railways in Weymouth was that until 1987 main @-@ line trains ran though the streets and along the Weymouth Harbour Tramway to the Quay station at the eastern end of the harbour , to connect with ferries to mainland Europe . Due to declining business , goods traffic ceased in 1972 , but passenger services continued until they ceased in 1987 from lack of use .
Local bus services are run by First Hampshire and Dorset , which bought the local Southern National company . Buses run from Weymouth to the Isle of Portland , Dorchester , Bournemouth , Wool , Beaminster , Axminster , and to other villages and the town 's holiday parks . Weymouth is connected to towns and villages along the Jurassic Coast by the Jurassic Coast Bus service , which runs for 142 kilometres ( 88 mi ) from Exeter to Poole , through Sidford , Beer , Seaton , Lyme Regis , Charmouth , Bridport , Abbotsbury , Weymouth , Wool , and Wareham . This service is convenient for walkers who can ride the bus to connect with the South West Coast Path for a walk along the coast .
The A354 road connects the town to the A35 trunk road in Dorchester , and terminates at Easton on the Isle of Portland . The A353 road runs east from Weymouth to the south of Warmwell , where it connects with the A352 to the Isle of Purbeck and Wareham . The B3157 road runs west from Weymouth to the south of Bridport where it terminates and connects to the A35 . In the 1980s the town centre was bypassed by the A354 to Portland , but the government 's road building policy changed before a proposed relief road could be completed . Before completion of the relief road , the A354 followed its original route through Upwey and Broadwey , where traffic problems were common at peak tourist times , particularly on event days such as the carnival .
The relief road 's construction was delayed by opposition from residents and environmental groups , including Transport 2000 and the Campaign to Protect Rural England , who objected to the route 's partial destruction of a nature reserve , which is an AONB and SSSI . With Weymouth and Portland scheduled to host 2012 Olympic sailing events the project reopened ; the local authorities favouring a more environmentally friendly proposal than in the 1990s . On 5 April 2007 , Dorset County Council granted planning permission for a modified proposal including a single carriageway running 7 kilometres ( 4 mi ) north , and a 1000 @-@ space park @-@ and @-@ ride scheme , costing £ 84 @.@ 5 million . Work commenced in 2008 ; and was completed by mid @-@ 2011 , in time for the 2012 Olympic sailing events . During archaeological excavations carried out in advance of the relief road construction , a burial pit containing 51 dismembered skeletons of Viking men was discovered on Ridgeway Hill .
= = Culture = =
= = = Writers = = =
Thomas Hardy lived and worked in Weymouth in 1869 , and in 1871 @-@ 2 lodging at 1 West Parade , now Park Street , returning to the Bockhampton cottage to complete Under the Greenwood Tree . Diggory Venn in Hardy 's The Return of the Native describes the excitement of Weymouth , where " out of every ten folk you meet nine of ’ em in love " . Weymouth 's Esplanade , the Gloucester Lodge Hotel and Old Rooms are featured in The Trumpet @-@ Major ( 1880 ) , renamed Budmouth in the 1895 edition , to bring the novel within fictional ‘ Wessex ’ . Thomas Hardy walked on Chesil Beach many times , and it is featured in The Well @-@ Beloved ( 1897 ) .
Joseph Drew wrote a historical novel The Poisoned Cup " a quaint tale of old Weymouth and Sandsfoot Castle " ( 1876 ) , The Rival Queens , an account of the life of Mary Queen of Scots ( 1880 ) , and several other popular works on religion , history and science .
The novelist John Cowper Powys 's novel Weymouth Sands ( 1934 ) is set in Weymouth , where he " was more at home than anywhere else in the world " . Powys 's paternal grandmother lived in Weymouth and the family lived in nearby Dorchester from 1880 to 1885 .
The novelist Gerald Basil Edwards spent the last years of his life in Weymouth . In nearby Upwey he met the art student Edward Chaney , who encouraged him to complete The Book of Ebenezer Le Page .
= = = Media = = =
Westcountry Television and Meridian Broadcasting are the local ITV television franchises . Westcountry is received from the Stockland Hill transmitter or from one of its three relay transmitters in the town ( Wyke Regis , Bincombe Hill and Preston ) . Meridian is received from the Rowridge transmitter . The local newspaper is the Dorset Echo . Weymouth was used as location to film The Boat That Rocked , alongside nearby Portland Harbour , and Channel 4 's Hugh 's Fish Fight .
= = Education = =
The Chesil Education Partnership pyramid area operates in south Dorset , and includes three infant schools , two junior schools , fourteen primary schools , four secondary schools and two special schools . 77 @.@ 5 % of Weymouth Town residents over 16 have qualifications , which is slightly below the Dorset average of 78 @.@ 7 % ; about 20 % of adult residents have higher qualifications ( Level 4 + ) , which is lower than the Dorset average of 27 % .
There are three secondary schools in Weymouth — All Saints ' Church of England School in Wyke Regis ; Budmouth College in Chickerell ; and Wey Valley School and Sports College in Broadwey . Wey Valley was added to the Government 's Failing Schools list in 2007 as only 27 % of the students achieved 5 A * to C passes . The fourth secondary school in the Chesil Education Partnership is Royal Manor Arts College on the Isle of Portland . All Saints ' has 921 students on roll , Budmouth has 1560 and Wey Valley 1171 . In 2006 , 31 % of students at Wey Valley , and 58 % of students at All Saints ' and Budmouth , attained five or more A * to C GCSEs including English and mathematics .
Budmouth College also has a sixth form centre which had 296 students in 2006 . Weymouth College in Melcombe Regis is a further education college which has around 7 @,@ 500 students from South West England and overseas , about 1500 studying A @-@ Level courses . In 2006 , Budmouth students received an average of 647 @.@ 6 UCAS points , and Weymouth College students gained 614 @.@ 1 . Some secondary and A @-@ Level students commute to Dorchester to attend The Thomas Hardye School ; in 2007 , 79 % of Hardye school students received five or more A * to C GCSEs , and 78 % of all A @-@ Level results were A to C grades .
= = Sport and recreation = =
Weymouth 's wide and shallow sandy beach is used for swimming and sunbathing during the tourist season , and for beach sport events throughout the year , including beach motocross , the International handball championships and the beach volleyball classic . The international kite festival , held in May each year on Weymouth Beach , attracts around 40 @,@ 000 spectators to the esplanade from around the world .
Weymouth Cricket Club is sponsored by local business and runs in partnership with nearby schools .
The local football club , Weymouth F.C. or ' the Terras ' , are outside the Football League but , in common with some other non @-@ league clubs , they became professional in 2005 . The team enjoyed erratic success at their level ; twice playing in the third round of the FA Cup , the highest club competition level . At the end of the 2005 – 06 season the team became champions of the Conference South ( the sixth level of English football ) and moved up to the Conference National ( the fifth level ) for the first time since 1989 . However the club were relegated at the end of the 2008 – 09 and 2009 – 10 seasons and now play in the Southern League Premier Division ( the seventh level ) . The Terras ' ground is the Bob Lucas Stadium ; its record attendance is 6 @,@ 500 against Nottingham Forest in the FA Cup 2005 – 2006 season .
The Wessex Stadium is out of town , but until 1987 the team played at a ground near the town centre , which is now an Asda supermarket . The club 's move pre @-@ dated the move to new out @-@ of @-@ town grounds by professional league clubs , and was the first football stadium opened in England in 32 years . Motorcycle speedway racing was staged at the stadium from 1954 until the redevelopment ; Weymouth 's team was revived in 2003 , and ' the Wildcats ' race at a track adjacent to the stadium . However , the club closed early in 2011 , following disputes with the landlords owning the stadium . In 2005 a scheme was proposed to rebuild the Wessex Stadium to occupy a pitch @-@ and @-@ putt golf course , coincidentally with Asda building on the previous stadium site . Although the plans were to move by August 2007 , the scheme was shelved before construction could begin .
On the shores of Portland Harbour , 3 kilometres ( 2 mi ) south of Wyke Regis , is Weymouth and Portland National Sailing Academy , where the sailing events of the 2012 Olympic and Paralympic Games were based . The main reason that the resort was chosen to be an 2012 Olympic venue was because the National Sailing Academy had only recently been built , so no new venue would have to be built . However , as part of the South West of England Regional Development Agency 's plans to redevelop Osprey Quay , in which the academy is built , a new 600 @-@ berth marina and an extension with more on @-@ site facilities was built . Weymouth and Portland were one of the first locations in the United Kingdom to finish building a venue for the Olympic Games , as construction started in October 2007 and finished at the end of 2008 .
The waters of Weymouth and Portland were credited by the Royal Yachting Association as the best in Northern Europe for sailing . Local , national and international sailing events are regularly held in the bay ; these include the J / 24 World Championships in 2005 , trials for the 2004 Athens Olympics , the ISAF World Championship 2006 , the BUCS Fleet Racing Championships , and the RYA Youth National Championships . Tall ship Pelican , built as an Arctic fishing trawler in 1948 , offers sail training voyages for youth . Weymouth Bay is a venue for other water @-@ sports — the reliable wind is favourable for wind- and kite @-@ surfing . The sheltered waters in Portland Harbour and near Weymouth are used for angling , diving to shipwrecks , snorkelling , canoeing , jet skiing , water skiing , and swimming .
= Georg Solti =
Sir Georg Solti , KBE ( / ˈdʒɔːrdʒ ˈʃɒlti / ; 21 October 1912 – 5 September 1997 ) was an orchestral and operatic conductor , best known for his appearances with opera companies in Munich , Frankfurt and London , and as a long @-@ serving music director of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra . Born in Budapest , he studied there with Béla Bartók , Leó Weiner and Ernő Dohnányi . In the 1930s , he was a répétiteur at the Hungarian State Opera and worked at the Salzburg Festival for Arturo Toscanini . His career was interrupted by the rise of the Nazis , and being of Jewish background he fled the increasingly restrictive anti @-@ semitic laws in 1938 . After conducting a season of Russian ballet in London at the Royal Opera House he found refuge in Switzerland , where he remained during the Second World War . Prohibited from conducting there , he earned a living as a pianist .
After the war , Solti was appointed musical director of the Bavarian State Opera in Munich in 1946 . In 1952 he moved to the Frankfurt Opera , where he remained in charge for nine years . He took West German citizenship in 1953 . In 1961 he became musical director of the Covent Garden Opera Company , London . During his ten @-@ year tenure , he introduced changes that raised standards to the highest international levels . Under his musical directorship the status of the company was recognised with the grant of the title " the Royal Opera " . He became a British citizen in 1972 .
In 1969 Solti became music director of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra , a post he held for 22 years . He relinquished the position in 1991 and became the orchestra 's music director laureate , a position he held until his death . During his time as the Chicago Symphony Orchestra 's eighth music director , he also served as music director of the Orchestre de Paris from 1972 until 1975 and principal conductor of the London Philharmonic Orchestra from 1979 until 1983 .
Known in his early years for the intensity of his music making , Solti was widely considered to have mellowed as a conductor in later years . He recorded many works two or three times at various stages of his career , and was a prolific recording artist , making more than 250 recordings , including 45 complete opera sets . The most famous of his recordings is probably Decca 's complete set of Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen , made between 1958 and 1965 . Solti 's Ring has twice been voted the greatest recording ever made , in polls for Gramophone magazine in 1999 and the BBC 's Music Magazine in 2012 . Solti was repeatedly honoured by the recording industry with awards throughout his career , including a record 32 Grammy Awards as a recording artist .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Solti was born György Stern ( Hungarian : Stern György ) on Maros utca , in the Hegyvidék district of the Buda side of Budapest . He was the younger of the two children of Móricz ( " Mor " ) Stern and his wife Teréz , née Rosenbaum , both of whom were Jewish . In the aftermath of the First World War it became the accepted practice in Hungary for citizens with Germanic surnames to adopt Hungarian ones . The right wing regime of Admiral Horthy enacted a series of " Hungarianisation " laws , including a requirement that state employees with foreign @-@ sounding names must change them . Mor Stern , a self @-@ employed merchant , felt no need to change his surname , but thought it prudent to change that of his children . He renamed them after Solt , a small town in central Hungary . His son 's given name , György , was acceptably Hungarian and was not changed .
Solti described his father as " a kind , sweet man who trusted everyone . He shouldn 't have , but he did . Jews in Hungary were tremendously patriotic . In 1914 , when war broke out , my father invested most of his money in a war loan to help the country . By the time the bonds matured , they were worthless . " Mor Stern was a religious man , but his son was less so . Late in life Solti recalled , " I often upset him because I never stayed in the synagogue for longer than ten minutes . " Teréz Stern was from a musical family , and encouraged her daughter Lilly , eight years the elder of the children , to sing , and György to accompany her at the piano . Solti remembered , " I made so many mistakes , but it was invaluable experience for an opera conductor . I learnt to swim with her . " He was not a diligent student of the piano : " My mother kept telling me to practise , but what ten @-@ year @-@ old wants to play the piano when he could be out playing football ? "
Solti enrolled at the Ernö Fodor School of Music in Budapest at the age of ten , transferring to the more prestigious Franz Liszt Academy two years later . When he was 12 he heard a performance of Beethoven 's Fifth Symphony conducted by Erich Kleiber , which gave him the ambition to become a conductor . His parents could not afford to pay for years of musical education , and his rich uncles did not consider music a suitable profession ; from the age of 13 Solti paid for his education by giving piano lessons .
The faculty of the Franz Liszt Academy included some of the most eminent Hungarian musicians , including Béla Bartók , Leó Weiner , Ernő Dohnányi and Zoltán Kodály . Solti studied under the first three , for piano , chamber music and composition respectively . Some sources state that he also studied with Kodály , but in his memoirs Solti recalled that Kodály , whom he would have preferred , turned him down , leaving him to study composition first with Albert Siklós and then with Dohnányi . Not all the Academy 's tutors were equally distinguished : Solti remembered with little pleasure the conducting classes run by Ernö Unger , " who instructed his pupils to use rigid little wrist motions . I attended the class for only two years , but I needed five years of practical conducting experience before I managed to unlearn what he had taught me " .
= = = Pianist and conductor = = =
After graduating from the Academy in 1930 Solti was appointed to the staff of the Hungarian State Opera . He found that working as a répétiteur , coaching singers in their roles and playing at rehearsals , was a more fruitful preparation than Unger 's classes for his intended career as a conductor . In 1932 he went to Karlsruhe in Germany as assistant to Josef Krips , but within a year , Krips , anticipating the imminent rise to power of Hitler and the Nazis , insisted that Solti should go home to Budapest , where at that time Jews were not in danger . Other Jewish and anti @-@ Nazi musicians also left Germany for Budapest . Among other musical exiles with whom Solti worked there were Otto Klemperer , Fritz Busch , and Kleiber . Before Austria fell under Nazi control , Solti was assistant to Arturo Toscanini at the 1937 Salzburg Festival :
Toscanini was the first great musical impression in my life . Before I heard him live in 1936 , I had never heard a great opera conductor , not in Budapest , and it was like a lightning flash . I heard his Falstaff in 1936 and the impact was unbelievable . It was the first time I heard an ensemble singing absolutely precisely . It was fantastic . Then I never expected to meet Toscanini . It was a chance in a million . I had a letter of recommendation from the director of the Budapest Opera to the president of the Salzburg Festival . He received me and said : " Do you know Magic Flute , because we have an influenza epidemic and two of our repetiteurs are ill ? Could you play this afternoon for the stage rehearsals ? "
After further work as a répétiteur at the opera in Budapest , and with his standing enhanced by his association with Toscanini , Solti was given his first chance to conduct , on 11 March 1938 . The opera was The Marriage of Figaro . During that evening , news came of the German invasion of Austria . Many Hungarians feared that Hitler would next invade Hungary ; he did not do so , but Horthy , to strengthen his partnership with the Nazis , instituted anti @-@ semitic laws , mirroring the Nuremberg Laws , restricting Hungary 's Jews from engaging in professions . Solti 's family urged him to move away . He went first to London , where he made his Covent Garden debut , conducting the London Philharmonic for a Russian ballet season . The reviewer in The Times was not impressed with Solti 's efforts , finding them " too violent , for he lashed at the orchestra and flogged the music so that he endangered the delicate , evocative atmosphere . " At about this time Solti dropped the name " György " in favour of " Georg " .
After his appearances in London Solti went to Switzerland to seek out Toscanini , who was conducting in Lucerne . Solti hoped that Toscanini would help find him a post in the US . He was unable to do so , but Solti found work and security in Switzerland as vocal coach to the tenor Max Hirzel , who was learning the role of Tristan in Wagner 's opera . Throughout the Second World War , Solti remained in Switzerland . He did not see his father again : Mor Stern died of diabetes in a Budapest hospital in 1943 . Solti was reunited with his mother and sister after the war . In Switzerland he could not obtain a work permit as a conductor , but earned his living as a piano teacher . After he won the 1942 Geneva International Piano Competition he was permitted to give piano recitals , but was still not allowed to conduct . During his exile , he met Hedwig ( Hedi ) Oeschli , daughter of a lecturer at Zürich University . They married in 1946 . In his memoirs he wrote of her , " She was very elegant and sophisticated . ... Hedi gave me a little grace and taught me good manners – although she never completely succeeded in this . She also helped me enormously in my career " .
= = = Munich and Frankfurt = = =
With the end of the war Solti 's luck changed dramatically . He was appointed musical director of the Bavarian State Opera in Munich in 1946 . In normal circumstances this prestigious post would have been an unthinkable appointment for a young and inexperienced conductor , but the leading German conductors such as Wilhelm Furtwängler , Clemens Krauss and Herbert von Karajan were prohibited from conducting pending the conclusion of denazification proceedings against them . Under Solti 's direction , the company rebuilt its repertoire and began to recover its pre @-@ war eminence . He benefited from the encouragement of the elderly Richard Strauss , in whose presence he conducted Der Rosenkavalier . Strauss was reluctant to discuss his own music with Solti , but gave him advice about conducting .
In addition to the Munich appointment Solti gained a recording contract in 1946 . He signed for Decca Records , not as a conductor but as a piano accompanist . He made his first recording in 1947 , playing Brahms 's First Violin Sonata with the violinist Georg Kulenkampff . He was insistent that he wanted to conduct , and Decca gave him his first recording sessions as a conductor later in the same year , with the Zurich Tonhalle Orchestra in Beethoven 's Egmont overture . Twenty years later Solti said , " I 'm sure it 's a terrible record , because the orchestra was not very good at that time and I was so excited . It is horrible , surely horrible – but by now it has vanished . " He had to wait two years for his next recording as a conductor . It was in London , Haydn 's Drum Roll symphony , in sessions produced by John Culshaw , with whose career Solti 's became closely linked over the next two decades . Reviewing the record , The Gramophone said , " The performance of the London Philharmonic Orchestra under Georg Solti ( a fine conductor who is new to me ) is remarkable for rhythmic playing , richness of tone , and clarity of execution . " The Record Guide compared it favourably with EMI 's rival recording by Sir Thomas Beecham and the Royal Philharmonic .
In 1951 Solti conducted at the Salzburg Festival for the first time , partly through the influence of Furtwängler , who was impressed by him . The work was Idomeneo , which had not been given there before . In Munich Solti achieved critical and popular success , but for political reasons his position at the State Opera was never secure . The view persisted that a German conductor should be in charge ; pressure mounted , and after five years Solti accepted an offer to move to Frankfurt in 1952 as musical director of the Frankfurt Opera . The city 's opera house had been destroyed in the war , and Solti undertook to build a new company and repertoire for its recently completed replacement . He also conducted the symphony concerts given by the opera orchestra . Frankfurt 's was a less prestigious house than Munich 's and he initially regarded the move as a demotion , but he found the post fulfilling and remained at Frankfurt from 1952 to 1961 , presenting 33 operas , 19 of which he had not conducted before . Frankfurt , unlike Munich , could not attract many of the leading German singers . Solti recruited many rising young American singers such as Claire Watson and Sylvia Stahlman , to the extent that the house acquired the nickname " Amerikanische Oper am Main " . In 1953 the West German government offered Solti German citizenship , which , being effectively stateless as a Hungarian exile , he gratefully accepted . He believed he could never return to Hungary , by then under communist rule . He remained a German citizen for two decades .
During his Frankfurt years Solti made appearances with other opera companies and orchestras . He conducted in the Americas for the first time in 1952 , giving concerts in Buenos Aires . In the same year he made his debut at the Edinburgh Festival as a guest conductor with the visiting Hamburg State Opera . The following year he was a guest at the San Francisco Opera with Elektra , Die Walküre and Tristan und Isolde . In 1954 he conducted Don Giovanni at the Glyndebourne Festival . The reviewer in The Times said that no fault could be found in Solti 's " vivacious and sensitive " conducting . In the same year Solti made his first appearance with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra , at the Ravinia Festival . In 1960 he made his debut at the Metropolitan Opera in New York , conducting Tannhäuser , and he continued to appear there until 1964 .
In the recording studios Solti 's career took off after 1956 , when John Culshaw was put in charge of Decca 's classical recording programme . Culshaw believed Solti to be " the great Wagner conductor of our time " , and was determined to record the four operas of Der Ring des Nibelungen with Solti and the finest Wagner singers available . The cast Culshaw assembled for the cycle included Kirsten Flagstad , Hans Hotter , Birgit Nilsson and Wolfgang Windgassen . Apart from Arabella in 1957 , in which he substituted when Karl Böhm withdrew , Solti had made no complete recording of an opera until the sessions for Das Rheingold , the first of the Ring tetralogy , in September and October 1958 . In their respective memoirs Culshaw and Solti told how Walter Legge of Decca 's rival EMI predicted that Das Rheingold would be a commercial disaster ( " ' Very nice , ' he said , ' Very interesting . But of course you won 't sell any . ' " ) The success of the recording took the record industry by surprise . It featured for weeks in the Billboard charts , the sole classical album alongside best sellers by Elvis Presley and Pat Boone , and brought Solti 's name to international prominence . He appeared with leading orchestras in New York , Vienna and Los Angeles , and at Covent Garden he conducted Der Rosenkavalier and Britten 's A Midsummer Night 's Dream .
= = = Covent Garden = = =
In 1960 Solti signed a three @-@ year contract to be music director of the Los Angeles Philharmonic from 1962 . Even before he took the post the Philharmonic 's autocratic president , Dorothy Chandler , breached his contract by appointing a deputy music director without Solti 's approval . Although he admired the chosen deputy , Zubin Mehta , Solti felt he could not have his authority undermined from the outset , and he withdrew from his appointment . He accepted an offer to become musical director of Covent Garden Opera Company , London . When first sounded out about the post he had declined it . After 14 years of experience at Munich and Frankfurt he was uncertain that he wanted a third successive operatic post . Moreover , founded only 15 years earlier , the Covent Garden company was not yet the equal of the best opera houses in Europe . Bruno Walter convinced Solti that it was his duty to take Covent Garden on .
The biographer Montague Haltrecht suggests that Solti seized the breach of his Los Angeles contract as a convenient pretext to abandon the Philharmonic in favour of Covent Garden . However , in his memoirs Solti wrote that he wanted the Los Angeles position very much indeed . He originally considered holding both posts in tandem , but later acknowledged that he had had a lucky escape , as he could have done justice to neither post had he attempted to hold both simultaneously .
Solti took up the musical directorship of Covent Garden in August 1961 . The press gave him a cautious welcome , but there was some concern that under him there might be a drift away from the company 's original policy of opera in English . Solti , however , was an advocate of opera in the vernacular , and he promoted the development of British and Commonwealth singers in the company , frequently casting them in his recordings and important productions in preference to overseas artists . He demonstrated his belief in vernacular opera with a triple bill in English of L 'heure espagnole , Erwartung and Gianni Schicchi . As the decade went on , however , more and more productions had to be sung in the original language to accommodate international stars .
Like his predecessor Rafael Kubelík , and his successor Colin Davis , Solti found his early days as musical director marred by vituperative hostility from a small clique in the Covent Garden audience . Rotten vegetables were thrown at him , and his car was vandalised outside the theatre , with the words " Solti must go ! " scratched on its paintwork . Some press reviews were strongly critical ; Solti was so wounded by a review in The Times of his conducting of The Marriage of Figaro that he almost left Covent Garden in despair . The chief executive of the Opera House , Sir David Webster , persuaded him to stay with the company , and matters improved , helped by changes on which Solti insisted . The chorus and orchestra were strengthened , and in the interests of musical and dramatic excellence , Solti secured the introduction of the stagione system of scheduling performances , rather than the traditional repertory system . By 1967 The Times commented that " Patrons of Covent Garden today automatically expect any new production , and indeed any revival , to be as strongly cast as anything at the Met in New York , and as carefully presented as anything in Milan or Vienna " .
The company 's repertory in the 1960s combined the standard operatic works with less familiar pieces . Among the most celebrated productions during Solti 's time in charge was Schoenberg 's Moses and Aaron in the 1965 – 66 and 1966 – 67 seasons . In 1970 , Solti led the company to Germany , where they gave Don Carlos , Falstaff and Victory , a new work by Richard Rodney Bennett . The public in Munich and Berlin were , according to the Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung , " beside themselves with enthusiasm " .
Solti 's bald head and demanding rehearsal style earned him the nickname " The Screaming Skull " . A music historian called him " the bustling , bruising Georg Solti – a man whose entire physical and mental attitude embodied the words ' I 'm in charge ' . " Singers such as Peter Glossop described him as a bully , and after working with Solti , Jon Vickers refused to do so again . Nevertheless , under Solti , the company was recognised as having achieved parity with the greatest opera houses in the world . Queen Elizabeth II conferred the title " the Royal Opera " on the company in 1968 . By this point Solti was , in the words of his biographer Paul Robinson , " after Karajan , the most celebrated conductor at work " . By the end of his decade as music director at Covent Garden Solti had conducted the company in 33 operas by 13 composers .
In 1964 Solti separated from his wife . He moved into the Savoy Hotel , where not long afterwards he met Valerie Pitts , a British television presenter , sent to interview him . She too was married , but after pursuing her for three years , Solti persuaded her to divorce her husband . Solti and Valerie Pitts married on 11 November 1967 . They had two daughters .
= = = Chicago Symphony Orchestra = = =
In 1967 Solti was invited to become music director of the Chicago Symphony Orchestra . It was the second time he had been offered the post . The first had been in 1963 after the death of the orchestra 's conductor , Fritz Reiner , who made its reputation in the previous decade . Solti told the representatives of the orchestra that his commitments at Covent Garden made it impossible to give Chicago the eight months a year they sought . He suggested giving them three and a half months a year and inviting Carlo Maria Giulini to take charge for a similar length of time . The orchestra declined to proceed on these lines . When Solti accepted the orchestra 's second invitation it was agreed that Giulini should be appointed to share the conducting . Both conductors signed three @-@ year contracts with the orchestra , effective from 1969 .
One of the members of the Chicago Symphony described it to Solti as " the best provincial orchestra in the world . " Many players remained from its celebrated decade under Reiner , but morale was low , and the orchestra was $ 5m in debt . Solti concluded that it was essential to raise the orchestra 's international profile . He ensured that it was engaged for many of his Decca sessions , and he and Giulini led it in a European tour in 1971 , playing in ten countries . It was the first time in its 80 @-@ year history that the orchestra had played outside of North America . The orchestra received plaudits from European critics , and was welcomed home at the end of the tour with a ticker @-@ tape parade .
The orchestra 's principal flute player , Donald Peck , commented that the relationship between a conductor and an orchestra is difficult to explain : " some conductors get along with some orchestras and not others . We had a good match with Solti and he with us . " Peck 's colleague , the violinist Victor Aitay said , " Usually conductors are relaxed at rehearsals and tense at the concerts . Solti is the reverse . He is very tense at rehearsals , which makes us concentrate , but relaxed during the performance , which is a great asset to the orchestra . " Peck recalled Solti 's constant efforts to improve his own technique and interpretations , at one point experimentally dispensing with a baton , drawing a " darker and deeper , much more relaxed " tone from the players .
As well as raising the orchestra 's profile and helping it return to prosperity , Solti considerably expanded its repertoire . Under him the Chicago Symphony gave its first cycles of the symphonies of Bruckner and Mahler . He introduced new works commissioned for the orchestra , such as Lutosławski 's Third Symphony , and Tippett 's Fourth Symphony which was dedicated to Solti . Another new work was Tippett 's Byzantium , an orchestral song @-@ cycle , premiered by Solti and the orchestra with the soprano Faye Robinson . Solti frequently programmed works by American composers , including Charles Ives and Elliott Carter .
Solti 's recordings with the Chicago Symphony included the complete symphonies of Beethoven , Brahms , Bruckner and Mahler . Most of his operatic recordings were with other orchestras , but his recordings of The Flying Dutchman ( 1976 ) , Fidelio ( 1979 ) , Moses und Aron ( 1984 ) and his second recordings of Die Meistersinger ( 1995 ) and Verdi 's Otello ( 1991 ) were made with the Chicago players .
After relinquishing the position of music director in 1991 , Solti continued to conduct the orchestra , and was given the title of music director laureate . He conducted 999 concerts with the orchestra . His 1,000th concert was scheduled for October 1997 , around the time of his 85th birthday , but Solti died that September .
= = = Later years = = =
In addition to his tenure in Chicago Solti was music director of the Orchestre de Paris from 1972 to 1975 . From 1979 until 1983 he was also principal conductor of the London Philharmonic Orchestra . He continued to expand his repertoire . With the London Philharmonic he performed many of Elgar 's major works in concert and on record . Before performing Elgar 's two symphonies , Solti studied the composer 's own recordings made more than 40 years earlier , and was influenced by their brisk tempi and impetuous manner . A critic in The Guardian wrote that Solti " conveys the authentic frisson of the great Elgarian moment more vividly than ever before on record . " Late in his career he became enthusiastic about the music of Shostakovich , whom he admitted he failed to appreciate fully during the composer 's lifetime . He made commercial recordings of seven of Shostakovich 's fifteen symphonies .
In 1983 Solti conducted for the only time at the Bayreuth Festival . By this stage in his career he no longer liked abstract productions of Wagner , or modernistic reinterpretations , such as Patrice Chéreau 's 1976 Bayreuth Ring , which he found grew boring on repetition . Together with the director Sir Peter Hall and the designer William Dudley , he presented a Ring cycle that aimed to represent Wagner 's intentions . The production was not well received by German critics , who expected radical reinterpretation of the operas . Solti 's conducting was praised , but illnesses and last @-@ minute replacements of leading performers affected the standard of singing . He was invited to return to Bayreuth for the following season , but was unwell and withdrew on medical advice before the 1984 festival began .
In 1991 Solti collaborated with the actor and composer Dudley Moore to create an eight @-@ part television series , Orchestra ! , which was designed to introduce audiences to the symphony orchestra . In 1994 he directed the " Solti Orchestral Project " at Carnegie Hall , a training workshop for young American musicians . The following year , to mark the 50th anniversary of the United Nations , he formed the World Orchestra for Peace , which consisted of 81 musicians from 40 nations . The orchestra has continued to perform after his death , under the conductorship of Valery Gergiev .
Solti regularly returned to Covent Garden as a guest conductor in the years after he relinquished the musical directorship , greeted with " an increasingly boisterous hero 's welcome " ( Grove ) . From 1972 to 1997 he conducted ten operas , some of them in several seasons . Five were operas he had not conducted at the Royal Opera House before : Carmen , Parsifal , Die Entführung aus dem Serail , Simon Boccanegra and a celebrated production of La traviata ( 1994 ) which propelled Angela Gheorghiu to stardom . On 14 July 1997 he conducted the last operatic music to be heard in the old house before it closed for more than two years for rebuilding . The previous day he had conducted what proved to be his last symphony concert . The work was Mahler 's Fifth Symphony ; the orchestra was the Zurich Tonhalle , with whom he had made his first orchestral recording 50 years earlier .
Solti died suddenly , in his sleep , on 5 September 1997 while on holiday in Antibes in the south of France . He was 84 . After a state ceremony in Budapest , his ashes were interred beside the remains of Bartók in Farkasréti Cemetery .
= = Recordings = =
Solti recorded throughout his career for the Decca Record Company . He made more than 250 recordings , including 45 complete opera sets . During the 1950s and 1960s Decca had an alliance with RCA Victor , and some of Solti 's recordings were first issued on the RCA label .
Solti was one of the first conductors who came to international fame as a recording artist before being widely known in the concert hall or opera house . Gordon Parry , the Decca engineer who worked with Solti and Culshaw on the Ring recordings , observed , " Many people have said ' Oh well , of course John Culshaw made Solti . ' This is not true . He gave him the opportunity to show what he could do . "
Solti 's first recordings were as a piano accompanist , playing at sessions in Zurich for the violinist Georg Kulenkampff in 1947 . Decca 's senior producer , Victor Olof did not much admire Solti as a conductor ( nor did Walter Legge , Olof 's opposite number at EMI 's Columbia Records ) , but Olof 's younger colleague and successor , Culshaw , held Solti in high regard . As Culshaw , and later James Walker , produced his recordings , Solti 's career as a recording artist flourished from the mid @-@ 1950s . Among the orchestras with whom Solti recorded were the Berlin Philharmonic , Chicago Symphony , London Philharmonic , London Symphony and Vienna Philharmonic orchestras . Soloists in his operatic recordings included Birgit Nilsson , Joan Sutherland , Régine Crespin , Plácido Domingo , Gottlob Frick , Carlo Bergonzi , Kiri Te Kanawa and José van Dam . In concerto recordings , Solti conducted for , among others , András Schiff , Julius Katchen , Clifford Curzon , Vladimir Ashkenazy and Kyung @-@ wha Chung .
Solti 's most celebrated recording was Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen made in Vienna , produced by Culshaw , between 1958 and 1965 . It has twice been voted the greatest recording ever made , the first poll being among readers of Gramophone magazine in 1999 , and the second of professional music critics in 2011 , for the BBC 's Music Magazine .
= = Honours and memorials = =
Honours awarded to Solti included the British CBE ( honorary ) , 1968 , and an honorary knighthood ( KBE ) , 1971 , which became a substantive knighthood when he took British citizenship in 1972 , after which he was known as Sir Georg Solti . He received honours from other countries , including Austria , Belgium , Denmark , France , Germany , Hungary , Italy , Portugal and the US . He received honorary fellowships or degrees from the Royal College of Music and DePaul , Furman , Harvard , Leeds , London , Oxford , Surrey and Yale universities .
In celebration of his 75th birthday in 1987 , a bronze bust of Solti by Dame Elisabeth Frink was dedicated in Lincoln Park , Chicago , outside the Lincoln Park Conservatory . It was first displayed temporarily at the Royal Opera House in London . The sculpture was moved to Grant Park in 2006 in a new Solti Garden , near Orchestra Hall in Symphony Center . In 1997 , to commemorate the 85th anniversary of his birth , the City of Chicago renamed the block of East Adams Street adjacent to Symphony Center as " Sir Georg Solti Place " in his memory .
Record industry awards to Solti included the Grand Prix Mondial du Disque ( 14 times ) and 32 Grammy Awards ( including a special Trustees ' Grammy Award , shared with John Culshaw , for the recording of the Ring ( 1967 ) and a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award ( 1996 ) ) . He won more Grammys than any other recording artist , whether classical or popular . In September 2007 , as a tribute on the 10th anniversary of his death , Decca published a recording of his final concert .
After Solti 's death his widow and daughters set up the Solti Foundation to assist young musicians . Solti 's memoirs , written with the assistance of Harvey Sachs , were published the month after his death . Solti 's life was also documented in a 1997 film by Peter Maniura , Sir Georg Solti : The Making of a Maestro . In 2007 Valerie Solti was appointed a Cultural Ambassador of Hungary , an honorary title granted by the Hungarian state .
In 2012 a series of events under the banner of " Solti @ 100 " was announced , to mark the centenary of Solti 's birth . Among the events announced were concerts in New York and Chicago , and commemorative exhibitions in London , Chicago , Vienna and New York . In the same year Solti was voted into the inaugural Gramophone " Hall of Fame " .
= John Johnson ( footballer ) =
John James Johnson ( born 16 September 1988 ) is an English footballer who plays as a defender for Indian club Bengaluru FC . A graduate of the Middlesbrough youth academy , he made
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flights is inaugurated by high @-@ ranking government officials , including , at times , the Prime Minister .
In 2002 , the government opened the service to private tour operators for the first time . The initial private flights were plagued with delays , with both outgoing and return flights postponed for as long as nine days , which caused the Bangladesh government to return the Hajj flights ' monopoly to Biman .
Biman 's handling of Hajj flights has also been beset with troubles . In 2005 , the State Minister for Civil Aviation and Tourism resigned after complaints that he set fares too high . In 2006 , Biman took the unprecedented step of removing the business – class seats from its dedicated Hajj flights to accommodate more economy @-@ class passengers . Procedural irregularities by the Hajj agencies delayed the confirmation of pilgrims ' visas , and Biman had to cancel 19 flights owing to lack of sufficient passengers . Once the situation was resolved , Biman was then unable to offer the required number of flights to cope with the backlog of passengers .
In June 2007 , the caretaker government approved a three @-@ year Hajj policy aiming to alleviate the problems encountered during the previous two years . Hajj flights would also begin leaving from Bangladesh 's two other international airports , Shah Amanat International Airport and Osmani International Airport . Biman put out a tender for the wet lease of two aircraft for additional Hajj flights and reached an agreement with Phuket Air . However , the deal fell through in August 2007 after Phuket Air demanded advance payment of 30 % instead of the previously agreed @-@ to 10 % . Ausban Aeronautical Services of Australia was selected next , following a re @-@ tender , to fill the gap left by Phuket Air . In 2008 , Biman wet @-@ leased a 542 @-@ seater Boeing 747 @-@ 200 from Kabo Air of Nigeria for six months to operate flights to Saudi Arabia and the UAE . Another 512 @-@ seater Boeing 747 @-@ 300 was leased from Orient Thai Airlines .
As of June 2014 , Biman still experienced difficulties in providing their scheduled services , as the carrier gave priority to the transportation of pilgrims to Jeddah during the Hajj season using aircraft that otherwise were flown on its regular flights . Despite this , the airline reported a profit of almost BDT 1 billion from the 2012 Hajj season , the highest results ever since these services were started in 1973 .
= = Fleet = =
A vintage Douglas Dakota and Douglas DC @-@ 3 were the first aircraft in Biman 's fleet . Domestic operations commenced with the acquisition of four Fokker F27 aircraft flying passengers to Chittagong and Sylhet from its base in Dhaka . Shortly afterwards , a Boeing 707 , chartered from British Caledonian , joined the airline 's fleet , allowing Biman to begin international flights . In 1983 , Biman purchased three McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10 @-@ 30 aircraft from Singapore Airlines to provide services on its long haul routes . The British Aerospace ATP entered the fleet in late 1990 , coming to replace the Fokker F27s .
During the mid @-@ 1990s , Biman switched its airliner of choice for long haul routes to the Airbus series of aircraft . In 1995 , two PW4000 @-@ powered Airbus A310 @-@ 300s were ordered ; the first of them joined the fleet on 15 June 1996 ( 1996 @-@ 06 @-@ 15 ) . It nevertheless retained its elderly DC – 10 fleet , even though the aircraft had been banned by several countries ( notably the USA ) because of safety concerns .
For over three decades , the DC – 10 – 30s were Biman 's sole widebody aircraft and served the airline consistently well , with no noteworthy mechanical problems – in marked contrast to the record of its domestic operations . These were operated with Fokker F28 and BAe ATPs which were routinely out of service because of technical trouble . In one incident , a government minister disembarked a flight and travelled by road when he learned that the aircraft he was on was a BAe ATP . In January 2003 , Biman leased two Boeing 737 @-@ 300s which were used on domestic and regional routes for eighteen months . These acted as a replacement for the BAe ATPs .
McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10s and Airbus A310 @-@ 300s made up most of Biman 's international fleet , before the delivery of the modern Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs started in 2011 . Fokker F28s made up the remainder of the fleet for the domestic and regional sectors , before they were retired in 2012 . Biman 's fleet contains the second @-@ to @-@ last Douglas DC – 10 to come off the production line ( l / n 445 ) , and only three other Airbus A310 – 300s were produced following Biman 's purchase of two new Airbus A310s in 1996 . The two Fokker F28 – 4000s were acquired from PBair in 2004 at a cost of $ 2 @.@ 91 million . Both of these aircraft were built in 1977 , making Biman 's latest acquisitions the oldest aircraft in its fleet . The ageing fleet made it difficult for Biman to maintain its flight schedule , as the aircraft suffered from mechanical problems , leading to flight delays and cancellations . A number of aircraft remained grounded owing to lack of spare parts as they are no longer manufactured and used parts are difficult to source . A deal was signed in January 2012 ( 2012 @-@ 01 ) a three @-@ year contract with a German company for the maintenance of their powerplants , for the DC – 10s . The airline operates its own ancillary and maintenance facilities at Shahjalal International Airport , where it carries out all maintenance work and C @-@ Checks on DC – 10 – 30s and A310 – 300s .
= = = Modernisation = = =
= = = = 2000s = = = =
In 2000 , Biman put out a request for proposal for the acquisition of four wide @-@ bodied aircraft to replace the DC – 10s , but both the fleet renewal plans and the airline 's expected privatisation were shelved by the government . A further attempt was made in 2005 to acquire new aircraft and plans were submitted for the purchase of ten new wide @-@ bodied Airbus and Boeing aircraft at a total cost of $ 1 billion . Boeing arranged to finance the purchase provided a guarantee was given by the Bangladesh government . After bureaucratic delays and a perceived lack of commitment from the government , Boeing lost interest and the plans were cancelled . A similar attempt to purchase medium @-@ haul aircraft for domestic service was also postponed . In March 2007 ( 2007 @-@ 03 ) , Biman put out a tender for the dry lease of two Airbus A310 @-@ 300 and two Airbus A300 @-@ 600 aircraft for two years . The sole response to the tender came from Star Aviation of the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) .
After Biman became a public limited company , renewed attempts were made to procure new @-@ generation aircraft to replace its ageing fleet . In November 2007 , Boeing made an offer to supply Biman with four Boeing 777 @-@ 200s ( with options for two more ) to be delivered by 2013 and four Boeing 787 @-@ 8 Dreamliners ( with options for two more ) to be delivered by 2017 and provide similar aircraft on lease for the interim period beginning in 2009 . The average price of these aircraft was quoted as US $ 165 million . Airbus also made an offer to supply four Airbus A320 or Airbus A330 series aircraft at a much lower price than that of Boeing . To manage the fleet in the short run , Biman again floated a tender in January 2008 to purchase / dry lease with options to purchase two used Airbus A310 @-@ 300 aircraft .
On 10 March 2008 , the Biman management unveiled a plan to procure eight next @-@ generation wide @-@ bodied aircraft from Boeing Commercial Airplanes for a total cost of US $ 1 @.@ 26 billion , including four 419 @-@ seater Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER ( average price of US $ 182 @.@ 9 million per unit ) , and four Boeing 787 @-@ 8 Dreamliners that will seat 294 ( US $ 133 @.@ 31 million per unit ) , to be delivered in 2017 . The deal for the acquisition of these eight aircraft was signed with Boeing in April 2008 , and also included a memorandum of understanding for the purchase of two Boeing 737 @-@ 800s to be delivered in 2015 , with Biman making an initial instalment of US $ 1 @.@ 54 million . Of the remaining cost , US @-@ based EXIM bank will finance 85 % , while a syndication of local banks will finance the balance . In June the same year , Biman placed a firm order for two Boeing 737 @-@ 800s , and took options for two more aircraft of the type . The total order for these ten aircraft was valued at around US $ 2 @.@ 5 billion .
= = = = 2010s = = = =
In 2010 , Biman leased two Boeing 777 @-@ 200ERs from EuroAtlantic Airways . These aircraft were used mainly on routes to European destinations to cover the interim period before the delivery of the first two new Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs in 2011 . To secure the delivery of these two brand new 777 @-@ 300ERs the airline used an initial US $ 277 million loan granted from JPMorgan Chase . Wearing a new livery , the carrier took delivery of its first Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER in late October 2011 . It was the 300th 777 @-@ 300ER delivered by Boeing . The 301st ever delivered Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER also went to Biman ; the airline took possession of it in late November 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 11 ) . The third Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER , named Aakash Pradeep , was handed over to the carrier in February 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 02 ) ; the fourth one , named Raanga Pravat , joined the fleet in March 2014 ( 2014 @-@ 03 ) , following the government approving a US $ 356 million loan , of which US $ 290 million will be provided by the Ex @-@ Im Bank and the rest by the Standard Chartered Bank .
Biman retired its entire McDonnell Douglas DC @-@ 10 fleet on 20 February 2014 , by operating a special Dhaka @-@ Birmingham farewell flight with its last DC @-@ 10 , with a stopover at Kuwait ; the carrier also operated nine separate aviation enthusiasts ' scenic flights at Birmingham , from 22 – 24 February , three flights a day . The last DC @-@ 10 will then be scrapped locally in Dhaka . The Airbus A310 @-@ 300s will also be phased out in 2015 .
The carrier leased two Boeing 777 @-@ 200ER aircraft from EgyptAir in March 2014 . The airline plans to expand its fleet to 16 aircraft , to allow route expansion . With newly leased Dash 8 @-@ Q400 aircraft , the carrier is resuming full swing domestic flights to Cox 's Bazar , Jessore , Saidpur , Rajshahi and Barisal in April 2015 . The two aircraft , dry leased from Smart Aviation Company for a period of five years , will also be operated on regional flights to Kolkata and Yangon . Initially it was supposed to resume in November 2013 , which Biman failed to as it was unable to find a lessor of aircraft .
= = = Livery = = =
In modern Bengali , the word বিমান biman refers to " aeroplane " , originating from the Sanskrit word vimāna , a name given to a flying machine mentioned in ancient Vedic literature . The logo , painted on the tail , is a stylised white stork ( বলাকা bôlaka ) inside a red circle . The logo was designed by painter Quamrul Hassan . The initial livery was a dark blue line extending across the aircraft along the windows and covering the tail section . This was replaced in the 1980s by dark green and red lines , matching the colours of the Bangladesh flag , and has remained so for over two decades .
In 2010 , Biman went through a rebranding exercise and unveiled a new logo and livery , designed by Teague , which was applied to its leased Boeing 777 and 737 aircraft . However , following change of government , Biman was forced to revert to the original branding as the new brand image was not endorsed by the incoming government . The carrier has adopted a new , more modern revised version of its livery , that was applied to the new Boeing 777 @-@ 300ERs delivered in late 2011 .
The bôlaka has also given its name to the Biman headquarters , the Balaka Bhaban ( বলাকা ভবন bôlaka bhôban , Stork Building ) , and a landmark sculpture in Dhaka depicting storks is in front of Biman 's former headquarters , the Biman Bhaban in the Motijheel Commercial Area in Dhaka .
= = = Current = = =
As of February 2016 , the Biman Bangladesh Airlines fleet included the following aircraft :
= = = Historical fleet = = =
The carrier also formerly operated the following aircraft :
= = Accidents and incidents = =
As of November 2013 , Aviation Safety Network records 11 accidents / incidents for Biman Bangladesh Airlines , with only two of them leading to fatalities .
= New York State Route 21 =
New York State Route 21 ( NY 21 ) is a state highway extending for 99 @.@ 99 miles ( 160 @.@ 92 km ) through the western part of New York in the United States . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 417 in the village of Andover , and its northern terminus is at a junction with NY 104 in the town of Williamson . In between , NY 21 serves the cities of Hornell and Canandaigua and intersects several major east – west routes , including the Southern Tier Expressway ( I @-@ 86 / NY 17 ) near Hornell , the conjoined routes of U.S. Route 20 ( US 20 ) and NY 5 in Canandaigua , the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) in Manchester , and NY 31 in Palmyra .
NY 21 originally extended from the Pennsylvania state line in the south to Lake Ontario in the north when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . South of Hornell , the route followed modern NY 36 . NY 21 was rerouted to follow its current alignment south of Hornell in the 1950s and truncated on its northern end to Williamson in 1980 . Other changes of local importance , mostly realignments to bypass communities along the route , have also occurred at various points in the route 's history . NY 21 originally had an alternate route around Canandaigua Lake ; however , that highway — designated NY 21A — was eliminated in the 1940s .
= = Route description = =
= = = Andover to Naples = = =
NY 21 begins at an intersection with NY 417 in the village of Andover . The route heads northward , paralleling the Western New York and Pennsylvania Railroad ( WNYP ) through a rural stretch of eastern Allegany County . At Alfred Station , located just east of the village of Alfred , the highway meets the eastern terminus of NY 244 . NY 21 and the WNYP head northeast through the village of Almond to the Steuben County line , where the road and rail line begin to turn to the southeast toward Hornell . The portion of NY 21 near Almond briefly parallels the Southern Tier Expressway , designated Interstate 86 ( I @-@ 86 ) and NY 17 . East of the county line , NY 21 leaves the vicinity of the expressway and passes through another undeveloped stretch to reach the city of Hornell , where it becomes West Main Street .
The highway follows West Main Street for several blocks into the city 's downtown district , where it crosses the Norfolk Southern Railway 's Southern Tier Line and intersects NY 36 . NY 21 turns north onto NY 36 , separating from the WNYP and forming a concurrency with NY 36 north along a four @-@ lane divided highway known as the Maple City Bypass . The overlap ends north of the city limits in the town of Hornellsville , where NY 21 splits from NY 36 and resumes its northeasterly track . Not far to the north of this point is exit 34 of the Southern Tier Expressway , accessed by way of NY 36 . From Hornell , NY 21 heads northeast through progressively less developed areas as it winds its way across the hilly terrain of the Southern Tier . For the next 15 miles ( 24 km ) , NY 21 serves only small , roadside hamlets , such as Fremont , Haskinville , and Loon Lake .
North of Haskinville , NY 21 takes on a more northerly course through the county that eventually brings it to the village of Wayland , where it intersects I @-@ 390 at exit 3 south of the village . The interchange also serves as the southern terminus of NY 15 and is adjacent to the north end of NY 415 , which terminates north of the exit at NY 21 . NY 15 joins NY 21 north into the center of Wayland , where the two routes separate upon intersecting NY 63 . While NY 15 continues north from the village into Livingston County , NY 21 leaves Wayland on an east – west alignment , roughly paralleling the northern county line and a B & H Rail Corporation line as it runs through a valley surrounding the Cohocton River . After 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) , the road enters the hamlet of North Cohocton , centered around NY 21 's junction with the northern terminus of NY 371 .
While the river , its valley , and the rail line proceed south from North Cohocton , NY 21 turns to the northeast , ascending out of the valley and finally crossing the county line , at this point bordering Ontario County . The route meanders across another area of hilly , undeveloped terrain to the village of Naples , home to the north end of NY 53 and the south end of NY 245 . NY 21 meets the two routes at opposite ends of the community , with NY 53 terminating south of the village center and NY 245 beginning to its north . Naples also serves as NY 21 's entrance to the Finger Lakes region ; the village itself is located in the southernmost part of the Canandaigua Lake valley .
= = = Naples to Williamson = = =
NY 21 continues north from Naples , running alongside the western edge of the lake valley , and eventually the lake itself . Near Woodville , a hamlet 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Naples , the route briefly enters Yates County for just over a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) before reentering Ontario County . It serves lakeside homes and cottages in the town of South Bristol for another 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) , after which the road begins to climb the side of the valley and meander toward the hamlet of Bristol Springs . Here , the road forks , with NY 64 beginning to the left ( west ) and NY 21 continuing to the right ( north ) . While NY 64 heads northwest to Rochester , NY 21 progresses to the northeast , overlooking Canandaigua Lake on its way through mostly isolated areas of the town of Canandaigua . The route eventually reaches the outskirts of the city of Canandaigua , where it intersects US 20 and NY 5 .
At this point , NY 21 turns east , joining US 20 and NY 5 as all three routes head around the southwestern portion of the city . The primary portion of the bypass ends about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) later at an intersection with South Main Street ; the junction also marks the east end of the overlap between the three routes and the south end of NY 332 . NY 21 turns north onto South Main Street , following NY 332 through the city 's historic downtown district . The two routes pass by 426 South Main Street , Benham House , and the city 's former United States Post Office , all properties listed on the National Register of Historic Places , before splitting at the junction of Gibson and North Main streets . NY 332 continues north from this point on North Main Street toward Victor while NY 21 follows Gibson Street northeastward through a residential section of the city . It passes Sonnenberg Gardens and Mansion State Historic Park and the city 's VA Hospital before leaving the Canandaigua city limits .
Outside the Canandaigua city limits , the area surrounding NY 21 becomes rural once again ; however , the surrounding terrain is more level than it was south of the city . The route heads northeast through farmland to Chapin , a small hamlet in the town of Hopewell , where it intersects the south end of NY 488 and turns to take on a more northerly course . Not far to the north are the adjacent villages of Shortsville and Manchester , roughly separated by the Ontario Central Railroad . Here , NY 21 passes under the railroad and intersects both NY 96 and the New York State Thruway ( I @-@ 90 ) at exit 43 just north of the Manchester village center . Past the Thruway , NY 21 becomes rural in nature once more as it runs across rolling terrain to the Wayne County line .
Within Wayne County , the area around NY 21 becomes more developed as it enters the village of Palmyra , where the road is village @-@ maintained from the southern village line to its junction with NY 31 in the village 's historic center . The route briefly overlaps NY 31 along East Main Street before crossing both the Erie Canal and the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Rochester Subdivision on its way out of the village . From Palmyra to Williamson , the land surrounding NY 21 is predominantly rural in nature . However , midway between the two locations , NY 21 comes close to the hamlet of Marion , which it bypasses to the west . In Williamson , NY 21 passes through the town center at a junction with Ridge Road before ending at an intersection with NY 104 in a more commercial section of the town .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
Prior to the American Revolution , the path of modern NY 21 north of Canandaigua was part of an old Native American trail connecting Seneca Lake to Lake Ontario by way of Canandaigua Lake . The trail began in the vicinity of Geneva and went west to Canandaigua on a path now occupied by US 20 and NY 5 . It continued north from Canandaigua , passing through the village of Palmyra and the hamlet of Marion before reaching the Lake Ontario shoreline at Pultneyville . Construction to convert the Canandaigua – Marion section of the trail into a road was completed in 1794 . The remainder of the trail north to Pultneyville was converted into a road approximately three years later .
The Canandaigua – Pultneyville highway served as a post road in the years that followed . At some point , the section of the highway between Palmyra and Marion , initially a corduroy road , was rebuilt as a plank road and tolled . The highway fell into disrepair over the years , leading travelers to conceive ways to avoid paying toll . The toll booths were eventually removed , and the road was later covered with dirt and converted into a stage road . By the 1920s , the state of New York had assumed ownership of the Canandaigua – Pultneyville highway . In the mid @-@ 1920s , it became part of NY 72 , a north – south highway extending from NY 52 in Naples to the Lake Ontario shoreline in Pultneyville by way of the western side of Canandaigua Lake .
= = = Establishment = = =
In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 72 became part of NY 21 , a new route extending from the Pennsylvania state line at Troupsburg to Pultneyville . It followed what is now NY 36 from the state line to Hornell and modern County Route 121 ( CR 121 ) , NY 415 , and NY 371 between Loon Lake and North Cohocton ( via Cohocton ) . The remainder of NY 21 roughly followed its current alignment . At the same time , what is now NY 21 from Andover to Hornell was designated as the western half of NY 17F while the section between Loon Lake and modern NY 415 was assigned NY 371 . The remaining piece around Wayland was part of NY 2 south of Wayland and part of the new NY 39 from Wayland to Cohocton . NY 39 overlapped NY 21 from Cohocton to Naples , where it forked from NY 21 and continued east on modern NY 245 .
Several portions of current NY 21 south of Naples had carried designations prior to 1930 . In 1924 , the Andover – Hornell segment was designated as part of NY 17 ; at the same time , the short piece between modern NY 415 and the center of Wayland became part of NY 4 . By 1926 , the portion connecting Wayland to Naples was included in the new NY 52 . NY 4 was renumbered to NY 2 in 1927 to eliminate numerical duplication with the new US 4 .
= = = Realignments and truncations = = =
The alignments of NY 21 and NY 371 between Loon Lake and Cohocton were flipped c . 1937 , routing NY 21 through the village of Wayland instead . The realignment extended NY 21 's overlap with NY 39 west to Wayland and created an overlap with NY 2 south of the village . NY 2 was absorbed into an extended US 15 ( now NY 15 ) by the following year . In the early 1940s , the NY 17F designation was eliminated and replaced with an extended NY 36 from Andover to Hornell . The alignments of NY 36 and NY 21 south of Hornell were flipped in the early 1950s , placing both routes on their current alignments south of the city .
On April 1 , 1980 , NY 21 was truncated to its present northern terminus at NY 104 in Williamson as part of a highway maintenance swap between New York State and Wayne County . In the swap , ownership and maintenance of NY 21 north of Williamson was transferred from the state of New York to the county in exchange for maintenance of NY 441 between the Monroe – Wayne county line and NY 350 . The former routing of NY 21 north to Lake Road ( CR 101 ) in Pultneyville is now designated as CR 120 .
Until the 1980s , NY 21 entered Canandaigua on Bristol Street and followed it to South Main Street ( then @-@ US 20 and NY 5 ) , where it joined its current alignment . When the Western Bypass around the southwestern fringe of the city was constructed in the late 1970s and early 1980s , US 20 and NY 5 were realigned to follow the highway around the city . NY 21 was also realigned at this time to follow its modern routing on the bypass and South Main Street . The segment of Bristol Street vacated by NY 21 between the Western Bypass and the Canandaigua city line was maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) as unsigned NY 943A until September 1 , 1996 , when maintenance of the road was turned over to the town of Canandaigua . However , the designation remained in NYSDOT documents until 2007 .
= = NY 21A = =
NY 21A was an alternate route of NY 21 along the eastern side of Canandaigua Lake . When it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , it began at NY 21 north of the village of Naples and ran along the east shore of the lake to eastern Canandaigua , where it ended at US 20 and NY 5 . In between , NY 21A passed through the lakeside hamlet of Vine Valley . The route was truncated c . 1939 to begin in Vine Valley , separating it from its parent route . It was eliminated entirely in the early 1940s when most of NY 21A was absorbed by NY 364 .
= = Major intersections = =
= TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship =
The TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship was a women 's professional wrestling tag team championship owned by the Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) promotion . It was contested for mainly by teams consisting of two female wrestlers in TNA , known as the TNA Knockouts , in TNA 's women 's division ; however , the championship was once held by a male .
The creation of the championship was announced on August 20 , 2009 during a backstage segment on TNA 's primary television program TNA Impact ! . Like most professional wrestling championships , the title is won via the result of a scripted match . Sarita and Taylor Wilde were the inaugural champions . They won a four @-@ week tournament to crown the first champions . The final champions were ODB and Eric Young , who held the titles for a record 478 days .
On the June 20 , 2013 episode of Impact Wrestling , Knockouts Division Executive Brooke Hogan stripped ODB and Young of the title because Young is a male talent , despite the fact that he had been a male for the prior 478 days . This ultimately resulted in the titles being deactivated , as it 's no longer listed among TNA 's active championships .
= = History = =
= = = TNA Knockout = = =
TNA Knockout , or just Knockout for short , is the term used by TNA to refer to its onscreen female employees ; this is similar to TNA 's main rival World Wrestling Entertainment and their Divas pseudonym . TNA 's first women 's accomplishment was announced at TNA 's first weekly pay @-@ per @-@ view event on June 19 , 2002 . It was called the " Miss TNA " crown . The holder of the crown was determined in a lingerie battle royal on June 19 , 2002 , which aired on June 26 , 2002 . The participants in the match were Alexis Laree , Elektra , Erin Bray , Francine , Miss Joni , Sasha , Shannon , Taylor Vaughn , and Teresa Tyler . Vaughn last eliminated Elektra to win the crown . The TNA Knockout of the Year is another award in TNA given to the knockout who achieved the most or had the best run that year . The most recent Knockout of the Year was Gail Kim in 2007 ; no award was given out in 2008 . In October 2007 at TNA 's Bound for Glory PPV event , TNA established their first women 's championship , with Gail Kim winning a 10 knockout gauntlet match to become the first TNA Women 's Knockout Champion . Ms. Brooks , Christy Hemme , Awesome Kong , Roxxi Laveaux , Talia Madison , Shelly Martinez , Jackie Moore , ODB , and Angel Williams were also involved in the match . Two DVDs on the topic of the TNA Knockouts have been released by TNA . The first was named " Knockouts : The Ladies of TNA Wrestling Vol.1 " and was released on August 29 , 2006 . " Knocked Out : The Women of TNA Wrestling " was the second , being released on October 7 , 2008 .
= = = Championship Tournament = = =
On the August 20 , 2009 episode of Impact ! , backstage interviewer Lauren , who was standing with and about to interview Christy Hemme , Tara , Taylor Wilde , and Sarita , announced that TNA were planning to host an eight @-@ team single elimination tag team tournament to crown the first @-@ ever TNA Knockouts Tag Team Champions . After a four @-@ way match consisting of Hemme , Traci Brooks , Sarita , and Awesome Kong , TNA commentators Mike Tenay and Taz announced that the first round match of the tournament would take place on the August 27 episode of Impact ! with Kong and Raisha Saeed facing Brooks and Sharmell . Kong and Saeed wound up winning the match , and moving to the next round of the tournament . On the September 3 episode of Impact ! , the team of Hemme and Tara defeated the team of Hamada and Sojournor Bolt to move onto round two of the tournament . The next week on Impact ! , the team of Sarita and Taylor Wilde defeated Alissa Flash and Daffney to also advance to round two . Later in that same episode , Angelina Love and Velvet Sky ( collectively known as The Beautiful People ) defeated the team of Madison Rayne and Roxxi . Round two began on the September 17 episode of Impact ! , with the encounters of Kong and Saeed versus Sarita and Wilde and The Beautiful People versus Hemme and Tara . The first bout pitted Hemme and Tara against The Beautiful People , with the latter being victorious . Sarita and Wilde won the second encounter over Kong and Saeed . The finals for the tournament were then set for TNA 's No Surrender PPV event , with The Beautiful People versus Sarita and Wilde . Sarita and Wilde defeated Madison Rayne , a substitute for Angelina Love who had been released from her contract prior to the event , and Velvet Sky ( also collectively known as The Beautiful People ) on September 20 at No Surrender to become the first official TNA Knockouts Tag Team Champions .
Tournament Bracket
= = = Belt designs = = =
The actual physical title belts were first shown at No Surrender . The belts introduced have a red strap with two small gold plates and one large gold plate . In the center of each plate stands a figure resembling a globe made out of gold . On the outer edge of the plate are red gems , which circle the entire plate . The center golden plate of the belt has TNA 's official logo engraved in the very center with the words " Knockouts Tag Team " above it and the words " Wrestling Champion " below .
= = Reigns = =
The inaugural champions were Sarita and Wilde , who defeated The Beautiful People ( Rayne and Sky ) in the finals of an eight @-@ team tournament to crown the first TNA Knockouts Tag Team Champions . At 478 days , Eric Young and ODB hold the record for the longest reign in the title 's history . Awesome Kong 's and Hamada 's only reign holds the record for the shortest reign in the title 's history at 63 days . As of June 27 , 2013 , the championships are retired due to TNA not having enough female talent for a Tag Team Division . Young is the first and only male wrestler to have held the title . Overall , there have been 9 reigns shared between 15 wrestlers and 9 teams .
= = = Combined reigns = = =
= = = = By team = = = =
= = = = By wrestler = = = =
= Sonic Unleashed =
Sonic Unleashed , released as Sonic World Adventure ( Japanese : ソニックワールドアドベンチャー , Hepburn : Sonikku Wārudo Adobenchā ) in Japan , is a 2008 video game in the Sonic the Hedgehog series developed by Sonic Team and published by Sega for multiple platforms in 2008 . The game follows Sonic the Hedgehog as he attempts to restore the world to normal after his nemesis , Doctor Eggman . The game also focuses on Sonic 's ' werehog ' form , which he gains during the beginning after coming into contact with the energy of Dark Gaia . Gameplay features two distinct styles , with each being played either during daytime or night @-@ time . Daytime stages incorporate Sonic 's traditional platforming and trademark speed , with a combination of behind @-@ the @-@ back third @-@ person viewpoints and 2D side @-@ scroller platforming ; gameplay seamlessly transitions between these two views . Night @-@ time levels see Sonic transform into the Werehog ; gameplay slows down to accommodate greater platform play , and involves combat against waves of enemies using the Werehog 's brute strength .
The game 's existence was first brought to light when Sega trademarked the Unleashed name , and shortly after , images and a gameplay video were leaked to the public in March 2008 . Public anticipation for the game was high , owing to the video 's demonstration of some two @-@ dimensional gameplay , seen as a possible return to Sonic 's platforming roots . However , critical reception for the game was mixed , with reviewers praising certain elements , such as the sense of speed in daylight stages and the graphics and audio that make up the environments , and criticizing others , such as the new Werehog game mechanic , as well as several gameplay and design concepts . Many reviewers felt that Unleashed was ultimately not the title that would be able to reinvigorate the series . Sonic Unleashed was de @-@ listed in 2010 , following Sega 's decision to remove all Sonic titles with average Metacritic scores from sale in stores . Despite this , the game was made available to purchase on PlayStation Network on April 8 , 2014 .
= = Gameplay = =
Sonic Unleashed is a platform game in which the player controls the titular Sonic the Hedgehog in two modes : fast @-@ paced levels that take place during daytime , showcasing Sonic 's trademark speed as seen in previous games in the series , and slower , night @-@ time levels , during which Sonic transforms into the Werehog , and gameplay switches to an action @-@ based , brawler style of play , in which Sonic battles Gaia enemies ( those created by the main enemy in the game , Dark Gaia ) . Each level takes place on a particular continent , each of which is based on a real @-@ world location ( i.e. , Greece @-@ based Apotos , Italy @-@ based Spagonia , Africa @-@ based Mazuri , New York @-@ based Empire City , China @-@ based Chun @-@ nan , Antarctica @-@ based Holoska , Middle East @-@ based Shamar , and Southeast Asia @-@ based Adabat . In sections of the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions of the game , the player may choose to advance the time of day in order to play as either Sonic or the Werehog ; in the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions , time is advanced automatically .
Daytime levels focus on Sonic 's speed , and to this extent , sees the player control Sonic through fast @-@ moving stages containing both 2D and 3D styles of gameplay . 2D sections are reminiscent of the Mega Drive / Genesis @-@ era Sonic games , where the player controls Sonic in a side @-@ scrolling fashion , while 3D sections see the camera placed behind Sonic , so the player may move in all directions . In addition to moves available in past games , such as the homing attack , new moves are also introduced . For instance , a new sidestep feature known as the Quick Step is available , allowing Sonic to dodge left and right , and a Drift feature , which allows Sonic to make tighter turns without slowing down . The game also features a gameplay mechanic previously used in the Sonic Rush series called the Sonic Boost , which greatly increases Sonic 's speed , allowing him to smash through objects , destroy enemies instantly , or even access different level paths . In the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , an on @-@ screen " Ring Energy " meter displays how much boost is available . The amount of boost remaining may be increased by collecting more rings , and is decreased by using the Boost . In contrast , the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions of the game represent available Boost using bars , which may be added by performing " Action Chains " , destroying multiple enemies in quick succession through the use of homing attacks , or by collecting rings . Japanese game company Dimps helped design some of the stages .
Nighttime levels feature slower @-@ paced , action @-@ oriented levels , in which Sonic transforms into the Werehog , a beast form that has great strength and stretchable arms . Gameplay here sees the player use a variety of melee and combo attacks to defeat large numbers of enemies , collect items , and move items around to advance through the level , and use his stretchable arms to cling to distant objects ; simple puzzle elements are also featured . Collecting rings in these levels replenishes the Werehog 's health , while a special move , Unleashed Mode , allows the Werehog to channel his energy into increasing the power of his attacks for a short time . Nighttime levels are adjusted in the Wii version to allow greater use of the Wii Remote , such that players may control the arms of the Werehog by using the Wii Remote and Nunchuk in order to grab onto objects and proceed in the levels . The Wii version of the game also expands upon the ratio of nighttime levels to daytime , with more than three times as many nighttime levels ( twenty @-@ five in all ) . After nighttime levels are completed , Dark Gaia Points are gained , allowing access to bonus moves .
In addition to these two gameplay types , Sonic Unleashed also features hubworlds , in which the player may reveal , as well as advance , the story of the game . Hubworlds operate differently depending on the version of the game being played ; the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions feature fully interactive , explorable 3D hubworlds , similar to those in Sonic 2006 and Sonic Adventure , in which townspeople may be interacted with and side quests may be undertaken , in order to gain experience or unlock items , such as artwork , videos and music tracks . In contrast , the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions feature menu @-@ based map systems , in which players simply click on areas to talk to townspeople and find information . Within both day and nighttime levels are medals that Sonic may collect , two types of which exist : Sun and Moon . In the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , collecting these medals allows the player to level up Sonic 's Sun and Moon stats , and these must be increased to reach new stages in the game , with a certain number of Sun medals for Hedgehog levels , and a certain number of Moon medals for Werehog levels . Because only the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions feature playable hubworlds , these are also the only versions in which Sun and Moon medals may be found by exploring the towns , talking to the citizens , and completing side quests . In the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions , Sun and Moon medals are earned after completing stages and clearing their objectives . The medals are used to open up doors in Gaia gates , which can earn bonus content .
= = Plot = =
In a cold open , Sonic is pursuing his nemesis , Doctor Eggman , bounding around a fleet of spaceships . After the defeat of several of his robots , Sonic transforms into Super Sonic . After a brief chase through the airships , Sonic corners Eggman . However , Eggman manages to trap him using a powerful new ray weapon which drains the power of the Chaos Emeralds , causing them to turn grey and useless . He then uses the Emeralds ' energy to fire an enormous laser and unleash a powerful beast , Dark Gaia , from the center of the planet , which has devastating consequences , shattering the planet into seven pieces . In addition , the ray and drained Chaos Emeralds have the unforeseen side @-@ effect of transforming Sonic into a " Werehog " — a beast form with greater strength and abilities — at night . Eggman then ejects Sonic into space , who then lands safely onto the planet below .
After landing along with the Emeralds , Sonic encounters a friendly creature who appears to suffer amnesia . Assuming he has caused it with his fall , Sonic decides to assist him in his quest to find out who he is , and the monster becomes a guide for the player ; Sonic soon gives him the nickname Chip . Sonic 's quest begins , and with the help of some old friends , such as Amy and Tails , he attempts to solve the crisis by traveling the world 's continents , finding shrines that will fix the Emeralds , in order to return the world , and himself , to normal .
After six of the seven continents are returned to normal , Chip is able to regain his memory ; he is in fact Dark Gaia 's opposite , Light Gaia . Since the beginning of time , the two of them had been in a cycle where Dark Gaia would break the planet apart , and Light Gaia would put it back together . Chip was released along with Dark Gaia , but because both of them were released prematurely , he lost his memory , and Dark Gaia was broken apart . They are able to place the last Chaos Emerald in the shrine on the final continent at Eggman 's new empire , " Eggmanland " , but are interrupted by him ; Sonic then defeats Eggman who is using a robot that utilizes Dark Gaia 's power . During the battle , the three sink into the core of the Earth and encounter Dark Gaia . Eggman orders Dark Gaia to destroy Sonic , but it turns on him , knocking him away with one of its tentacles , and absorbs the power that turned Sonic into a Werehog , curing Sonic of lycanthropy , and uses that power to become Semi @-@ Perfect Dark Gaia .
Dark Gaia then attacks Sonic and Chip , but Chip protects Sonic and calls all of the Gaia temples together to form the Gaia Colossus and fight Dark Gaia . The Gaia Colussus seemingly destroys Dark Gaia , but Dark Gaia is not finished with them or the Earth yet , and consumes the entire world in darkness , becoming Perfect Dark Gaia in the process . Chip then gives the restored Chaos Emeralds to Sonic , allowing him to turn into Super Sonic and destroy it ; Dark Gaia then sinks back into the planet , but the battle takes its toll on Super Sonic . Chip saves Sonic by throwing him to the surface , before returning himself to the inside of the planet ; he leaves behind his necklace and some parting words . Sonic places the necklace on his hand as a bracelet to remind him of their adventure together before speeding off with Tails , flying alongside him on the coastline in the Tornado plane .
= = Development = =
Sonic Team began development of the game in 2006 , after having begun work on the core technology , the Hedgehog Engine , in 2005 . The title was first brought to public attention when the Sonic Unleashed name was trademarked by Sega on March 12 , 2008 . Screenshots of cut scenes , artwork , and a video were leaked ten days later , with the title then officially confirmed by Sega on April 3 , 2008 with a small selection of screenshots and an updated video . The game was developed internally by Sonic Team in Japan . It was originally intended to be the third installment of the Sonic Adventure series and subsequently , at an early development stage , had the working title Sonic World Adventure , complete with work @-@ in @-@ progress logo . However , the development team began to introduce enough new innovations to separate it from the Sonic Adventure titles , and so a new title , Sonic Unleashed , was decided upon . It was then later revealed that the game 's name in Japan would in fact remain Sonic World Adventure for its release there .
Sonic Team decided early on in the development process to reduce the number of characters present in the game , as well as to make Sonic the only playable character ; this decision was taken to get more quality out of fewer characters . While it felt that these ideas combined with traditional Sonic gameplay was a good beginning , it also had to consider how to introduce newer gamers unfamiliar with the Sonic franchise to the series , and so the concept of the Werehog was born , in addition to exploring its own mythology and ideas for the story . Director Yoshihisa Hashimoto felt from the outset that there would be both praise and criticism , but hoped that long @-@ term Sonic fans would understand and empathise with the ideas and direction the team had taken .
In terms of technology , Hashimoto remarked that the visual style was born out of desire to see a global illumination solution used for the game 's lighting — that is , light reflecting from one object in the scene onto others . To this extent , development on the renderer for this process began , and the final solution allowed the developers to use distributed rendering over hundreds of computers to calculate lighting for each ten- to twenty @-@ kilometer action stage in around two or three days . Characters , enemies and objects are then lit at run @-@ time with Sonic Team 's " Light Field " technology to blend them in with the surrounding pre @-@ calculated lighting . Because the game was being developed for two levels of hardware capability depending on the target platform , two development " silos " were set up to work on two separate builds of the game : one for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 version utilizing the Hedgehog Engine , and one for the PlayStation 2 and Wii version , which instead utilizes a modified version of an existing , internal Sega engine . Hashimoto , who had never directed a Sonic game before , incorporated new features such as a " Quick Step " mechanic allowing players to dodge obstacles with the L and R triggers . Hashimoto sought to combine the best qualities of 2D and 3D Sonic gameplay and address the criticisms directed at previous 3D entries in the franchise . Additional code to dynamically adjust the speed of the game for different situations was used to properly balance its fast pace with traditional platforming elements .
As well as the unique motion @-@ based gameplay mechanics , the Wii version of the game also supports the GameCube controller , and also the option of using the Classic Controller . The daytime levels for the Wii were altered to accommodate the motion control @-@ based drift mechanic , while night @-@ time levels include a mostly behind @-@ the @-@ back view and different platforming styles and combat mechanics . Developer Dimps , who had past involvement in the Sonic franchise , was involved in the design of the daytime areas for these versions . In addition , overall , the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions have fewer daytime levels than the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 counterparts .
Initially , it was stated that Unleashed was to be intended solely as a single @-@ player experience , and would not offer any multiplayer or online modes . This was cast into doubt when references to online modes were alluded to around E3 2008 , but later interviews re @-@ iterated that Unleashed would have no online modes at all . However , downloadable content , including additional levels , would remain a possibility after the game 's release . A demo version was released on the Xbox Live Marketplace on December 8 , 2008 and on the US and EU PlayStation Stores on December 18 and 24 , 2008 , respectively . The demo does not contain any of the Werehog stages . On March 12 , 2009 Sega released Sonic Unleashed 's first downloadable content for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 , consisting of four Chun @-@ nan daytime stages and two night stages in addition to two new missions . Since then , more downloadable levels have been added : Spagonia , Holoska , Mazuri , Apotos , Shamar , Empire city and Adabat .
Speaking after the game 's release , Sonic Team member and Sonic and the Black Knight director Tetsu Katano remarked that although he did not feel the Werehog concept was a mistake , time and resources were a limiting factor in the game 's production . He also remarked that the Werehog may reappear in future games , or possibly in a sequel to Sonic Unleashed , should one be made .
Game developer Gameloft announced in May 2009 that it had secured a licensing agreement with Sega Europe Ltd. to produce mobile phone versions of Sega properties , and that its first title would be a version of Sonic Unleashed for mobile phone platforms . It was released in June 2009 in Europe , Middle East , Australia and New Zealand .
= = Reception = =
Initial anticipation when the first media for Unleashed was revealed was high , as the demonstration videos hinted at a possible return of Sonic to his traditional platforming roots , especially because of the series ' declining quality in recent years , and a number of poorly received titles in the franchise that preceded it , such as the 2006 game , Sonic the Hedgehog .
Critical reception to Unleashed was mixed , with Metacritic aggregate scores of 60 and 54 out of 100 for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions respectively , and 66 out of 100 for the PlayStation 2 and Wii versions . The added element of motion controls for the Werehog sections , as well as text @-@ based hub worlds and better Werehog level design and camera system , were reasons cited for the higher review scores for the Wii version of the game , though a few review websites , such as 1UP , gave the Wii version a lower score than its Xbox 360 and PS3 counterparts . Nevertheless , the game was a commercial success and sold 2 @.@ 45 million units combined making it Sega 's third best selling game during their last fiscal year period of 2008 .
Positive elements of Sonic Unleashed remarked upon by reviews include the environments , such as the " postcard @-@ perfect architecture " , and the graphics , with stages looking " absolutely gorgeous " and being " very pretty and lovingly animated " , with one reviewer comparing them to a playable Pixar film . Praise was given to the technical competence of Sega 's new Hedgehog Engine as a whole on the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 versions , with " bright cartoonish graphics that fly by without a stutter " ; however , some complaints were raised about frame rate reduction when large numbers of enemies appeared during the
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Werehog sections . Although the Wii and PlayStation 2 versions do not use the Hedgehog Engine , graphics for these platforms were still praised for their high quality , with the title being nominated for Best Graphics Technology for the Wii by IGN in its 2008 video game awards . The soundtrack to the game was also praised as being an improvement on more recent installments in the series ; use of an orchestral score , rather than rock as in more recent games , was appreciated .
An overwhelmingly negative reaction was given by critics to the Werehog concept and corresponding night @-@ time sections , which contributed greatly to the lower than expected review scores . Some reviewers compared the Werehog sections to God of War . Complaints stemmed from the game 's change of speed , from high @-@ speed daytime sections to the slower , night @-@ time sections ; the " pace @-@ breaking combat levels " were described as " plodding " , as well as " lethargic " and " combat @-@ heavy " . Further to the change of pace , the new style of gameplay that accompanies the night @-@ time levels was widely criticized , involving " frustrating " platform elements and combat described as not " terribly interesting " and " boring " , with " awkward " action sequences overall . Some reviewers felt that the Werehog as a concept did not mix well with the daylight areas and traditional Sonic gameplay ; GamePro 's review described them as " dreadfully out @-@ of @-@ place " , while IGN stated that they have " nothing to do with Sonic whatsoever " , feeling that the Werehog was " being slapped on " to the Sonic experience .
In stark contrast to the Werehog sections , many reviewers found the daytime levels to be enjoyable , especially the " exhilarating " sense of speed they provide ; with " the most satisfying gameplay of any Sonic title in years " , the game " perfectly [ captures ] the feel of classic Sonic " . Many also enjoyed the mixture of , and transition between , 2D and 3D sections . Indeed , many reviewers remarked that they would have appreciated the game more had it consisted solely of , and expanded upon , the daytime levels . GameSpot 's review for the Xbox 360 version , however , argued that the controls were " unresponsive " in the daytime levels , and that most of them were " horribly designed " , instead describing the Wii version as a " vastly superior experience " , with its daytime levels praised for better control and design .
Aside from the criticism of Werehog levels , further aspects of the game were criticised , contributing to the mixed review scores . The quests that players must undertake in hub @-@ towns were described as " inane " and " tedious " , where " figuring out what happens next involves aimlessly wandering through towns and speaking to citizens , only to discover that most of them don 't know what we 're looking for " . The story and overall tone of the game , including the new character Chip , were criticised , some remarking that it was too juvenile , or comparable to that of a Saturday morning cartoon .
= = Legacy = =
The game 's original soundtrack , entitled Planetary Pieces : Sonic World Adventure Original Soundtrack , was released as a three @-@ disc set in Japan on January 28 , 2009 . The main theme music for the game is entitled " Endless Possibility " , and features Jaret Reddick of the American rock band Bowling for Soup . The ending theme music for the game is a slow tempo ballad entitled " Dear My Friend " , and features singer Brent Cash .
Downloadable packs containing extra levels for this game are available on the PlayStation Network and the Xbox Live Arcade .
Archie Comics has made an adaptation of Sonic Unleashed featuring the opening cutscene and Sonic 's transformation into the Werehog . A short 3D animated film was released on November 21 , 2008 , entitled Sonic : Night of the Werehog , which tells the story of two male ghosts who live in a haunted house taking pictures of scared children in order to woo a female ghost , and their frustration with an unafraid Sonic who enters the house with a very afraid Chip . But soon , it 's the ghosts who are afraid when Sonic looks at the full moon and transforms . The film was produced by Sega VE Animation Studio .
On March 25 , 2010 , a pack of Sonic costumes was released to the PlayStation Store for the PlayStation 3 game LittleBigPlanet . The pack includes Sonic , Tails , Knuckles , Dr. Eggman and Sonic the Werehog .
For Sonic 's 20th anniversary , Sonic Generations includes major gaming aspects from past titles . A remake of the Rooftop Run stage appears in the console and PC versions , along with a modified Egg Dragoon serving as the second @-@ to @-@ last boss of those versions . However , Sonic does not retain the Werehog form and instead must fight the machine in his normal form .
On May 14 , 2014 , Archie Comics ' Sonic the Hedgehog comics branched out to follow some of the main events in Sonic Unleashed , such as the planet breaking apart , and the addition of Sonic the Werehog starting in issue 264 .
= Bird =
Birds ( Aves ) are a group of endothermic vertebrates , characterised by feathers , toothless beaked jaws , the laying of hard @-@ shelled eggs , a high metabolic rate , a four @-@ chambered heart , and a lightweight but strong skeleton . Birds live worldwide and range in size from the 5 cm ( 2 in ) bee hummingbird to the 2 @.@ 75 m ( 9 ft ) ostrich . They rank as the class of tetrapods with the most living species , at approximately ten thousand , with more than half of these being passerines , sometimes known as perching birds or , less accurately , as songbirds .
The fossil record indicates that birds are the last surviving group of dinosaurs , having evolved from feathered ancestors within the theropod group of saurischian dinosaurs . True birds first appeared during the Cretaceous period , around 100 million years ago . DNA @-@ based evidence finds that birds diversified dramatically around the time of the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event that killed off all other dinosaurs . Birds , especially those in the southern continents , survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world while diversifying during periods of global cooling . Primitive bird @-@ like dinosaurs that lie outside class Aves proper , in the broader group Avialae , have been found dating back to the mid @-@ Jurassic period . Many of these early " stem @-@ birds " , such as Archaeopteryx , were not yet capable of fully powered flight , and many retained primitive characteristics like toothy jaws in place of beaks , and long bony tails .
Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species ; the only known groups without wings are the extinct moas and elephant birds . Wings , which evolved from forelimbs , give most birds the ability to fly , although further speciation has led to some flightless birds , including ratites , penguins , and diverse endemic island species of birds . The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also uniquely adapted for flight . Some bird species of aquatic environments , particularly the aforementioned flightless penguins , and also members of the duck family , have also evolved for swimming . Birds , specifically Darwin 's finches , played an important part in the inception of Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection .
Some birds , especially corvids and parrots , are among the most intelligent animals ; several bird species make and use tools , and many social species pass on knowledge across generations , which is considered a form of culture . Many species annually migrate great distances . Birds are social , communicating with visual signals , calls , and bird songs , and participating in such social behaviours as cooperative breeding and hunting , flocking , and mobbing of predators . The vast majority of bird species are socially monogamous , usually for one breeding season at a time , sometimes for years , but rarely for life . Other species have polygynous ( " many females " ) or , rarely , polyandrous ( " many males " ) breeding systems . Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilized through sexual reproduction . They are usually laid in a nest and incubated by the parents . Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching . Some birds , such as hens , lay eggs even when not fertilized , though unfertilized eggs do not produce offspring .
Many species of birds are economically important . Domesticated and undomesticated birds ( poultry and game ) are important sources of eggs , meat , and feathers . Songbirds , parrots , and other species are popular as pets . Guano ( bird excrement ) is harvested for use as a fertilizer . Birds prominently figure throughout human culture . About 120 – 130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century , and hundreds more before then . Human activity threatens about 1 @,@ 200 bird species with extinction , though efforts are underway to protect them . Recreational birdwatching is an important part of the ecotourism industry .
= = Evolution and classification = =
The first classification of birds was developed by Francis Willughby and John Ray in their 1676 volume Ornithologiae . Carl Linnaeus modified that work in 1758 to devise the taxonomic classification system currently in use . Birds are categorised as the biological class Aves in Linnaean taxonomy . Phylogenetic taxonomy places Aves in the dinosaur clade Theropoda .
= = = Definition = = =
Aves and a sister group , the clade Crocodilia , contain the only living representatives of the reptile clade Archosauria . During the late 1990s , Aves was most commonly defined phylogenetically as all descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica . However , an earlier definition proposed by Jacques Gauthier gained wide currency in the 21st century , and is used by many scientists including adherents of the Phylocode system . Gauthier defined Aves to include only the crown group of the set of modern birds . This was done by excluding most groups known only from fossils , and assigning them , instead , to the Avialae , in part to avoid the uncertainties about the placement of Archaeopteryx in relation to animals traditionally thought of as theropod dinosaurs .
Gauthier identified four conflicting ways of defining the term " Aves " , which is a problem because the same biological name is being used four different ways . Gauthier proposed a solution , number 4 below , which is to reserve the term Aves only for the crown group , the last common ancestor of all living birds and all of its descendants . He assigned other names to the other groups .
Aves can mean those advanced archosaurs with feathers ( alternately Avifilopluma )
Aves can mean those that fly ( alternately Avialae )
Aves can mean all reptiles closer to birds than to crocodiles ( alternately Avemetatarsalia [ = Panaves ] )
Aves can mean the last common ancestor of all the currently living birds and all of its descendants ( a " crown group " ) . ( alternately Neornithes )
Under the fourth definition Archaeopteryx is an avialan , and not a member of Aves . Gauthier 's proposals have been adopted by many researchers in the field of paleontology and bird evolution , though the exact definitions applied have been inconsistent . Avialae , initially proposed to replace the traditional fossil content of Aves , is often used synonymously with the vernacular term " bird " by these researchers .
Most researchers define Avialae as branch @-@ based clade , though definitions vary . Many authors have used a definition similar to " all theropods closer to birds than to Deinonychus . " Avialae is also occasionally defined as an apomorphy @-@ based clade ( that is , one based on physical characteristics ) . Jacques Gauthier , who named Avialae in 1986 , re @-@ defined it in 2001 as all dinosaurs that possessed feathered wings used in flapping flight , and the birds that descended from them .
= = = Dinosaurs and the origin of birds = = =
Based on fossil and biological evidence , most scientists accept that birds are a specialized subgroup of theropod dinosaurs , and more specifically , they are members of Maniraptora , a group of theropods which includes dromaeosaurs and oviraptorids , among others . As scientists have discovered more theropods closely related to birds , the previously clear distinction between non @-@ birds and birds has become blurred . Recent discoveries in the Liaoning Province of northeast China , which demonstrate many small theropod feathered dinosaurs , contribute to this ambiguity .
The consensus view in contemporary paleontology is that the flying theropods , or avialans , are the closest relatives of the deinonychosaurs , which include dromaeosaurids and troodontids . Together , these form a group called Paraves . Some basal members of this group , such as Microraptor , have features which may have enabled them to glide or fly . The most basal deinonychosaurs were very small . This evidence raises the possibility that the ancestor of all paravians may have been arboreal , have been able to glide , or both . Unlike Archaeopteryx and the non @-@ avialan feathered dinosaurs , who primarily ate meat , recent studies suggest that the first avialans were omnivores .
The Late Jurassic Archaeopteryx is well known as one of the first transitional fossils to be found , and it provided support for the theory of evolution in the late 19th century . Archaeopteryx was the first fossil to display both clearly traditional reptilian characteristics : teeth , clawed fingers , and a long , lizard @-@ like tail , as well as wings with flight feathers similar to those of modern birds . It is not considered a direct ancestor of birds , though it is possibly closely related to the true ancestor .
= = = Early evolution = = =
The earliest known avialan fossils come from the Tiaojishan Formation of China , which has been dated to the late Jurassic period ( Oxfordian stage ) , about 160 million years ago . The avialan species from this time period include Anchiornis huxleyi , Xiaotingia zhengi , and Aurornis xui . The well @-@ known early avialan , Archaeopteryx , dates from slightly later Jurassic rocks ( about 155 million years old ) from Germany . Many of these early avialans shared unusual anatomical features that may be ancestral to modern birds , but were later lost during bird evolution . These features include enlarged claws on the second toe which may have been held clear of the ground in life , and long feathers or " hind wings " covering the hind limbs and feet , which may have been used in aerial maneuvering .
Avialans diversified into a wide variety of forms during the Cretaceous Period . Many groups retained primitive characteristics , such as clawed wings and teeth , though the latter were lost independently in a number of avialan groups , including modern birds ( Aves ) . While the earliest forms , such as Archaeopteryx and Jeholornis , retained the long bony tails of their ancestors , the tails of more advanced avialans were shortened with the advent of the pygostyle bone in the group Pygostylia . In the late Cretaceous , around 95 million years ago , the ancestor of all modern birds also evolved a better sense of smell .
= = = Early diversity of bird ancestors = = =
The first large , diverse lineage of short @-@ tailed avialans to evolve were the enantiornithes , or " opposite birds " , so named because the construction of their shoulder bones was in reverse to that of modern birds . Enantiornithes occupied a wide array of ecological niches , from sand @-@ probing shorebirds and fish @-@ eaters to tree @-@ dwelling forms and seed @-@ eaters . While they were the dominant group of avialans during the Cretaceous period , enantiornithes became extinct along with many other dinosaur groups at the end of the Mesozoic era .
Many species of the second major avialan lineage to diversify , the Euornithes ( meaning " true birds " , because they include the ancestors of modern birds ) , were semi @-@ aquatic and specialized in eating fish and other small aquatic organisms . Unlike the enantiornithes , which dominated land @-@ based and arboreal habitats , most early euornithes lacked perching adaptations and seem to have included shorebird @-@ like species , waders , and swimming and diving species . The later included the superficially gull @-@ like Ichthyornis , the Hesperornithiformes , which became so well adapted to hunting fish in marine environments that they lost the ability to fly and became primarily aquatic . The early euornithes also saw the development of many traits associated with modern birds , like strongly keeled breastbones , toothless , beaked portions of their jaws ( though most non @-@ avian euornithes retained teeth in other parts of the jaws ) . Euornithes also included the first avialans to develop true pygostyle and a fully mobile fan of tail feathers , which may have replaced the " hind wing " as the primary mode of aerial maneuverability and braking in flight .
= = = Diversification of modern birds = = =
All modern birds lie within the crown group Aves ( alternately Neornithes ) , which has two subdivisions : the Palaeognathae , which includes the flightless ratites ( such as the ostriches ) and the weak @-@ flying tinamous , and the extremely diverse Neognathae , containing all other birds . These two subdivisions are often given the rank of superorder , although Livezey and Zusi assigned them " cohort " rank . Depending on the taxonomic viewpoint , the number of known living bird species varies anywhere from 9 @,@ 800 to 10 @,@ 050 .
Due largely to the discovery of Vegavis , a late Cretaceous neognath member of the duck lineage , Aves is known to have split into several modern lineages by the end of the Mesozoic era . Studies using a " morphological clock " analysis have estimated that the actual origin of modern birds probably occurred slightly earlier than the earliest known fossils , during the mid @-@ Cretaceous period .
The earliest divergence within the Neognathes was that of the Galloanserae , the superorder containing the Anseriformes ( ducks , geese , swans and screamers ) and the Galliformes ( the pheasants , grouse , and their allies , together with the mound builders and the guans and their allies ) . The earliest fossil remains of true birds come from the possible galliform Austinornis lentus , dated to about 85 million years ago , but the dates for the actual splits are much debated by scientists . The Aves are agreed to have evolved in the Cretaceous , and the split between the Galloanseri from other Neognathes occurred before the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event , but there are different opinions about whether the radiation of the remaining Neognathes occurred before or after the extinction of the other dinosaurs . This disagreement is in part caused by a divergence in the evidence ; molecular dating suggests a Cretaceous radiation , while fossil evidence supports a Cenozoic radiation . Attempts to reconcile the molecular and fossil evidence have proved controversial , but recent results show that all the extant groups of birds originated from only a small handful of species that survived the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction .
= = = Classification of bird orders = = =
Cladogram of modern bird relationships based on Jarvis , E.D. et al . ( 2014 ) with some clade names after Yury , T. et al . ( 2013 ) .
The classification of birds is a contentious issue . Sibley and Ahlquist 's Phylogeny and Classification of Birds ( 1990 ) is a landmark work on the classification of birds , although it is frequently debated and constantly revised . Most evidence seems to suggest the assignment of orders is accurate , but scientists disagree about the relationships between the orders themselves ; evidence from modern bird anatomy , fossils and DNA have all been brought to bear on the problem , but no strong consensus has emerged . More recently , new fossil and molecular evidence is providing an increasingly clear picture of the evolution of modern bird orders . The most recent effort is drawn above and is based on whole genome sequencing of 48 representative species .
= = Distribution = =
Birds live and breed in most terrestrial habitats and on all seven continents , reaching their southern extreme in the snow petrel 's breeding colonies up to 440 kilometres ( 270 mi ) inland in Antarctica . The highest bird diversity occurs in tropical regions . It was earlier thought that this high diversity was the result of higher speciation rates in the tropics , however recent studies found higher speciation rates in the high latitudes that were offset by greater extinction rates than in the tropics . Several families of birds have adapted to life both on the world 's oceans and in them , with some seabird species coming ashore only to breed and some penguins have been recorded diving up to 300 metres ( 980 ft ) .
Many bird species have established breeding populations in areas to which they have been introduced by humans . Some of these introductions have been deliberate ; the ring @-@ necked pheasant , for example , has been introduced around the world as a game bird . Others have been accidental , such as the establishment of wild monk parakeets in several North American cities after their escape from captivity . Some species , including cattle egret , yellow @-@ headed caracara and galah , have spread naturally far beyond their original ranges as agricultural practices created suitable new habitat .
= = Anatomy and physiology = =
Compared with other vertebrates , birds have a body plan that shows many unusual adaptations , mostly to facilitate flight .
= = = Skeletal system = = =
The skeleton consists of very lightweight bones . They have large air @-@ filled cavities ( called pneumatic cavities ) which connect with the respiratory system . The skull bones in adults are fused and do not show cranial sutures . The orbits are large and separated by a bony septum . The spine has cervical , thoracic , lumbar and caudal regions with the number of cervical ( neck ) vertebrae highly variable and especially flexible , but movement is reduced in the anterior thoracic vertebrae and absent in the later vertebrae . The last few are fused with the pelvis to form the synsacrum . The ribs are flattened and the sternum is keeled for the attachment of flight muscles except in the flightless bird orders . The forelimbs are modified into wings .
= = = Excretory system = = =
Like the reptiles , birds are primarily uricotelic , that is , their kidneys extract nitrogenous waste from their bloodstream and excrete it as uric acid instead of urea or ammonia through the ureters into the intestine . Birds do not have a urinary bladder or external urethral opening and ( with exception of the ostrich ) uric acid is excreted along with feces as a semisolid waste . However , birds such as hummingbirds can be facultatively ammonotelic , excreting most of the nitrogenous wastes as ammonia . They also excrete creatine , rather than creatinine like mammals . This material , as well as the output of the intestines , emerges from the bird 's cloaca . The cloaca is a multi @-@ purpose opening : waste is expelled through it , most birds mate by joining cloaca , and females lay eggs from it . In addition , many species of birds regurgitate pellets . Males within Palaeognathae ( with the exception of the kiwis ) , the Anseriformes ( with the exception of screamers ) , and in rudimentary forms in Galliformes ( but fully developed in Cracidae ) possess a penis , which is never present in Neoaves . The length is thought to be related to sperm competition . When not copulating , it is hidden within the proctodeum compartment within the cloaca , just inside the vent . The digestive system of birds is unique , with a crop for storage and a gizzard that contains swallowed stones for grinding food to compensate for the lack of teeth . Most birds are highly adapted for rapid digestion to aid with flight . Some migratory birds have adapted to use protein from many parts of their bodies , including protein from the intestines , as additional energy during migration .
= = = Respiratory and circulatory systems = = =
Birds have one of the most complex respiratory systems of all animal groups . Upon inhalation , 75 % of the fresh air bypasses the lungs and flows directly into a posterior air sac which extends from the lungs and connects with air spaces in the bones and fills them with air . The other 25 % of the air goes directly into the lungs . When the bird exhales , the used air flows out of the lung and the stored fresh air from the posterior air sac is simultaneously forced into the lungs . Thus , a bird 's lungs receive a constant supply of fresh air during both inhalation and exhalation . Sound production is achieved using the syrinx , a muscular chamber incorporating multiple tympanic membranes which diverges from the lower end of the trachea ; the trachea being elongated in some species , increasing the volume of vocalizations and the perception of the bird 's size .
In birds , the main arteries taking blood away from the heart originate from the right aortic arch ( or pharyngeal arch ) , unlike in the mammals where the left aortic arch forms this part of the aorta . The postcava receives blood from the limbs via the renal portal system . Unlike in mammals , the circulating red blood cells in birds retain their nucleus .
= = = = Heart type and features = = = =
The avian circulatory system is driven by a four @-@ chambered , myogenic heart contained in a fibrous pericardial sac . This pericardial sac is filled with a serous fluid for lubrication . The heart itself is divided into a right and left half , each with an atrium and ventricle . The atrium and ventricles of each side are separated by atrioventricular valves which prevent back flow from one chamber to the next during contraction . Being myogenic , the heart 's pace is maintained by pacemaker cells found in the sinoatrial node , located on the right atrium . The sinoatrial node uses calcium to cause a depolarizing signal transduction pathway from the atrium through right and left atrioventricular bundle which communicates contraction to the ventricles . The avian heart also consists of muscular arches that are made up of thick bundles of muscular layers . Much like a mammalian heart , the avian heart is composed of endocardial , myocardial and epicardial layers . The atrium walls tend to be thinner than the ventricle walls , due to the intense ventricular contraction used to pump oxygenated blood throughout the body . Avian hearts are generally larger than mammalian hearts when compared to body mass . This adaptation allows more blood to be pumped to meet the high metabolic need associated with flight .
= = = = Organization = = = =
Birds have a very efficient system for diffusing oxygen into the blood ; birds have a ten times greater surface area to gas exchange volume than mammals . As a result , birds have more blood in their capillaries per unit of volume of lung than a mammal . The arteries are composed of thick elastic muscles to withstand the pressure of the ventricular constriction , and become more rigid as they move away from the heart . Blood moves through the arteries , which undergo vasoconstriction , and into arterioles which act as a transportation system to distribute primarily oxygen as well as nutrients to all tissues of the body . As the arterioles move away from the heart and into individual organs and tissues they are further divided to increase surface area and slow blood flow . Travelling through the arterioles blood moves into the capillaries where gas exchange can occur . Capillaries are organized into capillary beds in tissues , it is here that blood exchanges oxygen for carbon dioxide waste . In the capillary beds blood flow is slowed to allow maximum diffusion of oxygen into the tissues . Once the blood has become deoxygenated it travels through venules then veins and back to the heart . Veins , unlike arteries , are thin and rigid as they do not need to withstand extreme pressure . As blood travels through the venules to the veins a funneling occurs called vasodilation bringing blood back to the heart . Once the blood reaches the heart it moves first into the right atrium , then the right ventricle to be pumped through the lungs for further gas exchange of carbon dioxide waste for oxygen . Oxygenated blood then flows from the lungs through the left atrium to the left ventricle where it is pumped out to the body .
= = = Nervous system = = =
The nervous system is large relative to the bird 's size . The most developed part of the brain is the one that controls the flight @-@ related functions , while the cerebellum coordinates movement and the cerebrum controls behaviour patterns , navigation , mating and nest building . Most birds have a poor sense of smell with notable exceptions including kiwis , New World vultures and tubenoses . The avian visual system is usually highly developed . Water birds have special flexible lenses , allowing accommodation for vision in air and water . Some species also have dual fovea . Birds are tetrachromatic , possessing ultraviolet ( UV ) sensitive cone cells in the eye as well as green , red and blue ones . This allows them to perceive ultraviolet light , which is involved in courtship . Birds have specialized light @-@ sensing cells deep in their brains that respond to light without input from eyes or other sensory neurons . These photo @-@ receptive cells in the hypothalamus are involved in detecting the longer days of spring , and thus regulate breeding activities .
Many birds show plumage patterns in ultraviolet that are invisible to the human eye ; some birds whose sexes appear similar to the naked eye are distinguished by the presence of ultraviolet reflective patches on their feathers . Male blue tits have an ultraviolet reflective crown patch which is displayed in courtship by posturing and raising of their nape feathers . Ultraviolet light is also used in foraging — kestrels have been shown to search for prey by detecting the UV reflective urine trail marks left on the ground by rodents . The eyelids of a bird are not used in blinking . Instead the eye is lubricated by the nictitating membrane , a third eyelid that moves horizontally . The nictitating membrane also covers the eye and acts as a contact lens in many aquatic birds . The bird retina has a fan shaped blood supply system called the pecten . Most birds cannot move their eyes , although there are exceptions , such as the great cormorant . Birds with eyes on the sides of their heads have a wide visual field , while birds with eyes on the front of their heads , such as owls , have binocular vision and can estimate the depth of field . The avian ear lacks external pinnae but is covered by feathers , although in some birds , such as the Asio , Bubo and Otus owls , these feathers form tufts which resemble ears . The inner ear has a cochlea , but it is not spiral as in mammals .
= = = Defence and intraspecific combat = = =
A few species are able to use chemical defenses against predators ; some Procellariiformes can eject an unpleasant oil against an aggressor , and some species of pitohuis from New Guinea have a powerful neurotoxin in their skin and feathers .
A dearth of field observations limit our knowledge , but intraspecific conflicts are known to sometimes result in injury or death . The screamers ( Anhimidae ) , some jacanas ( Jacana , Hydrophasianus ) , the spur @-@ winged goose ( Plectropterus ) , the torrent duck ( Merganetta ) and nine species of lapwing ( Vanellus ) use a sharp spur on the wing as a weapon . The steamer ducks ( Tachyeres ) , geese and swans ( Anserinae ) , the solitaire ( Pezophaps ) , sheathbills ( Chionis ) , some guans ( Crax ) and stone curlews ( Burhinus ) use a bony knob on the alular metacarpal to punch and hammer opponents . The jacanas Actophilornis and Irediparra have an expanded , blade @-@ like radius . The extinct Xenicibis was unique in having an elongate forelimb and massive hand which likely functioned in combat or defence as a jointed club or flail . Swans , for instance , may strike with the bony spurs and bite when defending eggs or young .
= = = Chromosomes = = =
Birds have two sexes : either female or male . The sex of birds is determined by the Z and W sex chromosomes , rather than by the X and Y chromosomes present in mammals . Male birds have two Z chromosomes ( ZZ ) , and female birds have a W chromosome and a Z chromosome ( WZ ) .
In nearly all species of birds , an individual 's sex is determined at fertilization . However , one recent study demonstrated temperature @-@ dependent sex determination among the Australian brushturkey , for which higher temperatures during incubation resulted in a higher female @-@ to @-@ male sex ratio . This , however , was later proven to not be the case . These birds do not exhibit temperature @-@ dependent sex determination , but temperature @-@ dependent sex mortality .
= = = Feathers , plumage , and scales = = =
Feathers are a feature characteristic of birds ( though also present in some dinosaurs not currently considered to be true birds ) . They facilitate flight , provide insulation that aids in thermoregulation , and are used in display , camouflage , and signaling . There are several types of feathers , each serving its own set of purposes . Feathers are epidermal growths attached to the skin and arise only in specific tracts of skin called pterylae . The distribution pattern of these feather tracts ( pterylosis ) is used in taxonomy and systematics . The arrangement and appearance of feathers on the body , called plumage , may vary within species by age , social status , and sex .
Plumage is regularly moulted ; the standard plumage of a bird that has moulted after breeding is known as the " non @-@ breeding " plumage , or — in the Humphrey @-@ Parkes terminology — " basic " plumage ; breeding plumages or variations of the basic plumage are known under the Humphrey @-@ Parkes system as " alternate " plumages . Moulting is annual in most species , although some may have two moults a year , and large birds of prey may moult only once every few years . Moulting patterns vary across species . In passerines , flight feathers are replaced one at a time with the innermost primary being the first . When the fifth of sixth primary is replaced , the outermost tertiaries begin to drop . After the innermost tertiaries are moulted , the secondaries starting from the innermost begin to drop and this proceeds to the outer feathers ( centrifugal moult ) . The greater primary coverts are moulted in synchrony with the primary that they overlap . A small number of species , such as ducks and geese , lose all of their flight feathers at once , temporarily becoming flightless . As a general rule , the tail feathers are moulted and replaced starting with the innermost pair . Centripetal moults of tail feathers are however seen in the Phasianidae . The centrifugal moult is modified in the tail feathers of woodpeckers and treecreepers , in that it begins with the second innermost pair of feathers and finishes with the central pair of feathers so that the bird maintains a functional climbing tail . The general pattern seen in passerines is that the primaries are replaced outward , secondaries inward , and the tail from center outward . Before nesting , the females of most bird species gain a bare brood patch by losing feathers close to the belly . The skin there is well supplied with blood vessels and helps the bird in incubation .
Feathers require maintenance and birds preen or groom them daily , spending an average of around 9 % of their daily time on this . The bill is used to brush away foreign particles and to apply waxy secretions from the uropygial gland ; these secretions protect the feathers ' flexibility and act as an antimicrobial agent , inhibiting the growth of feather @-@ degrading bacteria . This may be supplemented with the secretions of formic acid from ants , which birds receive through a behaviour known as anting , to remove feather parasites .
The scales of birds are composed of the same keratin as beaks , claws , and spurs . They are found mainly on the toes and metatarsus , but may be found further up on the ankle in some birds . Most bird scales do not overlap significantly , except in the cases of kingfishers and woodpeckers . The scales of birds are thought to be homologous to those of reptiles and mammals .
= = = Flight = = =
Most birds can fly , which distinguishes them from almost all other vertebrate classes . Flight is the primary means of locomotion for most bird species and is used for breeding , feeding , and predator avoidance and escape . Birds have various adaptations for flight , including a lightweight skeleton , two large flight muscles , the pectoralis ( which accounts for 15 % of the total mass of the bird ) and the supracoracoideus , as well as a modified forelimb ( wing ) that serves as an aerofoil . Wing shape and size generally determine a bird species ' type of flight ; many birds combine powered , flapping flight with less energy @-@ intensive soaring flight . About 60 extant bird species are flightless , as were many extinct birds . Flightlessness often arises in birds on isolated islands , probably due to limited resources and the absence of land predators . Though flightless , penguins use similar musculature and movements to " fly " through the water , as do auks , shearwaters and dippers .
= = Behaviour = =
Most birds are diurnal , but some birds , such as many species of owls and nightjars , are nocturnal or crepuscular ( active during twilight hours ) , and many coastal waders feed when the tides are appropriate , by day or night .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Birds ' diets are varied and often include nectar , fruit , plants , seeds , carrion , and various small animals , including other birds . Because birds have no teeth , their digestive system is adapted to process unmasticated food items that are swallowed whole .
Birds that employ many strategies to obtain food or feed on a variety of food items are called generalists , while others that concentrate time and effort on specific food items or have a single strategy to obtain food are considered specialists . Birds ' feeding strategies vary by species . Many birds glean for insects , invertebrates , fruit , or seeds . Some hunt insects by suddenly attacking from a branch . Those species that seek pest insects are considered beneficial ' biological control agents ' and their presence encouraged in biological pest control programs . Nectar feeders such as hummingbirds , sunbirds , lories , and lorikeets amongst others have specially adapted brushy tongues and in many cases bills designed to fit co @-@ adapted flowers . Kiwis and shorebirds with long bills probe for invertebrates ; shorebirds ' varied bill lengths and feeding methods result in the separation of ecological niches . Loons , diving ducks , penguins and auks pursue their prey underwater , using their wings or feet for propulsion , while aerial predators such as sulids , kingfishers and terns plunge dive after their prey . Flamingos , three species of prion , and some ducks are filter feeders . Geese and dabbling ducks are primarily grazers .
Some species , including frigatebirds , gulls , and skuas , engage in kleptoparasitism , stealing food items from other birds . Kleptoparasitism is thought to be a supplement to food obtained by hunting , rather than a significant part of any species ' diet ; a study of great frigatebirds stealing from masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds stole at most 40 % of their food and on average stole only 5 % . Other birds are scavengers ; some of these , like vultures , are specialised carrion eaters , while others , like gulls , corvids , or other birds of prey , are opportunists .
= = = Water and drinking = = =
Water is needed by many birds although their mode of excretion and lack of sweat glands reduces the physiological demands . Some desert birds can obtain their water needs entirely from moisture in their food . They may also have other adaptations such as allowing their body temperature to rise , saving on moisture loss from evaporative cooling or panting . Seabirds can drink seawater and have salt glands inside the head that eliminate excess salt out of the nostrils .
Most birds scoop water in their beaks and raise their head to let water run down the throat . Some species , especially of arid zones , belonging to the pigeon , finch , mousebird , button @-@ quail and bustard families are capable of sucking up water without the need to tilt back their heads . Some desert birds depend on water sources and sandgrouse are particularly well known for their daily congregations at waterholes . Nesting sandgrouse and many plovers carry water to their young by wetting their belly feathers . Some birds carry water for chicks at the nest in their crop or regurgitate it along with food . The pigeon family , flamingos and penguins have adaptations to produce a nutritive fluid called crop milk that they provide to their chicks .
= = = Feather care = = =
Feathers being critical to the survival of a bird , require maintenance . Apart from physical wear and tear , feathers face the onslaught of fungi , ectoparasitic feather mites and birdlice . The physical condition of feathers are maintained by preening often with the application of secretions from the preen gland . Birds also bathe in water or dust themselves . While some birds dip into shallow water , more aerial species may make aerial dips into water and arboreal species often make use of dew or rain that collect on leaves . Birds of arid regions make use of loose soil to dust @-@ bathe . A behaviour termed as anting in which the bird encourages ants to run through their plumage is also thought to help them reduce the ectoparasite load in feathers . Many species will spread out their wings and expose them to direct sunlight and this too is thought to help in reducing fungal and ectoparasitic activity that may lead to feather damage .
= = = Migration = = =
Many bird species migrate to take advantage of global differences of seasonal temperatures , therefore optimising availability of food sources and breeding habitat . These migrations vary among the different groups . Many landbirds , shorebirds , and waterbirds undertake annual long distance migrations , usually triggered by the length of daylight as well as weather conditions . These birds are characterised by a breeding season spent in the temperate or polar regions and a non @-@ breeding season in the tropical regions or opposite hemisphere . Before migration , birds substantially increase body fats and reserves and reduce the size of some of their organs . Migration is highly demanding energetically , particularly as birds need to cross deserts and oceans without refuelling . Landbirds have a flight range of around 2 @,@ 500 km ( 1 @,@ 600 mi ) and shorebirds can fly up to 4 @,@ 000 km ( 2 @,@ 500 mi ) , although the bar @-@ tailed godwit is capable of non @-@ stop flights of up to 10 @,@ 200 km ( 6 @,@ 300 mi ) . Seabirds also undertake long migrations , the longest annual migration being those of sooty shearwaters , which nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan , Alaska and California , an annual round trip of 64 @,@ 000 km ( 39 @,@ 800 mi ) . Other seabirds disperse after breeding , travelling widely but having no set migration route . Albatrosses nesting in the Southern Ocean often undertake circumpolar trips between breeding seasons .
Some bird species undertake shorter migrations , travelling only as far as is required to avoid bad weather or obtain food . Irruptive species such as the boreal finches are one such group and can commonly be found at a location in one year and absent the next . This type of migration is normally associated with food availability . Species may also travel shorter distances over part of their range , with individuals from higher latitudes travelling into the existing range of conspecifics ; others undertake partial migrations , where only a fraction of the population , usually females and subdominant males , migrates . Partial migration can form a large percentage of the migration behaviour of birds in some regions ; in Australia , surveys found that 44 % of non @-@ passerine birds and 32 % of passerines were partially migratory . Altitudinal migration is a form of short distance migration in which birds spend the breeding season at higher altitudes elevations and move to lower ones during suboptimal conditions . It is most often triggered by temperature changes and usually occurs when the normal territories also become inhospitable due to lack of food . Some species may also be nomadic , holding no fixed territory and moving according to weather and food availability . Parrots as a family are overwhelmingly neither migratory nor sedentary but considered to either be dispersive , irruptive , nomadic or undertake small and irregular migrations .
The ability of birds to return to precise locations across vast distances has been known for some time ; in an experiment conducted in the 1950s a Manx shearwater released in Boston returned to its colony in Skomer , Wales , within 13 days , a distance of 5 @,@ 150 km ( 3 @,@ 200 mi ) . Birds navigate during migration using a variety of methods . For diurnal migrants , the sun is used to navigate by day , and a stellar compass is used at night . Birds that use the sun compensate for the changing position of the sun during the day by the use of an internal clock . Orientation with the stellar compass depends on the position of the constellations surrounding Polaris . These are backed up in some species by their ability to sense the Earth 's geomagnetism through specialised photoreceptors .
= = = Communication = = =
Birds communicate using primarily visual and auditory signals . Signals can be interspecific ( between species ) and intraspecific ( within species ) .
Birds sometimes use plumage to assess and assert social dominance , to display breeding condition in sexually selected species , or to make threatening displays , as in the sunbittern 's mimicry of a large predator to ward off hawks and protect young chicks . Variation in plumage also allows for the identification of birds , particularly between species . Visual communication among birds may also involve ritualised displays , which have developed from non @-@ signalling actions such as preening , the adjustments of feather position , pecking , or other behaviour . These displays may signal aggression or submission or may contribute to the formation of pair @-@ bonds . The most elaborate displays occur during courtship , where " dances " are often formed from complex combinations of many possible component movements ; males ' breeding success may depend on the quality of such displays .
Bird calls and songs , which are produced in the syrinx , are the major means by which birds communicate with sound . This communication can be very complex ; some species can operate the two sides of the syrinx independently , allowing the simultaneous production of two different songs .
Calls are used for a variety of purposes , including mate attraction , evaluation of potential mates , bond formation , the claiming and maintenance of territories , the identification of other individuals ( such as when parents look for chicks in colonies or when mates reunite at the start of breeding season ) , and the warning of other birds of potential predators , sometimes with specific information about the nature of the threat . Some birds also use mechanical sounds for auditory communication . The Coenocorypha snipes of New Zealand drive air through their feathers , woodpeckers drum territorially , and palm cockatoos use tools to drum .
= = = Flocking and other associations = = =
While some birds are essentially territorial or live in small family groups , other birds may form large flocks . The principal benefits of flocking are safety in numbers and increased foraging efficiency . Defence against predators is particularly important in closed habitats like forests , where ambush predation is common and multiple eyes can provide a valuable early warning system . This has led to the development of many mixed @-@ species feeding flocks , which are usually composed of small numbers of many species ; these flocks provide safety in numbers but increase potential competition for resources . Costs of flocking include bullying of socially subordinate birds by more dominant birds and the reduction of feeding efficiency in certain cases .
Birds sometimes also form associations with non @-@ avian species . Plunge @-@ diving seabirds associate with dolphins and tuna , which push shoaling fish towards the surface . Hornbills have a mutualistic relationship with dwarf mongooses , in which they forage together and warn each other of nearby birds of prey and other predators .
= = = Resting and roosting = = =
The high metabolic rates of birds during the active part of the day is supplemented by rest at other times . Sleeping birds often use a type of sleep known as vigilant sleep , where periods of rest are interspersed with quick eye @-@ opening " peeks " , allowing them to be sensitive to disturbances and enable rapid escape from threats . Swifts are believed to be able to sleep in flight and radar observations suggest that they orient themselves to face the wind in their roosting flight . It has been suggested that there may be certain kinds of sleep which are possible even when in flight . Some birds have also demonstrated the capacity to fall into slow @-@ wave sleep one hemisphere of the brain at a time . The birds tend to exercise this ability depending upon its position relative to the outside of the flock . This may allow the eye opposite the sleeping hemisphere to remain vigilant for predators by viewing the outer margins of the flock . This adaptation is also known from marine mammals . Communal roosting is common because it lowers the loss of body heat and decreases the risks associated with predators . Roosting sites are often chosen with regard to thermoregulation and safety .
Many sleeping birds bend their heads over their backs and tuck their bills in their back feathers , although others place their beaks among their breast feathers . Many birds rest on one leg , while some may pull up their legs into their feathers , especially in cold weather . Perching birds have a tendon locking mechanism that helps them hold on to the perch when they are asleep . Many ground birds , such as quails and pheasants , roost in trees . A few parrots of the genus Loriculus roost hanging upside down . Some hummingbirds go into a nightly state of torpor accompanied with a reduction of their metabolic rates . This physiological adaptation shows in nearly a hundred other species , including owlet @-@ nightjars , nightjars , and woodswallows . One species , the common poorwill , even enters a state of hibernation . Birds do not have sweat glands , but they may cool themselves by moving to shade , standing in water , panting , increasing their surface area , fluttering their throat or by using special behaviours like urohidrosis to cool themselves .
= = = Breeding = = =
= = = = Social systems = = = =
Ninety @-@ five percent of bird species are socially monogamous . These species pair for at least the length of the breeding season or — in some cases — for several years or until the death of one mate . Monogamy allows for both paternal care and biparental care , which is especially important for species in which females require males ' assistance for successful brood @-@ rearing . Among many socially monogamous species , extra @-@ pair copulation ( infidelity ) is common . Such behaviour typically occurs between dominant males and females paired with subordinate males , but may also be the result of forced copulation in ducks and other anatids . Female birds have sperm storage mechanisms that allow sperm from males to remain viable long after copulation , a hundred days in some species . Sperm from multiple males may compete through this mechanism . For females , possible benefits of extra @-@ pair copulation include getting better genes for her offspring and insuring against the possibility of infertility in her mate . Males of species that engage in extra @-@ pair copulations will closely guard their mates to ensure the parentage of the offspring that they raise .
Other mating systems , including polygyny , polyandry , polygamy , polygynandry , and promiscuity , also occur . Polygamous breeding systems arise when females are able to raise broods without the help of males . Some species may use more than one system depending on the circumstances .
Breeding usually involves some form of courtship display , typically performed by the male . Most displays are rather simple and involve some type of song . Some displays , however , are quite elaborate . Depending on the species , these may include wing or tail drumming , dancing , aerial flights , or communal lekking . Females are generally the ones that drive partner selection , although in the polyandrous phalaropes , this is reversed : plainer males choose brightly coloured females . Courtship feeding , billing and allopreening are commonly performed between partners , generally after the birds have paired and mated .
Homosexual behaviour has been observed in males or females in numerous species of birds , including copulation , pair @-@ bonding , and joint parenting of chicks .
= = = = Territories , nesting and incubation = = = =
Many birds actively defend a territory from others of the same species during the breeding season ; maintenance of territories protects the food source for their chicks . Species that are unable to defend feeding territories , such as seabirds and swifts , often breed in colonies instead ; this is thought to offer protection from predators . Colonial breeders defend small nesting sites , and competition between and within species for nesting sites can be intense .
All birds lay amniotic eggs with hard shells made mostly of calcium carbonate . Hole and burrow nesting species tend to lay white or pale eggs , while open nesters lay camouflaged eggs . There are many exceptions to this pattern , however ; the ground @-@ nesting nightjars have pale eggs , and camouflage is instead provided by their plumage . Species that are victims of brood parasites have varying egg colours to improve the chances of spotting a parasite 's egg , which forces female parasites to match their eggs to those of their hosts .
Bird eggs are usually laid in a nest . Most species create somewhat elaborate nests , which can be cups , domes
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, plates , beds scrapes , mounds , or burrows . Some bird nests , however , are extremely primitive ; albatross nests are no more than a scrape on the ground . Most birds build nests in sheltered , hidden areas to avoid predation , but large or colonial birds — which are more capable of defence — may build more open nests . During nest construction , some species seek out plant matter from plants with parasite @-@ reducing toxins to improve chick survival , and feathers are often used for nest insulation . Some bird species have no nests ; the cliff @-@ nesting common guillemot lays its eggs on bare rock , and male emperor penguins keep eggs between their body and feet . The absence of nests is especially prevalent in ground @-@ nesting species where the newly hatched young are precocial .
Incubation , which optimises temperature for chick development , usually begins after the last egg has been laid . In monogamous species incubation duties are often shared , whereas in polygamous species one parent is wholly responsible for incubation . Warmth from parents passes to the eggs through brood patches , areas of bare skin on the abdomen or breast of the incubating birds . Incubation can be an energetically demanding process ; adult albatrosses , for instance , lose as much as 83 grams ( 2 @.@ 9 oz ) of body weight per day of incubation . The warmth for the incubation of the eggs of megapodes comes from the sun , decaying vegetation or volcanic sources . Incubation periods range from 10 days ( in woodpeckers , cuckoos and passerine birds ) to over 80 days ( in albatrosses and kiwis ) .
The diversity of characteristics of birds is great , sometimes even in closely related species . Several avian characteristics are compared in the table below .
= = = = Parental care and fledging = = = =
At the time of their hatching , chicks range in development from helpless to independent , depending on their species . Helpless chicks are termed altricial , and tend to be born small , blind , immobile and naked ; chicks that are mobile and feathered upon hatching are termed precocial . Altricial chicks need help thermoregulating and must be brooded for longer than precocial chicks . Chicks at neither of these extremes can be semi @-@ precocial or semi @-@ altricial .
The length and nature of parental care varies widely amongst different orders and species . At one extreme , parental care in megapodes ends at hatching ; the newly hatched chick digs itself out of the nest mound without parental assistance and can fend for itself immediately . At the other extreme , many seabirds have extended periods of parental care , the longest being that of the great frigatebird , whose chicks take up to six months to fledge and are fed by the parents for up to an additional 14 months . The chick guard stage describes the period of breeding during which one of the adult birds is permanently present at the nest after chicks have hatched . The main purpose of the guard stage is to aid offspring to thermoregulate and protect them from predation .
In some species , both parents care for nestlings and fledglings ; in others , such care is the responsibility of only one sex . In some species , other members of the same species — usually close relatives of the breeding pair , such as offspring from previous broods — will help with the raising of the young . Such alloparenting is particularly common among the Corvida , which includes such birds as the true crows , Australian magpie and fairy @-@ wrens , but has been observed in species as different as the rifleman and red kite . Among most groups of animals , male parental care is rare . In birds , however , it is quite common — more so than in any other vertebrate class . Though territory and nest site defence , incubation , and chick feeding are often shared tasks , there is sometimes a division of labour in which one mate undertakes all or most of a particular duty .
The point at which chicks fledge varies dramatically . The chicks of the Synthliboramphus murrelets , like the ancient murrelet , leave the nest the night after they hatch , following their parents out to sea , where they are raised away from terrestrial predators . Some other species , such as ducks , move their chicks away from the nest at an early age . In most species , chicks leave the nest just before , or soon after , they are able to fly . The amount of parental care after fledging varies ; albatross chicks leave the nest on their own and receive no further help , while other species continue some supplementary feeding after fledging . Chicks may also follow their parents during their first migration .
= = = = Brood parasites = = = =
Brood parasitism , in which an egg @-@ layer leaves her eggs with another individual 's brood , is more common among birds than any other type of organism . After a parasitic bird lays her eggs in another bird 's nest , they are often accepted and raised by the host at the expense of the host 's own brood . Brood parasites may be either obligate brood parasites , which must lay their eggs in the nests of other species because they are incapable of raising their own young , or non @-@ obligate brood parasites , which sometimes lay eggs in the nests of conspecifics to increase their reproductive output even though they could have raised their own young . One hundred bird species , including honeyguides , icterids , and ducks , are obligate parasites , though the most famous are the cuckoos . Some brood parasites are adapted to hatch before their host 's young , which allows them to destroy the host 's eggs by pushing them out of the nest or to kill the host 's chicks ; this ensures that all food brought to the nest will be fed to the parasitic chicks .
= = = = Sexual selection = = = =
Birds have evolved a variety of mating behaviors , with the peacock tail being perhaps the most famous example of sexual selection and the Fisherian runaway . Commonly occurring sexual dimorphisms such as size and color differences are energetically costly attributes that signal competitive breeding situations . Many types of avian sexual selection have been identified ; intersexual selection , also known as female choice ; and intrasexual competition , where individuals of the more abundant sex compete with each other for the privilege to mate . Sexually selected traits often evolve to become more pronounced in competitive breeding situations until the trait begins to limit the individual ’ s fitness . Conflicts between an individual fitness and signaling adaptations ensure that sexually selected ornaments such as plumage coloration and courtship behavior are " honest " traits . Signals must be costly to ensure that only good @-@ quality individuals can present these exaggerated sexual ornaments and behaviors .
= = = = Inbreeding depression = = = =
Inbreeding causes early death ( inbreeding depression ) in the zebra finch Taeniopygia guttata . Embryo survival ( that is , hatching success of fertile eggs ) was significantly lower for sib @-@ sib mating pairs than for unrelated pairs .
Darwin ’ s finch Geospiza scandens experiences inbreeding depression ( reduced survival of offspring ) and the magnitude of this effect is influenced by environmental conditions such as low food availability .
= = = = Inbreeding avoidance = = = =
Incestuous matings by the purple @-@ crowned fairy wren Malurus coronatus result in severe fitness costs due to inbreeding depression ( greater than 30 % reduction in hatchability of eggs ) . Females paired with related males may undertake extra pair matings ( see Promiscuity # Other animals for 90 % frequency in avian species ) that can reduce the negative effects of inbreeding . However , there are ecological and demographic constraints on extra pair matings . Nevertheless , 43 % of broods produced by incestuously paired females contained extra pair young .
Inbreeding depression occurs in the great tit ( Parus major ) when the offspring produced as a result of a mating between close relatives show reduced fitness . In natural populations of Parus major , inbreeding is avoided by dispersal of individuals from their birthplace , which reduces the chance of mating with a close relative .
Southern pied babblers Turdoides bicolor appear to avoid inbreeding in two ways . The first is through dispersal , and the second is by avoiding familiar group members as mates . Although both males and females disperse locally , they move outside the range where genetically related individuals are likely to be encountered . Within their group , individuals only acquire breeding positions when the opposite @-@ sex breeder is unrelated .
Cooperative breeding in birds typically occurs when offspring , usually males , delay dispersal from their natal group in order to remain with the family to help rear younger kin . Female offspring rarely stay at home , dispersing over distances that allow them to breed independently , or to join unrelated groups . In general , inbreeding is avoided because it leads to a reduction in progeny fitness ( inbreeding depression ) due largely to the homozygous expression of deleterious recessive alleles . Cross @-@ fertilization between unrelated individuals ordinarily leads to the masking of deleterious recessive alleles in progeny .
= = Ecology = =
Birds occupy a wide range of ecological positions . While some birds are generalists , others are highly specialised in their habitat or food requirements . Even within a single habitat , such as a forest , the niches occupied by different species of birds vary , with some species feeding in the forest canopy , others beneath the canopy , and still others on the forest floor . Forest birds may be insectivores , frugivores , and nectarivores . Aquatic birds generally feed by fishing , plant eating , and piracy or kleptoparasitism . Birds of prey specialise in hunting mammals or other birds , while vultures are specialised scavengers . Avivores are animals that are specialized at preying on birds .
Some nectar @-@ feeding birds are important pollinators , and many frugivores play a key role in seed dispersal . Plants and pollinating birds often coevolve , and in some cases a flower 's primary pollinator is the only species capable of reaching its nectar .
Birds are often important to island ecology . Birds have frequently reached islands that mammals have not ; on those islands , birds may fulfill ecological roles typically played by larger animals . For example , in New Zealand the moas were important browsers , as are the kereru and kokako today . Today the plants of New Zealand retain the defensive adaptations evolved to protect them from the extinct moa . Nesting seabirds may also affect the ecology of islands and surrounding seas , principally through the concentration of large quantities of guano , which may enrich the local soil and the surrounding seas .
A wide variety of avian ecology field methods , including counts , nest monitoring , and capturing and marking , are used for researching avian ecology .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Since birds are highly visible and common animals , humans have had a relationship with them since the dawn of man . Sometimes , these relationships are mutualistic , like the cooperative honey @-@ gathering among honeyguides and African peoples such as the Borana . Other times , they may be commensal , as when species such as the house sparrow have benefited from human activities . Several bird species have become commercially significant agricultural pests , and some pose an aviation hazard . Human activities can also be detrimental , and have threatened numerous bird species with extinction ( hunting , avian lead poisoning , pesticides , roadkill , and predation by pet cats and dogs are common sources of death for birds ) .
Birds can act as vectors for spreading diseases such as psittacosis , salmonellosis , campylobacteriosis , mycobacteriosis ( avian tuberculosis ) , avian influenza ( bird flu ) , giardiasis , and cryptosporidiosis over long distances . Some of these are zoonotic diseases that can also be transmitted to humans .
= = = Economic importance = = =
Domesticated birds raised for meat and eggs , called poultry , are the largest source of animal protein eaten by humans ; in 2003 , 76 million tons of poultry and 61 million tons of eggs were produced worldwide . Chickens account for much of human poultry consumption , though domesticated turkeys , ducks , and geese are also relatively common . Many species of birds are also hunted for meat . Bird hunting is primarily a recreational activity except in extremely undeveloped areas . The most important birds hunted in North and South America are waterfowl ; other widely hunted birds include pheasants , wild turkeys , quail , doves , partridge , grouse , snipe , and woodcock . Muttonbirding is also popular in Australia and New Zealand . Though some hunting , such as that of muttonbirds , may be sustainable , hunting has led to the extinction or endangerment of dozens of species .
Other commercially valuable products from birds include feathers ( especially the down of geese and ducks ) , which are used as insulation in clothing and bedding , and seabird feces ( guano ) , which is a valuable source of phosphorus and nitrogen . The War of the Pacific , sometimes called the Guano War , was fought in part over the control of guano deposits .
Birds have been domesticated by humans both as pets and for practical purposes . Colourful birds , such as parrots and mynas , are bred in captivity or kept as pets , a practice that has led to the illegal trafficking of some endangered species . Falcons and cormorants have long been used for hunting and fishing , respectively . Messenger pigeons , used since at least 1 AD , remained important as recently as World War II . Today , such activities are more common either as hobbies , for entertainment and tourism , or for sports such as pigeon racing .
Amateur bird enthusiasts ( called birdwatchers , twitchers or , more commonly , birders ) number in the millions . Many homeowners erect bird feeders near their homes to attract various species . Bird feeding has grown into a multimillion @-@ dollar industry ; for example , an estimated 75 % of households in Britain provide food for birds at some point during the winter .
= = = In religion and mythology = = =
Birds play prominent and diverse roles in religion and mythology . In religion , birds may serve as either messengers or priests and leaders for a deity , such as in the Cult of Makemake , in which the Tangata manu of Easter Island served as chiefs or as attendants , as in the case of Hugin and Munin , the two common ravens who whispered news into the ears of the Norse god Odin . In several civilizations of ancient Italy , particularly Etruscan and Roman religion , priests were involved in augury , or interpreting the words of birds while the " auspex " ( from which the word " auspicious " is derived ) watched their activities to foretell events . They may also serve as religious symbols , as when Jonah ( Hebrew : יוֹנָה , dove ) embodied the fright , passivity , mourning , and beauty traditionally associated with doves . Birds have themselves been deified , as in the case of the common peacock , which is perceived as Mother Earth by the Dravidians of India . In religious images preserved from the Inca and Tiwanaku empires , birds are depicted in the process of transgressing boundaries between earthly and underground spiritual realms . Indigenous peoples of the central Andes maintain legends of birds passing to and from metaphysical worlds .
= = = In culture and folklore = = =
Birds have featured in culture and art since prehistoric times , when they were represented in early cave paintings . Some birds have been perceived as monsters , including the mythological Roc and the Māori 's legendary Pouākai , a giant bird capable of snatching humans . Birds were later used as symbols of power , as in the magnificent Peacock Throne of the Mughal and Persian emperors . With the advent of scientific interest in birds , many paintings of birds were commissioned for books . Among the most famous of these bird artists was John James Audubon , whose paintings of North American birds were a great commercial success in Europe and who later lent his name to the National Audubon Society . Birds are also important figures in poetry ; for example , Homer incorporated nightingales into his Odyssey , and Catullus used a sparrow as an erotic symbol in his Catullus 2 . The relationship between an albatross and a sailor is the central theme of Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner , which led to the use of the term as a metaphor for a ' burden ' . Other English metaphors derive from birds ; vulture funds and vulture investors , for instance , take their name from the scavenging vulture .
Perceptions of bird species vary across cultures . Owls are associated with bad luck , witchcraft , and death in parts of Africa , but are regarded as wise across much of Europe . Hoopoes were considered sacred in Ancient Egypt and symbols of virtue in Persia , but were thought of as thieves across much of Europe and harbingers of war in Scandinavia .
= = = In music = = =
In music , birdsong has influenced composers and musicians in several ways : they can be inspired by birdsong ; they can intentionally imitate bird song in a composition , as Vivaldi and Beethoven did , along with many later composers ; they can incorporate recordings of birds into their works , as Ottorino Respighi first did ; or like Beatrice Harrison and David Rothenberg , they can duet with birds .
= = = Conservation = = =
Though human activities have allowed the expansion of a few species , such as the barn swallow and European starling , they have caused population decreases or extinction in many other species . Over a hundred bird species have gone extinct in historical times , although the most dramatic human @-@ caused avian extinctions , eradicating an estimated 750 – 1800 species , occurred during the human colonisation of Melanesian , Polynesian , and Micronesian islands . Many bird populations are declining worldwide , with 1 @,@ 227 species listed as threatened by BirdLife International and the IUCN in 2009 .
The most commonly cited human threat to birds is habitat loss . Other threats include overhunting , accidental mortality due to structural collisions or long @-@ line fishing bycatch , pollution ( including oil spills and pesticide use ) , competition and predation from nonnative invasive species , and climate change .
Governments and conservation groups work to protect birds , either by passing laws that preserve and restore bird habitat or by establishing captive populations for reintroductions . Such projects have produced some successes ; one study estimated that conservation efforts saved 16 species of bird that would otherwise have gone extinct between 1994 and 2004 , including the California condor and Norfolk parakeet .
= Kepler @-@ 10b =
Kepler @-@ 10b is the first confirmed terrestrial planet to have been discovered outside the Solar System . Discovered after several months of data collection during the course of the NASA @-@ directed Kepler Mission , which aims to discover Earth @-@ like planets crossing in front of their host stars , the planet 's discovery was announced on January 10 , 2011 . Kepler @-@ 10b has a mass of 3 @.@ 33 ± 0 @.@ 49 Earth masses and a radius of 1 @.@ 4 Earth radii . However , it lies extremely close to its star , Kepler @-@ 10 , and as a result is too hot to support life . Its existence was confirmed using measurements from the W.M. Keck Observatory in Hawaii .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
Kepler @-@ 10 , the star that hosts Kepler @-@ 10b , is located 560 light @-@ years from our solar system in the Draco constellation . It is approximately the same size as the Sun , with an estimated age of 12 billion years . Planet Kepler @-@ 10b was the first planet to be discovered in the orbit of its star . For this , it was designated the star 's b planet . The star , in turn , was named for the Kepler Mission , a NASA @-@ led operation aimed at discovering terrestrial planets that transit , or cross in front of , their host stars with respect to Earth . The planet 's discovery was announced to the public on January 10 , 2011 .
The transit method of discovering exoplanets relies upon carefully monitoring the brightness of a star . If a planet is present and crosses the line of sight between Earth and the star , the star will dim at a regular interval by an amount that depends upon the radius of the transiting planet . In order to measure the mass of a planet , and rule out other phenomena that can mimic the presence of a planet transiting a star , candidate transiting planets are followed up with the radial velocity method of detecting extrasolar planets .
Kepler @-@ 10b 's discovery was based on eight months of data collected with the Kepler telescope from May 2009 to January 2010 . The planet 's first transits were observed in July 2009 . According to the collected data , Kepler @-@ 10 dimmed by one part in ten thousand every 0 @.@ 83 days . Kepler @-@ 10 was the first star in the field of view of the Kepler telescope identified as capable of harboring a small transiting planet , and was considered a high priority target for ground based radial velocity observations intended to confirm the mass of Kepler @-@ 10b . Radial velocity measurements with the Keck I telescope taken intermittently between August 2009 and August 2010 revealed a periodic Doppler shift in the spectrum of Kepler @-@ 10 consistent with a planet of the nature observed by Kepler , confirming the planet 's existence and allowing its mass to be determined . The planet 's discovery was announced to the public on January 10 , 2011 .
On January 13 , 2011 , 3 days after the planet 's discovery was announced , The Economist published an article suggesting “ Vulcan ” as an unofficial name for the planet , after both the hypothetical planet , and the Roman god of the same name .
In September 2011 , the detection of secondary transit and phases were announced . This allowed to determine the temperature and albedo of the planet . This is the first terrestrial exoplanet with observed phases . Detection of phases was possible due to extreme day / night side temperature variations and the amount of starlight the planet receives due to its proximity to the host star .
= = = Reaction = = =
Kepler @-@ 10b 's discovery excited astronomers , who hoped to use data about it to inquire into the formation and structure that terrestrial , Earth @-@ size planets tend to have in common . Geoff Marcy of the University of California at Berkeley said that the discovery was ranked “ as among the most profound scientific discoveries in human history , ” and that the planet “ will go into every textbook worldwide . ” Marcy also described Kepler @-@ 10b as " a bridge between the gas giant planets we ’ ve been finding and the Earth itself . " Diana Valencia at the University of Côte d 'Azur in Nice , France considered the planet more of a " super @-@ Mercury " than a super @-@ Earth , granted its physical characteristics .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 10b is most noted for its rocky surface . It has a diameter 1 @.@ 4 times that of the Earth , and a mass of 3 @.@ 33 ± 0 @.@ 49 times that of Earth . The density of Kepler @-@ 10b is 5 @.@ 8 ± 0 @.@ 8 g cm − 3 . It orbits its star , Kepler @-@ 10 , in less than a day , at less than a twentieth of the distance from Mercury to the Sun . Its surface temperature on the star lit side is approximately 1833 K , which is as hot as a blast furnace and hot enough to melt iron .
Though CoRoT @-@ 7b was discovered before Kepler @-@ 10b and has been claimed to be rocky , there is more room for other interpretations in the case of CoRoT @-@ 7b 's composition than there is for Kepler @-@ 10b . This is due to the much larger uncertainty in CoRoT @-@ 7b 's mass ( and , to a lesser extent , its radius ) which is illustrated in the plot to the left . Consequently , CoRoT @-@ 7b may be revealed to be a lava @-@ ocean planet , whereas Kepler @-@ 10b must be predominantly made of rock or iron . In addition to showing the range of masses and radii consistent with the observations of each planet , the plot includes curves of compositions implied by certain masses and radii .
Kepler @-@ 10b is tidally locked to its parent star and has extreme variations in temperature between day and night sides . It also reflects about half of the starlight it receives .
= Taxonomy of Narcissus =
The taxonomy of Narcissus is complex , and still not fully resolved . Known to the ancients , the genus name appears in Graeco @-@ Roman literature , although their interest was as much medicinal as botanical . It is unclear which species the ancients were familiar with . Although frequently mentioned in Mediaeval and Renaisance texts it was not formally described till the work of Linnaeus in 1753 . By 1789 it had been grouped into a family ( Narcissi ) but shortly thereafter this was renamed Amaryllideae , from which comes the modern placement within Amaryllidaceae , although for a while it was considered part of Liliaceae .
Many of the species now considered to be Narcissus were in separate genera during the nineteenth century , and the situation was further confused by the inclusion of many cultivated varieties . By 1875 the current circumscription was relatively settled . By 2004 phylogenetic studies had allowed the place of Narcissus within its fairly large family to be established , nested within a series of subfamilies ( Amaryllidoideae ) and tribes ( Narcisseae ) . It shares its position in the latter tribe with Sternbergia .
The infrageneric classification has been even more complex and many schemes of subgenera , sections , subsections and series have been proposed , although all had certain similarities . Most authorities now consider there to be 10 – 11 sections based on phylogenetic evidence . The problems have largely arisen from the diversity of the wild species , frequent natural hybridisation and extensive cultivation with escape and subsequent naturalisation . The number of species has varied anywhere from 16 to nearly 160 , but is probably around 50 – 60 .
The genus appeared some time in the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene eras , around 24 million years ago , in the Iberian peninsula . While the exact origin of the word Narcissus is unknown it is frequently linked to its fragrance which was thought to be narcotic , and to the legend of the youth of that name who fell in love with his reflection . In the English language the common name Daffodil appears to be derived from the Asphodel with which it was commonly compared .
= = History = =
Genus valde intricatum et numerosissimis dubiis oppressum
A genus that is very complex and burdened with numerous uncertainties
= = = Early = = =
Narcissus was first described by Theophrastus ( Θεόφραστος , c 371 - c 287 BC ) in his Historia Plantarum ( Greek : Περὶ φυτῶν ἱστορία ) as νάρκισσος , referring to N. poeticus , but comparing it to Asphodelus ( ασφοδελωδες ) . Theophrastus ' description was frequently referred to at length by later authors writing in Latin such as Pliny the Elder ( Gaius Plinius Secundus , 23 AD – 79 AD ) from whom came the Latin form narcissus ( see also Culture ) . Pliny 's account comes to us in his Natural History ( Latin : Naturalis Historia ) . Like his contemporaries , his interests were as much therapeutic as botanical . Another much cited Greek authority was Dioscorides ( Διοσκουρίδης , 40 AD – 90 AD ) in his De Materia Medica ( Greek : Περὶ ὕλης ἰατρικῆς ) . Both authors were to remain influential till at least the Renaisance , given that their descriptions went beyond the merely botanical , to the therapeutic ( see also Antiquity ) .
An early European reference is found in the work of Albert Magnus ( c . 1200 – 1280 ) , who noted in his De vegetabilibus et plantis the similarity to the leek . William Turner in his A New Herball ( 1551 ) cites all three extensively in his description of the plant and its properties . It was to remain to Linnaeus in 1753 to formally describe and name Narcissus as a genus in his Species Plantarum , at which time there were six known species ( N. poeticus , N. pseudonarcissus , N. bulbocodium , N. serotinus , N. jonqulla and N. tazetta ) . At that time , Linnaeus loosely grouped it together with 50 other genera into his Hexandria monogynia .
= = = Modern = = =
It was de Jussieu in 1789 who first formally created a ' family ' ( Narcissi ) , as the seventh ' Ordo ' ( Order ) of the third class ( Stamina epigyna ) of Monocots in which Narcissus and 15 other genera were placed . The use of the term Ordo at that time was closer to what we now understand as Family , rather than Order . The family has undergone much reorganisation since then , but in 1805 it was renamed after a different genus in the family , Amaryllis , as ' Amaryllideae ' by Jaume St.-Hilaire and has retained that association since . Jaume St.-Hilaire divided the family into two unnamed sections and recognised five species of Narcissus , omitting N. serotinus .
De Candolle brought together Linnaeus ' genera and Jussieau 's families into a systematic taxonomy for the first time , but included Narcissus ( together with Amaryllis ) in the Liliaceae in his Flore française ( 1805 @-@ 1815 ) rather than Amaryllidaceae , a family he had not yet recognised . Shortly thereafter he separated the ' Amaryllidées ' from ' Liliacées ' ( 1813 ) , though attributing the term to Brown 's ' Amaryllideae ' in the latter 's Prodromus ( 1810 ) rather than St.-Hilaire 's ' Amaryllidées ' . He also provided the text to the first four volumes of Redouté illustrations in the latter 's Les liliacées between 1805 and 1808 ( see illustration here of N. candidissimus ) .
Historically both wide and narrow interpretations of the genus have been proposed . In the nineteenth century genus splitting was common , favouring the narrow view . Haworth ( 1831 ) using a narrow view treated many species as separate genera , as did Salisbury ( 1866 ) . These authors listed various species in related genera such as Queltia ( hybrids ) , Ajax ( = Pseudonarcissus ) and Hermione ( = Tazettae ) , sixteen in all in Haworth 's classification . In contrast , Herbert ( 1837 ) took a very wide view reducing Harworth 's sixteen genera to six . Herbert , treating the Amaryllidacea as an ' order ' as was common then , considered the narcissi to be a suborder , the Narcisseae , the six genera being Corbularia , Ajax , Ganymedes , Queltia , Narcissus and Hermione and his relatively narrow circumscription of Narcissus having only three species . Later Spach ( 1846 ) took an even wider view bringing most of Harworth 's genera into the genus Narcissus , but as separate subgenera . By the time that Baker ( 1875 ) wrote his monograph all of the genera with one exception were included as Narcissus . The exception was the monotypic group Tapeinanthus which various subsequent authors have chosen to either exclude ( e.g. Cullen 1986 ) or include ( e.g. Webb 1978 , 1980 ) . Today it is nearly always included .
The eventual position of Narcissus within the Amaryllidaceae family only became settled in the twenty @-@ first century with the advent of phylogenetic analysis and the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group system . The genus Narcissus belongs to the Narcisseae tribe , one of 13 within the Amaryllidoideae subfamily of the Amaryllidaceae . It is one of two sister clades corresponding to genera in the Narcisseae , being distinguished from Sternbergia by the presence of a paraperigonium , and is monophyletic .
= = Subdivision = =
The infrageneric phylogeny of Narcissus still remains relatively unsettled . The taxonomy has proved very complex and difficult to resolve , particularly for the Pseudonarcissus group . This is due to a number of factors , including the diversity of the wild species , the ease with which natural hybridisation occurs , and extensive cultivation and breeding accompanied by escape and naturalisation .
De Candolle , in the first systematic taxonomy of Narcissus , arranged the species into named groups , and those names ( Faux @-@ Narcisse or Pseudonarcissus , Poétiques , Tazettes , Bulbocodiens , Jonquilles ) have largely endured for the various subdivisions since and bear his name . The evolution of classification was confused by including many unknown or garden varieties , until Baker ( 1875 ) made the important distinction of excluding all specimens except the wild species from his system . He then grouped all of the earlier related genera as sections under one genus , Narcissus , the exception being the monotypic Tapeinanthus . Consequently , the number of accepted species has varied widely .
A common modern classification system has been that of Fernandes ( 1951 , 1968 , 1975 ) based on cytology , as modified by Blanchard ( 1990 ) and Mathew ( 2002 ) , although in some countries such as Germany , the system of Meyer ( 1966 ) was preferred . Fernandes described two subgenera based on basal chromosome number , Hermione , n
= 5 ( 11 ) and Narcissus , n =
7 ( 13 ) . He further subdivided these into ten sections ( Apodanthi , Aurelia , Bulbocodii , Ganymedes , Jonquillae , Narcissus , Pseudonarcissi , Serotini , Tapeinanthus , Tazettae ) , as did Blanchard later .
In contrast to Fernandes , Webb 's treatment of the genus for the Flora Europaea ( 1978 , 1980 ) prioritised morphology over genetics , and abandoned the subgenera ranks . He also restored De Candolle 's original nomenclature , and made a number of changes to section Jonquilla , merging the existing subsections , reducing Apodanthi to a subsection of Jonquilla , and moving N. viridiflorus from Jonquilla to a new monotypic section of its own ( Chloranthi ) . Finally , he divided Pseudonarcissus into two subsections . Blanchard ( 1990 ) , whose Narcissus : a guide to wild daffodils has been very influential , adopted a simple approach , restoring Apodanthae , and based largely on ten sections alone .
The Royal Horticultural Society ( RHS ) currently lists ten sections , based on Fernandes ( 1968 ) , three of which are monotypic ( contain only one species ) , while two others only containing two species . Most species are placed in Pseudonarcissus While infrageneric groupings within Narcissus have been relatively constant , their status ( genera , subgenera , sections , subsections , series , species ) has not . Some authors treat some sections as being further subdivided into subsections , e.g. Tazettae ( 3 subsections ) . These subdivisions correspond roughly to the popular names for narcissi types , e.g. Trumpet Daffodils , Tazettas , Pheasant 's Eyes , Hoop Petticoats , Jonquils .
While Webb had simply divided the genus into sections , Mathew found this unsatisfactory , implying every section had equal status . He adapted both Fernandes and Webb to devise a more hierarchical scheme he believed better reflected the interrelatinships within the genus . Mathew 's scheme consists of three subgenera ( Narcissus , Hermione and Corbularia ) . The first two subgenera were then divided into five and two sections respectively . He then further subdivided two of the sections ( subgenus Narcissus section Jonqullae , and subgenus Hermione section Hermione ) into three subsections each . Finally , he divided section Hermione subsection Hermione further into two series , Hermione and Albiflorae . While lacking a phylogenetic basis , the system is still in use in horticulture . For instance the Pacific Bulb Society uses his numbering system ( see Table II ) for classifying species .
= = = Phylogenetics = = =
The phylogenetic analysis of Graham and Barrett ( 2004 ) supported the infrageneric division of Narcissus into two clades corresponding to the subgenera Hermione and Narcissus , but does not support monophyly of all sections , with only Apodanthi demonstrating clear monophyly , corresponding to Clade III of Graham and Barrett ( see Cladogram ) , although some other clades corresponded approximately to known sections . These authors examined 36 taxa of the 65 listed then , and a later extended analysis by Rønsted et al . ( 2008 ) with five additional taxa confirmed this pattern .
A very large ( 375 accessions ) molecular analysis by Zonneveld ( 2008 ) utilising nuclear DNA content sought to reduce some of the paraphyly identified by Graham and Barrett . This led to a revision of the sectional structure , shifting some species between sections , eliminating one section and creating two new ones . In subgenus Hermione , Aurelia was merged with Tazettae . In subgenus Narcissus section Jonquillae subsection Juncifolii was elevated to sectional rank , thus resolving the paraphyly in this section observed by Graham and Barrett in Clade II due to this anomalous subsection , the remaining species being in subsection Jonquillae , which was monophyletic . The relatively large section Pseudonarcissi was divided by splitting off a new section , Nevadensis ( species from southern Spain ) leaving species from France , northern Spain and Portugal in the parent section . At the same time Fernández @-@ Casas ( 2008 ) proposed a new monotypic section Angustini to accommodate Narcissus deficiens , placing it within subgenus Hermione .
While Graham and Barrett ( 2004 ) had determined that subgenus Hermione was monophyletic , using a much larger accession Santos @-@ Gally et al . ( 2011 ) did not . However the former had excluded species of hybrid origins , while the latter included both N. dubius and N. tortifolius . If these two species are excluded ( forming a clade with subgenus Narcissus ) then Hermione can be considered monophyletic , although as a section of Hermione , Tazettae is not monophyletic . They also confirmed the monophyly of Apodanthi .
Some so @-@ called nothosections have been proposed , predominantly by Fernández @-@ Casas , to accommodate natural ( ' ancient ' ) hybrids ( nothospecies ) .
= = = Subgenera and sections = = =
Showing revisions by Zonnefeld ( 2008 )
subgenus Hermione ( Haw . ) Spach .
( Aurelia ( Gay ) Baker ( monotypic ) - merged with Tazettae ( 2008 )
Serotini Parlatore ( 2 species )
Tazettae de Candolle ( 16 species ) syn . Hermione ( Salisbury ) Sprengel , in Fernandes ' scheme . Incorporating Aurelia ( 2008 )
subgenus Narcissus L.
Apodanthi A. Fernandes ( 6 species )
Bulbocodium de Candolle ( 11 species )
Ganymedes ( Haworth ) Schultes f . ( monotypic )
Jonquillae de Candolle ( 8 species )
Juncifolii ( A. Fern . ) Zonn. sect. nov . ( 2008 )
Narcissus L. ( 2 species )
Nevadensis Zonn. sect. nov . ( 2008 )
Pseudonarcissus de Candolle ( 36 species ) Trumpet daffodils
Tapeinanthus ( Herbert ) Traub ( monotypic )
= = = Species = = =
Estimates of the number of species in Narcissus have varied widely , from anywhere between 16 to nearly 160 , even in the modern era . Linnaeus originally included six species in 1753 . By the time of the 14th edition of the Systema Naturae in 1784 , there were fourteen . The 1819 Encyclopaedia Londinensis lists sixteen ( see illustration here of three species ) and by 1831 Adrian Haworth had described 150 species .
Much of the variation lies in the definition of species , and whether closely related taxa are considered separate species or subspecies . Thus , a very wide view of each species , such as Webb 's results in few species , while a very narrow view such as that of Fernandes results in a larger number . Another factor is the status of hybrids , given natural hybridisation , with a distinction between ' ancient hybrids ' and ' recent hybrids ' . The term ' ancient hybrid ' refers to hybrids found growing over a large area , and therefore now considered as separate species , while ' recent hybrid ' refers to solitary plants found amongst their parents , with a more restricted range .
In the twentieth century Fernandes ( 1951 ) accepted 22 species , on which were based the 27 species listed by Webb in the 1980 Flora Europaea . By 1968 , Fernandes had accepted 63 species , and by 1990 Blanchard listed 65 species , and Erhardt 66 in 1993 . In 2006 the Royal Horticultural Society 's ( RHS ) International Daffodil Register and Classified List listed 87 species , while Zonneveld 's genetic study ( 2008 ) resulted in only 36 . As of September 2014 , the World Checklist of Selected Plant Families accepts 52 species , along with at least 60 hybrids , while the RHS has 81 accepted names in its October 2014 list .
= = Evolution = =
Within the Narcisseae , Narcissus ( western Mediterranean ) diverged from Sternbergia ( Eurasia ) some time in the Late Oligocene to Early Miocene eras , around 29 @.@ 3 – 18 @.@ 1 Ma , with a best estimate of 23 @.@ 6 Ma . Later the genus divided into the two subgenera ( Hermione and Narcissus ) between 27 @.@ 4 – 16 @.@ 1 Ma ( 21 @.@ 4 Ma ) . The divisions between the sections of Hermione then took place during the Miocene period 19 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 8 Ma .
Narcissus appears to have arisen in the area of the Iberian peninsula , southern France and north @-@ western Italy , and within this area most sections of the genus appeared , with only a few taxa being dispersed to North Africa at a time when the African and West European platforms were closer together . Subgenus Hermione in turn arose in the southwestern mediterranean and north west Africa . However , these are reconstructions , the Amaryllidaceae lacking a fossil record .
= = Etymology = =
= = = Narcissus = = =
The derivation of the Latin narcissus ( Greek : νάρκισσος ) is unknown . It may be a loanword from another language , for instance it is said to be related to the Sanskrit word nark , meaning ' hell ' . It is frequently linked to the Greek myth of Narcissus described by Ovid in his Metamorphoses , who became so obsessed with his own reflection that as he knelt and gazed into a pool of water , he fell into the water and drowned . In some variations , he died of starvation and thirst . In both versions , the narcissus plant sprang from where he died . Although Ovid appeared to describe the plant we now know as Narcissus there is no evidence for this popular derivation , and the person 's name may have come from the flower 's name . The Poet 's Narcissus ( N. poeticus ) , which grows in Greece , has a fragrance that has been described as intoxicating . Again , this explanation lacks any real proof and is largely discredited . Pliny wrote that the plant ‘ narce narcissum dictum , non a fabuloso puero ’ ( named narcissus from narce , not from the legendary youth ) , i.e. that it was named for its narcotic properties ( ναρκάω narkao , " I grow numb " in Greek ) , not from the legend . Furthermore , there were accounts of narcissi growing , such as in the legend of Persephone , long before the story of Narcissus appeared ( see Greek culture ) . It has also been suggested that daffodils bending over streams evoked the image of the youth admiring his own reflection in the water .
Linnaeus used the Latin name for the plant in formally describing the genus , although Matthias de l 'Obel had previously used the name in describing various species of Narcissi in his Icones stirpium of 1591 , and other publications , as had Clusius in Rariorum stirpium ( 1576 ) .
The plural form of the common name narcissus has caused some confusion . British English sources such as the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary give two alternate forms , narcissi and narcissuses . In contrast , in American English the Merriam @-@ Webster Dictionary provides for a third form , narcissus , used for both singular and plural . The Oxford dictionaries only list this third form under American English , although the Cambridge Dictionary allows of all three in the same order . However , Garner 's Modern American Usage states that narcissi is the commonest form , narcissus being excessively sibilant . For similar reasons , Fowler prefers narcissi in British English usage . Neither support narcissus as a plural form . Common names such as narcissus do not capitalise the first letter in contrast to the person of that name and the Latin genus name .
The name Narcissus ( feminine Narcissa ) was not uncommon in Roman times , such as Tiberius Claudius Narcissus , a Roman official in Claudius ' time , an early New Testament Christian in Rome and later bishops and saints .
= = = Daffodil = = =
The word daffodil was unknown in the English language before the sixteenth century . The name is derived from an earlier affodell , a variant of asphodel . In classical Greek literature the narcissus is frequently , referred to as the asphodel , such as the meadows of the Elysian fields in Homer ( see Antiquity ) . Asphodel in turn appears to be a loanword coming from French via Mediaeval Latin affodilus from Classical Latin asphodilus and ultimately the Greek asphodelos ( Greek : ἀσφόδελος ) . The reason for the introduction of the initial d is not known , although a probable source is an etymological merging from the Dutch article de , as in de affodil , or English the , as th 'affodil or t 'affodil , hence daffodil , and in French de and affodil to form fleur d 'aphrodille and daphrodille .
From at least the 16th century , daffadown dilly and daffydowndilly have appeared as playful synonyms of the name . In common parlance and in historical documents , the term daffodil may refer specifically to populations or specimens of the wild daffodil , N. pseudonarcissus . Ellacombe suggests this may be from Saffon Lilly , citing Prior in support , though admittedly conjectural .
Lady Wilkinson ( 1858 ) , who provides an extensive discussion of the etymology of the various names for this plant , suggests a very different origin , namely the Old English word affodyle ( that which cometh early ) , citing a 14th @-@ century ( but likely originally much earlier ) manuscript in support of this theory , and which appears to describe a plant resembling the daffodil . Ellacombe provides further support for this from a fifteenth century English translation of Palladius that also refers to it .
= = = Jonquil = = =
The name jonquil is said to be a corruption via French from the Latin juncifolius meaning rush @-@ leaf ( Juncaceae ) and its use is generally restricted to those species and cultivars which have rush like leaves , e.g. N. juncifolius .
= = = Other = = =
A profusion of names have attached themselves in the English language , either to the genus as a whole or to individual species or groups of species such as sections . These include narcissus , jonquil , Lent lily , Lenten lily , lide lily , yellow lily , wort or wyrt , Julians , glens , Lent cocks , corn flower , bell rose , asphodel , Solomon 's lily , gracy day , haverdrils , giggary , cowslip , and crow foot .
= John Francis Jackson =
John Francis Jackson , DFC ( 23 February 1908 – 28 April 1942 ) was an Australian fighter ace and squadron commander of World War II . He was credited with eight aerial victories , and led No. 75 Squadron during the Battle of Port Moresby in 1942 . Born in Brisbane , he was a grazier and businessman , who also operated his own private plane , when he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) Reserve in 1936 . Called up for active service following the outbreak of war in 1939 , Jackson served with No. 23 Squadron in Australia before he was posted to the Middle East in November 1940 . As a fighter pilot with No. 3 Squadron he flew Gloster Gladiators , Hawker Hurricanes and P @-@ 40 Tomahawks during the North African and Syria – Lebanon campaigns .
Jackson was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross and Mentioned in Despatches for his actions in the Middle East . Subsequently posted to the South West Pacific theatre , he was promoted to squadron leader in March 1942 and given command of No. 75 Squadron at Port Moresby in Papua , operating P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks . Described as " rugged , simple " and " true as steel " , Jackson was nicknamed " Old John " in affectionate tribute to his thirty @-@ four years . He earned praise for his leadership during the defence of Port Moresby before his death in combat on 28 April . His younger brother Les took over No. 75 Squadron , and also became a fighter ace . Jacksons International Airport , Port Moresby , is named in John Jackson 's honour .
= = Early career = =
John Jackson was born on 23 February 1908 in the Brisbane suburb of New Farm , Queensland , the eldest son of businessman William Jackson and his wife Edith . Educated at Brisbane Grammar School and The Scots College , Warwick , Jackson joined the Young Australia League , with which he visited Europe . After leaving school he ran a grazing property in St George . By the early 1930s , he was in business as a stock and station agent , and had interests in engineering and financial concerns . He was inspired by the 1934 London to Melbourne Air Race to take up flying , and purchased a Klemm Swallow monoplane . In 1936 , he took part in the South Australian centenary air race , flying from Brisbane to Adelaide . That August , he joined the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) Reserve , or Citizen Air Force . In 1937 , he upgraded his aircraft to a Beechcraft Staggerwing , a type that was faster than many in the RAAF 's inventory .
On 17 February 1938 , Jackson married Elisabeth Thompson at Christ Church , North Adelaide ; the couple had a son and a daughter . Following the outbreak of World War II , Jackson was called up for active duty and commissioned as a pilot officer in the RAAF on 2 October 1939 . His twenty @-@ year @-@ old brother Arthur , also a pilot and keen to join the Air Force , was killed in a flying accident later that month . Two other brothers , Edward and Leslie , joined the RAAF in November . John Jackson served initially with No. 23 Squadron , which operated CAC Wirraways at Archerfield , Queensland . He was promoted to flying officer in April 1940 . That October , he was posted to join No. 3 ( Army Cooperation ) Squadron , which had been based in Egypt since August . He arrived in the Middle East in November 1940 .
= = Combat service = =
= = = Middle East = = =
Jackson first saw action with No. 3 Squadron in the North African campaign at the controls of a Gloster Gladiator . Soon after he arrived , he had an accident taking off that finished with the biplane on its nose . Though he considered himself a " full @-@ blown operational pilot " , his experience in air @-@ to @-@ air gunnery was " practically nil " , and he essentially learned the skills of being a fighter pilot as he went along . Once the unit had converted to Hawker Hurricanes , he began to score victories in quick succession . He shot down three Junkers Ju 87s in a single sortie near Mersa Matruh on 18 February 1941 , the same action in which Gordon Steege claimed three .
On 5 April 1941 , Jackson fired several bursts at a Ju 87 before his guns jammed ; he then made two dummy attacks and forced the German plane to crash land in a wadi , thus claiming his fourth victory . After converting
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Long
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wikitext-103-excerpt
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. A set of orthonormal wave functions is complete in the space of square @-@ integrable functions if any wave function ψ can be expressed as a combination of the φn :
<formula>
with <formula> . Complete orthonormal systems of wave functions appear naturally as the eigenfunctions of the Hamiltonian ( of a bound system ) in quantum mechanics that measures the energy levels , which are called the eigenvalues . The set of eigenvalues , in this case , is known as the spectrum of the Hamiltonian . In bra – ket notation , as above , this equality implies the resolution of the identity :
<formula>
Here the eigenvalues are assumed to be discrete , but the set of eigenvalues of an observable may be continuous rather than discrete . An example is the position observable , Qψ ( x ) = xψ ( x ) . The spectrum of the position ( in one dimension ) is the entire real line , and is called a continuous spectrum . However , unlike the Hamiltonian , the position operator lacks proper eigenfunctions . The conventional way to overcome this shortcoming is to widen the class of available functions by allowing distributions as well : that is , to replace the Hilbert space of quantum mechanics by an appropriate rigged Hilbert space . In this context , the position operator has a complete set of eigen @-@ distributions , labeled by the points y of the real line , given by
<formula>
The eigenfunctions of position are denoted by <formula> in Dirac notation , and are known as position eigenstates .
Similar considerations apply to the eigenstates of the momentum operator , or indeed any other self @-@ adjoint unbounded operator P on the Hilbert space , provided the spectrum of P is continuous and there are no degenerate eigenvalues . In that case , there is a set Ω of real numbers ( the spectrum ) , and a collection φy of distributions indexed by the elements of Ω , such that
<formula>
That is , φy are the eigenvectors of P. If the eigenvectors are normalized so that
<formula>
in the distribution sense , then for any test function ψ ,
<formula>
where
<formula>
That is , as in the discrete case , there is a resolution of the identity
<formula>
where the operator @-@ valued integral is again understood in the weak sense . If the spectrum of P has both continuous and discrete parts , then the resolution of the identity involves a summation over the discrete spectrum and an integral over the continuous spectrum .
The delta function also has many more specialized applications in quantum mechanics , such as the delta potential models for a single and double potential well .
= = = Structural mechanics = = =
The delta function can be used in structural mechanics to describe transient loads or point loads acting on structures . The governing equation of a simple mass – spring system excited by a sudden force impulse I at time t
= 0 can be written
<formula>
where m is the mass , ξ the deflection and k the spring constant .
As another example , the equation governing the static deflection of a slender beam is , according to Euler – Bernoulli theory ,
<formula>
where EI is the bending stiffness of the beam , w the deflection , x the spatial coordinate and q ( x ) the load distribution . If a beam is loaded by a point force F at x =
x0 , the load distribution is written
<formula>
As integration of the delta function results in the Heaviside step function , it follows that the static deflection of a slender beam subject to multiple point loads is described by a set of piecewise polynomials .
Also a point moment acting on a beam can be described by delta functions . Consider two opposing point forces F at a distance d apart . They then produce a moment M
= Fd acting on the beam . Now , let the distance d approach the limit zero , while M is kept constant . The load distribution , assuming a clockwise moment acting at x =
0 , is written
<formula>
Point moments can thus be represented by the derivative of the delta function . Integration of the beam equation again results in piecewise polynomial deflection .
= K @-@ 360 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 360 is a state highway in Cowley County the U.S. state of Kansas . It follows a route around the south and east sides of Winfield . The highway was established in 1997 . It starts at US @-@ 77 south of Winfield and proceeds east and north for 3 @.@ 469 miles ( 5 @.@ 583 km ) , ending at US @-@ 160 east of Winfield . K @-@ 360 is not a part of the United States National Highway System . The highway has annual average daily traffic values ranging from 2235 to 1179 .
= = History = =
K @-@ 360 first appeared on the State of Kansas highway maps in 1997 . The routing of K @-@ 360 has remained unchanged .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 360 starts at an intersection with U.S. Route 77 just south of the city of Winfield , Kansas . From there , the highway heads east , curves slightly south , then heads northeast along the south side of Winfield for a total of 1 @.@ 571 miles ( 2 @.@ 528 km ) to an intersection with Wheat Road . After the intersection with Wheat Road the highway curves gently due east and then due north around the southeast side of Winfield , then continues north along the east side of Winfield a further 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) to its terminus with U.S. Route 160 .
K @-@ 360 is not a part of the United States National Highway System . The highway connects to the National Highway System at its intersection with U.S. Route 77 . The western sections of the highway are more traveled than the eastern sections , with an annual average daily traffic of 2235 on the first one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of the route , 1703 on the next one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , and 1179 on the final 1 @.@ 469 miles ( 2 @.@ 364 km ) of the route . The entirety of K @-@ 360 's route is paved with Portland cement concrete pavement .
= = Major intersections = =
= Becoming Jane =
Becoming Jane is a 2007 British @-@ Irish biographical romantic drama film directed by Julian Jarrold . It depicts the early life of the English author Jane Austen and her lasting love for Thomas Langlois Lefroy . American actress Anne Hathaway stars as the title character , while her romantic interest is played by Scottish actor James McAvoy . Also appearing in the film are Julie Walters , James Cromwell and Maggie Smith . The film was produced in cooperation with several companies , including Ecosse Films and Blueprint Pictures . It also received funding from the Irish Film Board and the UK Film Council Premiere Fund .
The film is partly based on the 2003 book Becoming Jane Austen by Jon Hunter Spence , who was also hired as historical consultant . The final screenplay , developed by Sarah Williams and Kevin Hood , pieced together some known facts about Austen into a coherent story , in what co @-@ producer Graham Broadbent called " our own Austenesque landscape . " According to Hood , he attempted to weave together " what we know about Austen 's world from her books and letters , " and believed Austen 's personal life was the inspiration for Pride and Prejudice . Jarrold began production of the film in early 2006 , opting to shoot primarily in Ireland as he found it had better @-@ preserved locations than Hampshire , England , where Austen was raised .
Released firstly in the United Kingdom on 9 March 2007 and in other countries later in the year , Becoming Jane earned approximately $ 37 million worldwide . The film received mixed reviews from critics . Hathaway 's performance received mixed critical reception , with some reviewers negatively focusing on her nationality and accent . Commentators and scholars have analysed the presence of Austen characters and themes within the film , and also noted the implementation of mass marketing in the film 's release .
= = Plot = =
Jane Austen is the younger daughter of Reverend George Austen and his wife and has yet to find a suitable husband . She aspires to be a writer , to the dismay of her mother and proud delight of her father .
Thomas Lefroy is a promising lawyer with a bad reputation , which he describes as " typical " for people in the profession . Tom makes a terrible first impression upon meeting Jane , when he nearly falls asleep while she gives a reading of her work for the company . Overhearing his subsequent criticism , Jane cannot stand the arrogant Irishman . Meanwhile , she turns down the affections of other men , including Mr. Wisley , the nephew and heir of the wealthy Lady Gresham . Wisley proposes but Jane ultimately rejects him due to lack of affection . The mischievous Tom encounters Jane again ; they argue but increasingly take interest in each other and Tom demonstrates that he takes Jane 's literary aspirations seriously . In time they fall in love .
Tom , Jane , her brother Henry and Jane 's rich widowed cousin , Eliza , Comtesse de Feullide , conspire to receive an invitation from Tom 's uncle and benefactor , the Lord Chief Judge Langlois of London , for the rich " Madame La Comtesse " and her friends . This visit is meant to be a short break in their journey to see Jane 's brother , Edward . This would allow Judge Langlois to get to know Jane before and give a blessing for their marriage . Full of hope , Jane cannot sleep during the night at the Judge 's place . In a flow of inspiration , she then begins the writing of First Impressions , the manuscript that will become Pride and Prejudice .
However , Judge Langlois receives a letter informing him of the genteel poverty of Jane 's family and he refuses to give Tom his blessing , declaring that he would wish Tom to be the whoremonger he had been rather than allow him to live in poverty because of a bad marriage . Tom tells Jane that he cannot marry her and she is crushed , not knowing that Tom has a legitimate reason ; his family depends on him financially .
Jane returns home and soon learns that Tom has become engaged to someone else at the arrangement of his family . Jane accepts the marriage proposal of Mr. Wisley , whom she had earlier declined . Later , Tom realises he cannot live without Jane , and returns , asking Jane to run away with him , for " what value will there be in life , if we are not together ? " Jane agrees , and they leave , with only Jane 's sister Cassandra knowing they plan to marry in secret .
On the way , Jane stumbles upon a letter from Tom 's mother , and realises his situation : he sends money he receives from his uncle back to his parents and siblings , and his family cannot survive without it . She tells Tom that they cannot elope , not with so many people depending upon him . He insists that he and Jane must marry and tells her he will earn money , but Jane tells him that it will not be enough ; he will never be able to make enough money to support his dependents with a High Court judge ( his uncle ) as an enemy and with a penniless wife . Distraught , Tom asks her if she loves him , and she replies , " Yes , but if our love destroys your family , then it will destroy itself , in a long , slow degradation of guilt and regret and blame . " As she leaves , Jane catches a last glimpse of Tom through the carriage window as he briefly follows , the horses outpacing him .
Twenty years later , Jane , now a successful author and by choice unmarried , sees Tom during a gathering . Henry , now married to Eliza , brings Tom to her . Tom introduces his eldest daughter , who admires Jane 's novels . As she asks Jane to read aloud , he remonstrates her by her name , also Jane . Astonished that he named his eldest after her , Jane agrees to read . The last scene shows Tom 's daughter sitting by Jane as she reads aloud from Pride and Prejudice , while Tom watches Jane affectionately . As she concludes , their eyes meet , and Tom joins the rest of the company in honouring Jane and her work with applause .
= = Cast = =
Anne Hathaway as Jane Austen
James McAvoy as Thomas " Tom " Lefroy
Julie Walters as Mrs Austen
James Cromwell as Reverend George Austen
Maggie Smith as Lady Gresham
Lucy Cohu as Eliza , Comtesse de Feullide
Laurence Fox as Mr. Wisley
Joe Anderson as Henry Austen
Ian Richardson as Lord Chief Judge Langlois of London
Sophie Vavassuer as Jane Lefroy
Anna Maxwell Martin as Cassandra Austen
Leo Bill as John Warren
Jessica Ashworth as Lucy Lefroy
Eleanor Methven as Mrs Lefroy
Helen McCrory as Mrs Radcliffe
Tom Vaughan @-@ Lawlor as Robert Fowle
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and adaptation = = =
In 2004 , screenwriter Sarah Williams approached Douglas Rae and Robert Bernstein of Ecosse Films with the intention of creating a film about the life of Jane Austen , a popular eighteenth century English novelist . Williams had recently read Becoming Jane Austen , a 2003 biography that largely pieced together several known facts , such as Austen 's meeting Tom Lefroy on Christmas 1795 , into a coherent story about unrequited love . Bernstein agreed to adapt the work , believing that it depicted " a pivotal relationship in Jane Austen 's early life that was largely unknown to the public . " The book 's author , Jon Hunter Spence , was hired as a historical consultant on the film , with the task of " see [ ing ] that , given that the ' story ' is a work of imagination , the factual material was as accurate as possible within the limitations of the story . "
After Williams completed several drafts of the screenplay , the company hired Kevin Hood to aid in further script development . Bernstein believed that Hood 's past work contained " a romantic sensibility ... There is a poetic quality about his writing as well as there being a rigorous emotional truth which I thought was important for Jane . " Hood was attracted to the film because he believed " the story is such an important one and very much the inspiration for Pride and Prejudice . " Calling Austen a " genius " and " one of the top two or three prose writers of all time " , Hood thought that her relationship with Lefroy " was absolutely essential in shaping her work . " Hood acknowledged however that Becoming Jane is " based on the facts as they are known and the majority of characters did exist , as did many of the situations and circumstances in the film . Some have been fictionalised , weaving together what we know about Austen 's world from her books and letters , creating a rich Austenite landscape . "
Julian Jarrold became attached to direct the film in early 2005 . It was his second feature film , after Kinky Boots , which was released later that year . According to Bernstein , he " liked [ Jarrold 's ] style as it was modern and visceral , and I just had a feeling that he was the right choice . This piece needed to be handed with delicacy but also with a certain amount of brio and Julian was able to bring those two things to the production . " The director began work on the project in early 2006 , rereading the novels Pride and Prejudice , Sense and Sensibility , and Persuasion and also reviewing Austen biographies such as Spence 's book . Jarrold depended most heavily on the script , calling it " a rich , witty and clever screenplay from someone who obviously knew his subject very well . It is a love story but much more besides . Kevin 's screenplay has so many layers and interesting ideas . Apart from the love story I was very attracted by the themes of imagination and experience . " The director intended to " bring Austen up to date by roughening her up a bit " and adding " more life and energy and fun , " opining that past Austen adaptations had been " a little bit picture @-@ postcard and safe and sweet and nice . "
= = = Casting = = =
Jarrold sought to make Becoming Jane " look and feel " realistic " so everything is not lit in a very glamorous Hollywood way . " According to him , " One of the key ideas in the film was to get away from the old , stuffy costume drama kind of feel of what Jane Austen is and to look at somebody before she becomes a genius , when she is in her early twenties and on the verge of writing her great thing ; she had a real exuberance for life , intelligent and independent and a sort of outsider in rural Hampshire , more intelligent than the people around her and kicking against all those pressures . " To further set his film apart from other costume dramas , American actress Anne Hathaway was cast as the title character . A fan of Jane Austen since she was fourteen , Hathaway immediately began rereading Austen 's books , conducting historical research including perusing the author 's letters , and also learned sign language , calligraphy , dance choreography , and playing the piano . She moved to England a month before production began to improve her English accent , and attempted to stay in character throughout filming , the first time she had done so for a movie .
There were concerns in some quarters that the American Hathaway was playing a beloved English writer . James McAvoy , who plays Thomas Langlois Lefroy , believed that filming in Ireland made her casting " a bit safer " than if they had shot in England . McAvoy accepted the role because he enjoyed Austen 's writings and was eager to work with Jarrold , having collaborated with him previously on the 2002 television production White Teeth . McAvoy first assumed that Becoming Jane would be directly associated with Pride and Prejudice , with his character possessing similarities with Mr. Darcy ; the actor soon realised however " that the screenplay was nothing like Pride and Prejudice . The screenwriter probably speculated on some of the inspiration for Pride and Prejudice but it is a completely different story . "
Julie Walters had once disliked Austen 's writings but changed her mind when she read Pride and Prejudice after receiving her role as Mrs. Austen . Appearing as Mr. Austen was actor James Cromwell , who viewed his character as " a generous gentleman , well educated and supportive of Jane for the most part . He is bedevilled by his financial circumstances but deeply in love with his wife and sympathetic to her concerns about what will happen to the girls if they don 't marry . " Joe Anderson portrayed Henry Austen , while Lucy Cohu played the widowed Eliza de Feuillide , the Austens ' worldly cousin and Henry 's romantic interest . Cohu believed that her character " needs security . She is looking to be safe . She finds that security with Henry as she knows the Austen family . "
Anna Maxwell Martin appeared as Jane 's sister Cassandra . The actress called her character " terribly sensible " , noting that she " gets her heart broken . It 's very sad . She 's the levelling force for Jane Austen , the wild one . She tries to get her back in line , but fails miserably . " Becoming Jane also featured Laurence Fox as Mr. Wisley and Dame Maggie Smith as Lady Gresham , whom Jarrold viewed as possessing " similarities to Lady Catherine De Burgh in Pride and Prejudice but in this film you get to see her hidden vulnerabilities – the pain of never having had children and her controlling maternal power over Wisley . " Other cast members included Ian Richardson as Judge Langlois , Leo Bill as John Warren , Jessica Ashworth as Lucy Lefroy , Michael James Ford as Mr. Lefroy , Tom Vaughan @-@ Lawlor as Robert Fowle , and Helen McCrory as Mrs. Radcliffe .
= = = Costume design = = =
Irish costume designer Eimer Ní Mhaoldomhnaigh designed the clothing seen in the film . She attempted to create a different style of costumes than had been seen in recent Austen adaptations , and drew inspiration from the fashions of the 1790s , a time period she considered " fascinating " and a " very transitional era in terms of fashion ... it was a real challenge to make it work . " Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh attended the Cannes Film Festival in May 2006 but then had to quickly return to the Becoming Jane set to complete the last two days of filming . She later collaborated with Jarrold in the 2008 drama film Brideshead Revisited .
For research , Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh visited museums and art galleries , and also read Austen 's letters and novels . She was interested in both the effects of continental fashions on English clothing and the differences between social classes . While she recognised that 1795 " marked the beginning " of the empire waistline trend , Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh also understood this fashion would have barely been introduced to Austen 's circle in the country ; rather , the film displayed many costume designs from the early 1790s . She explained , " We wanted to show that transition especially for the women . The look in London is very different from the look in the countryside . For the country ball the fashion for the older women is more of the old style but for the younger women we show the introduction of the Empire line . "
The costume designer created all of Hathaway 's outfits from scratch , and " looked for images of a young Jane Austen . " Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh explained , " I wanted to get her youthfulness and innocence across through her dress . But crucially there was also her strength of character . So we kept away from frills and flounces . I wanted a definite look that was quite strong but also pretty at the same time . Jane was living on a working farm so her dress had to be practical as well . In terms of the costume we were definitely trying to steer away from the chocolate box image that we associate with Jane Austen . "
Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh dressed McAvoy in rich fabrics , such as velvet and beaver fur , to help distinguish him from the other men . She recalled that " he wears very stylish waist coats and cut @-@ away jackets . With Jane around he 'd have an extra swagger in front of her . James ( McAvoy ) was really into it . We 'd talk about the colours and fabrics to achieve his distinctive look . " Ní Mhaoldhomhnaigh and Maggie Smith agreed that Lady Gresham 's dresses would be modelled after 1770s fashion , which was " the sort of dress that the character would have worn when she was much younger and suited her back then . Lady Gresham is very much her own character and is not someone who is dictated to by fashion . " Smith 's dresses contained stiff fabrics " to emphasise a woman who was very set in her ways " .
= = = Filming = = =
Produced independently by Ecosse , Becoming Jane was given a limited budget of € 12 @.@ 7 million ( £ 9 million or $ 16 @.@ 5 million ) . Production designer Eve Stewart researched Regency literature and Austen 's life , and along with Jarrold , scouted locations in Dublin and nearby counties for five weeks in January and February 2006 . They ultimately opted to shoot in Dublin and the Irish counties of Meath and Wicklow instead of Hampshire , the birthplace of Austen , because it held " a sense of countryside that felt more unchanged , " while Hampshire had unfortunately become too " groomed and manicured " . Jarrold also found " a great variety of Georgian houses and older houses " in Ireland . His production received funds from the Irish Film Board , the UK Film Council Premiere Fund , 2 Entertain , Scion Films , and Miramax Films . Film critic Andrew Sarris noted that in Ireland " happily , there are still architectural traces of life more than 200 years ago to correspond with the year 1795 . " However , Ireland did include a few disadvantages : Stewart found that " the rural aspects were the most difficult as the Irish country landscape is nothing like Hampshire . There are no rolling hills so the vegetation and the landscaping was the trickiest thing for me as a production designer . "
Due to its low budget , Becoming Jane was filmed on a " tight " schedule of eight weeks from March to May 2006 . Jarrold observed however that because Ecosse was not a film studio , he had more creative freedom . Bernstein stated of filming , " We recreated a world that Jane Austen lovers can recognise and associate with . But hopefully we can also take them into areas and places like the boxing club , the cricket game and the fair that do not feature in Jane Austen 's fiction . They are sort of seedy and dangerous areas that are not normally associated with Austen . " Jarrold found filming " very difficult . We had to make it work in the locations that we had as efficiently as possible . " Filming outdoors was often so cold that Hathaway turned blue and had difficulty saying her lines ; Automated Dialogue Replacement in post @-@ production helped correct this by re @-@ dubbing her lines .
The story 's central location was set at Steventon rectory where Austen was raised . While it had been demolished in 1824 , Jarrold and his crew " fortunately found a wonderful house that was very like the original ... We honed the script as well to make it as practical as possible . " Stewart believed that the Austen house expressed their status and wealth , " I think that you will lose the central thrust of the story unless you understand the status of the Austen 's and that they are pretty poor . Jane spent all her formative years there and that was the place that influenced her view of the world . You have to believe that the family live in that house because that is a crucial piece of the jigsaw . " Scenes at Steventon rectory were filmed in Higginsbrook House , a few miles off Trim in County Meath . Later in fall 2006 , it appeared again as the house of the Morlands in Northanger Abbey .
Charleville Castle stood in for the interior scenes of Lady Gresham 's estate , while Kilruddery House , an old Elizabethan revival estate , provided the exterior shots of the property . Other filming sites included Cloghlee Bridge in the Dublin Mountains ( as Mr. Austen 's rectory ) and Dublin 's Henrietta Street and North Great George 's Street as Regency London . A house on Henrietta Street also provided the filming site for Mrs. Radcliffe 's residence . Gentleman Jackson 's club , where Lefroy boxes , was represented by " the dark and otherworldly " Mother Redcaps tavern , also in Dublin .
= = Music and soundtrack = =
The musical score of the film was written by English composer Adrian Johnston . To prepare melodies , he reviewed music books that had belonged to the Austen family . The first track , " First Impressions , " has been described as a " depressing " song that " exhibits slow , pure and classical piano work ; one critic quipped that it belonged in " Becoming Sylvia Plath " . Later tracks ranged " in mood from upbeat and playful to somber and teary . " In his review of the score , Tim Clark of Soundtrack.net lamented the " absence of a truly memorable theme , despite a wealth of thematic material , " and found similarities to Dario Marianelli 's composition for the 2005 film Pride & Prejudice .
Patsy Morita , a music critic for Allmusic , wrote that the second half of Johnston 's score becomes as " unremarkable " as " so many other dramatic film scores of the early twenty @-@ first century . " She continued , " It fulfills its purpose of underscoring the emotion of the story by being moody and slow to change melodically and harmonically , and by using many pregnant pauses and minimalist @-@ leaning repetitive figures . " Morita added that " there is nothing in it to draw attention away from the film . " The score later received a nomination for Best Original Film Score at the 2008 Ivor Novello Awards . The film soundtrack was released on 31 July 2007 . A track listing for the album is as follows :
Henry Purcell 's " Hole in the Wall , " also known as " St. Martin 's Lane , " which is featured in the ballroom scene , was first published in 1695 and is highly unlikely to have been common during the Regency , when Jane Austen was a young adult .
Downloadable editions of the original soundtrack include six bonus tracks of music heard in the film :
= = Themes and analysis = =
= = = Fictionalisation of plot = = =
Jon Spence , the author of the biography the film was based on , identifies " Tom Lefroy as the love of Austen 's life and her relationship with him as the origin of her genius . But he never suggests that there was an aborted elopement ( much less subsequent reading sessions with any of Lefroy 's children ) . And he is careful , as the filmmakers are not , to clarify that in speculating about Austen 's romantic experience he is reading between the lines of the family records and of the three rather opaque Austen letters that are his principal sources . "
An important deviation of the film 's plot from history is that there is scant evidence in real life Austen and Lefroy 's relationship went beyond acquaintance . Rather , all that is known of them together is that they danced at three Christmas balls before Tom returned to school and that Jane was " too proud " to ask his aunt about him two years later . In the latter years of Tom Lefroy 's life , he was questioned about his relationship with Jane Austen by his nephew , and admitted to having loved Jane Austen , but stated that it was a " boyish love " . As is written in a letter sent from T.E.P. Lefroy to James Edward Austen Leigh in 1870 @,@
My late venerable uncle ... said in so many words that he was in love with her , although he qualified his confession by saying it was a boyish love . As this occurred in a friendly & private conversation , I feel some doubt whether I ought to make it public .
Lori Smith , author of The Jane Austen Guide to Life , opined that :
No doubt this relationship and her [ Jane 's ] repartee with Tom fueled her writing . Whether it was " her greatest inspiration " as the trailers for Becoming Jane claim , well , that 's debatable . But I 'm sure it provided as spark .
However , contrary to the film 's story line , Jane had attempted her first full @-@ length novel before she met Tom and had already read The History of Tom Jones , a Foundling before meeting him . In a cut scene from the movie , it is clear that she is reading the novel for the second time , but in the theatrical release without that scene , it appears he introduces her to it .
= = = Representation of Austen characters in story = = =
Various commentators have offered opinions concerning the presence in the film of characters and themes from Austen 's works , particularly with Pride and Prejudice . Deborah Cartmell contended that Hathaway 's Austen is a " replica of Elizabeth Bennet ( with a touch of impetuous Lydia thrown in ) , " and added that the associations between Austen and Elizabeth are " more explicit than in " any other Austen biopic . Tim Robey of The Daily Telegraph declared that the film took " good old P & P 's storyline and replace [ d ] Elizabeth Bennet with Austen herself [ and added ] a real @-@ life pseudo @-@ Darcy from the skimpiest of biographical evidence . " A Companion to Jane Austen observed that the " physicality " of Jane and Lefroy 's kiss was similar to the " passionate kiss " between Elizabeth and Darcy in the 1995 serial Pride and Prejudice .
Empire magazine further expressed that
The characters peopling the young Jane ’ s life are plainly recognisable as the prototypes for her most celebrated characters : Walters ’ anxious mother and Cromwell ’ s strong , fair @-@ minded Mr. Austen are clear relatives of Pride & Prejudice 's Mr. and Mrs. Bennet ; Smith ’ s aloof , disdainful dowager exemplifies the snobbery and social climbing that provide context for Austen ’ s romances ; McAvoy ’ s cocksure , worldly Lefroy is the epitome of the outwardly arrogant , inwardly sensitive hero of whom Mr. Darcy is the paradigm , while Jane herself shares the wit and passion of Austen ’ s most beloved heroine , Lizzie Bennet .
= = = Place in mass marketing = = =
The implementation of mass marketing in the film 's production and release has attracted notice from film and literary scholars . Dianne F. Sadoff writes that Becoming Jane " confirms the two @-@ decades @-@ long megaplexing of Jane Austen . " According to Andrew Higson , the film was another example of " Austen Power " and the desire of filmmakers to " exploit the possibilities of both the Austen industry and the market for literary cinema and television – and more generally , the market for ' traditional ' English drama . " While reviewing Austen adaptations of the 1990s and 2000s in her book Heritage Film : Nation , Genre and Representation , author Belén Vidal viewed Becoming Jane as yet another " transformation of Austen 's novels into icons of popular culture . " To Vidal , this and other productions , such as The Jane Austen Book Club ( 2007 ) and Miss Austen Regrets ( 2008 ) , confirmed " the generic status of the Austen phenomenon whilst dispensing with the incorporation of the literary text . "
Becoming Jane followed a different formula than the Austen adaptations of the 1990s and attempted to draw viewers from a variety of demographic groups . Hathaway 's casting was intended to attract young female viewers who had enjoyed the actress in The Princess Diaries and The Princess Diaries 2 : Royal Engagement . According to producers , the view was that this demographic group would have been in their early teens during the release of the Princess films , making them " the right age " for Austen as 15 @-@ year @-@ olds . Expecting Becoming Jane to be a popular film , in February 2007 Penguin Books announced new editions of six of Austen 's best @-@ known novels ; their redesigned covers were intended to attract teenage readers .
= = = Heritage and other themes = = =
Becoming Jane has been referred to as a heritage costume drama film , a genre which has been popular in the United States among both its audiences and its film studios . According to Andrew Higson , Becoming Jane falls into the continuing trend of American attitudes influencing English film . Belén Vidal wrote that the film " exploit [ s ] a well @-@ defined heritage iconography and strategically combine [ s ] American stars with supporting casts of international ' quality ' players . " Hilary Radner analysed the presence of the " marriage plot " – a girl succeeding only by marrying the man of her choice – in film and television , and noted that while Becoming Jane critiques this film trope , it " points to the power of the traditional marriage plot as a residual paradigm influencing feminine identity . "
Jarrold 's adaptation also came in the wake of a number of literary biographical films , such as Shakespeare in Love and Miss Potter . Deborah Cartmell , author of Screen Adaptations : Jane Austen 's Pride and Prejudice : A Close Study of the Relationship between Text and Film , found similarities between Becoming Jane and Shakespeare in Love " almost so obvious that the [ former ] film risks the accusation of being dangerously derivative . " A given example included the characters of Austen and William Shakespeare inputting their personal experiences directly into their works . Marina Cano López and Rosa María García @-@ Periago explained that the film " follows the path opened by John Madden ’ s Shakespeare in Love . The numerous intertextual connections between both movies can be reduced to one : just as Shakespeare is imagined as the hero of his own play , Jane Austen becomes the heroine of her own novel . " Among other listed similarities , they noted that the romantic interests of both protagonists serve as their literary muses , and that the middle part of both films " lie " when viewed from a historical perspective .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Premiere , theatrical release , distribution and box office = = =
The world premiere of Becoming Jane took place in London on 5 March 2007 . It was released to cinemas on 9 March 2007 in the United Kingdom and a week later in Ireland by Buena Vista International . It ultimately grossed £ 3 @.@ 78 million in the UK and Ireland , placing in sixteenth among all UK films for the year in those markets . Sixty @-@ three percent of the audience was female , and 40 @.@ 5 percent were above the age of 55 . The film 's performance was considered " disappointing " , and it influenced the US release date . It arrived in Australia on 29 March .
Miramax Films distributed the film in the United States , giving it a release date of 3 August 2007 . Originally , the studio intended to release Becoming Jane in June or July due to a " counter @-@ programming " strategy , attempting to attract demographic groups who were not interested in large blockbusters . The film was expected to perform well during all seven days of the week and gradually gain more viewers during its time in cinemas . Due to the presence of recognizable stars such as Hathaway , Becoming Jane was expected to also do well among mainstream audiences . However , due to its weak UK release , the film 's release was moved to August , when it opened on 100 screens in its first week . It increased to 601 screens the following week , later reaching 1 @,@ 210 screens . While the film made under $ 1 million in its first week , it was considered " a highly respectable showing for a heritage biopic " and enough of a figure to " justify a ten @-@ week run . " The film eventually grossed a total of $ 18 @,@ 670 @,@ 946 in the US .
On an international scale , Becoming Jane received a total of $ 37 @,@ 311 @,@ 672 . It earned its highest grosses in the US , the UK , and Australia .
= = = Home media = = =
Becoming Jane was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the UK on 10 September 2007 , a month after it arrives in cinemas in the US . On 12 February 2008 , Disney and Miramax released the DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the US . Both versions contained audio commentary with Jarrold , Hood , and Bernstein , deleted scenes , " Pop @-@ Up Facts & Footnotes , " and a featurette called " Discovering the Real Jane Austen " . The US home video rights to the film have since been picked up by Echo Bridge Entertainment and the film has seen several reissues on Blu @-@ ray and DVD , often packaged with other films such as Jane Eyre .
= = = Critical response = = =
Film review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gave the film a score of 57 % based on reviews from 136 critics . The site summarized the consensus : " Although Becoming Jane is a well @-@ crafted period piece , it lacks fresh insight into the life and works of Jane Austen . The film focuses too much on wardrobe and not enough on Austen 's achievements . " The New York Times called the film a " triumph " for Hathaway , but observed that " the screenplay ’ s pseudo @-@ Austen tone is so consistent that its lapses into modern romance @-@ novel fantasy [ and ] threatens to derail the film . " More positive , Entertainment Weekly called the film " a charmer , " articulating that " the supporting cast ( Julie Walters , Maggie Smith , James Cromwell ) is top @-@ drawer ; and Anne Hathaway , with her coltish beauty and frank demeanor , is a welcome Jane . "
Critics lauded Hathaway and McAvoy for the chemistry between their characters , finding that it lent authenticity to the love story between Austen and Lefroy . While Hathaway was admired for her performance by some critics , some reviews negatively focused on her nationality as well as the inauthenticity of her accent . James McAvoy defended the decision of casting Hathaway by stating that a director should , " find the right actor … and [ she ] is undoubtedly brilliant . " Hathaway herself admitted the persistent tendency to " sound too much like myself and not at all like Jane " , blaming cold weather in Ireland , which meant she had to do voice retakes for several scenes . Nonetheless , Jarrold praised Hathaway for her performance . In a wrap up party after the filming , the director confessed that the actress had been a different person , " not just her accent but also the whole character , the way of holding yourself and speaking was so completely different " .
Time Out London gave a positive review , enunciating that " Overall , the approach is less fluffily contrived than you ’ d expect , and though the alignment of circumstance and social status thwarting innocent passions is hardly fresh , it ’ s handled with thoughtful decorum . The emotional temperature ’ s rather restrained as a result , but with luxury casting all down the line , ... elegant visuals balancing verdant and velvet , and a delightful faux @-@ classical score , it ’ s a classy package , all right – just missing the extra spark . " Some reviewers have questioned the historical accuracy of the film , for instance critiquing the depicted relationship between Austen and Lefroy .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Impact and legacy = =
Becoming Jane and the 2008 BBC serial Sense and Sensibility have been credited with " renew [ ing ] interest " in Jane Austen 's House Museum in Chawton . According to Robin Bischert , the chief executive of Bath Tourism Plus , Bath , Somerset gained " more than £ 150 @,@ 000 worth of free media exposure " in the wake of Becoming Jane and Persuasion , a 2007 television production adapted from another Austen novel . As the city is heavily associated with Austen , the company took advantage of Becoming Jane 's release in order to celebrate the author and her writings . In late September 2007 , Bath launched the seventh Jane Austen festival , which included a parade of people in Regency costumes , readings , tours , and discussions about the author . In addition , the city offered events such as Tea with Mr. Darcy to mark the release of the Becoming Jane DVD .
The film 's production had a positive impact on the Irish economy , as it resulted in a direct expenditure of € 7 @.@ 1 million , providing jobs for 116 crew members and 17 actors , and also offered 1 @,@ 250 days of work for extras . John O 'Donoghue , the country 's Minister for Arts , Sport and Tourism , visited the set and stated
The Irish economy continues to directly benefit from having major feature films such as Becoming Jane shoot on location here . As well as the direct benefits to the local economy such as job creation and tourism , it is also important to have images of Ireland screened to international audiences around the world . Encouraging feature films to shoot in Ireland remains a major priority for the Irish Government and we hope that the recent changes to Section 481 will mean that Ireland remains a competitive international location for feature film .
= Soviet cruiser Komintern =
Komintern was a Soviet light cruiser originally named Pamiat ' Merkuria ( Memory of Mercury ) , a Bogatyr @-@ class protected cruiser built for the Imperial Russian Navy . She saw service during World War I in the Black Sea and survived the Russian Civil War , although heavily damaged . She was repaired by the Soviet Navy and put into service as a training cruiser . In 1941 she was reclassified as a minelayer and provided gunfire support and transported troops during the Siege of Odessa , Siege of Sevastopol , and the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation in the winter of 1941 — 42 . She was damaged beyond repair at Poti by a German air attack on 16 July 1942 . Afterwards she was disarmed and hulked . At some point she was towed to the mouth of the Khobi river and sunk there as a breakwater on 10 October 1942 .
= = Description = =
Komintern normally displaced 6 @,@ 340 long tons ( 6 @,@ 440 t ) . The ship had an overall length of 134 @.@ 9 metres ( 442 ft 7 in ) , a beam of 16 @.@ 4 metres ( 53 ft 10 in ) and a mean draft of about 6 @.@ 8 metres ( 22 ft 4 in ) . She was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 19 @,@ 500 shaft horsepower ( 14 @,@ 500 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . The engines were powered by 16 coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . The ship had a range of 2 @,@ 100 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ; 2 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . Komintern 's crew consisted of 573 officers and men .
The ship was rearmed during World War I with fourteen 55 @-@ caliber 130 mm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) / 55 B7 Pattern 1913 guns in single mounts , four of which were mounted in casemates . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns . She also mounted six submerged 457 @-@ millimeter ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes , three on each broadside .
Komintern 's armored deck and her casemates were 76 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) thick . The armor of the conning tower was 152 millimetres ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
The crew of Pamiat ' Merkuria pledged its allegiance to the Ukrainian People 's Republic on 12 November 1917 soon after the October Revolution . The occupation of the Ukrainian People 's Republic by the Red Army early in 1918 led it to lay up on 28 March 1918 with her guns stripped by Bolsheviks to equip armoured trains . She was captured by the Germans on 1 May 1918 after being left behind in Sevastopol due to its uselessness and used as a barracks ship . She was renamed to Hetman Ivan Mazepa on 17 September 1918 and formally handed over to the Ukrainian State 's Navy .
Upon the end of the World War I and withdrawal of the Armed Forces of Central powers , she fell into the hands of the Whites under the support of the Triple Entente in November 1918 . She had her engines sabotaged in April 1919 by order of the British when the Whites temporarily lost control of Sevastopol . She was further damaged by the explosion of a mine when the Whites abandoned the Crimea in 1920 . Once she fell into Soviet hands she spent several years under repair , which required parts and material from her sisters that were even more damaged . She was given the proper revolutionary name of Komintern , after the Communist International on 31 December 1922 and was recommissioned in June 1923 .
She was refitted in 1930 as a training cruiser and lost four boilers which were converted to classrooms . Six of her waist guns were replaced by four obsolete 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) / 50 guns . Her submerged broadside torpedo tubes were also removed during this refit . She collided with Krasny Kavkaz in 1932 and seriously damaged the forecastle of the latter ship . Sources are unclear when she was rearmed , but it probably wasn 't until the late 1930s , probably when her forward smokestack was also removed . She landed all of her 75 mm / 50 guns in exchange for a modern suite of anti @-@ aircraft guns : three single 76 @.@ 2 mm ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) , three single 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 21 @-@ K , two single 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) and five 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) machine guns . In 1941 she was modified as a minelayer and could carry 195 mines , but her speed had been reduced to 12 knots .
= = = World War II = = =
Komintern , in company with the cruisers Krasny Kavkaz , Chervona Ukraina and a number of destroyers , laid down a defensive mine barrage protecting the Black Sea Fleet base at Sevastopol on 22 June . Komintern , along with the destroyers Nezamozhinsk and Shaumyan , was assigned to cooperate with the Separate Coastal Army on 8 August 1941 and spent much of the next month bombarding Romanian positions and coast defenses . During the Siege of Odessa she escorted a number of convoys to and from the besieged city . During the Crimean Campaign Komintern delivered supplies to the 44th Army at Feodosiya on 1 January 1942 and ferried troops and supplies to Sevastopol for the next several months .
She was badly damaged by a German air attack on 11 March , but was able to continue under her own power . She was damaged again in Novorossiysk by I. Gruppe , Kampfgeschwader 76 on 2 July 1942 and moved to Poti shortly afterwards . She was so severely damaged again , or sunk , by another German air attack on 16 July 1942 at Poti that she was deemed non @-@ repairable . She was disarmed in August — September 1942 , her guns forming coast defense batteries at Tuapse , and hulked . If she was sunk , she was refloated at some point and on 10 October she was towed to the mouth of the Khobi river , just north of Poti , and sunk as a breakwater .
= Pretzel Pezzullo =
John " Pretzel " Pezzullo ( December 10 , 1910 – May 16 , 1990 ) , also known as Pretzels Pezullo , was a professional baseball player whose career spanned eight seasons , two of which were spent with the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Philadelphia Phillies . Pezzullo , a pitcher , compiled an earned run average ( ERA ) of 6 @.@ 36 , allowing 61 earned runs off of 116 hits , five home runs , and 51 walks while recording 24 strikeouts over 86 @.@ 1 innings pitched . Pezzullo also played in six seasons of minor league baseball . He made his MLB debut at the age of 24 after spending a season in the minor leagues for the New York Giants organization . Pezzullo earned the nicknamed " Pretzel " after his unusual pitching style . After retiring from baseball , Pezzullo moved to Dallas , Texas , where he died of cancer on May 16 , 1990 .
= = Early life = =
Pezzullo was born on December 10 , 1910 , in Bridgeport , Connecticut . He had four siblings and is of Italian ancestry . Pezzullo attended school until the eighth grade , after which he went to trade school to learn cabinet and pattern making . He was officially listed as standing 5 feet 11 inches ( 180 cm ) and weighing 180 pounds ( 82 kg ) when he played professionally .
= = Professional career = =
Pezzullo began his professional baseball career in 1934 , when he played for the Richmond Colts , an affiliate of the New York Giants . Pezzullo finished the season fifth in the Piedmont League in wins , with 16 , while finishing fourth on the Colts in games pitched , recording 27 games over the season . He was called " a good pitching prospect " by Chicago Tribune sports writer Arch Ward . On November 1 of that year , Pezzullo was traded as a part of a four @-@ man deal that sent him , Blondy Ryan , Johnny Vergez , George Watkins , and cash to the Philadelphia Phillies in exchange for Dick Bartell . For the 1935 season , Pezzullo , who pitched for the major @-@ league Phillies , recorded a team @-@ worst ERA of 6 @.@ 40 , along with a 3 – 5 win – loss record over 40 games pitched . He hit seven batters by a pitch , tying him for the seventh most hit batsmen in MLB . In Pezzullo 's final MLB game in 1936 , he walked six batters in two innings pitched .
= = = Minor league career = = =
Pezzullo also played for two minor league teams during the 1936 season : the Richmond Colts and the Hazleton Mountaineers . Combined , Pezzullo went 14 – 10 with a 5 @.@ 19 ERA . The following season he played for the Savannah Indians and the Colts ; for the Indians , Pezzullo went 13 – 8 over 165 @.@ 0 innings pitched . The following season , he played only for the Indians , an affiliate of the Pittsburgh Pirates . His 26 wins were best in the Southern League , while his 288 @.@ 0 innings pitched also led all Southern League players . In a game against the Spartanburg Spartans , Pezzullo struck out 17 batters . After the season he was sold to the double @-@ A Toronto Maple Leafs of the International League , where , under managers Tony Lazzeri and Jack Burns , Pezzullo won 11 games and lost 12 . He went 5 – 16 the following year , before leaving the team for the Syracuse Chiefs and the Buffalo Bisons in his final year of professional baseball in 1941 .
= = After baseball = =
After retiring from baseball , Pezzullo moved to Dallas , Texas , where he married Betty ( née Tolcyk ) and had one daughter , Patti Moore . In Dallas , he designed aircraft missile models and founded Gulf Industries , a Grand Prairie @-@ based model subcontracting firm . Pezzullo died on May 16 , 1990 , of cancer . Funeral processions were held on May 18 at Holy Redeemer Mausoleum Chapel in DeSoto , Texas , where he was interred .
= Action of 12 May 1796 =
The Action of 12 May 1796 was a minor naval engagement during the French Revolutionary Wars between a squadron of British Royal Navy frigates and a frigate and four smaller ships of the Navy of the Batavian Republic . The British squadron had been detached on the previous day from the British North Sea fleet under Admiral Adam Duncan , which was cruising off the Batavian fleet anchorage at the Texel , while the Batavian squadron was returning to the Netherlands from the Norwegian coast where it had been sheltering since suffering defeat at the Action of 22 August 1795 the previous year . As the Batavian squadron neared the Batavian coast , the British squadron under Captain Lawrence Halstead attacked .
In his frigate HMS Phoenix , Halstead was able to cut the Batavian frigate Argo off from the shore and bring it to battle , forcing it to surrender in just 20 minutes as other British ships closed with the combat . The remainder of the Batavian squadron had dispersed eastwards away from the frigates and Duncan 's fleet , pursued by the frigate HMS Pegasus and brig @-@ sloop HMS Sylph . After a lengthy chase , Phoenix caught the cutter Duke of York , Sylph seized the brig Mercury , while Pegasus succeeded in driving the other brigs , Echo and Gier ashore , where both were believed wrecked . Duncan 's blockade of the Texel was instrumental in British control of the North Sea , and a year later it would achieve a decisive victory at the Battle of Camperdown .
= = Background = =
In February 1
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the church and the Old Town . It was demolished in around 1769 by John Russell , 4th Duke of Bedford , and replaced by a new vicarage for the vicar of the newly unified parish . This vicarage remains attached to the parish , and since the re @-@ amalgamation of the Chesham parishes in the 1980s and 1990s is known as the Rectory .
= = = Organ = = =
In 1504 the will of Robert Wedon bequeathed funds for a chaplain , provided that he could " organise " and " sing well " . No other reference to an organ at St. Mary 's exists until the installation of the William Hill & Son organ in 1852 in the west gallery . In 1869 the organ was moved to the north transept during Scott 's renovation of the church , and at this time its volume and power were increased . In Potter 's 1999 remodelling of the church the pipes of the organ were moved to the new west gallery and electronically enhanced , and the console installed at the eastern end of the north aisle .
= = = Notable graves and memorials = = =
The south transept had historically served as the mausoleum for the Cavendish family , who resided at nearby Latimer . During Scott 's renovations of the 1860s the transept was opened up to the church and remodelled , and only one Cavendish tomb survives today , that of John Cavendish , son of William Cavendish , 1st Earl of Devonshire , who had died in 1617 aged 11 . Sculpted by John Bolt the Elder of London , the tomb features ornately carved strapwork above a sarcophagus , flanked by black coupled columns supporting small obelisks , and topped by a double @-@ curved roof . The south transept also holds the 1726 pyramid @-@ shaped tomb of Lady Mary Whichcote , wife of Sir Francis Whichcote who at that time owned Chesham Leicester ; Mary Whichcote 's elaborate funeral bankrupted Sir Francis , leading to his sale of Chesham Leicester to the Skottowe family .
Richard Bowle ( c . 1549 – 13 December 1626 ) , who had recorded and audited the restoration project of 1606 , is commemorated by a black marble monument on the north side of the chancel , noting his " faithful service of divers great lords " , and that " part of " him " lyeth here " .
On the north wall of the sanctuary is a large memorial to Richard Woodcock , who had served as vicar of both Chesham Woburn and Chesham Leicester from 1607 to 1623 . Topped by a large painted bust of Woodcock holding a book , a lengthy gilded inscription in Latin and English describes Woodcock as " Hæreticorum Malleus " ( " The hammer of heretics " ) . Woodcock had been a popular local figure , and at his death the parishioners had taken it in turns to carry the coffin to the church . Near the memorial to Woodcock is a memorial to Nicholas Skottowe erected in 1800 . This takes the form of a stone sculpture of a mourning woman kneeling over a sarcophagus , and was described by Pevsner as " [ an ] interpretation of remarkable tenderness " .
During Scott 's renovations of the 1860s , all burials within the church itself were removed . However , during the 1999 renovation , a vault was uncovered near the crossing . The vault was marked by a brass plaque inscribed " The Family Vault of Robert Ward " , and was found to contain the coffins of Catherine Julia Ward , wife of novelist and Tory politician Robert Plumer Ward , and of their three @-@ year @-@ old son Charles Robert Ward . The vault has been resealed and remains in place .
Adolphus Aylward , the vicar from 1847 to 1872 and overseer of the parish restructuring , is commemorated by a brass plaque on the south @-@ west pillar of the tower , and by a Clayton and Bell window in the north @-@ west chancel . Aylward 's daughter Julia had died in 1862 aged 15 and is buried in the churchyard ; her grave was planted with snowdrops at her mother 's request , which still bloom each spring . Julia Aylward is also commemorated by a piece of Burlison and Grylls glass in the lancet window at the west end of the north aisle .
A memorial to Lollard martyr Thomas Harding stands in the churchyard near the south chancel , erected in 1907 by the Protestant Alliance . The base of the cross is inscribed :
To the glory of God and to the memory of Thomas Harding Martyr of Dungrove Chesham
Who in fiery trial at the stake laid down his life for the word of God and for the testimony of Jesus Christ in this parish on May 30 , 1532
" The noble army of martyrs praise thee "
" God grant to us all grace to ken well and to kepe well holie writ and to suffer joiefulli some pain for it at the laste . "
" None of us liveth to himself and no man dieth to himself . "
Harding was executed at nearby White Hill and is believed to have been held in St. Mary 's parvise prior to his execution . Foxe 's Book of Martyrs describes the execution thus :
In 1532 , Thomas Harding , who with his wife , had been accused of heresy , was brought before the Bishop of Lincoln , and condemned for denying the real presence in the Sacrament . He was then chained to a stake , erected for the purpose , at Chesham in the Dell , near Botely ; and when they had set fire to the fagots , one of the spectators dashed out his brains with a billet . The priests told the people that whoever brought fagots to burn heretics would have an indulgence to commit sins for forty days .
Near the memorial to Harding by the chancel door is a worn gravestone depicting a teacher and a group of children , believed to be the grave of Daniel King , teacher in Chesham 's first Sunday School .
= Mount Cleveland ( Alaska ) =
Mount Cleveland ( also known as Cleveland Volcano ) is a nearly symmetrical stratovolcano on the western end of Chuginadak Island , which is part of the Islands of Four Mountains just west of Umnak Island in the Fox Islands of the Aleutian Islands of Alaska . Mt . Cleveland is 1 @,@ 730 m ( 5 @,@ 676 ft ) high , and one of the most active of the 75 or more volcanoes in the larger Aleutian Arc . Aleutian natives named the island after their fire goddess , Chuginadak , who they believed inhabited the volcano . In 1894 a team from the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey visited the island and gave Mount Cleveland its current name , after then @-@ president Grover Cleveland .
One of the most active volcanoes in the Aleutian Arc , Cleveland has erupted at least 22 times in the last 230 years . A VEI 3 eruption in 1944 produced the arc 's only known volcanic fatality . Most recently Mount Cleveland has erupted three times in 2009 , twice in 2010 , and once in 2011 . The volcano 's remoteness limits opportunities for its study , and the Alaska Volcano Observatory relies heavily on satellites for monitoring . The volcano is primarily hazardous to aircraft ; many of the flights over the north Pacific approach the vicinity of the volcano , and volcanic ash released from eruptions can damage sensitive electronic equipment and sensors .
= = Geological setting = =
Mount Cleveland is located 490 km ( 304 mi ) from the western end of the Aleutian Arc , a long volcanic chain extending off the coast of Alaska . Containing over 75 volcanoes , this volcanic arc occurs above the subduction zone where the Pacific Plate plunges under the North American plate . As the plate moves deeper into the earth , the increasing pressure results in the loss of volatiles , certain elements and compounds with low boiling points , from various hydrous minerals . One of these compounds is water ; its addition to the mantle wedge formed between the subducting and overriding plates lowers the melting point enough to allow magma to form . The melted material then rises to the surface and forms a volcano — in this case , the Aleutian Arc .
= = Etymology = =
The native Aleut name for Mount Cleveland is Chuginadak ( the name currently given to the island as a whole ) , referring to the Aleut fire goddess , thought to reside in the volcano . The volcano 's name is a reference to its constant activity , and shows that it was likely highly active even in the distant past . Aleut oral tradition states that , at one time , the western and eastern halves of Chuginadak were separate islands , and that the isthmus joining them was created by volcanic activity sometime in prehistory . The " Islands of Four Mountains " name , the geographic group name for Cleveland and its neighbors , was given to the islands by Russian cartographers in the 19th century . Its current name , Mount Cleveland , was given to it by a U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey expedition in 1894 , when it was originally observed by the USS Concord ; like the other volcanoes in the Four Islands group , Mount Cleveland was named after prominent American politicians at the time , Cleveland having been named after then @-@ president Grover Cleveland .
= = Geography and structure = =
Mount Cleveland is an almost symmetrical andesite stratovolcano in the Islands of Four Mountains , a volcanic group in the Aleutian Arc . Like all stratovolcanoes , Mount Cleveland grew as explosive eruptions , effusive eruptions , and lahars built it layer by layer into a concave @-@ up shape . It lies southeast of Mount Carlisle and northeast of Herbert Island . Mount Cleveland forms the western half of Chuginadak Island , a broad and uneven bell @-@ shaped landmass , and is the highest of the four volcanic islands . The island is completely uninhabited ; the nearest settlement is Nikolski on Umnak Island , about 75 km ( 47 mi ) eastward .
Mount Cleveland is 8 – 8 @.@ 5 km ( 5 @.@ 0 – 5 @.@ 3 mi ) wide at its base and roughly 29 km3 ( 7 cu mi ) in volume . The volcano 's slope increases markedly with height , from 19 ° at its lower flanks to 35 ° near its summit . Like many other Aleutian volcanoes , Cleveland 's flanks are especially rough up to 300 m ( 984 ft ) , covered by multiple overlapping lava flows and debris fans that form an apron around the mountain . Lava flows are always built on top of debris flows as a result of the snow melt caused by the emission of heat just before an eruption . The flows are generally short , under 1 km ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) , and thin , less than 10 m ( 33 ft ) thick , and are somewhat vegetated . Although Mount Cleveland is the tallest mountain in the group , it is rarely completely snowed in because of its constant activity disrupts snowfall . A lack of extant erosion shows that Mount Cleveland is likely a Holocene volcano , forming within the last 10 @,@ 000 years . All known events have occurred at Mount Cleveland 's summit vent , but there are at least five small andesite to dacite volcanic domes on the lower flanks . At times Cleveland has had a summit lava dome . The volcano has no caldera .
The eastern half of Chuginadak , to which Mount Cleveland is connected by a narrow isthmus , consists of several low @-@ lying volcanic cones and two prominent peaks that have been heavily eroded , partly by glaciers . Known as the Tana volcanic complex , the two features measure 1 @,@ 170 m ( 3 @,@ 839 ft ) and 1 @,@ 093 m ( 3 @,@ 586 ft ) in elevation . A sample of rhyolite has been recovered from Concord Point , the easternmost point on the island .
= = Eruptive history = =
Eruptions from Mount Cleveland are generally vulcanian and strombolian in nature , characterized by short explosive ash clouds sometimes accompanied by a 'a flows , lava fountains , pyroclastic flows , ash and steam emissions , lava dome growth , and the ejection of breadcrust bombs . Hot springs were reportedly found on the volcano in the 1800s , and persistent fumarolic activity was observed in the 1980s and 1990s . Mount Cleveland is a site of persistent steam emissions and thermal anomalies that represent constant background activity . During 2011 , a summit lava dome formed , by continuous intrusion of magma at the summit . Late in 2011 , nearly 6 explosions demolished the dome . In June 2012 , another small dome was observed .
Little is known about Cleveland 's early eruptive history as its remoteness makes it a difficult area to investigate , and discrepancies in names have caused confusion between events there and those on nearby Carlisle . Even today , not all possible events are confirmed as eruptions by the Alaska Volcano Observatory , and many are listed as " possible . " In observed history , Mount Cleveland may have first erupted in 1744 ; the first confirmed eruption occurred in 1828 . The volcano erupted again in 1836 ( possibly ) , 1893 , 1897 ( possibly ) , 1929 ( possibly ) , 1932 , and 1938 ( possibly ) .
The first notable eruption from Mount Cleveland was a Volcanic Explosivity Index ( VEI ) 3 Vulcanian eruption that occurred between June 10 and June 13 , 1944 . Lava flows extended 5 kilometers ( 3 mi ) from the summit , and an ash plume 6 @,@ 000 m ( 19 @,@ 685 ft ) high was produced . Large boulders were reportedly ejected and carried out to sea by eruptive force . The eruption had the distinction of being the only confirmed direct volcanic fatality in Alaska ; a small detachment from the Eleventh Air Force was stationed on the volcano at the time , and one Sergeant Purchase left his post early in the eruption to take a walk and never returned , probably killed by mudslides . At approximately 10 : 20 , a boat sent to search for Purchase witnessed the end of the eruption . The island was abandoned for the remainder of the war .
Mount Cleveland erupted more recently in 1951 , 1953 , 1954 ( possibly ) , 1975 ( possibly ) , 1984 through 1987 , 1989 , 1994 , and 1997 . The volcano has received more focused attention in recent times due to its increased activity : it erupted in 2001 , 2005 , three times in 2006 , 2007 , three times in 2009 , and twice in 2010 . Of these , the most significant eruption was the 2001 eruption , which produced a 12 km ( 7 mi ) high ash plume . This plume dispersed 120 to 150 km ( 75 to 93 mi ) across Alaska , an unusual distance that allowed detailed satellite observations to be made . Nikolski and the surrounding region was the site of several hours of ashfall , represented in satellite imagery as areas of discolored snow . This eruption significantly disrupted air traffic in the area .
On June 19 , 2012 , a pilot reported an ash @-@ producing explosion on Mount Cleveland . Due to continuing seismic activity , the volcano was placed on the USGS Volcano Watch List in the orange or " watch " category the following day . AVO continues to keep Cleveland on the watch because of a persistent anomaly at the summit . AVO suspects it could be dome growth . Other minor ash producing explosions occurred on June 26 , July 12 , and August 19 .
On May 4 , 2013 , the volcano began a low @-@ level eruption , with a plume of ash observed at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) .
The volcano erupted several times in 2014 and 2015 , and a single explosion was detected by the AVO on April 16 , 2016 .
In total the volcano has erupted at least 22 times in the last 230 years .
= = Monitoring = =
Today , the Alaska Volcano Observatory monitors activity at Mount Cleveland using satellite imagery . Cloud cover often obscures the volcano , which makes many events difficult to follow . In addition , the low resolution of the satellite imagery allows minor events , which do not make an impression on the satellite picture , to pass unnoticed . There are no seismic or geophysical instruments on the mountain ( the nearest are in Nikolski ) , and some eruptions are first observed by pilots flying over the volcano . A field study was conducted in late 2001 , and an automatic system based on thermal anomalies was implemented following eruptive events in 2005 . In recent years the Alaska Volcano Observatory has made an effort to expand volcanic coverage westward along the Aleutian Arc .
The biggest threat posed by an eruption from Mount Cleveland is its ash plume , which can damage sensitive electronic equipment on overflying planes . Many aircraft traveling over the North Pacific and over the Arctic come within the vicinity of such a plume ; the only way to avoid damage is to reroute the flight , which delays arrival time and adds $ 5 @,@ 500 to $ 6 @,@ 000 in extra fuel costs . Cleveland has therefore been assessed by the United States Geological Survey as a volcano with " [ a ] high aviation threat score and no real @-@ time ground based monitoring at the present time " .
= Bury St. Edmunds witch trials =
The Bury St Edmunds witch trials were a series of trials conducted intermittently between the years 1599 and 1694 in the town of Bury St Edmunds in Suffolk , England .
Two specific trials in 1645 and 1662 became historically well known . The 1645 trial " facilitated " by the Witchfinder General saw 18 people executed in one day . The judgment by the future Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales , Sir Matthew Hale in the 1662 trial acted as a powerful influence on the continuing persecution of witches in England and similar persecutions in the American colonies .
= = Jurisdiction = =
As well as being the seat of county assizes , Bury St. Edmunds had been a site for both Piepowder Courts and court assizes , the latter since the Abbey was given a Liberty , namely the Liberty of St Edmund . For the purposes of civil government the town and the remainder ( or " body " ) of the county were quite distinct , each providing a separate grand jury to the assizes .
= = The trials = =
The first recorded account of a witch trial at Bury St. Edmunds Suffolk was held in 1599 when Jone Jordan of Shadbrook ( Stradbroke ) and Joane Nayler were tried , but there is no record of the charges or verdicts . In the same year , Oliffe Bartham of Shadbrook was executed , for " sending three toads to destroy the rest ( sleep ) of Joan Jordan " .
= = = The 1645 trial = = =
The trial was instigated by Matthew Hopkins , the self @-@ proclaimed Witchfinder General and conducted at a special court under John Godbolt . On 27 August 1645 , no fewer than 18 " witches " were hanged at Bury St. Edmunds . They were :
Anne Alderman , Rebecca Morris and Mary Bacon of Chattisham
Mary Clowes of Yoxford
Sarah Spindler , Jane Linstead , Thomas Everard ( cooper ) and his wife Mary of Halesworth
Mary Fuller of Combs , near Stowmarket
John Lowes , Vicar of Brandeston
Susan Manners , Jane Rivet and Mary Skipper of Copdock , near Ipswich
Mary Smith of Great Glemham
Margery Sparham of Mendham
Katherine Tooly of Westleton .
Anne Leech and Anne Wright , origin unknown .
It has been estimated that all of the English witch trials between the early 15th and early 18th centuries resulted in fewer than 500 executions , so this one trial , with its 18 executions , accounted for 3 @.@ 6 % of that total .
According to John Stearn ( e ) known at various times as the witch – hunter , and " witch pricker " , associate to Matthew Hopkins , in his book A Confirmation and Discovery of Witchcraft there were one hundred and twenty others in gaol awaiting trial , of these 17 were men , Thomas Ady in 1656 writes of " about a hundred " , though others record " almost 200 " . Following a three @-@ week adjournment made necessary by the advancing King 's Army , the second sitting of the court resulted in 68 other " condemnations " ; though reports say – " mass executions of sixty or seventy witches " . Both Hopkins and Stearne treated the search for , and trials of witches as military campaigns , as shown in their choice of language in both seeking support for and reporting their endeavours . There was much to keep the minds of Parliamentarians busy at this time with the Royalist Army heading towards Cambridgeshire , but concern about the events unfolding were being voiced . Prior to the trial a report was carried to the Parliament – " ... as if some busie men had made use of some ill Arts to extort such confession ; ... " that a special Commission of Oyer and Terminer was granted for the trial of these Witches . After the trial and execution the Moderate Intelligencer , a parliamentary paper published during the English Civil War , in an editorial of 4 – 11 September 1645 expressed unease with the affairs in Bury :
But whence is it that Devils should choose to be conversant with silly Women that know not their right hands from their left , is the great wonder ... The ( y ) will meddle with none but poore old women : as appears by what we receive this day from Bury ... Divers are condemned and some executed and more like to be . Life is precious and there is need of great inquisition before it is taken away .
= = = The 1662 trial = = =
This took place on 10 March 1662 , when two elderly widows , Rose Cullender and Amy Denny ( or Deny or Duny ) , living in Lowestoft , were accused of witchcraft by their neighbours and faced 13 charges of the bewitching of several young children between the ages of a few months to 18 years old , resulting in one death . They may have been aware of each other , inhabiting a small town , but Cullender was from a property @-@ owning family , whilst Denny was the widow of a labourer . Their one other link was the fact that they had tried and failed to purchase Herrings from a Lowestoft merchant , Samuel Pacy . His two daughters Elizabeth , and Deborah were " victims " of the accused and , along with their aunt , Samuel Pacy 's sister Margaret , gave evidence against the women . They were tried at the Assize held in Bury St. Edmunds under the auspices of the 1603 Witchcraft Act , by one of England 's most eminent judges of the time Sir Matthew Hale , Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer . The jury found them guilty of the thirteen charges of using malevolent witchcraft , and the judge sentenced them to death . They were hanged in the town on 17 March 1662 .
Thomas Browne , the philosopher , physician and author , attended the trial . His reporting of similar events that had occurred in Denmark influenced the jury of the guilt of the accused . He also testified that " the young girls accusing Denny and Cullander were afflicted with organic problems , but that they undoubtedly also had been bewitched " . He had expressed his belief in the existence of witches twenty years earlier , and that only : " they that doubt of these , do not only deny them , but spirits ; and are obliquely , and upon consequence a sort not of infidels , but atheists " in his work Religio Medici , published in 1643 :
... how so many learned heads should so farre forget their Metaphysicks , and destroy the ladder and scale of creatures , as to question the existence of Spirits : for my part , I have ever beleeved , and doe now know , that there are Witches ;
The original pamphlet A Tryal of Witches , taken from a contemporary report of the proceedings , erroneously dates the trial as March 1664 , both on the front page and introduction . Original documents in the Public Record Office and other contemporary records clearly states it took place in the 14th year of the reign of Charles II ( 30 January 1662 to 29 January 1663 ) .
This case became a model for , and was referenced in , the Salem Witch Trials in Massachusetts , when the magistrates were looking for proof that spectral evidence could be used in a court of law . Reverend John Hale , whose wife was accused at Salem , in his publication , Modest Inquiry into the Nature of Witchcraft , noted how the judges consulted for precedents and lists the 60 @-@ page publication A Tryal of Witches .
Cotton Mather , in his 1693 book The Wonders of the Invisible World , concerning the Salem Witch Trials , specifically draws attention to the Suffolk trial , and the Salem judge stated that although spectral evidence should be allowed in order to begin investigations , it should not be admitted as evidence to decide a case .
= = = Other trials = = =
Another recorded witch trial in Bury St. Edmunds was in 1655 when a mother and daughter by the name of Boram were tried and said to have been hanged . The last was in 1694 when Lord Chief Justice Sir John Holt , " who did more than any other man in English history to end the prosecution of witches " , forced the acquittal of Mother Munnings ' of Hartis ( Hartest ) on charges of prognostications causing death . The chief charge was 17 years old , the second brought by a man on his way home from an alehouse . Sir John " so well directed the jury that she was acquitted " .
= Akhtar Hameed Khan =
Akhtar Hameed Khan ( Urdu : اختر حمید خان , pronounced [ ˈəxt ̪ ər ɦəˈmiːd ̪ ˈxaːn ] ; 15 July 1914 – 9 October 1999 ) was a Pakistani development practitioner and social scientist . He promoted participatory rural development in Pakistan and other developing countries , and widely advocated community participation in development . His particular contribution was the establishment of a comprehensive project for rural development , the Comilla Model ( 1959 ) . It earned him the Ramon Magsaysay Award from the Philippines and an honorary Doctorate of law from Michigan State University .
In the 1980s he started a Bottom Up community development initiative of Orangi Pilot Project , based in the outskirts of Karachi , which became a model of participatory development initiatives . He also directed many programmes , from microcredit to self @-@ finance and from housing provision to family planning , for rural communities and urban slums . It earned him international recognition and high honours in Pakistan . Khan was fluent in at least seven languages and dialects . Apart from many scholarly books and articles , he also published a collection of poems and travelogues in Urdu .
= = Early life = =
Khan was born on 15 July 1914 in Agra . He was among the four sons and three daughters of Khansaahib Ameer Ahmed Khan and Mehmoodah Begum . His father , a police inspector , was inspired by the reformist thinking of Syed Ahmed Khan . In his early age , Khan 's mother introduced him to the poetry of Maulana Hali and Muhammad Iqbal , the sermons of Abul Kalam Azad , and the Sufist philosophy of Rumi . This upbringing influenced his interest in historical as well as contemporary social , economic , and political affairs .
Khan attended Government High School at Jalam ( Uttar Pradesh ) , and completed his education in 1930 at Agra College where he studied English literature and history . He read English literature , history , and philosophy for a Bachelor of Arts degree at Meerut College in 1932 . At that point , his mother was diagnosed with tuberculosis . She died in the same year at the age of 36 . Khan continued his studies and was awarded a Master of Arts in English Literature from Agra University in 1934 . He worked as a lecturer at Meerut College before joining the Indian Civil Service ( ICS ) in 1936 . As part of the ICS training , he was sent to read literature and history at Magdalene College , Cambridge , England . During the stay , he developed a close friendship with Choudhary Rahmat Ali .
Khan married Hameedah Begum ( the eldest daughter of Allama Mashriqi ) in 1940 . Together , they had three daughters ( Mariam , Amina , and Rasheeda ) and a son ( Akbar ) . After Hameedah Begum 's death in 1966 , he married Shafiq Khan and had one daughter , Ayesha . During his ICS career , Khan worked as collector of revenue , a position that brought him into regular contact with living conditions in rural areas of East Bengal . The Bengal famine of 1943 and subsequent inadequate handling of the situation by the colonial rulers led him to resign from the Indian Civil Service in 1945 . He wrote , " I realised that if I did not escape while I was young and vigorous , I will forever remain in the trap , and terminate as a bureaucratic big wig . " During this period , he was influenced by the philosophy of Nietzsche and Mashriqi , and joined the Khaksar Movement . This attachment was brief . He quit the movement and turned to Sufism . According to Khan , " I had a profound personal concern ; I wanted to live a life free from fear and anxiety , a calm and serene life , without turmoil and conflict . [ ... ] when I followed the advice of old Sufis and sages , and tried to curb my greed , my pride and aggression , fears , anxieties and conflict diminished . "
For the next two years , Khan worked in Mamoola village near Aligarh as a labourer and locksmith , an experience that provided him with firsthand knowledge of the problems and issues of rural communities . In 1947 , he took up a teaching position at the Jamia Millia , Delhi , where he worked for three years . In 1950 , Khan migrated to Pakistan to teach at Islamia College , Karachi . In the same year , he was invited by the Government of Pakistan to take charge as Principal of Comilla Victoria College in East Pakistan , a position he held until 1958 . During this time ( 1950 – 58 ) he also served as President of the East Pakistan Non @-@ Government Teachers ' Association .
= = Rural development initiatives = =
During his tenure as principal of Comilla Victoria College , Khan developed a special interest in grassroots actions . Between 1954 and 1955 , he took a break to work as director of the Village Agricultural and Industrial Development ( V @-@ AID ) Programme . However , he was not satisfied with the development approach adopted in the programme that was limited to the training of villagers . In 1958 , he went to Michigan State University to acquire education and training in rural development . Returning in 1959 , he established the Pakistan Academy for Rural Development ( PARD ) at Comilla on 27 May 1959 and was appointed as its founding director . He also laid foundations for the Comilla Cooperative Pilot Project in 1959 . In 1963 , he received a Ramon Magsaysay Award from the Government of the Philippines for his services in rural development . Khan became Vice @-@ chairman of the board of Governors of PARD in 1964 , and in the same year , was awarded an honorary Doctorate of law by Michigan State University . In 1969 , he delivered a series of lectures at Woodrow Wilson School , Princeton University , based on his experience with rural cooperatives . During the visit , he established collaborative links with Arthur Lewis .
On his return to East Pakistan , Khan remained attached to the Comilla Project until 1971 when East Pakistan became Bangladesh . Eventually , Khan moved to Pakistan . PARD was renamed as Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development ( BARD ) .
= = Advisory roles = =
Following his move to Pakistan , Khan was asked to implement the Comilla Model in rural settlements of North @-@ West Frontier Province ( now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa ) , Punjab , and Sindh . He declined the offer on the grounds that the proposals were predominantly motivated by political interests rather than the common well @-@ being . However , he continued to advise the authorities on various aspects of rural development , such as participatory irrigation management . He worked as a research fellow at the University of Agriculture , Faisalabad from 1971 to 1972 , and as Director of Rural Economics Research Project at Karachi University from 1972 to 1973 . Khan went to Michigan State University as a visiting professor in 1973 and remained there until 1979 . During this time , he carried on advising the Rural Development Academy at Bogra in northern Bangladesh , and the Pakistan Academy for Rural Development , Peshawar , on the Daudzai Integrated Rural Development Programme . He also traveled extensively during this period in the capacities of speaker , advisor , or consultant on rural development programmes across the world . In 1974 , he was appointed as a World Bank consultant to survey rural development situations in Java , Indonesia . He also briefly worked as a visiting professor at Lund University , Harvard University , and Oxford University .
In 1980 , Khan moved to Karachi and started working on the improvement of sanitary conditions in Karachi suburbs . He laid the foundations of the Orangi Pilot Project for the largest squatter community of Orangi in the city . He remained associated with this project until his death in 1999 . Meanwhile , he maintained his support for rural communities around Karachi , and also helped to develop the Aga Khan Rural Support Programme . OPP became a model for participatory bottom @-@ up development initiatives .
= = Major development programmes = =
= = = Comilla Cooperative Pilot Project = = =
The Comilla Model ( 1959 ) was Khan 's initiative in response to the failure of a Village Agricultural and Industrial Development ( V @-@ AID ) programme that was launched in 1953 in East and West Pakistan with technical assistance from the US government . V @-@ AID remained a government @-@ level attempt to promote citizen participation in the sphere of rural development . Khan launched the project in 1959 on his return from Michigan , and developed a methodology of implementation in the areas of agricultural and rural development on the principle of grassroots @-@ level participation . Initially , the aim was to provide a development model of programmes and institutions that could be replicated across the country . Advisory support in this respect was provided by experts from Harvard and Michigan State Universities , the Ford Foundation , and USAID . Practical help was also sought from Japan to improve the local farming techniques .
Comilla Model simultaneously addressed the problems that were caused by the inadequacy of both local infrastructure and institutions through a range of integrated programmes . The initiatives included the establishment of : a training and development centre ; a road @-@ drainage embankment works programme ; a decentralized , small scale irrigation programme ; and , a two @-@ tiered cooperative system with primary cooperatives operating in the villages , and federations operating at sub @-@ district level .
After Khan 's departure from Comilla , the cooperative 's model failed in independent Bangladesh because only a few occupational groups managed to achieve the desired success . By 1979 , only 61 of the 400 cooperatives were functioning . The model actually fell prey to the ineffective internal and external controls , stagnation , and diversion of funds . This prompted the subsequent scholars and practitioners in microfinance , such as Muhammad Yunus of Grameen Bank and Fazle Hasan Abed of BRAC , to abandon the cooperative approach in favour of more centralised control and service delivery structures . The new strategy targeted the poorest villagers , while excluding the ' less poor ' . However , Khan 's leadership skills during the course of his association with the project remained a source of inspiration for these leaders , as well as other participatory development initiatives in the country .
= = = Orangi Pilot Project = = =
The Orangi poverty alleviation project ( known as the Orangi Pilot Project , or OPP ) was initiated by Khan as an NGO in 1980 . Orangi is located on the northwest periphery of Karachi . At that time , it was the largest of the city 's approximately 650 low @-@ income squatter settlements ( known as katchi abadi ) . The locality was first developed in 1963 as a government township of 5 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 236 acres ) . The influx of migrants after the creation of Bangladesh swelled the settlement to about one million people crowded over an area of more than 32 square kilometres ( 7 @,@ 907 acres ) . The working class multi @-@ ethnic population was predominantly composed of day labourers , skilled workers , artisans , small shopkeepers , peddlers and low @-@ income white collar workers . The project proved an impetus to the socio @-@ economic development of the population of the area . As the project director , Khan proved to be a dynamic and innovative leader . The project initially focused on creating a system of underground sewers , using local materials and labour , and succeeded in laying hundreds of kilometres of drainage pipes along with auxiliary facilities . Within a decade of the initiative , local residents had established schools , health clinics , women 's work centres , cooperative stores and a credit organisation to finance enterprise projects . By 1993 , OPP had managed to provide low @-@ cost sewers to more than 72 @,@ 000 houses . The project subsequently diversified into a number of programmes , including a people 's financed and managed low @-@ cost sanitation programme ; a housing programme ; a basic health and family planning programme ; a programme of supervised credit for small family enterprise units ; an education programme ; and a rural development programme in the nearby villages .
Comparing the OPP with Comilla project , Akhtar Hameed Khan once commented :
The Orangi Pilot Project was very different from the Comilla Academy . OPP was a private body , dependent for its small fixed budget on another NGO . The vast resources and support of the government , Harvard advisors , MSU , and Ford Foundation was missing . OPP possessed no authority , no sanctions . It may observe and investigate but it could only advise , not enforce .
The successful OPP model became an inspiration for other municipalities around the country . In 1999 , Khan helped to create Lodhran Pilot Project ( LPP ) to collaborate with Lodhran municipal committee . Learning from past experiences , the project extended its scope to the whole town instead of concentrating on low @-@ income settlements only . The municipal partnership was itself a new initiative that ensured wider civic co @-@ operation .
The success of OPP did come at a cost for Dr Khan as his liberal views and self @-@ help initiatives were questioned and criticized by certain interest groups . At two occasions , he was accused of blasphemy . However , all allegations against him were acquitted by the courts of law and cleared by independent religious scholars .
= = Death and legacy = =
In 1999 , Khan was visiting his family in the United States when he suffered from kidney failure . He died of myocardial infarction on 9 October in Indianapolis at the age of 85 . His body was flown to Karachi on 15 October , where he was buried on the grounds of the OPP office compound .
Khan 's ideology and leadership skills were a source of inspiration for his students and colleagues , and continue to serve as guiding principles even after his death . Edgar Owens , who became an admirer of Khan 's ideology while working at USAID 's Asia Bureau , co @-@ authored a book with Robert Shaw as a result of observations and discussions with Khan at Comilla Academy . A later study of various rural development experiences from South Asia , edited by Uphoff and Cambell ( 1983 ) was jointly dedicated to Khan and Owens .
Soon after Khan 's death , on 10 April 2000 , the Government of Pakistan renamed the National Centre for Rural Development the Akhtar Hameed Khan National Centre for Rural Development and Municipal Administration . In the same year , the Akhtar Hameed Khan Resource Centre was established in Islamabad , under the auspices of the Institute of Rural Management , as a repository of published and digital resources on rural development . Later in 2005 , the Council of Social Sciences , Pakistan , in collaboration with the National Rural Support Programme and other institutions , announced the Akhtar Hameed Khan Memorial Award . The annual cash award is given on Khan 's birthday to a Pakistani author for a book on issues related to rural and urban development , peace , poverty alleviation , or gender discrimination . At the occasion of the award ceremony in 2006 , a documentary film about the life and times of Akhtar Hameed Khan was premiered . The film includes archival footage and interviews with family members , colleagues , and contributors and beneficiaries of the Comilla and OPP projects .
= = Awards and honours = =
Khan received the following civil awards :
Jinnah Award ( Posthumous , 2004 ) for services to people as founder of the Orangi Pilot Project .
Nishan @-@ e @-@ Imtiaz ( Posthumous , 2001 ) for services to the community .
Ramon Magsaysay Award ( 31 August 1963 , Manila , Philippines ) for services to rural development .
Sitara @-@ e @-@ Pakistan ( 1961 ) for pioneering work in rural development .
= = Publications = =
Khan was fluent in Arabic , Bengali , English , Hindi , Pali , Persian , and Urdu . He wrote several reports and monographs , mostly relating to rural development in general or his various successful and model initiatives in particular . He also published collections of poems and travelogues in Urdu .
= = = In English = = =
1956 , Bengal Reminances , vol 1 , 2 & 3 . Comilla Academy ( now the Bangladesh Academy for Rural Development ) , Comilla , Bangladesh .
1965 , Rural Development in East Pakistan , Speeches By Akhtar Hameed Khan . Asian Studies Center , Michigan State University .
1974 , Institutions for rural development in Indonesia , Pakistan Academy for Rural Development . Karachi .
1985 , Rural development in Pakistan . Vanguard Books . Lahore .
1994 , What I learnt in Comilla and Orangi . Paper presented at the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation ( SAARC ) seminar . Islamabad .
1996 , Orangi Pilot Project : Reminiscences and Reflections . The Oxford University Press : Karachi . ( editions : 1996 , 1999 , 2005 ) . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 597986 @-@ 2
1997 The sanitation gap : Development 's deadly menace . The Progress of Nations . UNICEF .
1998 , Community @-@ Based Schools and the Orangi Project . In Hoodbhoy , P ( ed . ) , Education and the State : Fifty Years of Pakistan , Chapter 7 , Karachi : Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 577825 @-@ 0
2000 , Twenty Weeks in America : A Diary , 3 September 1969 – 21 January 1970 . Translated from Urdu by Aqila Ismail . City Press . ISBN 969 @-@ 8380 @-@ 32 @-@ 9
= = = In Urdu = = =
1972 , Safar @-@ e @-@ Amrika ki Diary ( A Diary of Travels in America ) . The City Press : Karachi .
1988 , Chiragh aur Kanwal ( Collection of poems in Urdu ) . Saad Publishers . Karachi .
= Entre a Mi Mundo =
Entre a Mi Mundo ( English : Enter My World ) is the third studio album by American Tejano pop singer Selena . It was released on 6 May 1992 by EMI Latin , and re @-@ released on 22 September 2002 as part of the Selena : 20 Years of Music collection with bonus tracks and spoken liner notes by Selena 's family , friends , and former band . The album 's production was postponed due to Selena 's relationship with guitarist Chris Pérez , which garnered disapproval from her father and manager Abraham Quintanilla , Jr . , who threatened to disband the group . The record 's creation was further complicated by Selena 's Ven Conmigo Tour , which overran slightly as a result of her appearance in the corrido @-@ ballad " Buenos Amigos " with Salvadoran singer Álvaro Torres . Selena 's brother and music producer A.B. Quintanilla returned as the main songwriter for the album , assisted by lead keyboardist Ricky Vela and backup singer Pete Astudillo .
Entre a Mi Mundo incorporates mostly Tejano music and rancheras and was critically praised for its musical diversity . " Como La Flor " , which is a Mexican cumbia song , had become Selena 's signature song , and one of her best well @-@ known songs . " Como La Flor " peaked at number four on the US Latin Regional Mexican Airplay chart , and was a springboard for Selena 's success in the Latin music world . " La Carcacha " , which tells the story of a barrio teen romance , peaked at number one on the Latin Regional Mexican Airplay chart for almost six months . Other songs on the album were also remarked upon by several music critics . Entre a Mi Mundo peaked at number one on the Latin Regional Mexican Albums chart for eight consecutive months . The album sold 385 @,@ 000 copies in its first year , more than any other Tejano album by a female vocalist .
Entre a Mi Mundo was certified gold ( Latin type ) by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1992 , platinum ( Latin type ) in 1995 , double platinum in 2000 , and sextuple Disco De Platino in December 2002 , representing shipments of 600 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . It received mostly positive reviews , many critics agreed that it was Selena 's " breakthrough album " , and it helped to gain acceptance in Mexico . Some music critics compared several of Selena 's songs to works by Diana Ross and Leslie Gore . To promote the album , Selena embarked on her first worldwide tour . Entre a Mi Mundo won the prestigious " Album of the Year – Orchestra " award at the 1993 Tejano Music Awards and " Regional / Mexican Album of the Year " at the 1993 Lo Nuestro Awards .
= = Production and development = =
After Selena released Ven Conmigo on 12 November 1990 , she decided to postpone the recording of songs for her next album . Selena continued her short @-@ lived Ven Conmigo Tour and she was booked for her first performance in El Salvador to sing a duet with Salvadoran singer Álvaro Torres ' corrido @-@ ballad " Buenos Amigos " . At that time , Selena was also involved in a relationship with rock guitarist Chris Pérez , who was asked to join Selena 's backing band , Selena y Los Dinos . Their relationship began soon after Pérez joined the band . Selena 's father and manager Abraham Quintanilla , Jr. did not like Pérez , believing him to be antithesis of his children 's " clean image " , and dismissed Pérez from the band . Selena was warned not to see Pérez or face having Selena y Los Dinos disbanded . Selena ignored her father 's wishes ; she continued to meet Pérez secretly , and they eloped on 2 April 1992 . Quintanilla Jr . , accepted the relationship after she eloped and was remorseful , feeling that he had put pressure on Selena . After Selena had eloped , she decided to release a more Tejano and Mexican music @-@ influenced album . Her brother and the producer of her music , A.B. Quintanilla III had returned as the main songwriter while band members Ricky Vela ,
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92 using an unorthodox batting method . He played a few matches for Middlesex but later went to work in India , in effect ending his English first @-@ class career . He played first @-@ class cricket in India for the Europeans and after a successful legal career , returned to England . His son Douglas went on to play cricket for Oxford , Surrey and England , captaining the latter two and being associated with the use of Bodyline bowling .
= = Early life = =
Jardine was born in Simla , British India on 8 June 1869 to a family which had been connected with India for many years . He was the second son of William Jardine , a barrister and later a judge in Allahabad who had a successful legal career before he died from cholera aged 32 . He was educated at Fettes College , a boarding school in Edinburgh , making it into the school cricket team for four consecutive years . He established a good reputation and was appointed captain of the side in 1888 . That year , his batting average was 77 @.@ 70 , and he took 24 wickets at an average of 6 @.@ 30 , coming top of both sets of averages for the school .
= = First @-@ class cricketer = =
= = = Career at Oxford = = =
In 1889 , Jardine went to Balliol College , Oxford . He made his first @-@ class debut for Oxford University against the Gentlemen of England . In his third match , against Lancashire , he passed fifty for the first time . Although his next highest score in fifteen innings was just 33 , and he failed to reach double figures eight times , he was awarded his Blue . He had some success with his bowling , taking five wickets for 78 in a Surrey total of 614 . He played in the University Match but failed to score in either innings and Oxford lost heavily . In total , he scored 198 runs at an average of 13 @.@ 20 . The following season , Jardine scored more runs at a higher average , but failed to pass fifty in an innings . He scored 218 runs at an average of 14 @.@ 53 and did not bowl . Although he was more successful in the University Match , scoring 3 and 24 , Oxford lost again after being bowled out for 42 in their first innings . In 1891 , Jardine was appointed captain of the University . He further improved his aggregate and average with 255 runs at an average of 18 @.@ 21 , and took two wickets for five runs in the only innings in which he bowled . In the second and third matches , he scored 62 not out and 70 in consecutive innings against the Gentlemen of England and H Phillipson 's XI , but did not pass fifty again . Playing in the University Match , he scored a duck in the first innings and 15 in the second , and Oxford lost their third successive match , although they took eight wickets before Cambridge reached their target of 93 .
Jardine 's final season at Oxford was his most successful ; he recorded his highest aggregate and average despite playing only four matches for the club . At the start of the season , Lionel Palairet took over the captaincy . Jardine 's studies preventing him from playing in any of Oxford 's home games , and he did not appear in the team until June . He only took part in three games before the University Match , although in the last of these he scored 60 against Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) at Lord 's .
= = = 1892 University Match = = =
In his final University Match , Oxford batted first and Jardine 's innings began after his team had lost two wickets without scoring any runs . He batted for 285 minutes , scoring 140 . Before lunch , he played very carefully but increased his scoring rate afterwards . In total , he hit 21 fours and The Times described his innings as faultless . Wisden noted his strong defence and his powerful leg glance . Critics noted that he frequently hit Stanley Jackson to the leg side , a method of play which was unusual at the time . Players educated at Public School generally considered hitting to leg highly unorthodox and almost unfair . K. S. Ranjitsinhji , who was in the crowd at Lord 's , would develop the leg glance and make it respectable within a few years , but he had not yet made his first @-@ class debut in 1892 . It is likely that Jardine was one of the first players to use this shot . Jackson refused to depart from the orthodox methods of the time , continuing to bowl with seven fielders on the off side and only two on the leg side , making it easier for Jardine to score runs.The Times commented that Cambridge " appeared a little slow to grasp the idea of putting a man on the leg side for [ Jardine ] " . Jardine also hit 39 in the second innings as Oxford chased down a target to win for the only time in his University career . Jardine 's first innings remained his only first @-@ class century .
= = = Other first @-@ class cricket = = =
In the remainder of the 1892 season , Jardine played for Middlesex . He played six matches , but scored just 102 runs and averaged 12 @.@ 75 with the bat ; hitting a highest score of 32 not out . Subsequently , Jardine 's work as a barrister took him to India , and he played just four more first @-@ class matches in England . These were for the MCC at the beginning of the 1897 season , where he scored 185 runs at an average of 23 @.@ 12 with two fifties and a highest score of 85 . His only other first @-@ class cricket was for the Europeans cricket team in India . He played in the annual Presidency Match against the Parsees between 1894 and 1902 , only missing the 1899 and 1901 games . He scored just one fifty in eight matches , but his batting was admired by critics .
Although Jardine did not have an impressive first @-@ class record , critics including Ranjitsinjhi , and Plum Warner considered him a good batsman . C. B. Fry believed that if Jardine had played regular county cricket , he would have played for England . Fry described him as a superb fielder and as " a beautiful player , with a perfect back @-@ stroke and a perfect cut and neat late off drive . " He did not bowl regularly after 1889 , saving his energy for fielding . In 46 first @-@ class matches , he scored 1 @,@ 439 runs at an average of 17 @.@ 76 , took 15 wickets at an average of 14 @.@ 40 and held 42 catches .
= = Legal career = =
In 1893 , Jardine was called to the Bar by the Middle Temple in 1893 . He returned to India , where he practised at the Bombay Bar until 1916 . At the time , British barristers dominated the Indian legal system , finding considerable financial reward , but causing resentment among the Indian legal profession . At the same time , Jardine held positions of increasing influence in India . He was Perry Professor of Jurisprudence and Roman Law from 1898 to 1902 and then Principal of the Government Law School until 1903 . Subsequently , he was Clerk of the Crown , before being appointed Advocate General of Bombay in 1915 before retiring from India in 1916 .
In 1898 , he married Alison Moir and they had one son , Douglas in 1900 , who went on to play first @-@ class and Test cricket for Surrey and England . Eventually , Douglas became a controversial England captain , introducing a form of hostile bowling known as Bodyline . The family lived in a wealthy area of Bombay and were well known in its social and sporting circle . With Douglas at Public School , Jardine and his wife returned to England in 1916 . He took an interest in the Surrey team , becoming a member and later a vice @-@ president . His wife died in 1936 while Jardine died in South Kensington on 16 January 1947 .
= Ike 's Wee Wee =
" Ike 's Wee Wee " is the third episode of the second season of the animated television series South Park , and the 17th episode of the series overall . It first aired on Comedy Central in the United States on May 20 , 1998 . In the episode , school counselor Mr. Mackey is fired , and turns to drugs . Meanwhile , the boys misconstrue what circumcision entails , and try to save Kyle 's younger brother Ike from his upcoming bris .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . " Ike 's Wee Wee " satirizes certain attitudes towards drug users , and explores whether family can only mean those who are related by blood . This episode introduced Ike 's backstory as an adopted Canadian child . " Ike 's Wee Wee " received positive responses from fans , as well as critics who especially praised the episode for its touching moments . A line often repeated by Mr. Mackey in this episode , " drugs are bad , m 'kay ? " , has entered popular culture , and has been referenced in various songs , articles , and court documents .
= = Plot = =
Mr. Mackey , the school counselor , is giving a drug and alcohol prevention lecture for the class , emphasizing that smoking , drinking , marijuana , and LSD " are bad . " He passes a sample of marijuana around the class so that the children can learn its smell , but it is never passed back up to the front . We later see that Mr. Garrison stole it . But as a result , Mackey is fired , and is later kicked out of his house by his landlord , leaving him homeless . A desperate Mackey gives in to trying marijuana one night in an alley , and later , LSD . Soon enough , Mr. Mackey becomes a drug @-@ addled hippie , and meets a hippie woman , with whom he decides to get married . While on honeymoon in India , Mr. Mackey is captured by the A Team , Mr. Garrison and Principal Victoria and is taken into rehab . Mr. Mackey emerges clean from rehab and is given his job back .
Meanwhile , Kyle invites Stan , Cartman and Kenny to his younger brother Ike 's bris . When they learn more about what a bris is , and misconstrue it as a party where they are going to " chop off his penis " , Kyle is shocked and tries to find a way to hide his brother from his parents and the circumcision process . Kyle puts Ike on a train to Nebraska and makes an Ike @-@ style doll out of meat bones in an attempt to not arouse his parents ' suspicions . This backfires when the doll is eaten by a dog , and both the dog and doll are run over by a fuel tanker which then explodes in front of the Broflovskis ' house , which leads to them to think that Ike is dead . It is at the funeral that Kyle finds out that Ike is not his biological brother , but was adopted from Canada . Upon discovering this , Kyle decides that Ike is not his " real brother " and he no longer cares about him . His parents are shocked by what has happened , and Ike is retrieved from Nebraska . During the funeral , Kenny falls into an open grave and the gravestone falls on him .
The day of the bris arrives , and Kyle is grounded . When the mohel arrives to perform the bris , Ike flees to Kyle 's room in terror . Seeing Ike in distress and some old pictures prompts a change of heart in Kyle , and he defends his brother fiercely before it is explained to him what a circumcision actually is , at which point Stan and Cartman decide they want to be circumcised too . They then watch the process , and Kyle is relieved to see Ike unharmed . The episode ends with Mr. Mackey attempting to explain drugs to the children again , and the boys arguing about whose bris should be the next .
= = Production = =
" Ike 's Wee Wee " was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker . The scene where Mr. Mackey loses the marijuana cigarette in class was inspired by a real event from Parker 's life , where a counselor came into his class in seventh grade , and passed around a lit piece of marijuana , which then disappeared . At the beginning and end of the episode , there are scenes where the kids imitate Mr. Mackey 's voice to him , while he is oblivious to the fact that he is being made fun of . Parker and his classmates used to do the same thing to their counselor in junior high school who was the basis for Mr. Mackey 's character . Parker said that he was especially proud of Chef 's line " There 's a time and a place for everything , and it 's called college " , which is something Parker believes in , noting that if he had a child , he would tell him : " Do whatever you want , just wait till college because you don 't know what the fuck 's up right now . " Chef 's sentence would later return in the season four episode " The Tooth Fairy Tats 2000 " .
The episode introduced Ike 's backstory as a Canadian child adopted by the Broflovskis . Ever since the recurring characters Terrance and Phillip were established to be Canadians in the season one finale " Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut " , and the subsequent season two premiere " Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus " , all Canadian characters on South Park have shared the same simplistic design : having simple beady eyes , and a floppy head made up of two halves . While Ike had been on the show since its first episode , the writers originally did not know that he was going to be Canadian ; he was retroactively made one based on his visual similarity to Terrance and Phillip . Ike 's backstory would play an important role in the movie South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut , which involves a fictional American – Canadian war , as well as in future episodes of the series , such as the season seven episode " It 's Christmas in Canada " , in which Ike 's biological parents take him away from the Broflovskis , and bring him back to Canada .
" Ike 's Wee Wee " features regular voice acting from series creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone for most characters , Mary Kay Bergman ( credited as Shannen Cassidy ) for female characters , and Isaac Hayes for Chef . Additional dialogue was provided by South Park audio engineer Bruce Howell , while Ike 's lines were uttered by Howell 's then @-@ 5 @-@ year @-@ old son Jesse .
= = Themes = =
" Ike 's Wee Wee " raises the question of who really can be considered one 's family . At first , Kyle 's implicit idea is that family consists of " those for whom we care that are related by blood " . Based on this viewing of family , he no longer feels the need to help Ike when he learns that they are not related by blood . As the story progresses , Kyle questions his initial beliefs , and forms the episode 's central moral by saying that " Family isn 't about whose blood you have . It 's about who you care about . " Thus , Kyle 's reformed view of family not only includes his adopted brother , but his friends as well . Kyle 's questioning of his own morals has been likened to engaging in the dialectical Socratic method of inquiry .
The other plot in " Ike 's Wee Wee " satirizes certain drug subcultures , as well as drug use , and societal attitudes towards drug users . The way the episode portrays Mr. Mackey 's lack of real knowledge about drug use and addiction has been described as an example of South Park satirizing left @-@ wing politics , when " they lead to the sort of hypocrisy inconsistent with a proper open society . "
= = Cultural references = =
Part of the episode revolves around the practice of religious male circumcision in Judaism , and the related ceremony called the brit milah or bris , and the boys ' misunderstanding of the tradition ( to which they refer as " circumstition " ) . The boys believe that circumcision entails the cutting off of one 's penis , which they refer to by the childish colloquial term " wee wee " , except for Cartman , who insists on calling it " fireman " . Cannabis is also referred to by various names , including weed , grass , pot , and marijuana , in which Mr. Mackey constantly pronounces the letter j as / dʒ / ( as in jam ) , which makes Kyle mispronounce the drug as " marry @-@ Jew wanna " .
Drug use is often portrayed in conjunction with the hippie subculture , through hippie characters such as the two teenagers that give LSD to Mackey , and the woman that he befriends and eventually marries . Jimbo and Cartman both use the term hippie pejoratively . During their argument , Jimbo tells Mackey that he should just go to a Grateful Dead concert . On two occasions , the episode shows people watching Teletubbies while high on marijuana or in rehab . Teletubbies is a British children 's television show that started in 1997 . In his drug prevention speech , Mackey claims that LSD was made famous by John Lennon and Paul McCartney , former members of The Beatles . Both Lennon and McCartney are known to have experimented with the drug .
While walking home , Mr. Mackey drunkenly sings the 1983 Pat Benatar song " Love Is a Battlefield " . During Ike 's supposed funeral , a bagpipe player starts playing the Hebrew folk song " Hava Nagila " . At the funerals , the priest uses the phrase " Ashes to ashes , dust to dust " , from the Anglican burial service . When the townspeople start to harass Mackey , one of them shouts " Now we see what you and Homer Simpson have in common ... Dope ! " This references the famous catchphrase from The Simpsons , " D 'oh ! " , which sounds similar to the word dope , meaning illicit drugs . At Kyle 's house , Kyle 's parents offers the boys a dish called " GaHekgafuga " , which is not a real dish . When Mackey is in India , he is captured by members of The A @-@ Team , and driven away in their van . The A @-@ Team is a 1980s action adventure TV series . Mackey is taken to rehabilitation to the Betty Ford Clinic , which is based on a real @-@ life hospital .
A common plot device is referenced , where a shoulder angel ( represents conscience ) and a shoulder devil ( representing temptation ) appear near a character . This concept is spoofed in the episode , as both the devil and the angel suggest to Mackey that he should drink the beer . When Stan tells Kyle what he thinks a bris means , a dolly zoom is used , which is an unsettling filmmaking effect often used to show that a character is undergoing a major realization . The hallucinogenic effects of certain drugs are portrayed by different means . When inhaling cannabis , the alley that Mr. Mackey is in suddenly turns very colorful . After taking LSD , Mr. Mackey 's head inflates like a giant balloon , and then literally detaches from his body , and floats away .
In the scene when the boys are talking to Chef , he leaves without answering the boys ' sexual question , angrily saying , " Dammit , children , why do I always have to be the one to explain all this stuff to you . Ask your parents for once ! " This is in reference to Chef 's tendency to give advice to the boys . While the children are trying to think of what is the most important thing for a man , Cartman says " Ham ? " , to which Stan angrily replies , " No , not ham , you fat fuck ! " . This exchange was used verbatim between the same characters in The Spirit of Christmas , the 1995 short film that was the precursor to South Park .
= = Broadcast , reception , and impact = =
Two episodes preceded " Ike 's Wee Wee " in the second season of the show . The episode scheduled for April 1 , 1998 promised to resolve the cliffhanger ending of the first season finale , " Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut " , regarding the identity of Cartman 's father , but was in fact an April Fools ' Day joke : " Terrance and Phillip in Not Without My Anus " , an entire episode revolving around the two title characters . The April 1 day episode was supposed to be a one @-@ off , with the rest of the season starting in May . However , following overwhelmingly negative fan reaction , the episode resolving the Cartman 's father storyline , " Cartman 's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut " , was moved from its planned May 20 air date to April 22 . " Ike 's Wee Wee " then kicked off a 6 @-@ episode run of the season when it was broadcast on Comedy Central in the United States on May 20 , 1998 .
" Ike 's Wee Wee " was met with favorable reviews . Critics especially praised the episode for its touching moments , in contrast with the off @-@ color humor often employed in the series . In his review of the episode in the Chicago Tribune , Allan Johnson praised the episode , especially in comparison with the first two episodes of the season , and wrote that " ' Ike 's Wee Wee ' ranks with some of the better episodes of ' South Park . ' " Upon the series reaching its 100th episode in 2003 , the same writer also listed " Ike 's Wee Wee " as one of the " top 10 episodes that have made [ South Park ] one of the most provocative comedies on TV . " A South Park review in the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette said about the series that " [ i ] n the midst of all this potty @-@ mouthed humor , there are moments that are downright touching " , and particularly highlighted the ending of " Ike 's Wee Wee " as an example , explaining that " all 's well in the end , and Kyle and the boys learn a lesson about family values that even Dan Quayle would approve of . " In 2000 , visitors of the Comedy Central website chose " Ike 's Wee Wee " as their favorite episode during a voting called " South Park e @-@ Lections " , held around the time of the United States presidential election that year .
Mr. Mackey 's line " drugs are bad , m 'kay ? " has entered popular culture . The Eminem song " The Kids " – which is featured on the B @-@ side of the single " The Way I Am " and the clean version of The Marshall Mathers LP – is thematically about drug use , and makes numerous references to South Park and impressions of the show 's characters , including an impression of Mr. Mackey 's voice and the repetition of his line . The song " Hip Hop Quotables " by Ludacris , from his album Chicken @-@ n @-@ Beer , also contains the line . In 2008 , the line was referenced in the dissenting opinion of a judge , in a case of the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit . Also , in a 2010 marijuana @-@ related court case at the Maryland Court of Appeals , Judge Clayton Greene , Jr. referenced the episode in his dissenting opinion , calling Mr. Mackey 's words " immortal " . In 2011 , during a judiciary committee hearing about a marijuana @-@ related bill in Denver , Colorado , a representative showed off a potential packaging for edible marijuana products . According to a group called the Cannabis Therapy Institute , the label on the package , which bore the placeholder text " Legal and governmentally approved statement describing that pot is bad , M @-@ ok " , was a reference to the South Park episode . Comedy Central sells a poker chip @-@ shaped keychain that bears Mr. Mackey 's picture , along with his famous line .
= = Home release = =
" Ike 's Wee Wee " was released on VHS in April 1999 , along with the episode " Chickenlover " , on a video titled South Park : Volume 8 . The episode saw its first DVD release in December 1999 , on a disc called South Park : Volume 4 , which also included " Chickenlover " , as well as " Cartman 's Mom Is a Dirty Slut " and " Cartman 's Mom Is Still a Dirty Slut " . South Park : The Complete Second Season was released on DVD on June 3 , 2003 . On these home releases , " Ike 's Wee Wee " has a humorous introduction by creators Matt Stone and Trey Parker , who are playing music to the elderly in a retirement home . Episodes of season 2 have also been released digitally , on services such as Amazon Video , the iTunes Store , and Xbox Live Marketplace . Like most episodes of South Park , " Ike 's Wee Wee " is available to watch for free on the show 's website , SouthParkStudios.com.
= Marchantiophyta =
The Marchantiophyta / mɑːrˌkæntiˈɒfᵻtə / are a division of non @-@ vascular land plants commonly referred to as hepatics or liverworts . Like mosses and hornworts , they have a gametophyte @-@ dominant life cycle , in which cells of the plant carry only a single set of genetic information .
It is estimated that there are about 9000 species of liverworts . Some of the more familiar species grow as a flattened leafless thallus , but most species are leafy with a form very much like a flattened moss . Leafy species can be distinguished from the apparently similar mosses on the basis of a number of features , including their single @-@ celled rhizoids . Leafy liverworts also differ from most ( but not all ) mosses in that their leaves never have a costa ( present in many mosses ) and may bear marginal cilia ( very rare in mosses ) . Other differences are not universal for all mosses and liverworts , but the occurrence of leaves arranged in three ranks , the presence of deep lobes or segmented leaves , or a lack of clearly differentiated stem and leaves all point to the plant being a liverwort .
Liverworts are typically small , usually from 2 – 20 mm wide with individual plants less than 10 cm long , and are therefore often overlooked . However , certain species may cover large patches of ground , rocks , trees or any other reasonably firm substrate on which they occur . They are distributed globally in almost every available habitat , most often in humid locations although there are desert and arctic species as well . Some species can be a nuisance in shady green @-@ houses or a weed in gardens .
= = Physical characteristics = =
= = = Description = = =
Most liverworts are small , usually from 2 – 20 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 08 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide with individual plants less than 10 centimetres ( 4 in ) long , so they are often overlooked . The most familiar liverworts consist of a prostrate , flattened , ribbon @-@ like or branching structure called a thallus ( plant body ) ; these liverworts are termed thallose liverworts . However , most liverworts produce flattened stems with overlapping scales or leaves in two or more ranks , the middle rank is often conspicuously different from the outer ranks ; these are called leafy liverworts or scale liverworts . ( See the gallery below for examples . )
Liverworts can most reliably be distinguished from the apparently similar mosses by their single @-@ celled rhizoids . Other differences are not universal for all mosses and all liverworts ; but the lack of clearly differentiated stem and leaves in thallose species , or in leafy species the presence of deeply lobed or segmented leaves and the presence of leaves arranged in three ranks , all point to the plant being a liverwort . Unlike any other embryophytes , most liverworts contain unique membrane @-@ bound oil bodies containing isoprenoids in at least some of their cells , lipid droplets in the cytoplasm of all other plants being unenclosed . The overall physical similarity of some mosses and leafy liverworts means that confirmation of the identification of some groups can be performed with certainty only with the aid of microscopy or an experienced bryologist .
Liverworts have a gametophyte @-@ dominant life cycle , with the sporophyte dependent on the gametophyte . Cells in a typical liverwort plant each contain only a single set of genetic information , so the plant 's cells are haploid for the majority of its life cycle . This contrasts sharply with the pattern exhibited by nearly all animals and by most other plants . In the more familiar seed plants , the haploid generation is represented only by the tiny pollen and the ovule , while the diploid generation is the familiar tree or other plant . Another unusual feature of the liverwort life cycle is that sporophytes ( i.e. the diploid body ) are very short @-@ lived , withering away not long after releasing spores . Even in other bryophytes , the sporophyte is persistent and disperses spores over an extended period .
= = = Life cycle = = =
The life of a liverwort starts from the germination of a haploid spore to produce a protonema , which is either a mass of thread @-@ like filaments or else a flattened thallus . The protonema is a transitory stage in the life of a liverwort , from which will grow the mature gametophore ( " gamete @-@ bearer " ) plant that produces the sex organs . The male organs are known as antheridia ( singular : antheridium ) and produce the sperm cells . Clusters of antheridia are enclosed by a protective layer of cells called the perigonium ( plural : perigonia ) . As in other land plants , the female organs are known as archegonia ( singular : archegonium ) and are protected by the thin surrounding perichaetum ( plural : perichaeta ) . Each archegonium has a slender hollow tube , the " neck " , down which the sperm swim to reach the egg cell .
Liverwort species may be either dioicous or monoicous . In dioicous liverworts , female and male sex organs are borne on different and separate gametophyte plants . In monoicous liverworts , the two kinds of reproductive structures are borne on different branches of the same plant . In either case , the sperm must move from the antheridia where they are produced to the archegonium where the eggs are held . The sperm of liverworts is biflagellate , i.e. they have two tail @-@ like flagellae that enable them to swim short distances , provided that at least a thin film of water is present . Their journey may be assisted by the splashing of raindrops . In 2008 , Japanese researchers discovered that some liverworts are able to fire sperm @-@ containing water up to 15 cm in the air , enabling them to fertilize female plants growing more than a metre from the nearest male .
When sperm reach the archegonia , fertilisation occurs , leading to the production of a diploid sporophyte . After fertilisation , the immature sporophyte within the archegonium develops three distinct regions : ( 1 ) a foot , which both anchors the sporophyte in place and receives nutrients from its " mother " plant , ( 2 ) a spherical or ellipsoidal capsule , inside which the spores will be produced for dispersing to new locations , and ( 3 ) a seta ( stalk ) which lies between the other two regions and connects them . When the sporophyte has developed all three regions , the seta elongates , pushing its way out of the archegonium and rupturing it . While the foot remains anchored within the parent plant , the capsule is forced out by the seta and is extended away from the plant and into the air . Within the capsule , cells divide to produce both elater cells and spore @-@ producing cells . The elaters are spring @-@ like , and will push open the wall of the capsule to scatter themselves when the capsule bursts . The spore @-@ producing cells will undergo meiosis to form haploid spores to disperse , upon which point the life cycle can start again .
= = = = Asexual reproduction = = = =
Some liverworts are capable of asexual reproduction ; in bryophytes in general " it would almost be true to say that vegetative reproduction is the rule and not the exception . " For example , in Riccia , when the older parts of the forked thalli die , the younger tips become separate individuals .
Some thallose liverworts such as Marchantia polymorpha and Lunularia cruciata produce small disc @-@ shaped gemmae in shallow cups . Marchantia gemmae can be dispersed up to 120 cm by rain splashing into the cups . In Metzgeria , gemmae grow at thallus margins . Marchantia polymorpha is a common weed in greenhouses , often covering the entire surface of containers ; gemma dispersal is the " primary mechanism by which liverwort spreads throughout a nursery or greenhouse . "
= = Ecology = =
Today , liverworts can be found in many ecosystems across the planet except the sea and excessively dry environments , or those exposed to high levels of direct solar radiation . As with most groups of living plants , they are most common ( both in numbers and species ) in moist tropical areas . Liverworts are more commonly found in moderate to deep shade , though desert species may tolerate direct sunlight and periods of total desiccation .
= = Classification = =
= = = Relationship to other plants = = =
Traditionally , the liverworts were grouped together with other bryophytes ( mosses and hornworts ) in the Division Bryophyta , within which the liverworts made up the class Hepaticae ( also called Marchantiopsida ) . However , since this grouping makes the Bryophyta paraphyletic , the liverworts are now usually given their own division . The use of the division name Bryophyta sensu lato is still found in the literature , but more frequently the Bryophyta now is used in a restricted sense to include only the mosses .
Another reason that liverworts are now classified separately is that they appear to have diverged from all other embryophyte plants near the beginning of their evolution . The strongest line of supporting evidence is that liverworts are the only living group of land plants that do not have stomata on the sporophyte generation . Among the earliest fossils believed to be liverworts are compression fossils of Pallaviciniites from the Upper Devonian of New York . These fossils resemble modern species in the Metzgeriales . Another Devonian fossil called Protosalvinia also looks like a liverwort , but its relationship to other plants is still uncertain , so it may not belong to the Marchantiophyta . In 2007 , the oldest fossils assignable to the liverworts were announced , Metzgeriothallus sharonae from the Givetian ( Middle Devonian ) of New York , United States . However , in 2010 , five different types of fossilized liverwort spores were found in Argentina , dating to the much earlier Middle Ordovician , around 470 million years ago .
= = = Internal classification = = =
Bryologists classify liverworts in the division Marchantiophyta . This divisional name is based on the name of the most universally recognized liverwort genus Marchantia . In addition to this taxon @-@ based name , the liverworts are often called Hepaticophyta . This name is derived from their common Latin name as Latin was the language in which botanists published their descriptions of species . This name has led to some confusion , partly because it appears to be a taxon @-@ based name derived from the genus Hepatica which is actually a flowering plant of the buttercup family Ranunculaceae . In addition , the name Hepaticophyta is frequently misspelled in textbooks as Hepatophyta , which only adds to the confusion .
Although there is no consensus among bryologists as to the classification of liverworts above family rank , the Marchantiophyta may be subdivided into three classes :
The Jungermanniopsida includes the two orders Metzgeriales ( simple thalloids ) and Jungermanniales ( leafy liverworts ) .
The Marchantiopsida includes the three orders Marchantiales ( complex @-@ thallus liverworts ) , and Sphaerocarpales ( bottle hepatics ) , as well as the Blasiales ( previously placed among the Metzgeriales ) . It also includes the problematic genus Monoclea , which is sometimes placed in its own order Monocleales .
A third class , the Haplomitriopsida is newly recognized as a basal sister group to the other liverworts ; it comprises the genera Haplomitrium , Treubia , and Apotreubia .
An updated classification by Söderström et al . 2016
Marchantiophyta Stotler & Crandall @-@ Stotler 2000
Haplomitriopsida Stotler & Crandall @-@ Stotler 1977
Haplomitriales Hamlin 1972
Treubiales Schljakov 1972
Marchantiopsida Cronquist , Takhtajan & Zimmermann 1966
Blasiidae He @-@ Nygrén et al . 2006
Blasiales Stotler & Crandall @-@ Stotler 2000
Marchantiidae Engler 1893 sensu He @-@ Nygrén et al . 2006
Neohodgsoniales Long 2006
Sphaerocarpales Cavers 1910 ( bottle liverworts )
Lunulariales Long 2006
Marchantiales Limpricht 1877 ( complex thalloids )
Jungermanniopsida Stotler & Crandall @-@ Stotler 1977
Pelliidae He @-@ Nygrén et al . 2006
Pelliales He @-@ Nygrén et al . 2006
Pallaviciniales Frey & Stech 2005
Fossombroniales Schljakov 1972
Metzgeriidae Bartholomew @-@ Began 1990
Pleuroziales Schljakov 1972
Metzgeriales Chalaud 1930
Jungermanniidae Engler 1893 ( leafy liverworts )
Porellales Schljakov 1972
Ptilidiales Schljakov 1972
Jungermanniales von Klinggräff 1858
It is estimated that there are about 9000 species of liverworts , at least 85 % of which belong to the leafy group . Despite that fact , no liverwort genomes have been sequenced to date and only few genes identified and characterized .
= = Economic importance = =
In ancient times , it was believed that liverworts cured diseases of the liver , hence the name . In Old English , the word liverwort literally means liver plant . This probably stemmed from the superficial appearance of some thalloid liverworts ( which resemble a liver in outline ) , and led to the common name of the group as hepatics , from the Latin word hēpaticus for " belonging to the liver " . An unrelated flowering plant , Hepatica , is sometimes also referred to as liverwort because it was once also used in treating diseases of the liver . This archaic relationship of plant form to function was based in the " Doctrine of Signatures " .
Liverworts have little direct economic importance today . Their greatest impact is indirect , through the reduction of erosion along streambanks , their collection and retention of water in tropical forests , and the formation of soil crusts in deserts and polar regions . However , a few species are used by humans directly . A few species , such as Riccia fluitans , are aquatic thallose liverworts sold for use in aquariums . Their thin , slender branches float on the water 's surface and provide habitat for both small invertebrates and the fish that feed on them .
= = Gallery = =
A small collection of images showing liverwort structure and diversity :
= Tai Streets =
Tai Lamar Streets ( born April 20 , 1977 ) is a former professional American football wide receiver in the National Football League ( NFL ) . He was selected with the second pick of the sixth round of the 1999 NFL Draft by the San Francisco 49ers . He also played for the Detroit Lions in 2004 . He was the leading receiver for the national champion 1997 Michigan Wolverines football team . Over the course of his career he was notable for fourth quarter performances in various bowl games and NFL playoff games . As a professional athlete , he was known for his modesty . As an amateur athlete , he was known as one of the best high school athletes in the city of Chicago .
In high school , he was an All @-@ American in football and as a senior led his team to a 9 – 0 regular season before losing in the playoffs . In basketball , he was an All @-@ State selection by numerous publications and led his team past Kevin Garnett 's high school team to reach the finals of the state championship playoff tournament . Despite losing in the finals , he was the highest votegetter on the All @-@ tournament team . In track , he was a state long jump champion as a junior and runner @-@ up as a senior when he also helped his school 's 4 x 400 metres relay team finish third in the state . In 1995 , he was widely regarded as the best high school athlete in the Chicago metropolitan area , winning athlete of the year awards from the Chicago Tribune , Chicago Sun @-@ Times and Illinois High School Association . He is considered to be one of the greatest three @-@ sport athletes in the history of Illinois .
Streets led the Michigan Wolverines football team in receiving yards each season from 1996 – 1998 . He had two touchdown receptions in the 1998 Rose Bowl , which clinched a share of the national championship . During his years as the primary receiver , there were quarterback controversies each year with battles among Brian Griese , Scott Dreisbach , Tom Brady and Drew Henson . As a senior , he was voted football team MVP and All @-@ Big Ten Conference second @-@ team wide receiver . That season , he posted five 100 @-@ yard games and totaled over one thousand yards . He played in the Senior Bowl and was selected for the Hula Bowl . He was injured right before the 1999 draft causing him to slip from a projected second @-@ round selection to a sixth @-@ round choice . As a sophomore , he played part of the season for the 1996 – 97 Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball team , which won the 1997 National Invitation Tournament , but has since vacated the championship due to the University of Michigan basketball scandal .
Streets had modest success as a professional in five seasons with the 49ers . He began as a fourth wide receiver on a team with perennial Pro Bowl receivers Jerry Rice and Terrell Owens , but he eventually became a starter before moving on to play his final season with the Lions . His career was highlighted by playoff performances in which he caught at least four receptions for at least 50 yards in all three playoff games . He recorded two fourth quarter playoff touchdowns one of which was the game @-@ winner in a 24 @-@ point comeback victory and the other of which was a game @-@ tying touchdown in a losing effort .
= = Early life = =
Streets was born in Matteson , Illinois . His mother , Karen Streets , named him after Olympic figure skater Tai Babilonia . Streets ' father is Clayton Streets . His mother kept him active in sports as a youth to keep him out of trouble . His mother describes him as a clumsy awkward youth and his father remembers him for his duck @-@ footed stance . However , his father says the first time he saw Tai play youth football , he outran everyone on the other team when running an end reverse . Streets has younger sisters named Aja and Jad .
= = High school = =
After Streets ' parents separated , he lived with his mother in Matteson . She started him in track , which quickly supplanted baseball , which he last played at age 12 . At Rich South High School of Richton Park , Illinois he participated initially in basketball and track with basketball in his sights for professional success . As a sophomore , Streets briefly played halfback for the football team , but he broke his ankle in a freak accident after the second game , and vowed never to return . Rich South coach Hud Venerable , who had seen videotapes of Streets , set out to bring him back as a junior . He attempted to recruit Streets by attending his basketball games and track meets . He knew Streets wanted to play wide receiver . He realized football could provide a better college opportunity than basketball , especially for a 6 @-@ foot @-@ 4 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) athlete such as himself . After he returned to football , he became widely known in all three sports .
As a sophomore in 1992 – 93 , Streets scored 20 points and posted 12 rebounds in his first varsity basketball game for Rich South on January 22 , 1993 . The team finished that season with a 14 – 10 record . That same season , Streets won the Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) triple jump championship . As a junior , he helped the team compile a 26 – 2 record as it entered the sectional finals . In track , he won the Class AA state championship in the long jump on his final jump of 23 feet 7 inches ( 7 @.@ 19 m ) and was leading in the triple jump with a jump of 49 feet 8 @.@ 25 inches ( 15 @.@ 14 m ) until Byron Topps leapt to a state record of 50 feet 7 inches ( 15 @.@ 42 m ) . During his junior year , he was recognized , along with fellow future professional football player Donovan McNabb , as one of the 16 best boy athletes in the Chicago metropolitan area by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times for his efforts in high school football , basketball and track . That spring he was also selected as one of the ten best football prospects in the Chicago area by high school athlete expert Tom Lemming for his play at wide receiver . College coaches who recruit in the Chicago area selected him as one of the top 16 1994 football prospects . One recruiting service rated him as one of the top five football prospects in Illinois and one of the top three wide receiver prospects in the United States . During the summer between his junior and senior year Streets was selected as to the All @-@ Tournament team for the AAU 17 & under men 's basketball National Invitational Tournament held in Kenner , Louisiana .
Streets moved in with his dad and transferred to Thornton Township High School . At the time of his 1994 senior year transfer to Harvey , Illinois 's Thornton , Streets was described by a Chicago Sun @-@ Times journalist as " the best high school athlete in Illinois " . The Sun @-@ Times chose him as one of the six best football prospects in the area and as an All @-@ Area Offensive selection before his senior season . He was a preseason All @-@ American in football . Lemming named him as one of the top 100 senior prospects in the nation . By this time , Lemming considered him to be the best high school wide receiver in Illinois . According to Sporting News , Streets and Randy Moss were among the four best wide receivers in the nation . National Recruiting Advisor listed him fifth behind Peter Warrick , Moss , Mondriel Fulcher , and Corey Jones .
Streets and sophomore quarterback Antwaan Randle El helped Thornton snap Homewood @-@ Flossmoor High School 's 44 @-@ game conference winning streak in the SICA East in football . Over the course of the season he helped Thornton achieve a 9 – 0 record on its way to the Class 6A state playoffs . Although Streets accumulated nine receptions for 145 yards in the playoff game , he only had one touchdown in the waning moments and was kept from making gamebreaking plays when it mattered . He ended the season as a Chicago Tribune second @-@ team All @-@ state selection . In high school , he aspired to have a broadcasting career after athletics like his role model Ahmad Rashad and also had visions of Olympic Games competition . As late as December of his senior year , he was considering Michigan , Illinois , Notre Dame , Wisconsin and South Carolina . In January 1995 , he selected the University of Michigan because of its tradition of producing National Football League wide receivers such as Anthony Carter , Derrick Alexander , Desmond Howard and Chris Calloway . Streets was part of a Michigan football recruiting class that included Tom Brady and Charles Woodson . Streets was selected to play in the Chicago Public League Football Coaches Association eighth annual Harold Washington All @-@ Star Football Game . In the 12th annual Suburban All @-@ Star Football Classic , Streets caught a 37 @-@ yard fly pattern for the game @-@ winning touchdown .
During his senior basketball season , he was named by the Chicago Tribune as a Prep Athlete of the Week for leading Thornton to victory over Champaign , Illinois ' Centennial High School , the 12th ranked school in the state . After the regular season , he was a member of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times All @-@ Area team as well as their Class AA All @-@ State team headlined by Player of the Year Kevin Garnett . He was also selected to the Champaign @-@ Urbana News @-@ Gazette All @-@ state team . Eventually , Streets was named to all five notable All @-@ State teams . In the state playoffs , Streets helped lead Thornton to victory over Garnett 's number @-@ one @-@ ranked Farragut Academy team , which also included Ronnie Fields and Michael Wright , in the Class AA state quarterfinals . In the championship game , Streets had a game @-@ high 15 rebounds in a losing effort against Manual High School as Thornton finished with a 30 – 2 record . Streets was the highest vote @-@ getter on the Associated Press Class AA all @-@ tournament team . He was selected to play in the Illinois Basketball Coaches Association all @-@ star game . Streets scored 12 points and had 10 rebounds in the game . Streets was also selected as a member of the Chicago Suburban All @-@ Stars . He placed fourth in the 1995 Illinois Mr. Basketball selection that Garnett won in a landslide . USA Today recognized him as an honorable mention All @-@ USA selection . He was part of a Michigan Wolverines men 's basketball incoming number @-@ one ranked recruiting class with three McDonald 's All @-@ Americans : Robert Traylor , Albert White , and Louis Bullock .
During his 1995 senior track season , he ran a sub @-
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home in Cook County , Illinois in front of a large gathering of friends and family against Northwestern when he recorded 12 receptions for 150 yards in an October 5 17 – 16 loss . This first appearance in the Chicago area would be his collegiate career @-@ best in terms of single @-@ game receptions . The 12 receptions was a school record , but it was overshadowed by a fumble that changed the momentum of the game . Streets caught two touchdown passes both in rivalry games : the opening score from Dreisbach in the 44 – 10 victory against Minnesota and the only touchdown in a 13 – 9 victory over Ohio State from Griese . In his sophomore year , after the football season ended with the January 1 , 1997 Outback Bowl game , he joined the Michigan Wolverines basketball team in the last week of January and made his debut in a February 1 , 1997 game against Michigan State . The team went on to win the 1997 National Invitation Tournament on March 27 that season , and Streets played a few minutes in four of the five games . However , due to the University of Michigan basketball scandal the championship has been vacated . After the basketball season ended , Streets rejoined the football team for Spring practice , and he led all receivers with four receptions for 125 yards in the annual spring game on April 12 .
According to his mother , during the summer prior to his 1997 junior year , Streets dedicated himself to weight training like he never had before in an effort to end a Rose Bowl draught that made the 1997 Wolverines the first since the 1969 team to have no Rose Bowl veterans . Although Streets and Russell Shaw were the starting receivers , it was understood that Charles Woodson , who was regarded as one of the most versatile athletes in college football , was expected to play on offense that season . However , it was not clear whether Dreisbach , Brady or Griese would quarterback the team . Griese was named starter shortly before the season opener . It was believed that a solid season by any of the quarterbacks could lead to a productive season by Streets and the receivers . Streets ' first touchdown of the season was a 41 @-@ yard game @-@ tying catch from Griese in a 21 – 14 September 27 victory in the rivalry game against Notre Dame . During the season , Streets dislocated both thumbs , with the second injury occurring in the November 1 Little Brown Jug game against Minnesota . Streets caught no passes against either Minnesota or Penn State the following week . His production drought was notable and he recovered on November 15 with five catches for 108 yards including a 38 @-@ yard touchdown from Griese on November 15 against Wisconsin . Although the injury @-@ hampered Streets went without a catch in three of the last four regular season tames he caught touchdown passes of 53 and 58 yards and drew a key pass interference penalty in the 1998 Rose Bowl . The Rose Bowl performance was Streets ' season @-@ high with 127 receiving yards and two touchdowns . It helped solidify Michigan 's case as the Bowl Alliance national champion .
In 1998 , Streets ' returned for his senior season with several experienced receivers including 1997 All @-@ American tight end Tuman . The 1998 Michigan Wolverines football team entered the season with a quarterback battle between Brady , Driesbach and Drew Henson and wide receiver battle between David Terrell and Marquise Walker . In the season September 5 opening game loss against Notre Dame , Streets caught 8 passes for 101 yards in the first half and Marcus Knight accounted for 126 of Michigan 's 322 passing yards from Brady and Henson . Streets had back @-@ to @-@ back 100 yard games in October : He posted 117 yards on eight receptions in the October 24 homecoming game against Indiana , and he had a career @-@ high 192 yards against Minnesota on October 31 . Against Ohio State , he caught Michigan 's only touchdown in a 31 – 16 November 21 loss as part of a 9 catch and 118 yard effort . In the game @-@ tying touchdown drive in the fourth quarter of the 1999 Florida Citrus Bowl victory over Arkansas , Streets caught a 15 @-@ yard completion on third @-@ and @-@ 11 and the 8 @-@ yarder on fourth @-@ and @-@ 2 on his way to a career @-@ ending 7 @-@ catch 129 @-@ yard effort . Streets caught a fourth @-@ quarter touchdown pass and two @-@ point conversion in the January 23 , 1999 Senior Bowl , and he was on the January 24 , 1999 Hula Bowl roster .
As a senior , Streets totalled 1035 yards and 11 touchdowns on 76 receptions , and he was named team Most Valuable Player for the 1998 season . Streets was voted to the All @-@ Big Ten Second Team in 1998 . Streets remains second to Jack Clancy on the all @-@ time Michigan single game receptions yardage list with 192 . Streets led the Michigan receivers statistically for three consecutive years from 1996 – 1998 ( Yards 1996 – 1998 , Receptions 1996 & 1998 , Receiving touchdowns 1997 – 1998 ) . Streets finished his career at Michigan with 2284 yards and 19 touchdowns on 144 receptions .
At the March NFL Combine , Streets ran the third fastest 40 @-@ yard dash in a time of 4 @.@ 42 seconds . Streets was regarded as between the 6th and 8th best wide receiver in the 1999 NFL Draft according to most expert analyses in April . However , he ruptured his right achilles tendon in a pickup basketball game prior to the draft and was expected to be sidelined for six to eight months . As a result , he was the twentieth wide receiver selected . Streets , who was on crutches at the time of the draft , was relieved to have been drafted .
= = Professional career = =
= = = San Francisco 49ers = = =
The San Francisco 49ers , who had Jerry Rice , Terrell Owens , and J. J. Stokes , did not need a wide receiver right away and gambled on the projected 2nd @-@ round selection with their sixth round pick . Head coach Steve Mariucci said that the team had evaluated his prospect as an injured athlete and had determined him to be a good selection for later rounds despite his injury . Streets was the only 1999 draftee not to sign in July when the other draftees signed , but he signed just before the end of the month . Just before the season started , Streets was placed on the reserve non @-@ football injury list in order to make roster space for Na 'il Benjamin and Damon Griffin . Streets was activated onto the 53 @-@ man roster prior to week 13 of the season to replace the injured R. W. McQuarters . He activated for the gameday roster three weeks later for the final two games . In his second game , he caught his first two NFL receptions on the Monday Night Football season finale .
When Streets had the chance to exhibit his skills during the 2000 NFL season for the 2000 49ers , he proved himself to be the only speed receiver with the ability to create big plays downfield , but he remained the fourth receiver . During the season as the number four receiver , Streets caught a total of 19 receptions , and he caught four in both games Owens was inactive . In mid @-@ December , Streets broke his tibia and ended his season two weeks prior to the end of the season . The game was Rice 's last home game as a 49er and the day that Owens set the then @-@ NFL record for single @-@ game receptions , with 20 .
In the 2001 NFL season , Rice signed with the Oakland Raiders . Streets became the number three receiver for the 2001 49ers behind Stokes and Owens that season . In the season opener against the Atlanta Falcons , Streets totaled 81 yards receiving as part of a 335 @-@ yard day by Garcia . This was Streets ' single @-@ game season @-@ high yardage total for the season . It included a 52 @-@ yard overtime catch on 3rd @-@ and @-@ 5 in the game @-@ winning drive , the longest reception of Streets ' career and more yards than he would accumulate in any single game the rest of the season . Streets recorded his first career touchdown on December 2 , 2001 against the Buffalo Bills . Over the course of the season Streets started three games and his total receptions and yards compared to the prior season increased from 19 to 28 and 287 to 345 , respectively . The 2001 – 02 NFL playoffs were Streets ' NFL playoff debut . In the team 's only game against Green Bay , Streets tied for the team @-@ high with four receptions and 50 yards , just two yards short of Stokes ' 52 @-@ yard effort . Streets caught a fourth @-@ quarter touchdown and game @-@ tying two @-@ point conversion in the game , but the 49ers yielded ten fourth quarter points to lose 25 – 15 .
In the 2002 NFL season , Stokes often performed the role of a tight end , and got injured clearing the way for Streets to start in some games for the 2002 49ers . Streets started a total of 14 games that season . He had eight receptions three times , but recorded no 100 @-@ yard games . The final eight @-@ reception game against the Arizona Cardinals on December 21 would prove to be Streets ' career @-@ high 90 @-@ yard game . The following week on the final Monday Night game of the regular season , Streets posted his first and only two @-@ touchdown effort in a losing cause against the St. Louis Rams . That season , Streets posted his career @-@ highs in yards ( 756 ) and receptions ( 72 ) and totaled five touchdowns for the first time . The 49ers ' season continued into the 2002 – 03 NFL playoffs and Streets caught five receptions in both of the teams ' playoff games , including a game @-@ winning touchdown with one minute remaining in the January 5 , 2003 39 – 38 victory over the New York Giants . The Giants game was memorable for its 24 @-@ point comeback by the 49ers . Despite the natural glory of the game @-@ winning catch , Streets remained a modest footnote in the press and humble with his friends . After the season , Streets was a restricted free agent . He was expected to be signed and traded to another team before the 2003 NFL draft in order to improve the 49ers ' draft position .
The team replaced Mariucci with Dennis Erickson in February 2003 . Before the 2003 NFL season , Stokes , who at the end of 2002 had been struggling to hold on to the third receiver position , was signed by the Jacksonville Jaguars . Streets started every game for the 2003 49ers . His best performance in terms of receptions and yards was a December 14 6 @-@ reception 89 @-@ yard day that included a 41 @-@ yard touchdown against the Cincinnati Bengals , which was his longest reception of the season . That season he totaled 47 receptions and 595 yards as well as a career @-@ high seven touchdowns . Over the course of the season he was slowed by knee tendinitis and after the season he wanted to return to the Midwest . Streets along with Owens , starting quarterback Garcia and starting running back Garrison Hearst , and starting offensive linemen Derrick Deese and Ron Stone were all let go by the team that year . That is regarded as the biggest release of offensive starters in NFL history by a team in a single season .
= = = Detroit Lions = = =
In March , Streets signed with the Detroit Lions , for the 2004 NFL season . In the 2004 NFL Draft , the Lions drafted wide receiver Roy Williams with the seventh overall selection one year after drafting Rogers in the first round . Williams and Rogers were projected as the starters with Streets considered the third receiver as the season began . Rogers broke his collarbone on the third play of the season and was lost for the entire year . Streets started 12 of the 13 games that he played for the 2004 Lions while accumulating 260 yards on 28 receptions . In the seventh game against the Dallas Cowboys on October 31 , Roy Williams leveled Streets , who did not catch another pass in the game after the second quarter hit . Streets did not return to practice until November 17 . He was in the lineup on November 21 , and caught a pass against the Minnesota Vikings . Streets was listed with an injured knee after the December 26 game against the Chicago Bears . Streets did not appear in the Lions ' final game of the season on January 2 . After the season , he was an unrestricted free agent , due to his years of seniority . The 49ers received a compensatory draft pick in the 2005 NFL Draft for losing Streets to free agency . Instead of re @-@ signing Streets , the Lions signed wide receiver Kevin Johnson in April 2005 .
= = Personal = =
Streets was active in mentoring and coaching youth basketball while he was a professional football player . He coached a team to the 16 @-@ under national AAU championship . Streets was actively involved in creating and expanding the Chicago @-@ area AAU basketball program . He founded and coaches the Meanstreets AAU travelling club team , that has included players like Anthony Davis . Streets was also active in coaching local all @-@ star games , such as the spring game sponsored by The Star / Daily Southtown , Balmoral Park Race Track , McDonald 's , Comcast and radio station 99 @.@ 9 FM .
= Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar =
The Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar was a commemorative coin issue in gold dated 1903 . Struck in two varieties , the coins were designed by United States Bureau of the Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber . The pieces were issued to commemorate the Louisiana Purchase Exposition held in 1904 in St. Louis ; one variety depicted former president Thomas Jefferson , and the other , the recently assassinated president William McKinley . Although not the first American commemorative coins , they were the first in gold .
Promoters of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition , originally scheduled to open in 1903 , sought a commemorative coin for fundraising purposes . Congress authorized an issue in 1902 , and exposition authorities , including numismatic promoter Farran Zerbe , sought to have the coin issued with two designs , to aid sales . The price for each variety was $ 3 , the same cost whether sold as a coin , or mounted in jewelry or on a spoon .
The coins did not sell well , and most were later melted . Zerbe , who had promised to support the issue price of the coins , did not do so as prices dropped once the fair ( rescheduled for 1904 ) closed . This drop , however , did not greatly affect Zerbe 's career , as he went on to promote other commemorative coins and become president of the American Numismatic Association . The coins also recovered , regaining their issue price by 1915 ; they are now worth between a few hundred and several thousand dollars , depending on condition .
= = Background = =
Much of the area near the Mississippi River was explored by French explorers in the 17th and 18th centuries . In 1682 , René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle , claimed the entire area drained by the river for France , naming it Louisiana for Louis XIV . Although most French territory in the Western Hemisphere was lost in the French and Indian War ( 1756 – 1763 ) , the Mississippi basin did not pass to the victors in that war ( primarily the British ) as it had been secretly transferred to Spain by the 1762 Treaty of Fontainebleau .
Napoleon came to power in 1799 . Dreaming of a renewed French empire , he secured the return of the Louisiana territory from Spain via the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso the following year , and through other agreements . These pacts were initially secret , and newly inaugurated American President Thomas Jefferson learned of them in 1801 . Fearing that the port of New Orleans would be closed to American shipping , he sent former Virginia senator James Monroe to France to assist American Minister Robert Livingston in purchasing the lower Mississippi ; Congress appropriated $ 2 million for the purpose .
When the Americans met with Napoleon , they found that the emperor desired to sell the entire territory , much of which was unmapped and unexplored by white men ; Napoleon was faced with defeat in revolting Haiti and feared that the British would capture New Orleans , meaning he would lose Louisiana with no compensation . After some haggling , they agreed on a price of 60 million francs , plus 20 million more to pay claims by American citizens against France — a total of some $ 15 million , which paid for some 828 @,@ 500 square miles ( 2 @,@ 146 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land . The treaty was signed on April 30 , 1803 , and , although there was some question as to whether there was constitutional power for such a purchase , the American Senate ratified the treaty on October 20 , 1803 . The United States took formal possession two months later .
The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States , and today forms much of the center of the country . Desirous of honoring the centennial of the purchase , Congress passed authorizing legislation for an exposition ; the bill was signed by President William McKinley on March 3 , 1901 . McKinley was assassinated in September of that year .
= = Preparation = =
The Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar was authorized by Congress on June 28 , 1902 , when President Theodore Roosevelt signed an appropriations bill that included a $ 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 rider to subsidize the Louisiana Purchase Exposition . The bill in question authorized 250 @,@ 000 gold one @-@ dollar pieces to be paid over to the exposition organizers as part of the appropriation , upon their posting a bond that they would fulfill the requirements of the legislation . The bill did not specify the wording or design to be placed on the coins , leaving that to the discretion of the Secretary of the Treasury .
Anthony Swiatek and Walter Breen , in their encyclopedia of commemorative coins , suggested that the decision to have multiple designs was " through some unrecorded agreement " . The legislation was ambiguous enough to permit such an interpretation , and numismatist Farran Zerbe urged the Mint to strike more than one type of coin , stating that sales would be increased if this was done . Zerbe was not only a collector ( he would serve as president of the American Numismatic Association from 1908 to 1910 ) , but he also promoted numismatics with his traveling exhibition , " Money of the World " . He was involved in the distribution of commemorative coins from the Columbian half dollar of 1892 to the Panama @-@ Pacific issue of 1915 , and would be the sole distributor of Louisiana Purchase dollars .
On August 12 , 1902 , Treasury Secretary Leslie M. Shaw wrote to former Missouri governor David R. Francis , one of the promoters of the exposition , enquiring what design exposition officials would like to see on the reverse of the coins . Although Francis 's response is not extant , Mint authorities originally determined upon an olive branch surrounding a numeral " 1 " . This was apparently disliked by the Director of the Mint , George E. Roberts , for on October 2 , 1902 , Philadelphia Mint Superintendent John Landis wrote to him , enclosing cardboard impressions of the original and revised proposed reverses . The new design had the value spelled out and the letter stated that the changes were being made at Roberts 's suggestion . On October 13 , Barber went to Washington ( where the director 's office was located ) to confer with Roberts about the design . Roberts considered the olive branch " too conspicuous " , given the size of the coin and the lettering , and asked that the branch be reduced in size . This apparently was done . By September 1902 , work upon the dies for the obverses , showing the heads of McKinley and Jefferson , being worked upon by Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber , was well @-@ advanced .
In December 1902 , the Philadelphia Mint struck 75 @,@ 080 gold dollars . These were dated 1903 , a violation of normal Mint practice to have the date of striking on the coin . This was not unprecedented ; the 1900 @-@ dated Lafayette dollar had been struck in December 1899 . It is not known which gold dollar was first struck . In January 1903 , an additional 175 @,@ 178 pieces were coined ; the excess of 258 over the authorized mintage was set aside for testing by the annual Assay Commission . There is no difference between those pieces struck in 1902 and those minted in 1903 . Fifty thousand pieces were sent to the St. Louis sub @-@ treasury on December 22 , 1902 , to await the organizing committee 's compliance with other parts of the law , most likely relating to the required posting of a bond .
The first 100 specimens of each design were struck in a proof finish . These were mounted on cardboard with presentation certificates and presented to favored insiders and Mint officials ; they were not available to the public . The certificates were signed by Superintendent Landis , and by Rhine R. Freed , Chief Coiner of the Philadelphia Mint . The coin was placed inside a holder with wax paper window , secured into place with heavy string with that mint 's seal . These were the first commemorative gold coins struck by the United States .
= = Design = =
Barber took the design for the Jefferson obverse from the former president 's Indian Peace Medal , created by engraver John Reich , who used a bust by Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon as his model . The chief engraver modeled the McKinley obverse after his own design for the fallen president 's medal issued by the Mint . Barber 's medal had been modeled from life ; McKinley had sat for the chief engraver . The reverse , for both coins , contains the denomination , a commemorative inscription , and an olive branch above the anniversary dates .
Coin dealer B. Max Mehl deemed the issue " the most attractive of all of our commemorative gold dollars " . Others disagreed ; Swiatek and Breen criticized the pieces , stating that Jefferson 's " facial features , inaccurately rendered by Charles E. Barber , have acquired a resemblance to Napoleon Bonaparte , the other party in the Louisiana Purchase transaction . " Stating that McKinley was recognizable by his bow tie , they note of the reverse , " the olive branch — if that is the plant intended — may refer to this 828 @,@ 000 square mile territory 's acquisition by peaceful means " . Numismatic historian Don Taxay criticized Reich 's medal , stating that it " is hardly elegant , with Jefferson hunched unpleasantly in the circle as though placed there by a modern Procrustes " . Taxay noted that Barber 's rendition of McKinley for that medal had attracted the insult of " deadly " from the chief engraver 's longtime enemy , sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule criticized the Louisiana Purchase Exposition dollar and the Lewis and Clark Exposition dollar issued in 1904 – 1905 : " the lack of spark in these coins , as in so many designs by Barber or [ Assistant Engraver George T. ] Morgan , stems from the fact that the faces , hair , and drapery are flat and the lettering is small , crowded , and even . " He did not believe that the problems he saw were due to the small size of the dollar , stating that the gold dollar of the Panama @-@ Pacific issue , by Charles Keck , is far more beautiful . Vermeule noted that contemporary accounts saw the 1903 issue as an innovation ; a 1904 article in the American Journal of Numismatics stated that they " indicate a popular desire for a new departure from the somewhat monotonous types of Liberty which have characterized our money ... If this tendency could make itself felt on the regular coinage , it would give a new zeal to collectors . " Beginning in 1909 with the Lincoln cent , the Mint would depict an actual person on the circulating coinage ; this would become more common with the 1932 Washington quarter .
= = Distribution , aftermath , and collecting = =
The fair at St. Louis opened on April 30 , 1904 , a year later than originally planned . It was one of the largest World 's Fairs in area , set over 1 @,@ 272 acres ( 515 ha ) in Forest Park . There were 15 major buildings and a host of smaller exhibits , and it is doubtful if many attendees saw more than a fraction of the attractions — seeing everything in the Agricultural Building alone required a walk of 9 miles ( 14 km ) . Twenty million people attended the exposition , which inspired the popular song , " Meet Me in St. Louis " .
The coins were sold at $ 3 each . They were available in a case of issue , or could be purchased mounted in spoons and various sorts of jewelry . Some were mounted with solder , which has impaired their present @-@ day numismatic value ; others were sold with mountings that did not damage the coin . Zerbe had thought of these varied ways of selling the coin , and many of the sales at the fair were in this manner . No additional charge was made for these adornments .
Zerbe also promoted the pieces to the numismatic community . Although the $ 3 price was not high by later standards , triple face value was considered excessive by many coin collectors , and the coins did not sell well . Efforts by Zerbe to promote the pieces included proposing that the government produce a billion @-@ dollar gold piece to be exhibited at the fair , and co @-@ ordinating sales with the vendors of near @-@ worthless replicas of tiny gold pieces struck privately in California in pioneer days , which were half price with the purchase of a dollar coin . Thomas L. Elder , a dealer coming into prominence at that time , spoke out against Zerbe , calling him a huckster whose advertising was misleading and who was bringing discredit upon coin dealers .
The organizers , including Zerbe , promised to support the $ 3 issue price against the possibility of price drops on the secondary market . Prices of the Columbian half dollar and Lafayette dollar had fallen and remained below their issue prices . By November 1903 , only about 10 @,@ 000 of the gold pieces had been sold , including sales to the fair 's promoters and others interested in it . According to numismatist Q. David Bowers , fairgoers likely accounted for several thousand coins , but the bulk of the distribution was to coin dealers and collectors . Zerbe sold them at his coin exhibit for years afterwards ; coin dealer B. Max Mehl bought thousands from Zerbe at just over face value . These were sold in Mehl 's mail order sales through the 1920s . Despite efforts by Zerbe which Bowers finds " enthusiastic or even heroic " , only about 35 @,@ 000 were sold to the public ; the remaining 215 @,@ 000 were returned to the Mint and melted around 1914 .
Numismatist David M. Bullowa in 1938 noted that the Mint kept no records of how many of each variety was melted , but that he thought that about 10 % more of the McKinley issue was sold . Bowers , writing about a half century later , opined to the contrary ; that in his experience and in grading service reports , the Jefferson coin was slightly more prevalent . Swiatek , in his 2012 book , prints statistics showing the number of pieces examined by the numismatic grading services , indicating more Jefferson dollars than McKinley .
Despite Zerbe 's statement that he would support the issue price of the coins at $ 3 , he did not do so and the price of the dollars fell to about $ 2 by late 1905 . Their market price again reached $ 3 by about 1915 , and thereafter continued to rise . The 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins ( the Red Book ) lists both the Jefferson and the McKinley variety at prices ranging from $ 500 in Almost Uncirculated ( AU @-@ 50 ) condition to $ 2 @,@ 150 in near pristine MS @-@ 66 condition , though the Jefferson is more expensive in some intermediate grades .
Zerbe stated in 1905 that he " was the only man to sell 50 @,@ 000 dollars at $ 3 apiece " . In 1923 , he wrote in an article that the Louisiana Purchase dollars had always sold for $ 3 or more " for the particular reason that the one in charge of their sale felt a price protection obligation to every purchaser . " He did not , however , identify himself as " the one in charge of their sale " .
= Hans Waldmann ( fighter pilot ) =
Hans Peter Waldmann ( 24 September 1922 – 18 March 1945 ) was a German Luftwaffe ( Air Force ) fighter ace and recipient of the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( German : Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) , an honour that recognised extreme bravery on the battlefield or outstanding military leadership . Waldmann received the award after he had shot down 85 enemy aircraft . In total , he was credited with 134 aerial victories accumulated in 527 combat missions .
Born in Braunschweig , Waldmann volunteered for service in the Luftwaffe of Nazi Germany in 1940 . After training at various pilot and fighter @-@ pilot schools , he was posted to Jagdgeschwader 52 ( JG 52 — 52nd Fighter Wing ) , operating on the Eastern Front , in August 1942 . Here Waldmann fought in the aerial battles over Stalingrad , the Caucasus , the Black Sea , and the Crimea . He was credited with 84 aerial victories before briefly being transferred to the Western Front , where he was credited with one aerial victory . Back on the Eastern Front , Waldmann accumulated further victories , bringing his score to 125 victories by end of May 1944 . He then fought in the skies over France after the Western Allied Invasion of Normandy , claiming seven aerial victories , before converting to the Messerschmitt Me 262 jet fighter in late 1944 . Flying the Me 262 , Waldmann shot down two North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs on 22 February 1945 before being killed in a mid @-@ air collision with one of his squadron members on 18 March 1945 near Schwarzenbek , Holstein .
= = Childhood , education and early career = =
Waldmann was born in Braunschweig in the Free State of Brunswick on 24 September 1922 . He was the second son of Ludwig Waldmann , a bank manager , and his wife Maria . Waldmann had an older brother Paul . In 1928 he attended the Volksschule , a primary school , in the Comenius @-@ Street . Over Easter in 1932 he transferred to the humanities @-@ oriented secondary school Wilhelm @-@ Gymnasium .
In 1938 , Waldmann applied for a career as an officer in the Luftwaffe for the first time . Travelling to Berlin , he was deemed suitable but at the age of 16 was too young to volunteer for military service . After the outbreak of World War II , while still at school , Waldmann and his fellow students were forced into compulsory labour service ( Reichsarbeitsdienst ) . Waldmann was assigned to the Brunswick Mechanical Engineering Institute . Since Waldmann had intended to study aircraft construction after his military service , he was reassigned to the Institute of Aeronautical Metrology and Flight Meteorology at the Braunschweig @-@ Waggum airfield under the leadership of Prof. Dr. Heinrich Koppe .
At the end of March 1940 , Waldmann graduated from school with his Abitur ( diploma ) . After this he was accepted into the Luftwaffe , two years after his initial application . Commencing in July 1940 , he undertook 12 weeks of basic military training with Fliegerausbildungsregiment 72 ( 72nd Flight Training Regiment ) at Fels am Wagram in Austria . Upon completion , Waldmann was transferred to the Flugzeugführerschule A / B 72 ( flight school for the pilot license ) at Markersdorf near Sankt Pölten in early October 1940 . Eight days later his training group returned to Fels am Wagram because Markersdorf was overcrowded with other flight courses . Thus flight training started on the improvised airfield without hangars at Fels am Wagram . His first familiarisation flight was on 16 October 1940 , in a Bücker Bü 131 " Jungmann " biplane marked " VTAF " . Waldmann logged his first solo flight on 13 November 1940 at 09 : 17 in a Bü 131 " CGNL " , landing again after six minutes of flight time . His training group returned to Markersdorf in February 1941 . From here , he conducted his first cross @-@ country flights on the Bü 131 " Jungmann " as well as the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 44 " Stieglitz " . The majority of the cross @-@ country flights were flown on the Gotha Go 145 . From 4 April to 28 April 1941 he made the round trip from Markersdorf to Pocking , Nürnberg , Ettingshausen , Ingolstadt , Zwickau , Hildesheim , Braunschweig , Mannheim , Karlsruhe , Delmenhorst , Halberstadt and Fürth . At Ettingshausen he received instruction in formation flying and aerobatics .
By August 1941 Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union , had been underway for two months , and after completing his A / B flight training at Markersdorf Waldmann was transferred to the Jagdfliegerschule 6 ( 6th Fighter Pilot School ) at Lachen @-@ Speyerdorf near Neustadt an der Weinstraße . He completed the final phase of his fighter pilot training in Gleiwitz , Upper Silesia , from 3 June to 17 August 1942 , before transferring to the front .
= = World War II = =
Holding the rank of unteroffizier , a non @-@ commissioned officer similar in rank to sergeant , on 20 August 1942 Waldmann was tasked with shuttling new Messerschmitt Bf @-@ 109Gs from a factory at Krakau to units on the Eastern Front . Along with six other newly trained pilots , he reached Lemberg where the group was scheduled for a stop over . Bad weather closed in and Waldmann was the only one to take off before the group was grounded . Getting away at 17 : 55 , he headed for Proskuriv . The next day he continued his journey to Uman , 230 kilometres ( 140 mi ) south of Kiev in Ukraine . For the next few days , he was sent back and forth until he finally reached the II . Gruppe ( 2nd group ) of Jagdgeschwader 52 ( JG 52 — 52nd Fighter Wing ) at Tusow , operating in the combat area of Stalingrad .
On arrival , Waldmann was approached by Hauptmann ( Captain ) Johannes Steinhoff and asked whether he would like to fly as his wingman . Waldmann then conducted six familiarisation flights on the " Gustav " , as the Bf @-@ 109G @-@ 2 was referred to , on 30 August 1942 . Flying a Bf @-@ 109 marked with a black " Chevron @-@ 2 " , indicating an aircraft of the Stab , he flew his first combat mission on 31 August 1942 in the vicinity of Stalingrad . Steinhoff was impressed by his first performance . At the time , Waldmann was still officially assigned to a transfer squadron , but Steinhoff decided to keep him in his Stabs @-@ Schwarm , flight of four . Here his comrades nicknamed Waldmann " Dackel " , an allusion to his last name . In German , a " Dackel " , or Dachshund , is often named Waldi , a hypocoristic form of Waldmann .
= = = War against the Soviet Union = = =
On 9 September 1942 Waldmann scored his first aerial victory , and thereafter scored rapidly . After 84 victories on 1 September 1943 , Waldmann was promoted to Leutnant ( second lieutenant ) and assigned to Ergänzungs @-@ Jagdgruppe Ost ( Supplementary Fighter Group East ) . Here he was credited with the destruction of a B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress on 5 January 1944 . This victory , his 85th , was actually a separation @-@ shot — a severely damaged heavy bomber forced to separate from his combat box — which counted as an aerial victory . Waldmann had attacked a 28 @-@ aircraft bomber formation and severely damaged the B @-@ 17 . The aerial @-@ victory commission of Luftflotte 3 also credited the Flak @-@ Regiment 45 of 12 . Flak @-@ Brigade with this victory . Following this aerial victory , he received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 5 February 1944 . The presentation of the award was announced by the Greater German Radio — the official radio station of the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda — on the evening of 20 February 1944 .
In late February 1944 Waldmann was sent back to the Crimean peninsula on the Eastern Front , where he took command of 4 . / JG 52 ( 4th Squadron of the 52nd Fighter Wing ) as its Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) . He continued his success , claiming eight aerial victories in March , and 16 in April of which eight were claimed from 5 – 12 April . On 11 April 1944 he claimed two Yakovlev Yak @-@ 7s as his 99th and 100th opponents shot down . He was the 70th Luftwaffe pilot to achieve the century mark . By 31 May 1944 his score stood at 125 aerial victories . Two Staffeln ( squadrons ) of the II . / JG 52 were transferred to Huși at the Prut River on 27 May 1944 . Here Waldmann claimed his final four victories on the Eastern Front before Gruppenkommandeur ( group commander ) Major Gerhard Barkhorn was ordered to transfer one Staffel to the west in Defence of the Reich . Barkhorn selected Waldmann 's 4th Staffel which was officially assigned to the II . / Jagdgeschwader 3 " Udet " ( JG 3 — 3rd Fighter Wing ) , at the time under the command of Hauptmann Hans @-@ Ekkehard Bob .
= = = Invasion of Normandy = = =
The Invasion of Normandy , which started on the early morning of 6 June 1944 , was in full swing by the time Waldmann 's Staffel arrived in France . The Western Allies were already breaking out of Normandy in what was codenamed Operation Cobra . II . / JG 3 " Udet " ( 2nd Group of the 3rd Fighter Wing ) was stationed at Nogent @-@ le @-@ Roi , roughly 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) southwest of Paris . The Gruppe was tasked with ground support missions . In one of these missions against the Allied invasion forces , Waldmann claimed to have damaged a P @-@ 51 Mustang on 31 July 1944 . He was credited with the destruction of numerous trucks during ground support missions over the period of 2 – 5 August 1944 .
Waldmann 's claimed his first aerial victory in the west , his 126th in total , over a B @-@ 24 Liberator on 6 August 1944 . Waldmann had taken off at 11 : 43 on a free @-@ fighter sweep mission against heavy bombers . His unit spotted a formation of B @-@ 24s after 45 minutes flying time . Waldmann attacked and with his first pass at an altitude of 5 @,@ 000 metres ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) had hit one of the B @-@ 24 between the two starboard engines , which immediately set the bomber on fire . The B @-@ 24 was observed to crash 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) southeast of Méry . His final tally for August was seven Allied planes , including the B @-@ 24 , one Auster on 7 August , and five P @-@ 47 Thunderbolts ( two on 14 August , two on 18 August and one on 19 August ) .
= = = Flying the Messerschmitt Me 262 and death = = =
Waldmann learned to fly the Messerschmitt Me 262 " Stormbird " , the first operational jet fighter , at Landsberg am Lech and Kaltenkirchen in December 1944 . He was then transferred to 3 . / Jagdgeschwader 7 ( JG 7 — 7th Fighter Wing ) , now flying the " Stormbird " , as its Staffelführer ( squadron leader on probation ) .
Together with his wingman ‚ Oberfähnrich Günter Schrey , Waldmann took off at 11 : 39 on 22 February 1945 from Oranienburg on an offensive counter @-@ air mission against inbound Allied heavy bombers . The Anglo @-@ American attack was codenamed Operation Clarion . About 20 minutes into the flight , roughly 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) west of Berlin , they spotted an American P @-@ 51 Mustang flying at 7 @,@ 000 metres ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) . Closing fast , Waldmann shot down the Mustang at 12 : 02 before proceeding west for Magdeburg . Near Oschersleben they spotted another Mustang at 3 @,@ 800 metres ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) . Waldmann shot it down at 12 : 17 , achieving his 134th and final aerial victory . The Mustang was observed crashing into a forest 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) northeast of the Brocken , the highest peak of the Harz mountain range .
On Sunday , 18 March 1945 , the lower cloud ceiling at Kaltenkirchen was less than 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) and most of the time between 80 – 100 metres ( 260 – 330 ft ) , while the upper cloud ceiling was at 6 @,@ 000 metres ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) , rendering flight conditions outside the official operational specification for the Me 262 . The jet was not fully cleared for instrument flight , mandating a lower cloud ceiling of more than 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) . Major Erich Rudorffer , Gruppenkommandeur of the I. / JG 7 , was attending a meeting at the Luftgaukommando in Hamburg @-@ Blankensee , when Oberleutnant Hans Grünberg , the most senior officer on duty and Staffelkapitän of the 1st Staffel , received the order from Major Richter , the Ia ( operations officer ) , to engage inbound heavy bombers . Grünberg initially argued that weather conditions prohibited a safe takeoff but Reichsmarschall Hermann Göring intervened and ordered the jets to engage the enemy .
The order resulted in the death of both Waldmann and his wingman Schrey on the following mission . Waldmann was killed following a mid @-@ air collision with Leutnant Hans @-@ Dieter Weihs shortly after takeoff , and Schrey was killed in combat with US fighters . Mindful of the direct order of the Reichsmarschall , Oberleutnant Grünberg ( 1st Staffel ) , Oberleutnant Fritz Stehle ( 2nd Staffel ) and Waldmann ( 3rd Staffel ) had decided that each of them would lead a flight of four Me 262s , taking off and flying around for an hour before returning without trying to engage the enemy . Grünberg 's Schwarm took off first followed by Stehle 's Schwarm . Waldmann chose Weihs , as the most experienced pilot trained in instrument flight , to lead the Schwarm , while Schrey once again served as Waldmann 's wingman . Waldmann 's Me 262 A @-@ 1 " Yellow 3 " ( Werknummer 117097 — factory number ) took off at 12 : 24 and Weihs ordered the Schwarm to form a close formation , flying wing tip to wing tip .
Only three Me 262s took off ; Flieger Gerhard Reiher 's Me 262 had experienced engine failure . Four minutes into the flight , having travelled roughly 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) and flying at less than 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) above the ground , Weihs ' aircraft experienced a heavy blow from below after Waldmann collided with him . His jet in an unrecoverable spin , Weihs bailed out and came down near the Hamburg @-@ Berlin railroad tracks . The airfield at Kaltenkirchen was immediately informed . Waldmann and Schrey were initially believed missing . Waldmann 's body was recovered the next day near Schwarzenbek , roughly 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) away from the crash site of his Me 262 . Apparently he had managed to bail out but failed to deploy his parachute in time , although the injuries sustained during the crash with Weihs ' aircraft may have already been fatal as the recovery party found Waldmann with his upper forehead smashed . Schrey was also found dead . He had bailed out with his parachute , but his body was found riddled by machine @-@ gun bullets .
The fallen airmen were buried with full military honours , including a Me 262 flypast , at the cemetery in Kaltenkirchen . Waldmann 's successor as Staffelkapitän , Oberleutnant Walter Wagner , accompanied Waldmann 's mother from Braunschweig to Kaltenkirchen for the funeral . A number of wreaths were laid on his grave , the largest sent by the Reichsmarschall . Waldmann was recommended for the Oak Leaves to the Knight 's Cross , but the recommendation was either not approved or not finalized before the end of the war .
= = Aerial victory credits = =
Hans Waldmann was credited with 134 aerial victories , claimed in 527 combat missions , 10 on the Western Front and 124 on the Eastern Front . His tally on the Eastern Front includes five bombers , 86 fighters and 33 Il @-@ 2 Sturmovik ground @-@ attack aircraft . On the Western Front he claimed seven fighters , two four @-@ engined bombers and one observation aircraft . He also flew a number of ground attack missions , destroying 33 various vehicles and eight heavy transports .
This and the ♠ ( Ace of spades ) indicates those aerial victories which made Waldmann an ace @-@ in @-@ a @-@ day , a term which designates a fighter pilot who has shot down five or more airplanes in a single day . This along with the * ( asterisk ) indicates an Herausschuss ( separation shot ) — a severely damaged heavy bomber forced to separate from his combat box which was counted as an aerial victory .
= = Awards = =
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 25 September 1942 )
1st Class ( 11 November 1942 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Fighter Pilots in Gold ( 1 February 1943 )
Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe on 15 March 1943 as Unteroffizier and pilot
German Cross in Gold on 17 April 1943 as Unteroffizier in the 6 . / JG 52
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross on 5 February 1944 as Feldwebel and pilot in the 6 . / JG 52
Hans Waldmann may have been awarded a posthumous Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves . Oberst Nicolaus von Below processed such a request between 20 April 1945 and 2 May 1945 , although no official proof exists .
= = Translation notes = =
= Andy Hedlund =
Andy Hedlund ( born May 16 , 1978 , in Osseo , Minnesota ) is an American former professional ice hockey defenseman . He played for the Trenton Titans , Binghamton Senators , Hershey Bears , Krefeld Penguins , Adler Mannheim , DEG Metro Stars and EHC Black Wings Linz in his career .
Hedlund began his career playing for the Fargo @-@ Moorhead Ice Sharks of the United States Hockey League before moving onto Minnesota State University , Mankato , for college . Playing in three years for Minnesota State – Mankato , he totaled 15 goals and 18 assists in 111 games . Following college he was signed by the Ottawa Senators and was assigned to the Trenton Titans . He played in 15 games for the Titans for parts of two seasons , recording one goal and an assist before being called up to the Binghamton Senators . Hedlund played three seasons in Binghamton , recording seven goals and 39 assists in 214 games . After going unsigned by an NHL team , Hedlund signed with the Krefeld Penguins of Deutsche Eishockey Liga ( DEL ) in Germany . He spent one season with the Penguins , playing in 52 games and scoring a career @-@ high 12 goals and 22 assists . In June 2006 , Hedlund re @-@ signed with Ottawa and played 56 games with Binghamton scoring six goals , adding 21 assists . Ottawa traded Hedlund to the Washington Capitals midway through the season where he joined the Capitals affiliate . He left the Capitals organization following the season and went back to Germany , playing two seasons for the DEG Metro Stars .
= = Playing career = =
= = = College = = =
Hedlund played collegiately at Minnesota State – Mankato . His first career goal came on February 28 , 1999 , during his sophomore season . He ended that season with four goals , two assists and 58 penalty minutes in 36 games . At the start of his junior season , Hedlund was elevated to first line . Head coach Troy Jutting said of him , " He had a good freshman and sophomore season for us , where maybe he wasn 't counted on to be one of the top two , three guys . This year , he will be and I think he 's ready for that . " In his junior season , Hedlund played in 38 games , scoring six goals with six assists and 64 penalty minutes . As a senior in the 2001 – 02 season , he scored five goals with 10 assists and 48 penalty minutes while playing in 37 games .
= = = Professional = = =
2001 – 2004
After graduating , Hedlund signed with the Trenton Titans of the East Coast Hockey League for the final games of the 2001 – 02 season . He played in two games as a rookie and did not record a stat during the regular season , but in six playoff games he spent six minutes in the penalty box . In the 2002 – 03 season , he played in 13 games for Trenton recording a goal and two assists before he was called up to the American Hockey League 's Binghamton Senators . In Binghamton , he played in 59 games scoring one goal and adding seven assists . On January 16 , 2004 , against the Albany River Rats , Hedlund broke a 17 @-@ game streak in which he had gone scoreless after he recorded his first career overtime goal and his second career game @-@ winner . His previous goal was a game @-@ winning shot against Syracuse . He ended the 2003 – 04 season with four goals and 19 assists in 80 games . Before the 2004 – 05 season , Hedlund spent time in training camp with the Ottawa Senators before he was reassigned to Binghamton . The NHL season would eventually be locked out which saw players such as goaltender Dominik Hasek join the AHL . When Hasek began working out with Binghamton , Hedlund commented , " He 's just one of the guys when he 's here , he just wants to put in his time and get some good work in , and make sure he 's ready to go , so you just got to appreciate a guy like that being here and doing that kind of work , so its pretty fun . " A season preview produced by the website Hockey 's Future commented about Hedlund saying that , " A fan @-@ favorite , Hedlund gives it everything he has despite limited talent . " Against the Manitoba Moose on October 31 , Hedlund scored a goal from the blue line that tied the game , however the Senators ended up losing 5 – 3 . Following the season , he and Philadelphia Phantoms player Ben Stafford were named the AHL 's Men of the Year . During the season he played in 75 games , scoring two goals with 13 assists . In the playoffs , he played in six games recording two assists .
2005 – 2007
To begin the 2005 season , Hedlund joined the U. S. Men 's National Select Team . After his stint with Team USA , Hedlund left the Senators organization and joined the Krefeld Penguins in Germany . In only one season with Krefeld , Hedlund played in 52 games scoring 12 goals and 22 assists , both career @-@ highs . He also played in five playoff games , recording two assists .
Hedlund re @-@ signed with Ottawa on June 20 , 2006 . However , he was waived on October 2 . He cleared waivers a day later and was assigned to Binghamton . Against Syracuse on January 15 , Hedlund helped Binghamton rally to a 3 – 2 lead with a goal in the third period . However , the Senators ended up losing the game in a shootout . In one of his final games for the Senators on February 23 , Hedlund scored a goal against the Wilkes @-@ Barre / Scranton Penguins . Before being traded , Hedlund recorded six goals and 21 assists in 56 games .
The Washington Capitals traded for Hedlund and a sixth @-@ round draft pick in the 2007 NHL Entry Draft on February 26 , 2007 , sending Lawrence Nycholat to Ottawa . Hedlund recorded eight assists in 21 games for the Bears . He left the team after the season , opting to return to Germany .
2007 – 2014
Hedlund joined the DEG Metro Stars of the DEL but before joining the team , he rejoined Team USA . Hedlund scored a goal for the team on November 8 that helped the USA defeat Germany , 3 – 2 . He ended the 2007 – 08 season with 12 goals and 23 assists in 55 games for the Metro Stars . In the 2008 – 09 season , Hedlund scored nine goals with 19 assists in 52 games with DEG . Following the season , he left DEG and joined Adler Mannheim . During his two seasons with the Metro Stars , he was a DEL All @-@ Star .
Hedlund spent the 2009 @-@ 10 season with Adler Mannheim , scoring six goals with nine assists in 54 games . He returned to DEG after the season . In his final season with the Metro Stars in 2011 – 12 , Hedlund led the DEL with 14 goals amongst defencemen .
On May 10 , 2012 , Hedlund left the DEL to sign a one @-@ year contract with EHC Black Wings Linz of the Austrian Hockey League . At the conclusion of his second season with Linz in 2013 – 14 season , Hedlund announced his retirement from professional hockey after 13 seasons .
= = Personal = =
In July 2008 , Hedlund returned to Minnesota State – Mankato to help out at a hockey camp in which he taught players one @-@ time shooting and passing . Hedlund 's mother works as a special needs teacher , and his sister is a social worker .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Regular season and playoffs = = =
= = Awards = =
= Mona Sax =
Mona Sax is a fictional character in the neo @-@ noir media franchise Max Payne , where she represents the femme fatale archetype . Mona is a mysterious contract killer in a dangerous relationship with the series ' titular protagonist , the policeman @-@ turned @-@ vigilante Max Payne . The character was portrayed by Kathy Tong and voiced by Julia Murney and Wendy Hoopes in the video games , and was played by Mila Kunis in the film adaptation .
Mona appears in the first two games in the series , Max Payne and Max Payne 2 : The Fall of Max Payne . She is the second player character in Max Payne 2 after Max , and her tragic love story with Max is the center of the game 's storyline . Mona also appears as a major character in the 2008 film Max Payne and makes a cameo appearance in the multiplayer mode of Max Payne 3 . The games ' version of the character was perceived highly positively by gaming community and mass media , but her portrayal in the movie received largely negative reviews .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
Mona Sax is a mysterious professional assassin , living in a derelict theme park on Coney Island that she set up as her base . She is introduced in the first Max Payne game as the " evil twin " of her younger sister Lisa , the abused wife of the Mafia boss Angelo Punchinello . Mona is captured by Punchinello 's assassins before she could kill him , but manages to escape . It is revealed that she was employed by Nicole Horne , the renegade member of the secret society calling themselves the Inner Circle who has left the organization and manages the Aesir Industries , a mysterious corporation that is behind the drug Valkyr . Horne ordered to murder Punchinello since he wanted to act independent and out of her orders , a job Mona took because it was personal to her . By the end of the first game , Mona disappearss in the Aesir headquarters elevator after being shot in the head by mercenaries for refusing an order to kill Max .
In Max Payne 2 : The Fall of Max Payne , more focus is given to Max and Mona 's relationship , and she becomes one of the game 's two protagonists . Mona reappears as a suspect in the murder of the U.S. Senator Sebastian Gates . The case is assigned to Max Payne 's new partner , detective Valerie Winterson , but despite their past , Max does not inform the authorities that he knows Mona nor does he inform them of her visit to his apartment . During the course of the game , it is revealed that Mona is indeed the killer of Senator Gates . To save her , Max is forced to shoot the corrupt Winterson before she can execute Mona . Mona and Max work together to prevent shadowy hitmen known as Cleaners from eliminating both of them . Eventually , it is revealed that Mona 's employer was Alfred Woden , a U.S. senator and a member of the Inner Circle 's faction warring with the faction of the Russian mob boss Vladimir Lem . In the end , she is shot in the back by Lem , whom Max kills . She dies in Max 's arms as he kisses her , but lives on the game 's hardest difficulty level , " Dead on Arrival " .
Mona does not appear in the gameplay of the first Max Payne game , but appears only in its cutscenes . She became playable in four chapters of the first sequel , Max Payne 2 ( " Routing Her Synapses " , " Out of the Window " , " The Genius of the Hole " and " A Losing Game " ) . In it , Mona 's moves are more acrobatic than Max 's , and her sections involve several sniping sequences where Mona is using an exclusive Dragunov semi @-@ automatic rifle , which provides a covering fire for Max . Her other weapon is a .50 caliber Desert Eagle , a handgun that she also uses in the first game . Mona was also included as a playable multiplayer character in the Classic Multiplayer Character Pack of Max Payne 3 Special Edition .
= = = Other appearances = = =
Mona was portrayed by Mila Kunis in the movie version of Max Payne , whose role was described as " an assassin who teams up with the title character to avenge her sister 's death . " In the film , she is a Russian mobster and Max is the main suspect in the death of her sister Natasha ( an original character similar to the game 's Lisa and portrayed by Olga Kurylenko ) . Eventually , Max and Mona join forces to uncover the vast conspiracy behind the Valkyr drug . The film credits end with a scene of Max meeting Mona at a bar Ragnarock .
She also appears in the flashback sequences in the Marvel digital comic book Max Payne 3 : After the Fall . Her clothes for the Xbox Live Avatar were released by Rockstar Games on the Xbox LIVE Marketplace .
= = Portrayal = =
Mona 's visual actress in Max Payne 2 was Kathy Tong , a Hollywood model . According to the first two games ' writer Sam Lake , he " did want to switch to Mona [ ... ] but it was problematic . In the end , Max frames those sequences with his narration , saying that he doesn ’ t know exactly what happened , or what Mona did , but it must have been something like this . In other words , when you are playing Mona , you are actually experiencing Max ’ s guess of the events " . Regarding
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, or members to decide who may partake ) ; thus , it is more akin to open communion .
All but " a very small segment " of churches use unfermented grape juice instead of wine ) ; and
Practice of a cappella singing , and the rejection of instrumental music , in worship .
In keeping with their history , the churches of Christ claim the New Testament as their sole rule of faith and practice in deciding matters of doctrine and ecclesiastical structure . [ Col. 2 : 14 ] They view the Old Testament as divinely inspired and historically accurate , but they do not consider its laws to be binding under the New Covenant in Christ ( unless they are repeated in the New Testament ) . They believe that the New Testament demonstrates how a person may become a Christian ( and thus a part of the universal Church of Christ ) and how a church should be collectively organized and carry out its scriptural purposes .
= = = Demographics = = =
These churches comprise about 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 members in over 40 @,@ 000 individual congregations worldwide . There are approximately 13 @,@ 000 congregations in the United States . Overall U.S. membership was approximately 1 @.@ 8 million in 1990 and 1 @.@ 9 million in 2008 . Estimates of the proportion of the US adult population associated with the Churches of Christ vary from 0 @.@ 8 % to 1 @.@ 5 % . Roughly 1 @,@ 240 congregations , with 172 @,@ 000 members , are predominantly African @-@ American . 240 congregations with 10 @,@ 000 members are Spanish @-@ speaking . The average congregation size is approximately 100 members . In 2000 , the Churches of Christ were the 12th largest religious group in the U.S. based on number of members , but the 4th largest in number of congregations .
Within the U.S. , membership in the churches of Christ has grown by approximately 2 % over the period from 1980 through 2007 . Membership grew in 33 states and declined in 17 . The current retention rate of young adults graduating from high school appears to be approximately 60 % . The percentage of members attending services appears to be high relative to that of other Christian groups . Membership is concentrated , with 70 % of the U.S. membership in 13 states . Churches of Christ had a presence in 2 @,@ 429 counties , placing them fifth behind the United Methodist Church , Catholic Church , Southern Baptist Convention and Assemblies of God – but the average number of adherents per county was low at 677 . The divorce rate was 6 @.@ 9 % , much lower than national averages .
= = Name = =
" Church of Christ " is the most common name used by this group . In keeping with their non @-@ denominational focus , recently some congregations have identified themselves primarily as community churches and secondarily as Churches of Christ . A much earlier tradition is to identify a congregation as " the church " at a particular location , with no other description or qualifiers . A primary motivation behind the name is the desire to use a scriptural or Biblical name – to identify the church using a name that is found in the New Testament . Adherents are also referred to as Campbellites by academics and other denominations due to their following of the teachings of Alexander Campbell , similar to Lutherans or Calvinists , but the term is sometimes offensive .
Alexander Campbell said the goal was to " [ c ] all Bible things by Bible names , " which became an early slogan of the Restorationist Movement . These congregations generally avoid names that associate the church with a particular man ( other than Christ ) or a particular doctrine or theological point of view ( e.g. , Lutheran , Wesleyan , Reformed ) . They believe that Christ established only one church , and that the use of denominational names serves to foster division among Christians . Thomas Campbell expressed an ideal of unity in his Declaration and Address : " The church of Jesus Christ on earth is essentially , intentionally , and constitutionally one . "
Other terms have been recognized as scriptural , based on their use in the New Testament : " church of God " , " church of the Lord " , " churches of Christ " , " church of the first @-@ born " , " church of the living God " , " the house of God " , and " the people of God " . While recognized as scriptural , terms such as Church of God are avoided to avoid confusion or identification with other groups that use those designations . As a practical matter , use of a common term is seen as a way to help individual Christians find congregations with a similar approach to the scriptures . Members understand that a scriptural name can be used in a " denominational " or " sectarian " way . Trying to use the term " Church of Christ " exclusively has been criticized as identifying a denomination . Many congregations and individuals do not capitalize the word " church " in the phrases " church of Christ " and " churches of Christ " . This is based on the understanding that the term " church of Christ " is used in the New Testament as a descriptive phrase , indicating that the church belongs to Christ , rather than as a proper name .
= = Church organization = =
= = = Congregational autonomy and leadership = = =
Church government is congregational rather than denominational . Churches of Christ purposefully have no central headquarters , councils , or other organizational structure above the local church level . Rather , the independent congregations are a network with each congregation participating at its own discretion in various means of service and fellowship with other congregations ( see Sponsoring church ( Churches of Christ ) ) . Churches of Christ are linked by their shared commitment to restoration principles . Congregations which do not participate with other church congregations and which refuse to pool resources in order to support outside causes ( such as mission work , orphan homes , Bible colleges , etc . ) are sometimes called " non @-@ institutional . "
Congregations are generally overseen by a plurality of elders who are sometimes assisted in the administration of various works by deacons . Elders are generally seen as responsible for the spiritual welfare of the congregation , while deacons are seen as responsible for the non @-@ spiritual needs of the church . Deacons serve under the supervision of the elders , and are often assigned to direct specific ministries . Successful service as a deacon is often seen as preparation for the eldership . Elders and deacons are appointed by the congregation based on the qualifications found in 1 Timothy 3 and Titus 1 , including that the persons must be male ( female elders and deaconesses are not recognized ) . Congregations look for elders who have a mature enough understanding of scripture to enable them to supervise the minister and to teach , as well as to perform " governance " functions . In the absence of willing men who meet these qualifications , congregations are sometimes overseen by the congregation 's men in general .
While the early Restoration Movement had a tradition of itinerant preachers rather than " located Preachers " , during the 20th century a long @-@ term , formally trained congregational minister became the norm among Churches of Christ . Ministers are understood to serve under the oversight of the elders and may or may not also be qualified as an elder . While the presence of a long @-@ term professional minister has sometimes created " significant de facto ministerial authority " and led to conflict between the minister and the elders , the eldership has remained the " ultimate locus of authority in the congregation " . There is , however , a small segment of Churches of Christ who oppose the " located minister " concept ( see below ) .
Churches of Christ hold to the priesthood of all believers . No special titles are used for preachers or ministers that would identify them as " clergy " . Many ministers have undergraduate or graduate education in religion , or specific training in preaching through a non @-@ college school of preaching . Churches of Christ emphasize that there is no distinction between " clergy " and " laity " and that every member has a gift and a role to play in accomplishing the work of the church .
= = = Variations within Churches of Christ = = =
While there is an identifiable mainstream within the Churches of Christ , there are also significant variations within the fellowship . The approach taken to restoring the New Testament church has focused on " methods and procedures " such as church organization , the form of worship , and how the church should function . As a result , most divisions among Churches of Christ have been the result of " methodological " disputes . These are meaningful to members of this movement because of the seriousness with which they take the goal of " restoring the form and structure of the primitive church " .
Three quarters of the congregations and 87 % of the membership are described by the The Encyclopedia of the Stone @-@ Campbell Movement as " mainstream " , sharing a general consensus on practice and theology .
There are a few congregations which allow hand @-@ clapping and / or that use musical instruments in worship , a notable departure from the a cappella style of singing which is one of the notable practices of the Churches of Christ .
The remaining congregations may be grouped into four categories which generally differ from the mainstream consensus in specific practices , rather than in theological perspectives , and tend to have smaller congregations on average .
The largest of these four categories is the " non @-@ institutional " churches of Christ . This group is notable for opposing congregational support of institutions such as orphans homes and Bible colleges . Approximately 2 @,@ 055 congregations fall in this category .
The remaining three groups , whose congregations are generally considerably smaller than those of the mainstream or " non @-@ institutional " groups , also oppose institutional support , but differ from the " non @-@ institutional " group by other beliefs and practices :
One group opposes separate " Sunday School " classes ; this group consists of approximately 1 @,@ 100 congregations . These groups generally overlap with the " one @-@ cup " group and may overlap with the " mutual edification " group .
Another group opposes the use of multiple communion cups ( the term " one @-@ cup " is often used , sometimes pejoratively as " one @-@ cuppers " , to describe this group ) ; there are approximately 550 congregations in this group . Congregations in this group differ as to whether " the wine " should be fermented or unfermented , and whether " the bread " can be broken ahead of time or must be broken by the individual participant during Lord 's Supper time .
The last and smallest group " emphasize [ s ] mutual edification by various leaders in the churches and oppose [ s ] one person doing most of the preaching " ( the term " mutual edification " is often used to describe this group ) ; the group includes roughly 130 congregations .
= = Beliefs = =
If it 's not in the Bible , then these folks aren 't going to do it .
Churches of Christ seek to practice the principle of the Bible being the only source to find doctrine ( known elsewhere as sola scriptura ) . The Bible is generally regarded as inspired and inerrant . Churches of Christ generally see the Bible as historically accurate and literal , unless scriptural context obviously indicates otherwise . Regarding church practices , worship , and doctrine , there is great liberty from congregation to congregation in interpreting what is biblically permissible , as congregations are not controlled by a denominational hierarchy . Their approach to the Bible is driven by the " assumption that the Bible is sufficiently plain and simple to render its message obvious to any sincere believer " . Related to this is an assumption that the Bible provides an understandable " blueprint " or " constitution " for the church .
Historically , three hermeneutic approaches have been used among Churches of Christ .
Analysis of commands , examples , and necessary inferences ;
Dispensational analysis distinguishing between Patriarchal , Mosaic and Christian dispensations ; and
Grammatico @-@ historical analysis .
The relative importance given to each of these three strategies has varied over time and between different contexts . The general impression in the current Churches of Christ is that the group 's hermeneutics are entirely based on the command , example , inference approach . In practice , interpretation has been deductive , and heavily influenced by the group 's central commitment to ecclesiology and soteriology . Inductive reasoning has been used as well , as when all of the conversion accounts from the book of Acts are collated and analyzed to determine the steps necessary for salvation . One student of the movement summarized the traditional approach this way : " In most of their theologizing , however , my impression is that spokespersons in the Churches of Christ reason from Scripture in a deductive manner , arguing from one premise or hypothesis to another so as to arrive at a conclusion . In this regard the approach is much like that of science which , in practice moves deductively from one hypothesis to another , rather than in a Baconian inductive manner . " In recent years , changes in the degree of emphasis placed on ecclesiology and soteriology has spurred a reexamination of the traditional hermeneutics among some associated with the Churches of Christ .
A debate arose during the 1980s over the use of the command , example , necessary inference model for identifying the " essentials " of the New Testament faith . Some argued that it fostered legalism , and advocated instead a hermeneutic based on the character of God , Christ and the Holy Spirit . Traditionalists urged the rejection of this " new hermeneutic " . Use of this tripartite formula has declined as congregations have shifted to an increased " focus on ' spiritual ' issues like discipleship , servanthood , family and praise " . Relatively greater emphasis has been given to Old Testament studies in congregational Bible classes and at affiliated colleges in recent decades . While it is still not seen as authoritative for Christian worship , church organization , or regulating the Christian 's life , some have argued that it is theologically authoritative .
Many scholars associated with the Churches of Christ embrace the methods of modern Biblical criticism but not the associated anti @-@ supernaturalistic views . More generally , the classical grammatico @-@ historical method is prevalent , which provides a basis for some openness to alternative approaches to understanding the scriptures .
= = = Doctrine of salvation ( soteriology ) = = =
Churches of Christ are strongly anti @-@ Calvinist in their understanding of salvation and generally present conversion as " obedience to the proclaimed facts of the gospel rather than as the result of an emotional , Spirit @-@ initiated conversion " . Churches of Christ hold the view that humans of accountable age are lost because they have committed sins . These lost souls can be redeemed because Jesus Christ , the Son of God , offered Himself as the atoning sacrifice . Children too young to understand right from wrong and make a conscious choice between the two , are believed to be innocent of sin . There is no set " age " for this to occur ; it is only when the child learns the difference between right and wrong that they are accountable ( James 4 : 17 ) . Congregations differ in their interpretation of the age of accountability .
Churches of Christ generally teach that the process of salvation involves the following steps :
One must be properly taught , and hear ( Romans 10 : 14 ) ;
One must believe or have faith ( Hebrews 11 : 6 ) ;
One must repent , which means turning from one 's former lifestyle and choosing God 's ways ( Acts 17 : 30 ) ;
One must confess belief that Jesus is the son of God ( Acts 8 : 36 – 37 ) ;
One must be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ ( Acts 2 : 38 ) ; and
One must live faithfully as a Christian ( 1 Peter 2 : 9 ) .
Beginning in the 1960s , many preachers began placing more emphasis on the role of grace in salvation , instead of focusing exclusively on implementing all of the New Testament commands and examples . This was not an entirely new approach , as others had actively " affirmed a theology of free and unmerited grace " , but it did represent a change of emphasis with grace becoming " a theme that would increasingly define this tradition " .
= = = = Baptism = = = =
Baptism has been recognized as an important rite throughout the history of the Christian Church , but Christian groups differ over the manner in which baptism is administered , the meaning and significance of baptism , its role in salvation , and who is a candidate for baptism .
Baptism in Churches of Christ is performed only by bodily immersion , based on the Koine Greek verb βαπτίζω ( baptizō ) which is understood to mean to dip , immerse , submerge or plunge . Immersion is seen as more closely conforming to the death , burial , and resurrection of Jesus than other modes of baptism . Churches of Christ argue that historically immersion was the mode used in the first century , and that pouring and sprinkling emerged later . Over time these secondary modes came to replace immersion . Only those mentally capable of belief and repentance are baptized ( i.e. , infant baptism is not practiced because the New Testament has no precedent for it ) .
Churches of Christ have historically had the most conservative position on baptism among the various branches of the Restoration Movement , understanding baptism by immersion to be a necessary part of conversion . The most significant disagreements concerned the extent to which a correct understanding of the role of baptism is necessary for its validity . David Lipscomb consistently argued that if a believer was baptized out of a desire to obey God , the baptism was valid , even if the individual did not fully understand the role baptism plays in salvation . Austin McGary argued strongly that to be valid , the convert must also understand that baptism is for the forgiveness of sins . McGary 's view became the prevailing one in the early 20th century , but the approach advocated by Lipscomb never totally disappeared . More recently , the rise of the International Churches of Christ , who " reimmersed some who came into their fellowship , even those previously immersed ' for remission of sins ' in a Church of Christ , " has caused some to reexamine the question of rebaptism .
Churches of Christ consistently teach that in baptism a believer surrenders his life in faith and obedience to God , and that God " by the merits of Christ 's blood , cleanses one from sin and truly changes the state of the person from an alien to a citizen of God 's kingdom . Baptism is not a human work ; it is the place where God does the work that only God can do . " Baptism is a passive act of faith rather than a meritorious work ; it " is a confession that a person has nothing to offer God " . While Churches of Christ do not describe baptism as a " sacrament " , their view of it can legitimately be described as " sacramental " . They see the power of baptism coming from God , who chose to use baptism as a vehicle , rather than from the water or the act itself , and understand baptism to be an integral part of the conversion process , rather than as only a symbol of conversion . A recent trend is to emphasize the transformational aspect of baptism : instead of describing it as nothing more than a legal requirement or sign of something that happened in the past , it is seen as " the event that places the believer ' into Christ ' where God does the ongoing work of transformation " . There is a minority that downplays the importance of baptism in order to avoid sectarianism , but the broader trend is to " reexamine the richness of the biblical teaching of baptism and to reinforce its central and essential place in Christianity " .
Because of the belief that baptism is a necessary part of salvation , some Baptists hold that the Churches of Christ endorse the doctrine of baptismal regeneration . However members of the Churches of Christ reject this , arguing that since faith and repentance are necessary , and that the cleansing of sins is by the blood of Christ through the grace of God , baptism is not an inherently redeeming ritual . One author describes the relationship between faith and baptism this way , " Faith is the reason why a person is a child of God ; baptism is the time at which one is incorporated into Christ and so becomes a child of God " ( italics are in the source ) . Baptism is understood as a confessional expression of faith and repentance , rather than a " work " that earns salvation .
= = = A cappella worship = = =
The Churches of Christ generally combine the lack of any historical evidence that the early church used musical instruments in worship and the belief that there is no scriptural support for using instruments in the church 's worship service to decide that instruments should not be used today in worship . Churches of Christ have historically practiced a cappella music in worship services .
The use of musical instruments in worship was a divisive topic within the Stone @-@ Campbell Movement from its earliest years , when some adherents opposed the practice on scriptural grounds , while others may have relied on a cappella simply because they lacked access to musical instruments . Alexander Campbell opposed the use of instruments in worship . As early as 1855 , some Restoration Movement churches were using organs or pianos , ultimately leading the Churches of Christ to separate from the groups that condoned instrumental music .
Scriptural backing given by members for the practice of a cappella includes :
Matt . 26 : 30 : " And when they had sung a hymn , they went out to the Mount of Olives . "
Rom . 15 : 9 : " Therefore I will praise thee among the Gentiles , and sing to thy name " ;
Eph . 5 : 18 @,@ 19 : " ... be filled with the Spirit , addressing one another in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs , singing and making melody to the Lord with all your heart , "
1 Cor . 14 : 15 : " I will sing with the Spirit , and I will sing with the understanding also . "
Col. 3 : 16 : " Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly ; in all wisdom teaching and admonishing one another with psalms and hymns and spiritual songs , singing with grace in your hearts unto God . "
Heb . 2 : 12 : " I will declare thy name unto my brethren , in the midst of the church will I sing praise unto thee . "
There are congregations that permit hand @-@ clapping and a few that use musical instruments in worship . Some of the latter describe themselves as a " Church of Christ ( Instrumental ) " .
= = = Other theological tendencies = = =
Churches of Christ avoid the term " theology " , preferring instead the term " doctrine " : theology is what humans say about the Bible ; doctrine is simply what the Bible says .
Many leaders argue that the Churches of Christ only follow the Bible and have no " theology " . Christian theology as classically understood – the systematic development of the classical doctrinal topics – is relatively recent and rare among this movement . Because Churches of Christ reject all formalized creeds on the basis that they add to or detract from Scripture , they generally reject most conceptual doctrinal positions out of hand . Churches of Christ do tend to elaborate certain " driving motifs " . These are scripture ( hermeneutics ) , the church ( ecclesiology ) and the " plan of salvation " ( soteriology ) . The importance of theology , understood as teaching or " doctrine " , has been defended on the basis that an understanding of doctrine is necessary to respond intelligently to questions from others , to promote spiritual health , and to draw the believer closer to God .
= = = = Eschatology = = = =
Regarding eschatology ( a branch of theology concerned with the final events in the history of the world or of humankind ) , Churches of Christ are generally amillennial , their originally prevalent postmillennialism ( evident in Alexander Campbell 's Millennial Harbinger ) having dissipated around the era of the First World War . Before then , many leaders were " moderate historical premillennialists " who did not advocate specific historical interpretations . Churches of Christ have moved away from premillennialism as dispensational millennialism has come more to fore in Protestant evangelical circles . Amillennialism and postmillennialism are the prevailing views today .
Premillennialism was a focus of controversy during the first half of the 20th century . One of the most influential advocates for that point of view was Robert Henry Boll , whose eschatological views came to be most singularly opposed by Foy E. Wallace Jr . By the end of the 20th century , however , the divisions caused by the debate over premillennialism were diminishing , and in the 2000 edition of the directory Churches of Christ in the United States , published by Mac Lynn , congregations holding premillennial views were no longer listed separately .
= = = = Work of the Holy Spirit = = = =
During the late 19th century , the prevailing view in the Restoration Movement was that the Holy Spirit currently acts only through the influence of inspired scripture . This rationalist view was associated with Alexander Campbell , who was " greatly affected by what he viewed as the excesses of the emotional camp meetings and revivals of his day " . He believed that the Spirit draws people towards salvation but understood the Spirit to do this " in the same way any person moves another — by persuasion with words and ideas " . This view came to prevail over that of Barton W. Stone , who believed the Spirit had a more direct role in the life of the Christian . Since the early 20th century , many , but not all , among the Churches of Christ have moved away from this " word @-@ only " theory of the operation of the Holy Spirit . As one scholar of the movement puts it , " [ f ] or better or worse , those who champion the so @-@ called word @-@ only theory no longer have a hold on the minds of the constituency of Churches of Christ . Though relatively few have adopted outright charismatic and third wave views and remained in the body , apparently the spiritual waves have begun to erode that rational rock . "
= = = = Church history = = = =
The fundamental idea of " restoration " or " Christian Primitivism " is that problems or deficiencies in the church can be corrected by using the primitive church as a " normative model . " The call for restoration is often justified on the basis of a " falling away " that corrupted the original purity of the church . This falling away is identified with the development of Catholicism and denominationalism . New Testament verses that discuss future apostasy ( 2 Thessalonians 2 : 3 ) and heresy ( e.g. , Acts 20 : 29 , 1 Timothy 4 : 1 , 2 Tim 4 : l @-@ 4 : 4 ) are understood to predict this falling away . The logic of " restoration " could imply that the " true " church completely disappeared and thus lead towards exclusivism . Another view of restoration is that the " true Church ... has always existed by grace and not by human engineering " ( italics in the original ) . In this view the goal is to " help Christians realize the ideal of the church in the New Testament – to restore the church as conceived in the mind of Christ " ( italics in the original ) . Early Restoration Movement leaders did not believe that the church had ceased to exist , but instead sought to reform and reunite the church . A number of congregations ' web sites explicitly state that the true church never disappeared . The belief in a general falling away is not seen as inconsistent with the idea that a faithful remnant of the church never entirely disappeared . Some have attempted to trace this remnant through the intervening centuries between the New Testament and the beginning of the Restoration Movement in the early 1800s .
One effect of the emphasis placed on the New Testament church is a " sense of historylessness " that sees the intervening history between the 1st century and the modern church as " irrelevant or even abhorrent . " Authors within the brotherhood have recently argued that a greater attention to history can help guide the church through modern @-@ day challenges .
= = History in the United States = =
= = = Early Restoration Movement history = = =
The Restoration Movement originated with the convergence of several independent efforts to go back to apostolic Christianity . Two were of particular importance to the development of the movement . The first , led by Barton W. Stone began at Cane Ridge , Kentucky and called themselves simply " Christians " . The second began in western Pennsylvania and was led by Thomas Campbell and his son , Alexander Campbell ; they used the name " Disciples of Christ " . Both groups sought to restore the whole Christian church on the pattern set forth in the New Testament , and both believed that creeds kept Christianity divided .
The Campbell movement was characterized by a " systematic and rational reconstruction " of the early church , in contrast to the Stone movement which was characterized by radical freedom and lack of dogma . Despite their differences , the two movements agreed on several critical issues . Both saw restoring the early church as a route to Christian freedom , and both believed that unity among Christians could be achieved by using apostolic Christianity as a model . The commitment of both movements to restoring the early church and to uniting Christians was enough to motivate a union between many in the two movements . While emphasizing that the Bible is the only source to seek doctrine , an acceptance of Christians with diverse opinions was the norm in the quest for truth . " In essentials , unity ; in non @-@ essentials , liberty ; in all things , love " was an oft @-@ quoted slogan of the period . The Stone and Campbell movements merged in 1832 .
The Restoration Movement began during , and was greatly influenced by , the Second Great Awakening . While the Campbells resisted what they saw as the spiritual manipulation of the camp meetings , the Southern phase of the Awakening " was an important matrix of Barton Stone 's reform movement " and shaped the evangelistic techniques used by both Stone and the Campbells .
= = = Christian churches and churches of Christ separation = = =
Nothing in life has given me more pain in heart than the separation from those I have heretofore worked with and loved
In 1906 , the U.S. Religious Census listed the Christian Churches and the Churches of Christ as separate and distinct groups for the first time . This was the recognition of a division that had been growing for years under the influence of conservatives such as Daniel Sommer , with reports of the division having been published as early as 1883 . The most visible distinction between the two groups was the rejection of musical instruments in the Churches of Christ . The controversy over musical instruments began in 1860 with the introduction of organs in some churches . More basic were differences in the underlying approach to Biblical interpretation . For the Churches of Christ , any practices not present in accounts of New Testament worship were not permissible in the church , and they could find no New Testament documentation of the use of instrumental music in worship . For the Christian Churches , any practices not expressly forbidden could be considered . Another specific source of controversy was the role of missionary societies , the first of which was the American Christian Missionary Society , formed in October 1849 . While there was no disagreement over the need for evangelism , many believed that missionary societies were not authorized by scripture and would compromise the autonomy of local congregations . This disagreement became another important factor leading to the separation of the Churches of Christ from the Christian Church . Cultural factors arising from the American Civil War also contributed to the division .
In 1968 , at the International Convention of Christian Churches ( Disciples of Christ ) , those Christian Churches that favored a denominational structure , wished to be more ecumenical , and also accepted more of the modern liberal theology of various denominations , adopted a new " provisional design " for their work together , becoming the Christian Church ( Disciples of Christ ) . Those congregations that chose not to be associated with the new denominational organization continued as undenominational Christian churches and churches of Christ , completing a separation that had begun decades before . The instrumental Christian churches and churches of Christ in some cases have both organizational and hermeneutical differences with the Churches of Christ discussed in this article . For example , they have a loosely organized convention and view scriptural silence on an issue more permissively , but they are more closely related to the Churches of Christ in their theology and ecclesiology than they are with the Disciples of Christ denomination . Some see divisions in the movement as the result of the tension between the goals of restoration and ecumenism , with the a cappella Churches of Christ and Christian churches and churches of Christ resolving the tension by stressing Bible authority , while the Christian Church ( Disciples of Christ ) resolved the tension by stressing ecumenism .
= = = Race relations = = =
To object to any child of God participating in the service on account of his race , social or civil state , his color or race , is to object to Jesus Christ and to cast him from our association . It is a fearful thing to do . I have never attended a church that negroes did not attend .
Early Restoration Movement leaders varied in their views of slavery , reflecting the range of positions common in the antebellum U.S. Barton W. Stone was a strong opponent of slavery , arguing that there was no Biblical justification for the form of slavery then being practiced in the United States and calling for immediate emancipation . Alexander Campbell represented a more " Jeffersonian " opposition to slavery , writing of it as more of a political problem than as a religious or moral one . Having seen Methodists and Baptists divide over the issue of slavery , Campbell argued that scripture regulated slavery rather than prohibited it , and that abolition should not be allowed to become an issue over which Christians would break fellowship with each other . Like the country as a whole , the assumption of white racial superiority was almost universal among those on all sides of the issue , and it was common for congregations to have separate seating for black members .
After the Civil War , black Christians who had been worshiping in mixed @-@ race Restoration Movement congregations formed their own congregations . White members of Restoration Movement congregations shared many of the racial prejudices of the times . Among the churches of Christ , Marshall Keeble became a prominent African @-@ American evangelist . He estimated that by January 1919 he had " traveled 23 @,@ 052 miles , preached 1 @,@ 161 sermons , and baptized 457 converts " .
During the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950s and 1960s the churches of Christ struggled with changing racial attitudes . Some leaders , such as Foy E. Wallace Jr . , railed against racial integration . Others , including the influential evangelist , Jimmy Allen from Harding University , opposed segregation and encouraged those working with his evangelistic campaigns to " Treat them exactly the same way you treat white people . " Schools and colleges associated with the movement were at the center of the debate . Abilene Christian College first admitted black undergraduate students in 1962 ( graduate students had been admitted in 1961 ) . Desegregation of other campuses followed .
Efforts to address racism continued through the following decades . A national meeting of prominent leaders from the churches of Christ was held in June 1968 . Thirty @-@ two participants signed a set of proposals intended to address discrimination in local congregations , church affiliated activities and the lives of individual Christians . An important symbolic step was taken in 1999 when the president of Abilene Christian University " confessed the sin of racism in the school 's past segregationist policies " and asked black Christians for forgiveness during a lectureship at Southwestern Christian College , a historically black school affiliated with the churches of Christ .
= = = Music = = =
The tradition of a capella congregational singing in the Churches of Christ has stimulated the creation of many new hymns . Notable Churches of Christ hymn writers have included Albert Brumley ( " I 'll Fly Away " ) and Tillit S. Teddlie ( " Worthy Art Thou " ) . Church of Christ hymns commonly are in the style of gospel hymnody . The hymnal Great Songs of the Church , which was first published in 1921 and has had many subsequent editions , is widely used .
= = = Institutional controversy = = =
After World War II , Churches of Christ began sending ministers and humanitarian relief to war @-@ torn Europe and Asia . A doctrinal conflict ensued about how this work was to be done . Eventually , the funding and control of outreach programs in the United States such as homes for orphans , nursing homes , mission work , setting up new congregations , Bible colleges or seminaries , and large @-@ scale radio and television programs became part of the controversy . Congregations which participate in pooling funds for these institutional activities are said to be " sponsoring church " congregations . Congregations which have traditionally opposed these organized sponsorship activities are said to be " non @-@ institutional " congregations . This " Institutional Controversy " resulted in the largest division among Churches of Christ in the 20th century .
= = = Separation of the International Churches of Christ = = =
The International Churches of Christ had their roots in a " discipling " movement that arose among the mainline Churches of Christ during the 1970s . This discipling movement developed in the campus ministry of Chuck Lucas .
In 1967 , Chuck Lucas was minister of the 14th Street Church of Christ in Gainesville , Florida ( later renamed the Crossroads Church of Christ ) . That year he started a new project known as Campus Advance ( based on principles borrowed from the Campus Crusade and the Shepherding Movement ) . Centered on the University of Florida , the program called for a strong evangelical outreach and an intimate religious atmosphere in the form of soul talks and prayer partners . Soul talks were held in student residences and involved prayer and sharing overseen by a leader who delegated authority over group members . Prayer partners referred to the practice of pairing a new Christian with an older guide for personal assistance and direction . Both procedures led to " in @-@ depth involvement of each member in one another 's lives " , and critics accused Lucas of fostering cultism .
The Crossroads Movement later spread into some other Churches of Christ . One of Lucas ' converts , Kip McKean , moved to the Boston area in 1979 and began working with " would @-@ be disciples " in the Lexington Church of Christ . He asked them to " redefine their commitment to Christ , " and introduced the use of discipling partners . The congregation grew rapidly , and was renamed the Boston Church of Christ . In the early 1980s , the focus of the movement moved to Boston , Massachusetts where Kip McKean and the Boston Church of Christ became prominently associated with the trend . With the national leadership located in Boston , during the 1980s it commonly became known as the " Boston movement " . A formal break was made from the mainline Churches of Christ in 1993 with the organization of the International Churches of Christ . This new designation formalized a division that was already in existence between those involved with the Crossroads / Boston Movement and " mainline " Churches of Christ . Other names that have been used for this movement include the " Crossroads movement , " " Multiplying Ministries , " the " Discipling Movement " and the " Boston Church of Christ " .
Kip McKean resigned as the " World Mission Evangelist " in November 2002 . Some ICoC leaders began " tentative efforts " at reconciliation with the Churches of Christ during the Abilene Christian University Lectureship in February 2004 .
= = = Restoration Movement timeline = = =
= = Churches of Christ outside the United States = =
Most members of the Churches of Christ live outside the United States . There are more than 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 members of the Churches of Christ in Africa , approximately 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in India , and 50 @,@ 000 in Central and South America . Total worldwide membership is over 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , with approximately 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 in the U.S.
= = = Africa = = =
There are believed to be 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 or more members of the Churches of Christ in Africa . The total number of congregations is approximately 14 @,@ 000 . The most significant concentrations are in " Nigeria , Malawi , Ghana , Zambia , Zimbabwe , Ethiopia , South Africa and Kenya " .
= = = Asia = = =
India has historically been a target for missionary efforts ; estimates are that there are 2 @,@ 000 or more Restoration Movement congregations in India , with a membership of approximately 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . More than 100 congregations exist in the Philippines . Growth in other Asian countries has been smaller but is still significant .
= = = Australia and New Zealand = = =
Historically , Restoration Movement groups from Great Britain were more influential than those from the United States in the early development of the movement in Australia . Churches of Christ grew up independently in several locations . While early Churches of Christ in Australia saw creeds as divisive , towards the end of the 19th century they began viewing " summary statements of belief " as useful in tutoring second generation members and converts from other religious groups . The period from 1875 through 1910 also saw debates over the use of musical instruments in worship , Christian Endeavor Societies and Sunday Schools . Ultimately , all three found general acceptance in the movement . Currently , the Restoration Movement is not as divided in Australia as it is in the United States . There have been strong ties with the Christian Church ( Disciples of Christ ) , but many conservative ministers and congregations associate with the Christian churches and churches of Christ instead . Others have sought support from non @-@ instrumental Churches of Christ , particularly those who felt that " conference " congregations had " departed from the restoration ideal " .
= = = Canada = = =
A relatively small proportion of total membership come from Canada . A growing portion of the Canadian demographic is made up of immigrant members of the church . This is partly the result of Canadian demographics as a whole , and partly due to decreased interest amongst late generation Canadians . The largest concentration of active congregations in Canada are in Southern Ontario , with notable congregations gathering in Beamsville , Bramalea , Niagara Falls , Vineland , Toronto ( several ) , and Waterloo . Although many congregations of various sizes ( typically under 300 members ) meet all across Canada .
= = = Great Britain = = =
In the early 1800s , Scottish Baptists were influenced by the writings of Alexander Campbell in the Christian Baptist and Millennial Harbinger . A group in Nottingham withdrew from the Scotch Baptist church in 1836 to form a Church of Christ . James Wallis , a member of that group , founded a magazine named the British Millennial Harbinger in 1837 . In 1842 the first Cooperative Meeting of Churches of Christ in Great Britain was held in Edinburgh . Approximately 50 congregations were involved , representing a membership of 1 @,@ 600 . The name " Churches of Christ " was formally adopted at an annual meeting in 1870 . Alexander Campbell influenced the British Restoration Movement indirectly through his writings ; he visited Britain for several months in 1847 , and " presided at the Second Cooperative Meeting of the British Churches at Chester " . At that time the movement had grown to encompass 80 congregations with a total membership of 2 @,@ 300 . Annual meetings were held after 1847 .
The use of instrumental music in worship was not a source of division among the Churches of Christ in Great Britain before World War I. More significant was the issue of pacifism ; a national conference was established in 1916 for congregations that opposed the war . A conference for " Old Paths " congregations was first held in 1924 . The issues involved included concern that the Christian Association was compromising traditional principles in seeking ecumenical ties with other organizations and a sense that it had abandoned Scripture as " an all @-@ sufficient rule of faith and practice " . Two " Old Paths " congregations withdrew from the Association in 1931 ; an additional two withdrew in 1934 , and nineteen more withdrew between 1943 and 1947 .
Membership declined rapidly during and after the First World War . The Association of Churches of Christ in Britain disbanded in 1980 . Most Association congregations ( approximately 40 ) united with the United Reformed Church in 1981 . In the same year , twenty @-@ four other congregations formed a Fellowship of Churches of Christ . The Fellowship developed ties with the Christian churches and churches of Christ during the 1980s .
The Fellowship of Churches of Christ and some Australian and New Zealand Churches advocate a " missional " emphasis with an ideal of " Five Fold Leadership " . Many people in more traditional Churches of Christ see these groups as having more in common with Pentecostal churches . The main publishing organs of traditional Churches of Christ in Britain are The Christian Worker magazine and the Scripture Standard magazine . A history of the Association of Churches of Christ , Let Sects and Parties Fall , was written by David M Thompson . Further information can be found in the Historical Survey of Churches of Christ in the British Isles , edited by Joe Nisbet .
= = = South America = = =
In Brazil there are above 600 congregations and 100 @,@ 000 members from the Restoration Movement . Most of them were established by Lloyd David Sanders .
= Don Geiss , America and Hope =
" Don Geiss , America , and Hope " is the fifteenth episode of the fourth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 73rd overall episode of the series . It was directed by Stephen Lee Davis , and written by Jack Burditt and Tracey Wigfield . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on March 18 , 2010 . Guest stars in " Don Geiss , America and Hope " include John Anderson , Scott Bryce , Marceline Hugot , James Rebhorn , and Michael Sheen .
In the episode , Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) attempts to avoid running into Wesley Snipes ( Sheen ) after they fail to hit it off in their first encounter , but fate seems to want them together . At the same time , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) deals with the impending purchase of NBC . Finally , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) does damage control after his former nanny publishes a tell @-@ all book .
The episode continued a story arc involving Wesley as a love interest for Liz , which began in the previous episode . " Don Geiss , America and Hope " makes reference to the real @-@ life acquisition of NBC Universal by cable company Comcast , as well as that of professional golfer Tiger Woods ' extramarital affairs scandal .
This episode of 30 Rock has received generally positive reviews from television critics . According to the Nielsen Media Research , it was watched by 6 @.@ 857 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 3 @.@ 0 rating / 9 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . For his performance in " Don Geiss , America and Hope " , Alec Baldwin received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination in the category for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series .
= = Plot = =
Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) , outgoing Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming for General Electric ( GE ) , researches company Kabletown ( which recently purchased the NBC network as a charitable , tax @-@ deductible act ) , to find a way he can contribute in the corporation 's development . NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) lets it slip that he may have been living forever , when he shows concern that Kabletown may impose new rules for " age limits and age verification " for pages . A former colleague , Dave Hess ( Scott Bryce ) , who left NBC for Kabletown , reveals that Kabletown 's success comes from running pay @-@ per @-@ view adult channels ; the company runs " the perfect business " and needs no investment in new services or products . On learning this , Jack is horrified at the prospect of no longer making things . Later , however , while giving a eulogy at former GE CEO Don Geiss 's ( Rip Torn ) funeral , he has an epiphany and proposes to Kabletown executives that they produce " porn for women " ( specifically , channels featuring attractive men who " listen " while women blather on ) .
Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) tries to avoid meeting with Wesley ( Michael Sheen ) , the British man she met and flirted with while under the influence of anesthesia . Liz finds him to be annoying , but they continually run into each other , which leads them to believe they are meant to be together . However , after visiting the dentist office where they met , Liz and Wesley come to terms with the fact that the anesthesia was the cause of whatever they experienced , and agree to stop seeing each other . But when they run into each other yet again , Wesley suggests that they should probably just " settle " for one another . Liz is horrified at this prospect and consults Jack for advice , but he is still disconsolate at the prospect of " settling " for a company without upward momentum , and cannot help her . Later , Liz meets Wesley to tell him her answer is no , and she believes both of them can do better than being with each other ; she is further dismayed to learn he shares his name with actor Wesley Snipes .
Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan 's ( Tracy Morgan ) nanny publishes a tell @-@ all book , revealing that he has never actually had an affair with anyone , a secret he had shared only with Jack in " The Ones " . In order to restore his womanizing persona , Tracy holds a press conference announcing he is leaving show business to spend more time with a stripper , but no one is convinced . To make matters worse , women begin to come forward and admit that they did not have sex with Tracy . His wife Angie even advises him to have an affair in order to save his career , a suggestion which Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) urges him to take seriously . Tracy attempts to proposition Liz , but is unable to pretend he wants to cheat on his wife . Liz rebuffs Tracy 's advances , admitting she envies his happy marriage and urging him to embrace his monogamy .
At the end of the episode , Liz is seen watching and being intrigued by some of the " porn for women " content , which somehow features her fantasy boyfriend Astronaut Mike Dexter .
= = Production = =
" Don Geiss , America and Hope " was directed by series first assistant director Stephen Lee Davis , and written by Jack Burditt and Tracey Wigfield . This was Burditt 's first written episode for the season , as he had moved to Los Angeles , California , to become a staff writer on the CBS comedy show The New Adventures of Old Christine . Overall , this was Burditt 's twelfth writing credit . This was Wigfield 's third writing credit , and was Davis 's first directed episode . " Don Geiss , America and Hope " originally aired in the United States on March 18 , 2010 , on NBC as the fifteenth episode of the show 's fourth season and the 73rd overall episode of the series . This episode of 30 Rock was filmed on January 25 and January 27 , 2010 .
In January 2010 , it was announced that Welsh actor Michael Sheen would guest star as a love interest for series creator Tina Fey 's character , Liz Lemon . He made his debut as Wesley in the previous episode , " Future Husband " . Actor Scott Bryce guest starred as Dave Hess , a former colleague of Jack Donaghy 's . Bryce first appeared in the season three
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2 were used to showcase Prada designs in a 12 @-@ page section in the male fashion magazine Arena Homme + . To promote Lightning Returns , Lightning was featured on the packaging of snacks produced by Ezaki Glico . In 2015 , she was used in a CGI advertising video by French fashion house Louis Vuitton . The video was animated by Visual Works , designed by Nomura and directed by Louis Vuttion ’ s Nicolas Ghesquière .
= = Reception = =
While Final Fantasy XIII was in development , Todd Ciolek of Anime News Network was unimpressed by Lightning , whom he called a " businesslike blank " . Reviewing the finished game , Ciolek opined that Lightning is initially " far too distant and cold , as though the writers were so intent on creating a tough , competent heroine that they forgot to make her at all compelling " . However , he admitted that Lightning becomes a more appealing lead character by the game 's end . Wesley Yin @-@ Poole of VideoGamer.com simply referred to Lightning as a female version of Cloud . 1UP.com 's Jeremy Parrish commented that , barring scenes in which Lightning shows a thoughtful side , she is " your typical , sullen [ Square Enix ] protagonist " . Conversely , GameSpot 's Kevin VanOrd called Lightning a " likeable , strong @-@ willed beauty " . Martin Robinson of IGN UK said that Lightning " instantly endears herself " in comparison with Hope or Snow , but he found that , when Lightning 's backstory " gets bogged down in generic swash " , Sazh becomes the more appealing character . GamesRadar 's Carolyin Gudmundson was unenthusiastic : she opined that , while Lightning 's narrative has its merits , it " certainly isn 't above and beyond what we 'd typically expect " . She commented that this lack of originality makes Lightning " one @-@ dimensional and boring " . Gamasutra writer Christian Nutt believed that Lightning 's relationships with the cast add humanity to the narrative .
For XIII @-@ 2 , Game Informer 's Joe Juba was disappointed that Lightning had been transferred to a supporting role in favor of Serah and Hope , whom he saw as weaker characters than Lightning . Simon Parkin of Eurogamer found that the story suffers without the driving force of Lightning 's single @-@ minded determination . VanOrd was disappointed that Lightning and Caius Ballad have relatively limited screen @-@ time , since they come off as stronger characters than the protagonists .
In Lightning Returns , Juba criticized Lightning 's lack of personal growth during the narrative , and IGN 's Marty Silva felt that her increased coldness makes her " downright unlikable . " VanOrd argued that Lightning is not " interesting in and of herself " and that she had turned into " a vessel for holding and pouring plot devices " , whose stoicism makes it difficult for the player to connect with her . Parrish , writing for USGamer , stated that Lightning had become " downright apathetic " , showing " no personality whatsoever " , and that this clashed with the ability to dress her in costumes . By contrast , Parkin commented that certain side quests , such as herding sheep or retrieving a girl 's doll , helped to humanize Lightning and make her likable . Similarly , Destructoid 's Dale North found that the costumes and dialogue lighten her character : he argued that these elements make her less " flat and lifeless now , which is a big improvement . " Dave Riley of Anime News Network felt that Lightning 's stoic attitude , although out of place in XIII and XIII @-@ 2 , fit her role as a god 's servant in Lightning Returns . Tech Reviewer , in a feature about the portrayal of female characters in video games , was impressed with the character 's depth and portrayal .
In a VideoGamer.com list of the ten best Final Fantasy characters , Lightning was placed sixth ; writer Yin Poole found her interesting in her own right despite her similarities to Cloud . In 2011 , IGN ranked Lightning among the best characters in the Final Fantasy series , saying that she demonstrated that " a delicate balance can exist between strength and tenderness , even in the midst of ... incredible acrobatic feats . " Lightning was ranked eighth in a similar list by GameZone 's Heath Hooker : points of praise were her visual appearance and determination , which made her " one of the strongest female leaders of the Final Fantasy series " in Hooker 's opinion . Cheat Code Central listed her as one of the top ten " badass " women of video games for her independence , which the writer felt distanced her from previous Final Fantasy heroines . Lightning ranked second in AfterEllen 's list of the " hottest " video game characters . In Game Informer 's list of top ten heroes of 2010 , Lightning was ranked eighth and praised as the only protagonist in Final Fantasy XIII who " seemed capable of taking on the corrupt government of Cocoon " : another comment was that her " no @-@ nonsense approach to her mission makes her the game 's standout hero " . She was included in two lists by Complex , which ranked her as the 19th greatest Final Fantasy character and the 39th greatest heroine in video game history .
In 2010 , Lightning placed 34th in a Famitsu poll regarding the most popular video game character in Japan . She was voted the best @-@ liked female Final Fantasy character in a 2013 poll by Square Enix , and , in that year 's Dengeki PlayStation Awards , she was voted best video game character of the year for her appearance in Lightning Returns . She came first in a Microsoft poll to determine the most popular character of the Final Fantasy XIII games . In 2014 , readers of IGN voted her the best character in XIII . At PAX Prime 2013 , she took third place in a list , compiled by journalists and game developers , of the top female characters in western and Japanese role @-@ playing video games .
= Farm to Market Road 1528 =
Farm to Market Road 1528 ( FM 1528 ) is a farm @-@ to @-@ market road located in the western and central portions of Delta County in the U.S. state of Texas . The highway is approximately 11 @.@ 4 miles ( 18 @.@ 3 km ) in length , and travels through mainly rural portions of Delta County . The roadway begins at an intersection with FM 64 in the community of Antioch . The highway proceeds southward , passing through the former community of Gough , before bending east . The highway proceeds east , running concurrently with State Highway 24 ( SH 24 ) for a short distance . The road travels northeast , parallel to Cooper Lake , before bending north and entering Cooper , where it terminates at SH 154 .
Early roads existed in the place of FM 1528 by 1936 , and a short section of highway between SH 27 ( now SH 24 ) and Klondike was designated as Loop 39 in 1939 , and FM 1528 was designated in 1949 . The route of the highway has been altered since its designation , including rerouting due to the construction of Cooper Lake .
= = Route description = =
FM 1528 begins at an intersection with FM 64 in the unincorporated community of Antioch as a two @-@ lane , paved road . The highway proceeds southward , entering rural areas and intersecting several small roads . The road continues , entering the former community of Gough and intersects FM 2068 . FM 1528 turns due eastward and continues , exiting the Gough area . The roadway proceeds east , intersecting several county roads and traveling past several small houses . The highway bends southward and travels a short distance before it intersects SH 24 . The highway runs concurrently with SH 24 for a short distance before splitting off , proceeding into the community of Klondike . The road turns northeast , after it proceeds through Klondike and intersects FM 2890 . The roadway continues northeastward , passing through the Cooper Wildlife Management Area , as well as traveling over a creek leading to Cooper Lake before it reenters rural areas . It continues , passing over another creek before it bends eastward . At the southern edge of Cooper , the route intersects FM 1880 . The road bends northward , entering the city of Cooper . The roadway passes several small buildings in the community before reaching its eastern terminus , an intersection with SH 154 and State Highway 24 Business .
The Texas Department of Transportation ( TxDOT ) publishes yearly reports of the highway 's annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , with counts usually taken near intersections . In 2011 , FM 1528 's highest traveled point was within the city proper of Cooper , with a daily average of 1550 vehicles . Just outside Cooper , the count drops to around 800 vehicles . In Klondike , the AADT is around 300 vehicles , while just west of Klondike , the count is just over 100 . The highway 's least traveled point is near its western terminus , with an average of just 90 vehicles . No portion of the highway is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The first segments of road in the location of what would become FM 1528 existed by the year of 1936 . On September 26 , 1939 , a portion of road traveling from SH 24 to the community of Klondike was designated as Loop Highway 39 ( Loop 39 ) . and on September 28 , 1949 , through the order of the Texas Transportation Board , FM 1528 was designated , and Loop 39 was redesignated as part of the highway . In 1961 , the highway had a bituminous surface , a combination of gravel and asphalt . By 1987 , the highway had been minorly rerouted and straightened , and the entire length had been paved . Between 1986 and 1991 , the highway 's route was minorly rerouted between Klondike and Cooper , due to the construction of Cooper Lake .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire road is in Delta County .
= History of evolutionary thought =
Evolutionary thought , the conception that species change over time , has roots in antiquity - in the ideas of the ancient Greeks , Romans , and Chinese as well as in medieval Islamic science . With the beginnings of modern biological taxonomy in the late 17th century , two opposed ideas influenced Western biological thinking :
essentialism , the belief that every species has essential characteristics that are unalterable , a concept which had developed from medieval Aristotelian metaphysics , and that fit well with natural theology
the development of the new anti @-@ Aristotelian approach to modern science : as the Enlightenment progressed , evolutionary cosmology and the mechanical philosophy spread from the physical sciences to natural history
Naturalists began to focus on the variability of species ; the emergence of paleontology with the concept of extinction further undermined static views of nature . In the early 19th century Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck ( 1744 – 1829 ) proposed his theory of the transmutation of species , the first fully formed theory of evolution .
In 1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace published a new evolutionary theory , explained in detail in Darwin 's On the Origin of Species ( 1859 ) . Unlike Lamarck , Darwin proposed common descent and a branching tree of life , meaning that two very different species could share a common ancestor . Darwin based his theory on the idea of natural selection : it synthesized a broad range of evidence from animal husbandry , biogeography , geology , morphology , and embryology .
Debate over Darwin 's work led to the rapid acceptance of the general concept of evolution , but the specific mechanism he proposed , natural selection , was not widely accepted until it was revived by developments in biology that occurred during the 1920s through the 1940s . Before that time most biologists regarded other factors as responsible for evolution . Alternatives to natural selection suggested during " the eclipse of Darwinism " ( circa 1880 to 1920 ) included inheritance of acquired characteristics ( neo @-@ Lamarckism ) , an innate drive for change ( orthogenesis ) , and sudden large mutations ( saltationism ) . Mendelian genetics , a series of 19th Century experiments with pea plant variations rediscovered in 1900 , was integrated with natural selection by Ronald Fisher during the 1910s to 1930s , and along with J. B. S. Haldane and Sewall Wright he founded the new discipline of population genetics . During the 1930s and 1940s population genetics became integrated with other biological fields , resulting in a widely applicable theory of evolution that encompassed much of biology — the modern evolutionary synthesis .
Following the establishment of evolutionary biology , studies of mutation and genetic diversity in natural populations , combined with biogeography and systematics , led to sophisticated mathematical and causal models of evolution . Paleontology and comparative anatomy allowed more detailed reconstructions of the evolutionary history of life . After the rise of molecular genetics in the 1950s , the field of molecular evolution developed , based on protein sequences and immunological tests , and later incorporating RNA and DNA studies . The gene @-@ centered view of evolution rose to prominence in the 1960s , followed by the neutral theory of molecular evolution , sparking debates over adaptationism , the unit of selection , and the relative importance of genetic drift versus natural selection as causes of evolution . In the late 20th @-@ century , DNA sequencing led to molecular phylogenetics and the reorganization of the tree of life into the three @-@ domain system by Carl Woese . In addition , the newly recognized factors of symbiogenesis and horizontal gene transfer introduced yet more complexity into evolutionary theory . Discoveries in evolutionary biology have made a significant impact not just within the traditional branches of biology , but also in other academic disciplines ( for example : anthropology and psychology ) and on society at large .
= = Antiquity = =
= = = Greeks = = =
Proposals that one type of animal , even humans , could descend from other types of animals , are known to go back to the first pre @-@ Socratic Greek philosophers . Anaximander of Miletus ( c . 610 – 546 BC ) proposed that the first animals lived in water , during a wet phase of the Earth 's past , and that the first land @-@ dwelling ancestors of mankind must have been born in water , and only spent part of their life on land . He also argued that the first human of the form known today must have been the child of a different type of animal , because man needs prolonged nursing to live . Empedocles ( c . 490 – 430 BC ) , argued that what we call birth and death in animals are just the mingling and separations of elements which cause the countless " tribes of mortal things . " Specifically , the first animals and plants were like disjointed parts of the ones we see today , some of which survived by joining in different combinations , and then intermixing , and wherever " everything turned out as it would have if it were on purpose , there the creatures survived , being accidentally compounded in a suitable way . " Other philosophers who became more influential in the Middle Ages , including Plato ( c . 428 / 427 – 348 / 347 BC ) , Aristotle ( 384 – 322 BC ) , and members of the Stoic school of philosophy , believed that the species of all things , not only living things , were fixed by divine design .
Plato was called by biologist Ernst Mayr " the great antihero of evolutionism , " because he promoted belief in essentialism , which is also referred to as the theory of Forms . This theory holds that each natural type of object in the observed world is an imperfect manifestation of the ideal , form or " species " which defines that type . In his Timaeus for example , Plato has a character tell a story that the Demiurge created the cosmos and everything in it because , being good , and hence , " ... free from jealousy , He desired that all things should be as like Himself as they could be . " The creator created all conceivable forms of life , since " ... without them the universe will be incomplete , for it will not contain every kind of animal which it ought to contain , if it is to be perfect . " This " principle of plenitude " — the idea that all potential forms of life are essential to a perfect creation — greatly influenced Christian thought . However some historians of science have questioned how much influence Plato 's essentialism had on natural philosophy by stating that many philosophers after Plato believed that species might be capable of transformation and that the idea that biologic species were fixed and possessed unchangeable essential characteristics did not become important until the beginning of biological taxonomy in the 17th and 18th centuries .
Aristotle , the most influential of the Greek philosophers in Europe in the Middle Ages , was a student of Plato and is also the earliest natural historian whose work has been preserved in any real detail . His writings on biology resulted from his research into natural history on and around the island of Lesbos , and have survived in the form of four books , usually known by their Latin names , De anima ( On the Soul ) , Historia animalium ( History of Animals ) , De generatione animalium ( Generation of Animals ) , and De partibus animalium ( On the Parts of Animals ) . Aristotle 's works contain some remarkably astute observations and interpretations — along with sundry myths and mistakes — reflecting the uneven state of knowledge during his time . However , for Charles Singer , " Nothing is more remarkable than [ Aristotle 's ] efforts to [ exhibit ] the relationships of living things as a scala naturae . " This scala naturae , described in Historia animalium , classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical " Ladder of Life " or " great chain of being , " placing them according to their complexity of structure and function , with organisms that showed greater vitality and ability to move described as " higher organisms . " Aristotle believed that features of living organisms showed clearly that they must have had what he called a final cause , that is to say that they had been designed for a purpose . He explicitly rejected the view of Empedocles that living creatures might have originated by chance .
Other Greek philosophers , such as Zeno of Citium ( 334 – 262 BC ) the founder of the Stoic school of philosophy , agreed with Aristotle and other earlier philosophers that nature showed clear evidence of being designed for a purpose ; this view is known as teleology . The Roman Stoic philosopher Cicero ( 106 – 43 BC ) wrote that Zeno was known to have held the view , central to Stoic physics , that nature is primarily " directed and concentrated ... to secure for the world ... the structure best fitted for survival . "
Epicurus ( 341 – 270 BC ) anticipated the idea of natural selection . The Roman philosopher and atomist Lucretius ( c . 99 – 55 BC ) explicated these ideas in his poem De rerum natura ( On the Nature of Things ) . In the Epicurean system , it was assumed that many species had been spontaneously generated from Gaia in the past , but that only the most functional forms survived to have offspring . The Epicureans do not seem to have anticipated the full theory of evolution as we now know it and seem to have postulated separate abiogenetic events for each species rather than postulating a single abiogenetic event coupled with the differentiation of species over time from a single ( or small number of ) originating parent organism ( s ) .
= = = Chinese = = =
Ancient Chinese thinkers such as Zhuang Zhou ( c . 369 – 286 BC ) , a Taoist philosopher , expressed ideas on changing biologic species . According to Joseph Needham , Taoism explicitly denies the fixity of biological species and Taoist philosophers speculated that species had developed differing attributes in response to differing environments . Taoism regards humans , nature and the heavens as existing in a state of " constant transformation " known as the Tao , in contrast with the more static view of nature typical of Western thought .
= = = Romans = = =
Lucretius ' poem De rerum natura provides the best surviving explanation of the ideas of the Greek Epicurean philosophers . It describes the development of the cosmos , the Earth , living things , and human society through purely naturalistic mechanisms , without any reference to supernatural involvement . De rerum natura would influence the cosmological and evolutionary speculations of philosophers and scientists during and after the Renaissance . This view was in strong contrast with the views of Roman philosophers of the Stoic school such as Cicero , Seneca the Younger ( c . 4 BC – AD 65 ) , and Pliny the Elder ( 23 – 79 AD ) who had a strongly teleological view of the natural world that influenced Christian theology . Cicero reports that the peripatetic and Stoic view of nature as an agency concerned most basically with producing life " best fitted for survival " was taken for granted among the Hellenistic elite .
= = = = Augustine of Hippo = = = =
In line with earlier Greek thought , the 4th @-@ century bishop and theologian , Augustine of Hippo , wrote that the creation story in the Book of Genesis should not be read too literally . In his book De Genesi ad litteram ( On the Literal Meaning of Genesis ) , he stated that in some cases new creatures may have come about through the " decomposition " of earlier forms of life . For Augustine , " plant , fowl and animal life are not perfect ... but created in a state of potentiality , " unlike what he considered the theologically perfect forms of angels , the firmament and the human soul . Augustine 's idea ' that forms of life had been transformed " slowly over time " ' prompted Father Giuseppe Tanzella @-@ Nitti , Professor of Theology at the Pontifical Santa Croce University in Rome , to claim that Augustine had suggested a form of evolution .
Henry Fairfield Osborn wrote in From the Greeks to Darwin ( 1894 ) :
" If the orthodoxy of Augustine had remained the teaching of the Church , the final establishment of Evolution would have come far earlier than it did , certainly during the eighteenth instead of the nineteenth century , and the bitter controversy over this truth of Nature would never have arisen . ... Plainly as the direct or instantaneous Creation of animals and plants appeared to be taught in Genesis , Augustine read this in the light of primary causation and the gradual development from the imperfect to the perfect of Aristotle . This most influential teacher thus handed down to his followers opinions which closely conform to the progressive views of those theologians of the present day who have accepted the Evolution theory . "
In A History of the Warfare of Science with Theology in Christendom ( 1896 ) , Andrew Dickson White wrote about Augustine 's attempts to preserve the ancient evolutionary approach to the creation as follows :
" For ages a widely accepted doctrine had been that water , filth , and carrion had received power from the Creator to generate worms , insects , and a multitude of the smaller animals ; and this doctrine had been especially welcomed by St. Augustine and many of the fathers , since it relieved the Almighty of making , Adam of naming , and Noah of living in the ark with these innumerable despised species . "
In Augustine 's De Genesi contra Manichæos , on Genesis he says : " To suppose that God formed man from the dust with bodily hands is very childish . ... God neither formed man with bodily hands nor did he breathe upon him with throat and lips . " Augustine suggests in other work his theory of the later development of insects out of carrion , and the adoption of the old emanation or evolution theory , showing that " certain very small animals may not have been created on the fifth and sixth days , but may have originated later from putrefying matter . " Concerning Augustine 's De Trinitate ( On the Trinity ) , White wrote that Augustine " ... develops at length the view that in the creation of living beings there was something like a growth — that God is the ultimate author , but works through secondary causes ; and finally argues that certain substances are endowed by God with the power of producing certain classes of plants and animals . "
= = Middle Ages = =
= = = Islamic philosophy and the struggle for existence = = =
Although Greek and Roman evolutionary ideas died out in Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire , they were not lost to Islamic philosophers and scientists . In the Islamic Golden Age of the 8th to the 13th centuries , philosophers explored ideas about natural history . These ideas included transmutation from non @-@ living to living : " from mineral to plant , from plant to animal , and from animal to man . "
In the medieval Islamic world , the scholar al @-@ Jāḥiẓ ( 776 – c . 868 ) wrote his Book of Animals in the 9th century . Conway Zirkle , writing about the history of natural selection in 1941 , said that an excerpt from this work was the only relevant passage he had found from an Arabian scholar . He provided a quotation describing the struggle for existence , citing a Spanish translation of this work : " The rat goes out for its food , and is clever in getting it , for it eats all animals inferior to it in strength , " and in turn , it " has to avoid snakes and birds and serpents of prey , who look for it in order to devour it " and are stronger than the rat . Mosquitoes " know instinctively that blood is the thing which makes them live " and when they see an animal , " they know that the skin has been fashioned to serve them as food . " In turn , flies hunt the mosquito " which is the food that they like best , " and predators eat the flies . " All animals , in short , can not exist without food , neither can the hunting animal escape being hunted in his turn . Every weak animal devours those weaker than itself . Strong animals cannot escape being devoured by other animals stronger than they . And in this respect , men do not differ from animals , some with respect to others , although they do not arrive at the same extremes . In short , God has disposed some human beings as a cause of life for others , and likewise , he has disposed the latter as a cause of the death of the former . " Al @-@ Jāḥiẓ also wrote descriptions of food chains .
Some of Ibn Khaldūn 's thoughts , according to some commentators , anticipate the biological theory of evolution . In 1377 , Ibn Khaldūn wrote the Muqaddimah in which he asserted that humans developed from " the world of the monkeys , " in a process by which " species become more numerous " In chapter 1 he writes : " This world with all the created things in it has a certain order and solid construction . It shows nexuses between causes and things caused , combinations of some parts of creation with others , and transformations of some existent things into others , in a pattern that is both remarkable and endless . "
The Muqaddimah also states in chapter 6 :
" We explained there that the whole of existence in ( all ) its simple and composite worlds is arranged in a natural order of ascent and descent , so that everything constitutes an uninterrupted continuum . The essences at the end of each particular stage of the worlds are by nature prepared to be transformed into the essence adjacent to them , either above or below them . This is the case with the simple material elements ; it is the case with palms and vines , ( which constitute ) the last stage of plants , in their relation to snails and shellfish , ( which constitute ) the ( lowest ) stage of animals . It is also the case with monkeys , creatures combining in themselves cleverness and perception , in their relation to man , the being who has the ability to think and to reflect . The preparedness ( for transformation ) that exists on either side , at each stage of the worlds , is meant when ( we speak about ) their connection . "
= = = = Nasīr al @-@ Dīn Tūsī = = = =
In his Akhlaq @-@ i @-@ Nasri , Tusi put forward a basic theory for the evolution of species almost 600 years before Charles Darwin , the English naturalist credited with advancing the idea , was born . He begins his theory of evolution with the universe once consisting of equal and similar elements . According to Tusi , internal contradictions began appearing , and as a result , some substances began developing faster and differently from other substances . He then explains how the elements evolved into minerals , then plants , then animals , and then humans . Tusi then goes on to explain how hereditary variability was an important factor for biological evolution of living things :
" The organisms that can gain the new features faster are more variable . As a result , they gain advantages over other creatures . [ ... ] The bodies are changing as a result of the internal and external interactions . "
Tusi discusses how organisms are able to adapt to their environments :
" Look at the world of animals and birds . They have all that is necessary for defense , protection and daily life , including strengths , courage and appropriate tools [ organs ] [ ... ] Some of these organs are real weapons , [ ... ] For example , horns @-@ spear , teeth and claws @-@ knife and needle , feet and hoofs @-@ cudgel . The thorns and needles of some animals are similar to arrows . [ ... ] Animals that have no other means of defense ( as the gazelle and fox ) protect themselves with the help of flight and cunning . [ ... ] Some of them , for example , bees , ants and some bird species , have united in communities in order to protect themselves and help each other . "
Tusi recognized three types of living things : plants , animals , and humans . He wrote :
" Animals are higher than plants , because they are able to move consciously , go after food , find and eat useful things . [ ... ] There are many differences between the animal and plant species , [ ... ] First of all , the animal kingdom is more complicated . Besides , reason is the most beneficial feature of animals . Owing to reason , they can learn new things and adopt new , non @-@ inherent abilities . For example , the trained horse or hunting falcon ... is at a higher point of development in the animal world . The first steps of human perfection begin from here . "
Tusi then explains how humans evolved from advanced animals :
" Such humans [ probably anthropoid apes ] live in the Western Sudan and other distant corners of the world . They are close to animals by their habits , deeds and behavior . [ ... ] The human has features that distinguish him from other creatures , but he has other features that unite him with the animal world , vegetable kingdom or even with the inanimate bodies . [ ... ] Before [ the creation of humans ] , all differences between organisms were of the natural origin . The next step will be associated with spiritual perfection , will , observation and knowledge . [ ... ] All these facts prove that the human being is placed on the middle step of the evolutionary stairway . According to his inherent nature , the human is related to the lower beings , and only with the help of his will can he reach the higher development level . "
= = = Christian philosophy and the great chain of being = = =
During the Early Middle Ages , Greek classical learning was all but lost to the West . However , contact with the Islamic world , where Greek manuscripts were preserved and expanded , soon led to a massive spate of Latin translations in the 12th century . Europeans were re @-@ introduced to the works of Plato and Aristotle , as well as to Islamic thought . Christian thinkers of the scholastic school , in particular Peter Abelard ( 1079 – 1142 ) and Thomas Aquinas ( 1225 – 1274 ) , combined Aristotelian classification with Plato 's ideas of the goodness of God , and of all potential life forms being present in a perfect creation , to organize all inanimate , animate , and spiritual beings into a huge interconnected system : the scala naturae , or great chain of being .
Within this system , everything that existed could be placed in order , from " lowest " to " highest , " with Hell at the bottom and God at the top — below God , an angelic hierarchy marked by the orbits of the planets , mankind in an intermediate position , and worms the lowest of the animals . As the universe was ultimately perfect , the great chain of being was also perfect . There were no empty links in the chain , and no link was represented by more than one species . Therefore , no species could ever move from one position to another . Thus , in this Christianized version of Plato 's perfect universe , species could never change , but remained forever fixed , in accordance with the text of the Book of Genesis . For humans to forget their position was seen as sinful , whether they behaved like lower animals or aspired to a higher station than was given them by their Creator .
Creatures on adjacent steps were expected to closely resemble each other , an idea expressed in the saying : natura non facit saltum ( " nature does not make leaps " ) . This basic concept of the great chain of being greatly influenced the thinking of Western civilization for centuries ( and still has an influence today ) . It formed a part of the argument from design presented by natural theology . As a classification system , it became the major organizing principle and foundation of the emerging science of biology in the 17th and 18th centuries .
= = = Thomas Aquinas on creation and natural processes = = =
While the development of the great chain of being and the argument from design by Christian theologians contributed to the view that the natural world fit into an unchanging designed hierarchy , some theologians were more open to the possibility that the world might have developed through natural processes . Thomas Aquinas went even farther than Augustine of Hippo in arguing that scriptural texts like Genesis should not be interpreted in a literal way that conflicted with or constrained what natural philosophers learned about the workings of the natural world . He felt that the autonomy of nature was a sign of God 's goodness and that there was no conflict between the concept of a divinely created universe , and the idea that the universe may have evolved over time through natural mechanisms . However , Aquinas disputed the views of those like the ancient Greek philosopher Empedocles who held that such natural processes showed that the universe could have developed without an underlying purpose . Rather holding that : " Hence , it is clear that nature is nothing but a certain kind of art , i.e. , the divine art , impressed upon things , by which these things are moved to a determinate end . It is as if the shipbuilder were able to give to timbers that by which they would move themselves to take the form of a ship . "
= = Renaissance and Enlightenment = =
In the first half of the 17th century , René Descartes ' mechanical philosophy encouraged the use of the metaphor of the universe as a machine , a concept that would come to characterise the scientific revolution . Between 1650 and 1800 , some naturalists , such as Benoît de Maillet , produced theories that maintained that the universe , the Earth , and life , had developed mechanically , without divine guidance . In contrast , most contemporary theories of evolution , such of those of Gottfried Leibniz and Johann Gottfried Herder , regarded evolution as a fundamentally spiritual process . In 1751 , Pierre Louis Maupertuis veered toward more materialist ground . He wrote of natural modifications occurring during reproduction and accumulating over the course of many generations , producing races and even new species , a description that anticipated in general terms the concept of natural selection .
Maupertuis ' ideas were in opposition to the influence of early taxonomists like John Ray . In the late 17th century , Ray had given the first formal definition of a biological species , which he described as being characterized by essential unchanging features , and stated the seed of one species could never give rise to another . The ideas of Ray and other 17th @-@ century taxonomists were influenced by natural theology and the argument from design .
The word evolution ( from the Latin evolutio , meaning " to unroll like a scroll " ) was initially used to refer to embryological development ; its first use in relation to development of species came in 1762 , when Charles Bonnet used it for his concept of " pre @-@ formation , " in which females carried a miniature form of all future generations . The term gradually gained a more general meaning of growth or progressive development .
Later in the 18th century , the French philosopher Georges @-@ Louis Leclerc , Comte de Buffon , one of the leading naturalists of the time , suggested that what most people referred to as species were really just well @-@ marked varieties , modified from an original form by environmental factors . For example , he believed that lions , tigers , leopards and house cats might all have a common ancestor . He further speculated that the 200 or so species of mammals then known might have descended from as few as 38 original animal forms . Buffon 's evolutionary ideas were limited ; he believed each of the original forms had arisen through spontaneous generation and that each was shaped by " internal moulds " that limited the amount of change . Buffon 's works , Histoire naturelle ( 1749 – 1789 ) and Époques de la nature ( 1778 ) , containing well @-@ developed theories about a completely materialistic origin for the Earth and his ideas questioning the fixity of species , were extremely influential . Another French philosopher , Denis Diderot , also wrote that living things might have first arisen through spontaneous generation , and that species were always changing through a constant process of experiment where new forms arose and survived or not based on trial and error ; an idea that can be considered a partial anticipation of natural selection . Between 1767 and 1792 , James Burnett , Lord Monboddo , included in his writings not only the concept that man had descended from primates , but also that , in response to the environment , creatures had found methods of transforming their characteristics over long time intervals . Charles Darwin 's grandfather , Erasmus Darwin , published Zoonomia ( 1794 – 1796 ) which suggested that " all warm @-@ blooded animals have arisen from one living filament . " In his poem Temple of Nature ( 1803 ) , he described the rise of life from minute organisms living in mud to all of its modern diversity .
= = Early 19th century = =
= = = Paleontology and geology = = =
In 1796 , Georges Cuvier published his findings on the differences between living elephants and those found in the fossil record . His analysis identified mammoths and mastodons as distinct species , different from any living animal , and effectively ended a long @-@ running debate over whether a species could become extinct . In 1788 , James Hutton described gradual geological processes operating continuously over deep time . In the 1790s , William Smith began the process of ordering rock strata by examining fossils in the layers while he worked on his geologic map of England . Independently , in 1811 , Cuvier and Alexandre Brongniart published an influential study of the geologic history of the region around Paris , based on the stratigraphic succession of rock layers . These works helped establish the antiquity of the Earth . Cuvier advocated catastrophism to explain the patterns of extinction and faunal succession revealed by the fossil record .
Knowledge of the fossil record continued to advance rapidly during the first few decades of the 19th century . By the 1840s , the outlines of the geologic timescale were becoming clear , and in 1841 John Phillips named three major eras , based on the predominant fauna of each : the Paleozoic , dominated by marine invertebrates and fish , the Mesozoic , the age of reptiles , and the current Cenozoic age of mammals . This progressive picture of the history of life was accepted even by conservative English geologists like Adam Sedgwick and William Buckland ; however , like Cuvier , they attributed the progression to repeated catastrophic episodes of extinction followed by new episodes of creation . Unlike Cuvier , Buckland and some other advocates of natural theology among British geologists made efforts to explicitly link the last catastrophic episode proposed by Cuvier to the biblical flood .
From 1830 to 1833 , geologist Charles Lyell published his multi @-@ volume work Principles of Geology , which , building on Hutton 's ideas , advocated a uniformitarian alternative to the catastrophic theory of geology . Lyell claimed that , rather than being the products of cataclysmic ( and possibly supernatural ) events , the geologic features of the Earth are better explained as the result of the same gradual geologic forces observable in the present day — but acting over immensely long periods of time . Although Lyell opposed evolutionary ideas ( even questioning the consensus that the fossil record demonstrates a true progression ) , his concept that the Earth was shaped by forces working gradually over an extended period , and the immense age of the Earth assumed by his theories , would strongly influence future evolutionary thinkers such as Charles Darwin .
= = = Transmutation of species = = =
Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck proposed , in his Philosophie Zoologique of 1809 , a theory of the transmutation of species ( " transformisme " ) . Lamarck did not believe that all living things shared a common ancestor but rather that simple forms of life were created continuously by spontaneous generation . He also believed that an innate life force drove species to become more complex over time , advancing up a linear ladder of complexity that was related to the great chain of being . Lamarck recognized that species adapted to their environment . He explained this by saying that the same innate force driving increasing complexity caused the organs of an animal ( or a plant ) to change based on the use or disuse of those organs , just as exercise affects muscles . He argued that these changes would be inherited by the next generation and produce slow adaptation to the environment . It was this secondary mechanism of adaptation through the inheritance of acquired characteristics that would become known as Lamarckism and would influence discussions of evolution into the 20th century .
A radical British school of comparative anatomy that included the anatomist Robert Edmond Grant was closely in touch with Lamarck 's French school of Transformationism . One of the French scientists who influenced Grant was the anatomist Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire , whose ideas on the unity of various animal body plans and the homology of certain anatomical structures would be widely influential and lead to intense debate with his colleague Georges Cuvier . Grant became an authority on the anatomy and reproduction of marine invertebrates . He developed Lamarck 's and Erasmus Darwin 's ideas of transmutation and evolutionism , and investigated homology , even proposing that plants and animals had a common evolutionary starting point . As a young student , Charles Darwin joined Grant in investigations of the life cycle of marine animals . In 1826 , an anonymous paper , probably written by Robert Jameson , praised Lamarck for explaining how higher animals had " evolved " from the simplest worms ; this was the first use of the word " evolved " in a modern sense .
In 1844 , the Scottish publisher Robert Chambers anonymously published an extremely controversial but widely read book entitled Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation . This book proposed an evolutionary scenario for the origins of the Solar System and of life on Earth . It claimed that the fossil record showed a progressive ascent of animals , with current animals branching off a main line that leads progressively to humanity . It implied that the transmutations lead to the unfolding of a preordained plan that had been woven into the laws that governed the universe . In this sense it was less completely materialistic than the ideas of radicals like Grant , but its implication that humans were only the last step in the ascent of animal life incensed many conservative thinkers . The high profile of the public debate over Vestiges , with its depiction of evolution as a progressive process , would greatly influence the perception of Darwin 's theory a decade later .
Ideas about the transmutation of species were associated with the radical materialism of the Enlightenment and were attacked by more conservative thinkers . Cuvier attacked the ideas of Lamarck and Geoffroy , agreeing with Aristotle that species were immutable . Cuvier believed that the individual parts of an animal were too closely correlated with one another to allow for one part of the anatomy to change in isolation from the others , and argued that the fossil record showed patterns of catastrophic extinctions followed by repopulation , rather than gradual change over time . He also noted that drawings of animals and animal mummies from Egypt , which were thousands of years old , showed no signs of change when compared with modern animals . The strength of Cuvier 's arguments and his scientific reputation helped keep transmutational ideas out of the mainstream for decades .
In Great Britain , the philosophy of natural theology remained influential . William Paley 's 1802 book Natural Theology with its famous watchmaker analogy had been written at least in part as a response to the transmutational ideas of Erasmus Darwin . Geologists influenced by natural theology , such as Buckland and Sedgwick , made a regular practice of attacking the evolutionary ideas of Lamarck , Grant , and Vestiges . Although Charles Lyell opposed scriptural geology , he also believed in the immutability of species , and in his Principles of Geology , he criticized Lamarck 's theories of development . Idealists such as Louis Agassiz and Richard Owen believed that each species was fixed and unchangeable because it represented an idea in the mind of the creator . They believed that relationships between species could be discerned from developmental patterns in embryology , as well as in the fossil record , but that these relationships represented an underlying pattern of divine thought , with progressive creation leading to increasing complexity and culminating in humanity . Owen developed the idea of " archetypes " in the Divine mind that would produce a sequence of species related by anatomical homologies , such as vertebrate limbs . Owen led a public campaign that successfully marginalized Grant in the scientific community . Darwin would make good use of the homologies analyzed by Owen in his own theory , but the harsh treatment of Grant , and the controversy surrounding Vestiges , showed him the need to ensure that his own ideas were scientifically sound .
= = = Anticipations of natural selection = = =
It is possible to look through the history of biology from the ancient Greeks onwards and discover anticipations of almost all of Charles Darwin 's key ideas . For example , Loren Eiseley has found isolated passages written by Buffon suggesting he was almost ready to piece together a theory of natural selection , but such anticipations should not be taken out of the full context of the writings or of cultural values of the time which could make Darwinian ideas of evolution unthinkable .
When Darwin was developing his theory , he investigated selective breeding and was impressed by Sebright 's observation that " A severe winter , or a scarcity of food , by destroying the weak and the unhealthy , has all the good effects of the most skilful selection " so that " the weak and the unhealthy do not live to propagate their infirmities . " Darwin was influenced by Charles Lyell 's ideas of environmental change causing ecological shifts , leading to what Augustin de Candolle had called a war between competing plant species , competition well described by the botanist William Herbert . Darwin was struck by Thomas Robert Malthus ' phrase " struggle for existence " used of warring human tribes .
Several writers anticipated evolutionary aspects of Darwin 's theory , and in the third edition of On the Origin of Species published in 1861 Darwin named those he knew about in an introductory appendix , An Historical Sketch of the Recent Progress of Opinion on the Origin of Species , which he expanded in later editions .
In 1813 , William Charles Wells read before the Royal Society essays assuming that there had been evolution of humans , and recognising the principle of natural selection . Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace were unaware of this work when they jointly published the theory in 1858 , but Darwin later acknowledged that Wells had recognised the principle before them , writing that the paper " An Account of a White Female , part of whose Skin resembles that of a Negro " was published in 1818 , and " he distinctly recognises the principle of natural selection , and this is the first recognition which has been indicated ; but he applies it only to the races of man , and to certain characters alone . "
Patrick Matthew wrote in the obscure book On Naval Timber and Arboriculture ( 1831 ) of " continual balancing of life to circumstance . ... [ The ] progeny of the same parents , under great differences of circumstance , might , in several generations , even become distinct species , incapable of co @-@ reproduction . " Charles Darwin discovered this work after the initial publication of the Origin . In the brief historical sketch that Darwin included in the 3rd edition he says " Unfortunately the view was given by Mr. Matthew very briefly in scattered passages in an Appendix to a work on a different subject ... He clearly saw , however , the full force of the principle of natural selection . "
However , as historian of science Peter J. Bowler says , " Through a combination of bold theorizing and comprehensive evaluation , Darwin came up with a concept of evolution that was unique for the time . " Bowler goes on to say that simple priority alone is not enough to secure a place in the history of science ; someone has to develop an idea and convince others of its importance to have a real impact . Thomas Henry Huxley said in his essay on the reception of On the Origin of Species :
" The suggestion that new species may result from the selective action of external conditions upon the variations from their specific type which individuals present — and which we call " spontaneous , " because we are ignorant of their causation — is as wholly unknown to the historian of scientific ideas as it was to biological specialists before 1858 . But that suggestion is the central idea of the ' Origin of Species , ' and contains the quintessence of Darwinism . "
= = = Natural selection = = =
The biogeographical patterns Charles Darwin observed in places such as the Galápagos Islands during the second voyage of HMS Beagle caused him to doubt the fixity of species , and in 1837 Darwin started the first of a series of secret notebooks on transmutation . Darwin 's observations led him to view transmutation as a process of divergence and branching , rather than the ladder @-@ like progression envisioned by Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck and others . In 1838 he read the new 6th edition of An Essay on the Principle of Population , written in the late 18th century by Thomas Robert Malthus . Malthus ' idea of population growth leading to a struggle for survival combined with Darwin 's knowledge on how breeders selected traits , led to the inception of Darwin 's theory of natural selection . Darwin did not publish his ideas on evolution for 20 years . However , he did share them with certain other naturalists and friends , starting with Joseph Dalton Hooker , with whom he discussed his unpublished 1844 essay on natural selection . During this period he used the time he could spare from his other scientific work to slowly refine his ideas and , aware of the intense controversy around transmutation , amass evidence to support them . In September 1854 he began full @-@ time work on writing his book on natural selection .
Unlike Darwin , Alfred Russel Wallace , influenced by the book Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , already suspected that transmutation of species occurred when he began his career as a naturalist . By 1855 , his biogeographical observations during his field work in South America and the Malay Archipelago made him confident enough in a branching pattern of evolution to publish a paper stating that every species originated in close proximity to an already existing closely allied species . Like Darwin , it was Wallace 's consideration of how the ideas of Malthus might apply to animal populations that led him to conclusions very similar to those reached by Darwin about the role of natural selection . In February 1858 , Wallace , unaware of Darwin 's unpublished ideas , composed his thoughts into an essay and mailed them to Darwin , asking for his opinion . The result was the joint publication in July of an extract from Darwin 's 1844 essay along with Wallace 's letter . Darwin also
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ship at HMS Britannia , which Dr Shackleton could not afford ; the mercantile marine cadet ships Worcester and Conway ; or an apprenticeship " before the mast " on a sailing vessel . The third option was chosen . His father was able to secure him a berth with the North Western Shipping Company , aboard the square @-@ rigged sailing ship Hoghton Tower .
During the following four years at sea , Shackleton learned his trade , visiting the far corners of the earth and forming acquaintances with a variety of people from many walks of life , learning to be at home with all kinds of men . In August 1894 , he passed his examination for Second Mate and accepted a post as third officer on a tramp steamer of the Welsh Shire Line . Two years later , he had obtained his First Mate 's ticket , and in 1898 , he was certified as a Master Mariner , qualifying him to command a British ship anywhere in the world .
In 1898 , Shackleton joined Union @-@ Castle Line , the regular mail and passenger carrier between Southampton and Cape Town . He was , as a shipmate recorded , " a departure from our usual type of young officer " , content with his own company though not aloof , " spouting lines from Keats [ and ] Browning " , a mixture of sensitivity and aggression but , withal , sympathetic . Following the outbreak of the Boer War in 1899 , Shackleton transferred to the troopship Tintagel Castle where , in March 1900 , he met an army lieutenant , Cedric Longstaff , whose father Llewellyn W. Longstaff was the main financial backer of the National Antarctic Expedition then being organised in London . Shackleton used his acquaintance with the son to obtain an interview with Longstaff senior , with a view to obtaining a place on the expedition . Longstaff , impressed by Shackleton 's keenness , recommended him to Sir Clements Markham , the expedition 's overlord , making it clear that he wanted Shackleton accepted . On 17 February 1901 , his appointment as third officer to the expedition 's ship Discovery was confirmed ; on 4 June he was commissioned into the Royal Navy , with the rank of sub @-@ lieutenant in the Reserves . Although officially on leave from Union @-@ Castle , this was in fact the end of Shackleton 's Merchant Navy service .
= = Discovery Expedition , 1901 – 03 = =
The National Antarctic Expedition , known as the Discovery Expedition after the ship Discovery , was the brainchild of Sir Clements Markham , president of the Royal Geographical Society , and had been many years in preparation . It was led by Robert Falcon Scott , a Royal Navy torpedo lieutenant lately promoted Commander , and had objectives that included scientific and geographical discovery .
Although Discovery was not a Royal Navy unit , Scott required the crew , officers and scientific staff to accept voluntarily the conditions of the Naval Discipline Act , and the ship and expedition were run on Royal Navy lines . Shackleton accepted this , even though his own background and instincts favoured a different , more informal style of leadership . Shackleton 's particular duties were listed as : " In charge of seawater analysis . Ward @-@ room caterer . In charge of holds , stores and provisions [ … ] He also arranges the entertainments . "
Discovery departed London on 31 July 1901 , arriving at the Antarctic coast , via Cape Town and New Zealand , on 8 January 1902 . After landing , Shackleton took part in an experimental balloon flight on 4 February . He also participated , with the scientists Edward Wilson and Hartley Ferrar , in the first sledging trip from the expedition 's winter quarters in McMurdo Sound , a journey which established a safe route on to the Great Ice Barrier . During the Antarctic winter of 1902 , in the confines of the iced @-@ in Discovery , Shackleton edited the expedition 's magazine The South Polar Times .
According to steward Clarence Hare , he was " the most popular of the officers among the crew , being a good mixer " , though claims that this represented an unofficial rival leadership to Scott 's are unsupported . Scott chose Shackleton to accompany Wilson and himself on the expedition 's southern journey , a march southwards to achieve the highest possible latitude in the direction of the South Pole . This march was not a serious attempt on the Pole , although the attainment of a high latitude was of great importance to Scott , and the inclusion of Shackleton indicated a high degree of personal trust .
The party set out on 2 November 1902 . The march was , Scott wrote later , " a combination of success and failure " . A record Farthest South latitude of 82 ° 17 ' was reached , beating the previous record established in 1900 by Carsten Borchgrevink . The journey was marred by the poor performance of the dogs , whose food had become tainted , and who rapidly fell sick . All 22 dogs died during the march . The three men all suffered at times from snow blindness , frostbite and , ultimately , scurvy . On the return journey , Shackleton had by his own admission " broken down " and could no longer carry out his share of the work .
He would later deny Scott 's claim in The Voyage of the Discovery , that he had been carried on the sledge . However , he was in a seriously weakened condition ; Wilson 's diary entry for 14 January reads : " Shackleton has been anything but up to the mark , and today he is decidedly worse , very short winded and coughing constantly , with more serious symptoms that need not be detailed here but which are of no small consequence one hundred and sixty miles from the ship " .
On 4 February 1903 , the party finally reached the ship . After a medical examination ( which proved inconclusive ) , Scott decided to send Shackleton home on the relief ship Morning , which had arrived in McMurdo Sound in January 1903 . Scott wrote : " He ought not to risk further hardship in his present state of health . " There is conjecture that Scott 's motives for removing him was resentment of Shackleton 's popularity , and that ill @-@ health was used as an excuse to get rid of him .
Years after the death of Scott , Wilson and Shackleton , Albert Armitage , the expedition 's second @-@ in @-@ command , claimed that there had been a falling @-@ out on the southern journey , and that Scott had told the ship 's doctor that " if he does not go back sick he will go back in disgrace . " There is no corroboration of Armitage 's story . Shackleton and Scott stayed on friendly terms , at least until the publication of Scott 's account of the southern journey in The Voyage of the Discovery . Although in public they remained mutually respectful and cordial , according to biographer Roland Huntford , Shackleton 's attitude to Scott turned to " smouldering scorn and dislike " ; salvage of wounded pride required " a return to the Antarctic and an attempt to outdo Scott " .
= = Between the Discovery and Nimrod expeditions , 1903 – 07 = =
After a period of convalescence in New Zealand , Shackleton returned to England via San Francisco and New York . As the first significant person to return from the Antarctic , he found that he was in demand ; in particular , the Admiralty wished to consult him about its further proposals for the rescue of Discovery . With Sir Clements Markham 's blessing , he accepted a temporary post assisting the outfitting of the Terra Nova for the second Discovery relief operation , but turned down the offer to sail with her as chief officer . He also assisted in the equipping of the Argentinean corvette Uruguay , which was being fitted out for the relief of the stranded Swedish Antarctic Expedition under Nordenskiöld . In search of more permanent employment , Shackleton applied for a regular commission in the Royal Navy , via the back @-@ door route of the Supplementary List , but despite the sponsorship of Markham and of the president of the Royal Society , he was not successful . Instead , he became a journalist , working for the Royal Magazine , but he found this unsatisfactory . He was then offered , and accepted , the secretaryship of the Royal Scottish Geographical Society ( RSGS ) , a post which he took up on 11 January 1904 . On 9 April 1904 he married Emily Dorman , with whom he would have three children : Raymond , Cecily , and Edward .
In 1905 , Shackleton became a shareholder in a speculative company that aimed to make a fortune transporting Russian troops home from the Far East . Despite his assurances to Emily that " we are practically sure of the contract " , nothing came of this scheme . He also ventured into politics , unsuccessfully standing in the 1906 General Election as the Liberal Unionist Party 's candidate for Dundee in opposition to Irish Home Rule . In the meantime he had taken a job with wealthy Clydeside industrialist William Beardmore ( later Lord Invernairn ) , with a roving commission which involved interviewing prospective clients and entertaining Beardmore 's business friends . Shackleton by this time , however , was making no secret of his ambition to return to Antarctica at the head of his own expedition .
Beardmore was sufficiently impressed with Shackleton to offer financial support , but other donations proved hard to come by . Nevertheless , in February 1907 , Shackleton presented to the Royal Geographic Society his plans for an Antarctic expedition , the details of which , under the name British Antarctic Expedition , were published in the Royal Society 's newsletter , Geographic Journal . The aim was the conquest of both the geographical South Pole and the South Magnetic Pole . Shackleton then worked hard to persuade others of his wealthy friends and acquaintances to contribute , including Sir Philip Lee Brocklehurst , who subscribed £ 2 @,@ 000 ( 2011 equivalent £ 157 @,@ 000 ) to secure a place on the expedition ; author Campbell Mackellar ; and Guinness baron Lord Iveagh , whose contribution was secured less than two weeks before the departure of the expedition ship Nimrod . On 4 August 1907 , Shackleton was appointed a Member of the Royal Victorian Order , 4th Class ( MVO ; the present @-@ day grade of Lieutenant ) .
= = Nimrod Expedition ( 1907 – 09 ) = =
On 1 January 1908 , Nimrod sailed for the Antarctic from Lyttelton Harbour , New Zealand . Shackleton 's original plans had envisaged using the old Discovery base in McMurdo Sound to launch his attempts on the South Pole and South Magnetic Pole . However , before leaving England , he had been pressured to give an undertaking to Scott that he would not base himself in the McMurdo area , which Scott was claiming as his own field of work . Shackleton reluctantly agreed to look for winter quarters at either the Barrier Inlet ( which Discovery had briefly visited in 1902 ) or King Edward VII Land .
To conserve coal , the ship was towed 1 @,@ 650 miles ( 2 @,@ 655 km ) by the steamer Koonya to the Antarctic ice , after Shackleton had persuaded the New Zealand government and the Union Steamship Company to share the cost . In accordance with Shackleton 's promise to Scott , the ship headed for the eastern sector of the Great Ice Barrier , arriving there on 21 January 1908 . They found that the Barrier Inlet had expanded to form a large bay , in which were hundreds of whales , which led to the immediate christening of the area as the Bay of Whales . It was noted that ice conditions were unstable , precluding the establishment of a safe base there . An extended search for an anchorage at King Edward VII Land proved equally fruitless , so Shackleton was forced to break his undertaking to Scott and set sail for McMurdo Sound , a decision which , according to second officer Arthur Harbord , was " dictated by common sense " in view of the difficulties of ice pressure , coal shortage and the lack of any nearer known base .
Nimrod arrived at McMurdo Sound on 29 January , but was stopped by ice 16 miles ( 26 km ) north of Discovery 's old base at Hut Point . After considerable weather delays , Shackleton 's base was eventually established at Cape Royds , about 24 miles ( 39 km ) north of Hut Point . The party was in high spirits , despite the difficult conditions ; Shackleton 's ability to communicate with each man kept the party happy and focused .
The " Great Southern Journey " , as Frank Wild called it , began on 29 October 1908 . On 9 January 1909 , Shackleton and three companions ( Wild , Eric Marshall and Jameson Adams ) reached a new Farthest South latitude of 88 ° 23 ' S , a point only 112 miles ( 180 km ) from the Pole . En route the South Pole party discovered the Beardmore Glacier ( named after Shackleton 's patron ) and became the first persons to see and travel on the South Polar Plateau . Their return journey to McMurdo Sound was a race against starvation , on half @-@ rations for much of the way . At one point , Shackleton gave his one biscuit allotted for the day to the ailing Frank Wild , who wrote in his diary : " All the money that was ever minted would not have bought that biscuit and the remembrance of that sacrifice will never leave me " . They arrived at Hut Point just in time to catch the ship .
The expedition 's other main accomplishments included the first ascent of Mount Erebus , and the discovery of the approximate location of the South Magnetic Pole , reached on 16 January 1909 by Edgeworth David , Douglas Mawson , and Alistair Mackay . Shackleton returned to the United Kingdom as a hero , and soon afterwards published his expedition account , Heart of the Antarctic . Emily Shackleton later recorded : " The only comment he made to me about not reaching the Pole was ' a live donkey is better than a dead lion , isn 't it ? ' and I said ' Yes darling , as far as I am concerned ' " .
In 1910 , Shackleton made a series of three recordings describing the expedition using an Edison Phonograph .
Several mostly intact cases of whisky and brandy left behind in 1909 were recovered in 2010 , for analysis by a distilling company . A revival of the vintage ( and since lost ) formula for the particular brands found has been offered for sale with a portion of the proceeds to benefit the New Zealand Antarctic Heritage Trust which discovered the lost spirits .
= = Between expeditions 1909 – 14 = =
= = = Public hero = = =
On Shackleton 's return home , public honours were quickly forthcoming . King Edward VII received him on 10 July and raised him to a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) ; in the King 's Birthday Honours list in November , he was made a knight , becoming Sir Ernest Shackleton . He was honoured by the Royal Geographical Society , who awarded him a Gold Medal ; a proposal that the medal be smaller than that earlier awarded to Captain Scott was not acted on . All the members of the Nimrod Expedition shore party received silver Polar Medals on 23 November , with Shackleton receiving a clasp to his earlier medal . Shackleton was also appointed a Younger Brother of Trinity House , a significant honour for British mariners .
Besides the official honours , Shackleton 's Antarctic feats were greeted in Britain with great enthusiasm . Proposing a toast to the explorer at a lunch given in Shackleton 's honour by the Royal Societies Club , Lord Halsbury , a former Lord Chancellor , said : " When one remembers what he had gone through , one does not believe in the supposed degeneration of the British race . One does not believe that we have lost all sense of admiration for courage [ and ] endurance " . The heroism was also claimed by Ireland : the Dublin Evening Telegraph 's headline read " South Pole Almost Reached By An Irishman " , while the Dublin Express spoke of the " qualities that were his heritage as an Irishman " . Shackleton 's fellow @-@ explorers expressed their admiration ; Roald Amundsen wrote , in a letter to RGS Secretary John Scott Keltie , that " the English nation has by this deed of Shackleton 's won a victory that can never be surpassed " . Fridtjof Nansen sent an effusive private letter to Emily Shackleton , praising the " unique expedition which has been such a complete success in every respect " . The reality was , however , that the expedition had left Shackleton deeply in debt , unable to meet the financial guarantees he had given to backers . Despite his efforts , it required government action , in the form of a grant of £ 20 @,@ 000 ( 2008 : £ 1 @.@ 5 million ) to clear the most pressing obligations . It is likely that many debts were not pressed and were written off .
= = = Biding time = = =
In the period immediately after his return , Shackleton engaged in a strenuous schedule of public appearances , lectures and social engagements . He then sought to cash in on his celebrity by making a fortune in the business world . Among the ventures which he hoped to promote were a tobacco company , a scheme for selling to collectors postage stamps overprinted " King Edward VII Land " ( based on Shackleton 's appointment as Antarctic postmaster by the New Zealand authorities ) , and the development of a Hungarian mining concession he had acquired near the city of Nagybanya , now part of Romania . None of these enterprises prospered , and his main source of income was his earnings from lecture tours . He still harboured thoughts of returning south , even though in September 1910 , having recently moved with his family to Sheringham in Norfolk , he wrote to Emily : " I am never again going South and I have thought it all out and my place is at home now " . He had been in discussions with Douglas Mawson about a scientific expedition to the Antarctic coast between Cape Adare and Gaussberg , and had written to the RGS about this in February 1910 .
Any future resumption by Shackleton of the quest for the South Pole depended on the results of Scott 's Terra Nova Expedition , which left from Cardiff in July 1910 . By the spring of 1912 , the world was aware that the pole had been conquered , by the Norwegian Roald Amundsen . The fate of Scott 's expedition was not then known . Shackleton 's mind turned to a project that had been announced , and then abandoned , by the Scottish explorer William Speirs Bruce , for a continental crossing , from a landing in the Weddell Sea , via the South Pole to McMurdo Sound . Bruce , who had failed to acquire financial backing , was happy that Shackleton should adopt his plans , which were similar to those being followed by the German explorer Wilhelm Filchner . Filchner had left Bremerhaven in May 1911 ; in December 1912 , the news arrived from South Georgia that his expedition had failed . The transcontinental journey , in Shackleton 's words , was the " one great object of Antarctic journeyings " remaining , now open to him .
= = Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition 1914 – 17 = =
= = = Preparations = = =
Shackleton published details of his new expedition , grandly titled the " Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition " , early in 1914 . Two ships would be employed ; Endurance would carry the main party into the Weddell Sea , aiming for Vahsel Bay from where a team of six , led by Shackleton , would begin the crossing of the continent . Meanwhile , a second ship , the Aurora , would take a supporting party under Captain Aeneas Mackintosh to McMurdo Sound on the opposite side of the continent . This party would then lay supply depots across the Great Ice Barrier as far as the Beardmore Glacier , these depots holding the food and fuel that would enable Shackleton 's party to complete their journey of 1 @,@ 800 miles ( 2 @,@ 900 km ) across the continent .
Shackleton used his considerable fund @-@ raising skills , and the expedition was financed largely by private donations , although the British government gave £ 10 @,@ 000 ( about £ 680 @,@ 000 in 2008 terms ) . Scottish jute magnate Sir James Caird gave £ 24 @,@ 000 , Midlands industrialist Frank Dudley Docker gave £ 10 @,@ 000 and tobacco heiress Janet Stancomb @-@ Wills gave an undisclosed but reportedly " generous " sum . Public interest in the expedition was considerable ; Shackleton received more than 5 @,@ 000 applications to join it . His interviewing and selection methods sometimes seemed eccentric ; believing that character and temperament were as important as technical ability , he would ask unconventional questions . Thus physicist Reginald James was asked if he could sing ; others were accepted on sight because Shackleton liked the look of them , or after the briefest of interrogations . Shackleton also loosened some traditional hierarchies , expecting all men , including the scientists , to take their share of ship 's chores . He ultimately selected a crew of 56 , twenty @-@ eight on each ship .
Despite the outbreak of the First World War on 3 August 1914 , Endurance was directed by the First Lord of the Admiralty , Winston Churchill , to " proceed " , and left British waters on 8 August . Shackleton delayed his own departure until 27 September , meeting the ship in Buenos Aires .
= = = Crew = = =
While Shackleton led the expedition , the Endurance was captained by Cpt . F. Worsley DSO . The Aurora was captained by Lt. J. Stenhouse DSC .
On the Endurance , the second in command was the experienced explorer Frank Wild . The meteorologist was Cpt . L. Hussey ( also an able banjo player ) . Dr. McIlroy was head of the scientific staff , which included Wordie . Dr. Alexander Macklin was one of two surgeons and also in charge of keeping the 70 dogs healthy . Tom Crean was in more immediate charge as head dog @-@ handler . Other crew included James , Hussey , Greenstreet , a carpenter Henry McNeish , and Clark ( the biologist ) . Of later independent fame was the photographer Frank Hurley . There was a cat named Mrs. Chippy , which should have been called Mr. Chippy , that belonged to the carpenter Henry McNeish . Unfortunately Mrs. Chippy was shot when the Endurance sank , due to the belief it would not have survived the ordeal that followed .
The known dogs ' names were Rugby , Upton Bristol , Millhill , Songster , Sandy , Mack , Mercury , Wolf , Amundsen , Hercules , Hackenschmidt , Samson , Sammy , Skipper , Caruso , Sub , Ulysses , Spotty , Bosun , Slobbers , Sadie , Sue , Sally , Jasper , Tim , Sweep , Martin , Splitlip , Luke , Saint , Satan , Chips , Stumps , Snapper , Painful , Bob , Snowball , Jerry , Judge , Sooty , Rufus , Sidelights , Simeon , Swanker , Chirgwin , Steamer , Peter , Fluffy , Steward , Slippery , Elliott , Roy , Noel , Shakespeare , Jamie , Bummer , Smuts , Lupoid , Spider , and Sailor .
= = = Loss of Endurance = = =
Endurance departed from South Georgia for the Weddell Sea on 5 December , heading for Vahsel Bay . As the ship moved southward , early ice was encountered , which slowed progress . Deep in the Weddell Sea , conditions gradually grew worse until , on 19 January 1915 , Endurance became frozen fast in an ice floe . On 24 February , realising that she would be trapped until the following spring , Shackleton ordered the abandonment of ship 's routine and her conversion to a winter station . She drifted slowly northward with the ice through the following months . When spring arrived in September , the breaking of the ice and its later movements put extreme pressures on the ship 's hull .
Until this point , Shackleton had hoped that the ship , when released from the ice , could work her way back towards Vahsel Bay . On 24 October , however , water began pouring in . After a few days , with the position at 69 ° 5 ' S , 51 ° 30 ' W , Shackleton gave the order to abandon ship , saying , " She 's going down ! " ; and men , provisions and equipment were transferred to camps on the ice . On 21 November 1915 , the wreck finally slipped beneath the surface .
For almost two months , Shackleton and his party camped on a large , flat floe , hoping that it would drift towards Paulet Island , approximately 250 miles ( 402 km ) away , where it was known that stores were cached . After failed attempts to march across the ice to this island , Shackleton decided to set up another more permanent camp ( Patience Camp ) on another floe , and trust to the drift of the ice to take them towards a safe landing . By 17 March , their ice camp was within 60 miles ( 97 km ) of Paulet Island but , separated by impassable ice , they were unable to reach it . On 9 April , their ice floe broke into two , and Shackleton ordered the crew into the lifeboats , to head for the nearest land . After five harrowing days at sea , the exhausted men landed their three lifeboats at Elephant Island , 346 miles ( 557 km ) from where the Endurance sank . This was the first time they had stood on solid ground for 497 days . Shackleton 's concern for his men was such that he gave his mittens to photographer Frank Hurley , who had lost his during the boat journey . Shackleton suffered frostbitten fingers as a result .
= = = Open @-@ boat journey = = =
Elephant Island was an inhospitable place , far from any shipping routes . Consequently , Shackleton decided to risk an open @-@ boat journey to the 720 @-@ nautical @-@ mile @-@ distant South Georgia whaling stations , where he knew help was available . The strongest of the tiny 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) lifeboats , christened James Caird after the expedition 's chief sponsor , was chosen for the trip . Ship 's carpenter Harry McNish made various improvements , including raising the sides , strengthening the keel , building a makeshift deck of wood and canvas , and sealing the work with oil paint and seal blood . Shackleton chose five companions for the journey : Frank Worsley , Endurance 's captain , who would be responsible for navigation ; Tom Crean , who had " begged to go " ; two strong sailors in John Vincent and Timothy McCarthy , and finally the carpenter McNish . Shackleton had clashed with McNish during the time when the party was stranded on the ice , but , while he would not forgive the carpenter 's earlier insubordination , Shackleton recognised his value for this particular job .
Shackleton refused to pack supplies for more than four weeks , knowing that if they did not reach South Georgia within that time , the boat and its crew would be lost . The James Caird was launched on 24 April 1916 ; during the next fifteen days , it sailed through the waters of the southern ocean , at the mercy of the stormy seas , in constant peril of capsizing . On 8 May , thanks to Worsley 's navigational skills , the cliffs of South Georgia came into sight , but hurricane @-@ force winds prevented the possibility of landing . The party was forced to ride out the storm offshore , in constant danger of being dashed against the rocks . They would later learn that the same hurricane had sunk a 500 @-@ ton steamer bound for South Georgia from Buenos Aires . On the following day , they were able , finally , to land on the unoccupied southern shore . After a period of rest and recuperation , rather than risk putting to sea again to reach the whaling stations on the northern coast , Shackleton decided to attempt a land crossing of the island . Although it is likely that Norwegian whalers had previously crossed at other points on ski , no one had attempted this particular route before . Leaving McNish , Vincent and McCarthy at the landing point on South Georgia , Shackleton travelled 32 miles ( 51 km ) with Worsley and Crean over mountainous terrain for 36 hours to reach the whaling station at Stromness on 20 May .
The next successful crossing of South Georgia was in October 1955 , by the British explorer Duncan Carse , who travelled much of the same route as Shackleton 's party . In tribute to their achievement , he wrote : " I do not know how they did it , except that they had to — three men of the heroic age of Antarctic exploration with 50 feet of rope between them — and a carpenter 's adze " .
= = = Rescue = = =
Shackleton immediately sent a boat to pick up the three men from the other side of South Georgia while he set to work to organise the rescue of the Elephant Island men . His first three attempts were foiled by sea ice , which blocked the approaches to the island . He appealed to the Chilean government , which offered the use of Yelcho , a small seagoing tug from its navy . Yelcho , commanded by Captain Luis Pardo , and the British whaler SS Southern Sky reached Elephant Island on 30 August 1916 , at which point the men had been isolated there for four and a half months , and Shackleton quickly evacuated all 22 men . The Yelcho took the crew first to Punta Arenas and after some days to Valparaiso in Chile where crowds warmly welcomed them back to civilisation .
There remained the men of the Ross Sea Party , who were stranded at Cape Evans in McMurdo Sound , after Aurora had been blown from its anchorage and driven out to sea , unable to return . The ship , after a drift of many months , had returned to New Zealand . Shackleton travelled there to join Aurora , and sailed with her to the rescue of the Ross Sea party . This group , despite many hardships , had carried out its depot @-@ laying mission to the full , but three lives had been lost , including that of its commander , Aeneas Mackintosh .
= = First World War = =
When Shackleton returned to England in May 1917 , Europe was in the midst of the First World War . Suffering from a heart condition , made worse by the fatigue of his arduous journeys , and too old to be conscripted , he nevertheless volunteered for the army . Repeatedly requesting posting to the front in France , he was by now drinking heavily . In October 1917 , he was sent to Buenos Aires to boost British propaganda in South America . Unqualified as a diplomat , he was unsuccessful in persuading Argentina and Chile to enter the war on the Allied side . He returned home in April 1918 . On 22 July 1918 , he received a temporary army commission in the rank of major .
Shackleton was then briefly involved in a mission to Spitzbergen to establish a British presence there under guise of a mining operation . On the way he was taken ill in Tromsø , possibly with a heart attack . Appointment to a military expedition to Murmansk obliged him to return home before departing for northern Russia .
= = With the Allied Expeditionary Force in the Russian Civil War = =
Four months after the 11 November 1918 Armistice was signed , Shackleton was back in England , full of plans for the economic development of Northern Russia . Specially appointed a temporary honorary major on 25 April 1919 , Shackleton served with the Northern Russia Expeditionary Force in the Russian Civil War under the command of Major @-@ General ( later Field Marshal Lord ) Edmund Ironside . For his " valuable services rendered in connection with Military Operations in North Russia " Shackleton was appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire ( OBE ) in the 1919 King 's Birthday Honours , and was also mentioned in despatches by General Ironside . In the midst of seeking capital , however , Shackleton 's plans foundered when Northern Russia fell to Bolshevik control . He was discharged from the army in October 1919 , retaining his rank of major .
= = Final expedition and death = =
Shackleton returned to the lecture circuit and published his own account of the Endurance expedition , South , in December 1919 . In 1920 , tired of the lecture circuit , Shackleton began to consider the possibility of a last expedition . He thought seriously of going to the Beaufort Sea area of the Arctic , a largely unexplored region , and raised some interest in this idea from the Canadian government . With funds supplied by former schoolfriend John Quiller Rowett , he acquired a 125 @-@ ton Norwegian sealer , named Foca I which he renamed Quest . The plan changed ; the destination became the Antarctic , and the project was defined by Shackleton as an " oceanographic and sub @-@ antarctic expedition " . The goals of the venture were imprecise , but a circumnavigation of the Antarctic continent and investigation of some " lost " sub @-@ Antarctic islands , such as Tuanaki , were mentioned as objectives .
Rowett agreed to finance the entire expedition , which became known as the Shackleton @-@ Rowett Expedition . On 16 September 1921 , Shackleton recorded a farewell address on a sound @-@ on @-@ film system created by Harry Grindell Matthews , who claimed it was the first " talking picture " ever made . The expedition left England on 24 September 1921 .
Although some of his former crew members had not received all their pay from the Endurance expedition , many of them signed on with their former " Boss " . When the party arrived in Rio de Janeiro , Shackleton suffered a suspected heart attack . He refused a proper medical examination , so Quest continued south , and on 4 January 1922 , arrived at South Georgia .
In the early hours of the next morning , Shackleton summoned the expedition 's physician , Alexander Macklin , to his cabin , complaining of back pains and other discomfort . According to Macklin 's own account , Macklin told him he had been overdoing things and should try to " lead a more regular life " , to which Shackleton answered : " You are always wanting me to give up things , what is it I ought to give up ? " " Chiefly alcohol , Boss , " replied Macklin . A few moments later , at 2 : 50 a.m. on 5 January 1922 , Shackleton suffered a fatal heart attack .
Macklin , who conducted the postmortem , concluded that the cause of death was atheroma of the coronary arteries exacerbated by " overstrain during a period of debility " . Leonard Hussey , a veteran of the Imperial Trans @-@ Antarctic expedition , offered to accompany the body back to Britain ; however , while he was in Montevideo en route to England , a message was received from Emily Shackleton asking that her husband be buried in South Georgia . Hussey returned to South Georgia with the body on the steamer Woodville , and on 5 March 1922 , Shackleton was buried in the Grytviken cemetery , South Georgia , after a short service in the Lutheran church , with Edward Binnie officiating . Macklin wrote in his diary : " I think this is as ' the Boss ' would have had it himself , standing lonely in an island far from civilisation , surrounded by stormy tempestuous seas , & in the vicinity of one of his greatest exploits . "
On 27 November 2011 , the ashes of Frank Wild were interred on the right @-@ hand side of Shackleton 's grave site in Grytviken . The inscription on the rough @-@ hewn granite block set to mark the spot reads " Frank Wild 1873 – 1939 , Shackleton 's right @-@ hand man . "
Study of diaries kept by Eric Marshall , medical officer to the 1907 – 09 expedition , suggests that Shackleton suffered from an atrial septal defect ( " hole in the heart " ) , a congenital heart defect , which may have been a cause of his health problems .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Early legacy = = =
Before the return of Shackleton 's body to South Georgia , there was a memorial service held for him with full military honours at Holy Trinity Church , Montevideo , and on 2 March a service was held at St Paul 's Cathedral , London , at which the King and other members of the royal family were represented . Within a year the first biography , The Life of Sir Ernest Shackleton , by Hugh Robert Mill , was published . This book , as well as being a tribute to the explorer , was a practical effort to assist his family ; Shackleton died some £ 40 @,@ 000 in debt ( 2011 : £ 1 @.@ 6 million ) . A further initiative was the establishment of a Shackleton Memorial Fund , which was used to assist the education of his children and the support of his mother .
During the ensuing decades Shackleton 's status as a polar hero was generally outshone by that of Captain Scott , whose polar party had by 1925 been commemorated on more than 30 monuments in Britain alone , including stained glass windows , statues , busts and memorial tablets . A statue of Shackleton designed by Sir Edwin Lutyens was unveiled at the Royal Geographical Society 's Kensington headquarters in 1932 , but public memorials to Shackleton were relatively few . Likewise , the printed word saw much more attention given to Scott – a forty @-@ page booklet on Shackleton , published in 1943 by OUP as part of a " Great Exploits " series , is described by cultural historian Stephanie Barczewski as " a lone example of a popular literary treatment of Shackleton in a sea of similar treatments of Scott " . This disparity continued into the 1950s .
= = = Later legacy = = =
In 1959 Alfred Lansing 's Endurance : Shackleton 's Incredible Voyage was published . This was the first of a number of books about Shackleton that began to appear , showing him in a highly positive light . At the same time , attitudes towards Scott were gradually changing as a more critical note was sounded in the literature , culminating in Roland Huntford 's 1979 treatment of him in his dual biography Scott and Amundsen , described by Barczewski as a " devastating attack " . This negative picture of Scott became accepted as the popular truth as the kind of heroism that Scott represented fell victim to the cultural shifts of the late twentieth century . Within a few years he was thoroughly overtaken in public esteem by Shackleton , whose popularity surged while that of his erstwhile rival declined . In 2002 , in a BBC poll conducted to determine the " 100 Greatest Britons " , Shackleton was ranked 11th while Scott was down in 54th place . In 2007 , the Shackleton Foundation was founded to honour the legacy of Ernest Shackleton by supporting inspirational leaders who exemplify his indomitable spirit and strive to make a positive difference to the world .
In 2001 Margaret Morrell and Stephanie Capparell presented Shackleton as a model for corporate leadership in their book Shackleton 's Way : Leadership Lessons from the Great Antarctic Explorer . They wrote : " Shackleton resonates with executives in today 's business world . His people @-@ centred approach to leadership can be a guide to anyone in a position of authority " . Other management writers were soon following this lead , using Shackleton as an exemplar for bringing order from chaos . The Centre for Leadership Studies at the University of Exeter ( United Kingdom ) offers a course on Shackleton , who also features in the management education programmes of several American universities . In Boston USA a " Shackleton School " was set up on " Outward Bound " principles , with the motto " The Journey is Everything " . Shackleton has also been cited as a model leader by the US Navy , and in a textbook on Congressional leadership , Peter L Steinke calls Shackleton the archetype of the " nonanxious leader " whose " calm , reflective demeanor becomes the antibiotic warning of the toxicity of reactive behaviour " . The Athy Heritage Centre @-@ Museum , Athy , County Kildare , Ireland established in 2001 the Ernest Shackleton Autumn School , which is held annually , to honour the memory of Ernest Shackleton and to commemorate the era of heroic polar exploration .
Shackleton 's death marked the end of the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration , a period of discovery characterised by journeys of geographical and scientific exploration in a largely unknown continent without any of the benefits of modern travel methods or radio communication . In the preface to his 1922 book The Worst Journey in the World , Apsley Cherry @-@ Garrard , one of Scott 's team on the Terra Nova Expedition , wrote : " For a joint scientific and geographical piece of organisation , give me Scott ; for a Winter Journey , Wilson ; for a dash to the Pole and nothing else , Amundsen : and if I am in the devil of a hole and want to get out of it , give me Shackleton every time " .
In 1993 Trevor Potts re @-@ enacted the Boat Journey from Elephant Island to South Georgia in honour of Sir Ernest Shackleton , totally unsupported , in a replica of the James Caird .
In 2002 , Channel 4 produced Shackleton , a TV serial depicting the 1914 expedition with Kenneth Branagh in the title role . Broadcast in the United States on the A & E Network , it won two Emmy Awards . In a 2011 Christie 's auction in London , a biscuit that Shackleton gave " a starving fellow traveller " on the 1907 – 09 Nimrod expedition sold for £ 1250 . In January 2013 , a joint British @-@ Australian team set out to duplicate Shackleton 's 1916 trip across the Southern Ocean . Led by explorer and environmental scientist Tim Jarvis , the team was assembled at the request of Alexandra Shackleton , Sir Ernest 's granddaughter , who felt the trip would honour her grandfather 's legacy . In October 2015 , Shackleton 's decorations and medals were auctioned ; the sale raised £ 585 @,@ 000 .
Shackleton is the name of one of the halls of residence for Merchant Navy Officer Cadets at Warsash Maritime Academy in Southampton , one of Britain 's Merchant Navy Training Colleges .
= = Awards and decorations = =
= = = British decorations = = =
Polar Medal ( 1904 ; with clasp for Nimrod Expedition : 1909 )
Knight Bachelor ( 1909 )
Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO , 1909 ; MVO 4th Class : 1907 )
Officer of the Order of the British Empire , Military Division ( OBE , 1918 )
British War Medal ( 1918 )
Allied Victory Medal ( 1918 , with MID )
= = = Other decorations = = =
Knight of the Order of the Dannebrog of Denmark ( 1909 )
Knight of the Order of the Polar Star of Sweden ( 1909 )
Knight of the Order of St. Olav of Norway ( 1909 )
Officer of the Legion of Honour of France ( 1909 )
Knight of the Order of the Crown of Italy ( 1910 )
Order of St. Anna , 3rd Class , of Russia ( 1910 )
Order of the Crown of Prussia , 3rd Class ( 1911 )
Officer of the Chilean Order of Merit ( 1916 )
= = = Awards = = =
Gold Medal of the Royal Geographical Society of Antwerp ( 1909 )
Boston Medal , with bar ( 1910 )
= The Tan Aquatic with Steve Zissou =
" The Tan Aquatic with Steve Zissou " is the eleventh episode of the fifth season of Family Guy , which originally aired on February 18 , 2007 . The episode follows Stewie , who develops a tan , but becomes obsessed with his new look and attempts to keep it , eventually stopping after being told by the doctor he may now have cancer . Meanwhile , Peter discovers Chris being tormented by a bully , goes to the bully 's house to speak with him , and ends up beating him up .
The episode was written by Mark Hentemann and directed by Julius Wu . It received mostly mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 8 @.@ 53 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Mike Barker , Jeff Bergman , Chris Cox , Michael Clarke Duncan , Keir Gilchrist , Beth Littleford and Rachael MacFarlane , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
While babysitting Stewie , Peter takes him along on an all day golf game and Stewie ends up with a tan all over his body . Stewie decides he likes being tanned and begins frequently to use a tanning bed in his room . He also holds a party for tanned people only . Stewie tells Brian to wake him up after fifteen minutes of tanning but Brian falls asleep and wakes up six and a half hours later . Stewie is extremely sunburned , barely able to move and in great pain . When Stewie eventually begins to peel , Brian spots a mole on Stewie 's stomach . Convinced it is skin cancer , Stewie begins to live out his dying wishes with Brian forced to help him since it was entirely his fault he caused the cancer in the first place . One of Stewie 's requests was to visit the Chicago Museum of Art . As his last request he has Brian record his final thoughts . In the end , Stewie hears from Dr. Hartman that he does not have cancer and gives up tanning . Stewie then sees that Brian drew himself being hanged instead of his final thoughts , prompting the baby to quip " Oh , you are just the worst type of person " .
Meanwhile , Chris learns that his best customer , Herbert , has made Kyle , a neighbor 's son and a bully , his new paper boy . Chris decides to confront them both but ends up getting pushed over by Kyle and laughed at by Kyle 's friends subsequently returning home in tears much to Peter and Lois ' concern . Peter goes to talk with Kyle who makes fun of him over and over . Unable to control his anger toward Kyle , Peter beats him up leaving Kyle bleeding and bruised . Kyle ’ s mother agrees not to press charges if Peter apologizes to Kyle which he reluctantly does . Kyle comments on how good bullying makes you feel which encourages Peter to become a bully . Peter splashes a pot of boiling water over Lois and makes her punch herself in the face . He also hits Stewie on his sunburned buttocks , knocks Chris out of his chair , and sticks his large butt out at Meg to fart repeatedly in her face following her backwards around the kitchen table until she finally trips and vomits on the floor at which Peter gets mad with her . When Peter also bullies his friends , such as using Joe as a marionette and pulling Cleveland 's pants down , Lois points out that he is as bad as his old school bully , Randy Fulcher . Deciding he should bully him instead , Peter finds Randy who is now suffering from multiple sclerosis . Thinking , when Randy says “ I have MS , ” that he is bragging that he has a monkey ’ s scrotum , Peter is about to beat up Randy but is stopped by Chris who beats Peter up instead and finally convinces him bullying is wrong . As the event is witnessed by a wrong sounding Kermit the Frog and a wrong sounding Swedish Chef , a wrong sounding Fozzie Bear ( voiced by Michael Clarke Duncan ) asks them if they want to hear a joke as the episode ends .
= = Production = =
David Goodman comments , regarding the plot partially following Herbert that " there is always a bit of trouble pitching a Herbert storyline to the network . " Samm Levine had originally been selected to voice Kyle , but the character was recast because , as show producer Seth MacFarlane comments , " it seemed a lot funnier when Peter was beating up a kid if he was younger and more defenseless . " A deleted scene had been made which showed Chris asking for money and stating " I spent my last ten bucks on a ham costume , " and Peter replying with " it 's just sitting there right now , but you know what the great thing is , it 's just three months until Halloween and I am done . " Peter 's ancestor shown preparing to wrestle with a kangaroo was described by Seth MacFarlane to be " a very strange gag , " which was added after the other parts of the episode had been created . Quagmire 's profanity @-@ laced tirade during the golf game was bleeped out on TV , but uncensored on DVD . The scene of Stewie remembering the time the Griffins had a nymphomaniac from Wisconsin in their attic was edited as FOX objected to the sounds of the woman having an orgasm being shown over a shot of a wide @-@ awake Stewie .
The voice of a guest at the tanning @-@ party which Stewie is hosting was provided by Mike Barker . David A. Goodman comments on the DVD commentary that " It 's nice to hear Mike Barker back on Family Guy . , " as Barker had performed multiple voices of characters in previous episodes . Peter asking " I 'm going to prison , aren 't I ? " when hiding in the tree after beating up Chris 's bully caused a little bit of trouble for the show , though it was never edited when aired on TV . A sketch had been created showing Brian falling asleep when watching Late Night with Bib Fortuna while Stewie was still in the tanning booth , but it did not seem good enough to air , so it was never broadcast . When Stewie is being sprayed by Brian with sun @-@ screen , Ralph Furley enters the room and mistakenly thinks he sees Brian ejaculating on Stewie . The cream was originally intended to keep squirting out of the bottle as if Brian were continuing to ejaculate despite Mr. Furley 's presence , but the animation didn 't look right and was removed . MacFarlane comments that he was amazed that broadcasting standards allowed them to get away with the scene , even though Brian 's line , " This isn 't what it looks like " was edited to keep the ejaculation illusion from being blatant ( the TV version goes from Mr. Furley yelling , " Brian " and Brian reacting to Mr. Furley running out and saying , " Never mind , I 'll come back later ! " ) . A deleted scene was made and designed to happen directly after Peter sickens Meg by farting in her face in which Peter steals Chris 's lunch money and runs for the bus . The
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gag showing Dick Cheney as a Wal @-@ Mart greeter had Cheney 's greeting , " Go fuck yourself " bleeped out on TV , but not DVD . Peter falling to the floor after being pushed away from hitting Randy by Chris was very difficult to do , as it is difficult to do slow @-@ motion in animation . The DVD version includes an extra scene in the car , in which Peter shows Chris how he looks like an anus by wearing a hoodie , pulling the hood on the drawstring tight around his mouth , and pushing a chocolate candy bar out of the hole to simulate defecation .
In addition to Barker and the regular cast , actor Jeff Bergman , voice actor Chris Cox , actor Michael Clarke Duncan , actor Keir Gilchrist , actress Beth Littleford and voice actress Rachael MacFarlane guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Chris Sheridan , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin and writer John Viener made minor appearances . Actor Patrick Warburton also has a guest appearance as well .
= = Cultural references = =
Stewie is listening to the instrumental version of I Say A Little Prayer while tanning .
An unused ending to the episode had been similar to the ending of 1984 American comedy film Revenge of the Nerds , but " it never really clicked , " hence , it was not broadcast .
Stewie at a party with other tan @-@ obsessed people is a reference to the Tony Lacey scene in Annie Hall .
Stewie reciting a poem he wrote to Brian is a reference to non @-@ fiction novel Tuesdays with Morrie .
While Peter is confronting Kyle , Kyle begins imitating Peter 's voice in a childish way . Peter replies to this by saying that Kyle makes him sound like Michael Stipe : The then @-@ lead singer of rock band R.E.M.
Stewie and Brian visiting the Art Institute of Chicago as one of Stewie 's last wishes is a reference to Ferris Bueller 's Day Off .
There is a dispute between Peter and Lois in regards to how different LEGO is from Mega Bloks .
While Stewie is tanning , he begins to sing his own version of the Kokomo ( song ) by The Beach Boys .
A parody of Kellogg ’ s Frosted Flakes ’ Tony the Tiger called Terry the Tiger is seen in the Griffin kitchen , saying “ They ’ re food ! ”
When Lois notices Stewie 's sunburn , she tells Peter that it was similar to the time he fed his Mogwai after midnight . A cutaway scene shows Peter feeding the Mogwai a drumstick , causing it to turn into Fran Drescher , whose head Peter then microwaves .
When Lois wipes off Stewie 's fake pencil mustache , Stewie compares the saliva being cleaned on his upper lip to the time he had dinner with Martin Landau . A cutaway shows Martin Landau having a distinct speech pattern by not chewing up his food as he speaks .
When Brian advises Stewie to “ wait and see ” whether or not he has cancer , Stewie says “ Jim Henson had a wait and see attitude , and look what happened to him . Now we ’ ve got wrong @-@ sounding Muppets , ” a reference to Henson ’ s deadly Streptococcus pneumoniae infection that was discovered too late which led to his death in 1990 . The scene then cuts to Kermit the Frog and the Swedish Chef in a dialogue sequence , with much different voice tones . The two would later appear at the end of the show , discussing the preceding events , when Fozzie Bear walks in , and says in a deep voice ( supplied by actor Michael Clarke Duncan ) : “ Wocka wocka . Who wants to hear a funny @-@ ass joke ? ” .
When Peter realizes that he should bully Randy Fulcher , he compares this to Dick Cheney being a Wal @-@ Mart greeter . He greets each costumer with " Go fuck yourself " , a reference to a 2004 incident where he said those words to Senator Patrick Leahy , after he asked the vice president about Halliburton 's alleged war profiteering .
When Stewie gets off his beach chair during a tan , Stewie is seen drinking a can of TaB , and then slowly looking to the camera – a parody of TaB commercials in the ' 80s .
The title of the episode " The Tan Aquatic with Steve Zissou " is a reference to the 2004 Wes Anderson movie " The Life Aquatic with Steve Zissou " .
= = Reception = =
In a significant improvement over the previous week , the episode was viewed in 8 @.@ 53 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 0 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , being slightly edged out by The Simpsons , while still winning over American Dad ! and King of the Hill .
Ahsan Haque of IGN gave " The Tan Aquatic with Steve Zissou " a 7 @.@ 4 / 10 and commented " the random filler jokes just don 't work , especially in this episode as both Jim Henson 's Muppets and Frosted Flakes ' Tony the Tiger are misused as random source material for jokes that simply fail to deliver , " adding that " The idea of Peter going overboard with his newfound desire to bully his family and friends is also not quite as funny as it could have been . " In a negative review by Brett Love of TV Squad. he noted " [ the episode ] was something of the opposite of " Peter 's Two Dads . " Where that one excelled with the structure of the story , this one wasn 't as strong .
= Australian Army ship Crusader ( AV 2767 ) =
Crusader ( AV2767 ) was an Australian Army amphibious operations support ship of World War II . She was launched shortly before the war ended and entered service in late 1945 . From 1945 to 1947 she was mainly used to return Australian Army equipment from the islands off New Guinea . She was also loaned to the Australian Shipping Control Board in early 1947 and transported earth moving equipment and timber between Melbourne and Tasmania . However , the Army did not need a ship with Crusader 's capabilities after the war , and she was sold in 1947 to the Queensland Cement and Lime Company which operated her as a coral barge on the Brisbane River until the mid @-@ 1980s . The ship was scuttled in 1986 and subsequently became a popular dive wreck .
= = Design and construction = =
During late 1944 and early 1945 the Australian Army suffered from a shortage of shipping , leading to delays in moving heavy equipment and small watercraft from Australia to operational areas in the South West Pacific . While several British and United States vessels were eventually made available in mid @-@ 1945 , the Australian Army 's chief engineer , Major General Clive Steele , chose to design and build a heavy lift ship for the Army . Steele personally designed the ship , which was intended to support amphibious operations and transport supplies . He deliberately underestimated the project 's cost in order to gain approval for the ship 's design and construction .
The ship 's design incorporated a number of unusual features . Crusader had a shallow draft to allow her to operate close to the shore , as well as four rudders and six engines driving six propellers to give her a high degree of manoeuvrability . While the ship required engines capable of generating a total of 2 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) , the largest engines which were available in Australia at the time each generated only 220 horsepower ( 160 kW ) horsepower . Only six of these engines could be fitted into the ship , and she was considered under powered during her Army service . Her hold could carry 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 t ) of stores and an additional 40 vehicles could be embarked on her deck . The ship also had six 30 @-@ long @-@ ton ( 30 t ) cranes to move heavy equipment , as well as six bridge @-@ like structures which were used to embark and disembark vehicles . This equipment allowed her to discharge cargo at the rate of 90 long tons ( 91 t ) at any one time . Crusader had a ' box @-@ like ' appearance , and her design did not impress naval engineers .
Crusader was built by the Melbourne Harbour Trust at Williamstown Dockyard in Williamstown , Victoria . She was the largest all @-@ welded steel vessel to have been constructed in Australia at the time , and her final price of £ 124 @,@ 000 was considerably more than Steele 's deliberate underestimate . The ship was launched on 8 August 1945 after being named by Steele 's wife , and later became the largest ship to be commissioned by the Australian Army during World War II . Construction of a sister ship , to be called AV2768 Corsair , was also begun , but this ship was cancelled when the war ended .
= = Service history = =
The ship completed her sea trials in late November 1945 , and subsequently entered service with the Army 's No. 2 Ordnance Craft Park . In February 1946 Crusader sailed to Rabaul in New Britain and later Torokina , Bougainville . During these and later voyages she proved successful in her intended role , and returned supplies and equipment from the islands to Australia . She also transported the bodies of 600 Australian servicemen killed during the fighting in the Solomon Islands to Port Moresby for permanent interment in the war cemetery there . Other unusual tasks undertaken by the vessel included transporting 800 native New Guineans from Aitape , Madang , Torokina and Wewak to a dispersal centre located in Rabaul and moving 44 tanks from Torokina to Sydney .
By January 1947 the Army no longer needed a ship with Crusader 's capabilities , and she was loaned to the Australian Shipping Control Board . In February that year she transported a load of earth moving equipment from Melbourne to Launceston , and carried a cargo of timber back to Melbourne . She continued to be manned by an Army crew and made several further trips between Tasmania and the mainland , but in April 1947 it was reported that the ship was to be scrapped on the grounds that she was considered unseaworthy . Gil Duthie , the Federal member for Wilmot , sought to have Crusader retained in service until the shortage of shipping capable of transporting heavy loads to and from Tasmania was rectified . The Shipping Control Board rejected Duthrie 's representations on the grounds that Crusader would need extensive alterations before she could be permanently used for commercial trade , and it would take at least a year to complete the necessary works . However , the Board gave a commitment to make other ships available to transport timber from Tasmania . Crusader was subsequently offered for sale , and was purchased by the Queensland Cement and Lime Company ( QCL ) . She arrived at Brisbane on 28 September 1947 and was subsequently renamed Cementco .
QCL used Cementco as a self @-@ propelled coral barge . The ship was converted to this role in Brisbane by the firms Evans Deakin , Evans Anderson and Phelan . Modifications included moving the wheel @-@ house from the aft superstructure to about 50 feet ( 15 m ) from the bow and extensively altering the cargo holds to carry up to 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of coral . After these works were completed in July 1948 The Courier @-@ Mail reported that they had " made the strangest vessel on the Australian waterfront even stranger " . Cementco 's stern was later extended so that each member of her crew had their own cabin .
In her new role the ship carried coral which had been dredged from Moreton Bay by the converted Landing Ship Tank Coral ( the former HMAS LST 3022 ) to QCL 's cement factory at Darra in Brisbane . Like the rest of QCL 's small fleet , Cementco underwent a period of extensive maintenance at the Cairncross dry dock in Brisbane once every three years . During the 1974 Brisbane flood the ship 's crew had to fasten Cementco to the pylons of the Story Bridge to prevent her from being carried down the Brisbane River .
Cementco continued to transport coral until the mid @-@ 1980s , when QCL was acquired by the firm Holderbank and another ship was purchased to transport clinker to the company 's new factory at Gladstone . She was subsequently laid up at Mary Street Wharf while attempts were made to sell her ; during this period she was renamed Crusader II to avoid confusion with a new ship named Cementco . A buyer was not found , and in 1986 Cementco was sunk at Flinders Reef off Cape Moreton where she later became a popular dive wreck .
= Robert Burnell =
Robert Burnell ( sometimes spelled Robert Burnel ; c . 1239 – 25 October 1292 ) was an English bishop who served as Lord Chancellor of England from 1274 to 1292 . A native of Shropshire , he served as a minor royal official before entering into the service of Prince Edward , the future King Edward I of England . When Edward went on the Eighth Crusade in 1270 , Burnell stayed in England to secure the prince 's interests . He served as regent after the death of King Henry III of England while Edward was still on crusade . He was twice elected Archbishop of Canterbury , but his personal life — which included a long @-@ term mistress who was rumoured to have borne him four sons — prevented his confirmation by the papacy . In 1275 Burnell was elected Bishop of Bath and Wells , after Edward had appointed him Lord Chancellor in 1274 .
Burnell was behind the efforts of the royal officials to enforce royal rights during his term of office as chancellor , including the implementation of the Quo warranto procedures . He also helped with the legislative and legal reforms of Edward 's reign . During Burnell 's tenure the chancellor 's office and records became fixed in London rather than travelling with the king . Burnell went abroad on diplomatic missions for Edward , and for a time governed Gascony . He continued to enjoy the king 's trust until his death in 1292 ; one historian has suggested that Burnell may have been the most important royal official of the 13th century .
= = Early life = =
By 1198 Burnell 's family had bestowed its name on the village of Acton Burnell in Shropshire , where Burnell was born probably in about 1239 , as he was close in age to King Edward . His father was probably Roger Burnell , who died in about 1259 . He had three brothers , two of whom died fighting the Welsh at the Battle of Moel @-@ y @-@ don in 1282 ; the third , Hugh , died in 1286 . Hugh 's son Philip was Robert 's eventual heir . Burnell worked as a clerk in the royal chancery , the office responsible for the writing of documents , before moving to the household of Prince Edward , later King Edward I of England . By 1257 Burnell was spending most of his time with the prince and the prince 's household . After Simon de Montfort 's victory at the Battle of Lewes in 1264 , Burnell continued to serve Edward , and was named the prince 's clerk in December 1264 . As a reward for his service , Burnell was given the prebend of Holme in the diocese of York some time before 1267 , and was named Archdeacon of York in December 1270 . He also held the office of chancellor to Edward from the time of the Battle of Evesham in 1265 until 1270 , when Edward left on crusade .
Prince Edward tried to have Burnell elected to the Archbishopric of Canterbury in 1270 , but was frustrated by the Canterbury cathedral chapter 's members , who instead elected their prior , William Chillenden . Eventually Pope Gregory X set Chillenden aside and installed his own choice in the see , Robert Kilwardby . Burnell did not accompany the prince on crusade in late 1270 , although he had originally planned to do so . Instead , he was appointed one of the four lieutenants who looked after Edward 's interests while the prince was away . Thus he was still in England when Henry III died in November 1272 . Burnell acted as one of the regents of the kingdom until August 1274 , when the prince , now king , returned from Palestine . During the regency Burnell supervised a parliament , dealt with raids on the Welsh Marches and resolved a trade conflict with Flanders . After the king 's return to England Burnell was made chancellor . The historian Richard Huscroft considers that Burnell gained valuable experience governing England during Edward 's absence , ensuring Burnell 's dominance in the English government after Edward 's return .
= = Chancellor and bishop = =
On 23 January 1275 Burnell was elected to the see of Bath and Wells . He received the temporalities of the see on 19 March 1275 and was consecrated on 7 April 1275 . Three years later Edward once more tried to secure the see of Canterbury for his favourite . Burnell was elected to the archbishopric in June or July 1278 , but the election was quashed by Pope Nicholas III in January 1279 . King Edward sent a deputation , including the eventual appointee , John Peckham , to secure Nicholas ' confirmation of the election . The pope named three cardinals as investigators , and then appointed Peckham instead . The bishop 's second failure to obtain the archbishopric was probably a consequence of his lifestyle , which included keeping a mistress . Edward made one final attempt to promote his friend to a wealthier see in early 1280 , when Burnell was nominated to become Bishop of Winchester , but Pope Nicholas III quashed the election on 28 June 1280 .
Burnell was the chief and most influential of Edward I 's advisers during the first half of his reign . As part of his duties Burnell spent most of his time in attendance on the king . He heard many requests and petitions from those who desired patronage or other advancements , and was diligent and active in dealing with routine business . Burnell played a leading role in the legislation introduced by King Edward . The king 's major legislative acts mainly date to Burnell 's tenure of the office of chancellor , from 21 September 1274 until Burnell 's death in 1292 . Burnell was instrumental in the enforcement of royal writs and enactments , including the Statutes of Westminster , enacted in 1275 , 1285 , and 1290 . Those of 1275 attempted to deal with the usurpation of royal rights . Keeping the peace in the realm and the extension of royal jurisdiction to cover rape was dealt with in the statutes from 1285 , along with a number of other issues . The last statute , from 1290 , regulated land law , the result of pressure from the magnates , the leading laymen of England .
During Burnell 's time in office Edward and his royal officials made great efforts to reassert royal rights that were felt to have been usurped by the king 's subjects . These efforts were made under writs of Quo warranto , which asked the recipient what royal grant or warrant gives the recipient the authority to exercise a right or a power . They were first issued in 1278 , after earlier attempts to recover royal rights through parliament unintentionally resulted in too much work for that body . Through these writs , attempts were made to enforce the rule that the only correct way to receive a privilege or grant of land was through a written charter , which might have deprived most of the magnates of England of their lands and rights . Most lands at that time were held not by documentary grants , but by the force of custom . By the 1290s the government was forced to back down and permit rights as they had been allowed from " time out of mind " .
The distinction between the king 's personal household department of the Wardrobe and the governmental department of the Chancery , which was headed by the chancellor , disappeared almost entirely during Burnell 's period of office . The Wardrobe had developed as a less formal department for the collection and distribution of money , but under Edward had effectively become a treasury for warfare . There was no rivalry between the holders of the Great Seal , the official seal of government and used for formal documents , and the Privy Seal , used to authenticate the king 's less formal letters . During Burnell 's time in office the king only used a Privy Seal warrant , or an informal set of instructions for the chancellor to issue a letter from the Chancery under the Great Seal , when the king and Burnell were apart ; after Burnell 's death the number of Privy Seal warrants increased greatly .
Edward had such trust in his chancellor and the chancellor 's clerks that Burnell and the clerks were allowed to dispense with the hanaper system , which required fees for sealing charters to be paid into the hanaper department of the Chancery for disbursal . Robert and his clerks were permitted to enjoy the profits from the fees of their office . Burnell was also responsible for the decision to force the Court of Chancery to settle in London , rather than following the king and his court around the country . A Chancery memorandum of 1280 records that the chancellor , along with the other ministers , now had the duty of sorting the many petitions that came into the government and only passing on the most urgent to the king .
As bishop , Burnell had a wall built around the cathedral at Wells , which helped to improve the security of the cathedral and its outlying buildings . He left the court each year at Lent , when he returned to his diocese and attended to its affairs . Peckham appointed Burnell to be his deputy when the archbishop went to Wales in 1282 . It was probably Burnell who suggested a compromise in 1285 over the jurisdictions of the royal and ecclesiastical courts , which allowed royal officials to return cases involving only religious matters to the church courts .
= = Foreign service = =
Burnell was active in the king 's foreign policy , especially towards France , Scotland and Wales , and undertook a number of diplomatic missions to those countries . Burnell served as the royal spokesman on several of these occasions , one of them being at Paris in 1286 when he made a speech detailing the history of English – French relations since the Treaty of Paris of 1259 . The speech was a prelude to discussions , successfully concluded , involving the homage that Edward owed to King Philip IV of France , for Edward 's land in France . Burnell was employed in Gascony during the late 1280s , helping to administer that duchy and to reorganise its government . He showed himself sensitive to the Gascon desire for independence and did not attempt to impose the same systems of government that were used in England . The historian Michael Prestwich therefore argues that the first half of Edward 's reign was the period when Gascony enjoyed its most successful government under the Plantagenets . Later , in June 1291 , Burnell gave two speeches at the great council of English and Scottish nobles in Norham to decide the succession to the Scottish crown . Edward had been asked to mediate an end to the crisis over the succession , or the Great Cause as it was known in England .
In Welsh affairs , Burnell attended a number of councils dealing with Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , Prince of Wales , and in 1277 he escorted Llywelyn to Westminster , where Llywelyn pledged homage to Edward . Burnell was present during Edward 's conquest of Wales in the 1280s ; he witnessed documents in Rhuddlan in 1282 , and subsequently at Conwy and Caernarfon .
Sometime before 1290 Burnell vowed to go on crusade to help reinforce the crusader city of Acre , which was threatened by Muslims in the late 1280s , but he never fulfilled his obligation .
= = Death and legacy = =
Burnell died in Berwick , on 25 October 1292 . His body , without his heart , is interred in the nave of Wells Cathedral ; his heart was buried at Bath Abbey . Although he was usually busy with royal business , Burnell managed to expand his bishopric and provide for his relatives . He amassed great wealth , and acquired numerous estates in Shropshire , Worcestershire , Somerset , Kent , Surrey and elsewhere . At his death , he owned 82 manors over 19 counties , most of them his personal property rather than that of the diocese of Bath and Wells .
Even after he became a bishop Burnell kept a mistress , Juliana . Rumours circulated that she bore him four sons , and that he had a number of daughters , all of which Burnell denied . He kept a magnificent household , sufficient for him to be able to host a parliament at his home in Acton Burnell in autumn 1283 . He married off a number of young female relatives , rumoured to be his daughters , to noblemen . Amabilla Burnell married a member of a royal justice 's family , and a Joan Burnell was the subject of a guarantee to the bishop that the son of William of Greystoke would marry her . A William Burnell was dean of Wells Cathedral , and was named as one of the bishop 's executors . Robert Burnell 's eventual heir was his nephew , Philip .
Burnell built extensively at Acton Burnell Castle , and large parts of his house have survived . It was substantially different in plan from the older hall @-@ style houses , which had the private quarters at the back of a large hall . At Acton Burnell the bishop 's quarters were well away from the building 's main public spaces , and included a latrine . The house was not quite a castle , but it was designed to have some defensive capability . The overall form of the structure was of a fortified hall @-@ house , much like the Norman @-@ era hall @-@ keeps . He also built the chapel and great hall in the Bishop 's Palace in Wells .
Burnell was a dominant figure during the first part of Edward 's reign , and he controlled most aspects of royal administration . He was involved not only in domestic issues but also in foreign relations , a responsibility he retained for two decades after Edward 's return to England in 1274 . Huscroft argues that he may have been the most important royal administrator of the 13th century .
= India =
India , officially the Republic of India ( Sanskrit : Bhārata Gaṇarājya ) , is a country in South Asia . It is the seventh @-@ largest country by area , the second @-@ most populous country ( with over 1 @.@ 2 billion people ) , and the most populous democracy in the world . Bounded by the Indian Ocean on the south , the Arabian Sea on the south @-@ west , and the Bay of Bengal on the south @-@ east , it shares land borders with Pakistan to the west ; China , Nepal , and Bhutan to the north @-@ east ; and Myanmar ( Burma ) and Bangladesh to the east . In the Indian Ocean , India is in the vicinity of Sri Lanka and the Maldives ; in addition , India 's Andaman and Nicobar Islands share a maritime border with Thailand and Indonesia .
Home to the ancient Indus Valley Civilisation and a region of historic trade routes and vast empires , the Indian subcontinent was identified with its commercial and cultural wealth for much of its long history . Four religions — Hinduism , Buddhism , Jainism , and Sikhism — originated here , whereas Zoroastrianism , Judaism , Christianity , and Islam arrived in the 1st millennium CE and also shaped the region 's diverse culture . Gradually annexed by and brought under the administration of the British East India Company from the early 18th century and administered directly by the United Kingdom after the Indian Rebellion of 1857 , India became an independent nation in 1947 after a struggle for independence that was marked by non @-@ violent resistance led by Mahatma Gandhi .
Currently , the Indian economy is the world 's seventh @-@ largest by nominal GDP and third @-@ largest by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . Following market @-@ based economic reforms in 1991 , India became one of the fastest @-@ growing major economies ; it is considered a newly industrialised country . However , it continues to face the challenges of poverty , corruption , malnutrition and inadequate public healthcare . A nuclear weapons state and a regional power , it has the third @-@ largest standing army in the world and ranks sixth in military expenditure among nations . India is a federal republic governed under a parliamentary system and consists of 29 states and 7 union territories . India is a pluralistic , multilingual , and a multi @-@ ethnic society . It is also home to a diversity of wildlife in a variety of protected habitats .
= = Etymology = =
The name India is derived from Indus , which originates from the Old Persian word Sindhi . The latter term stems from the Sanskrit word Sindhu , which was the historical local appellation for the Indus River . The ancient Greeks referred to the Indians as Indoi ( Ινδοί ) , which translates as " The people of the Indus " .
The geographical term Bharat ( Bhārat , pronounced [ ˈbʱaːrət ̪ ] ) , which is recognised by the Constitution of India as an official name for the country , is used by many Indian languages in its variations . It is a modernisation of the historical name Bharatavarsha , which gained increasing currency from the mid @-@ 19th century onwards as a native name of India . Scholars believe it to be named after the Vedic tribe of Bharatas in the second millennium B.C.E. It is also traditionally associated with the rule of the legendary emperor Bharata . Gaṇarājya ( literally , people 's State ) is the Sanskrit / Hindi term for " republic " dating back to the ancient times .
Hindustan ( [ ɦɪnd ̪ ʊˈst ̪ aːn ] ) is an ancient Persian name for India dating to 3 century B.C.E. It was introduced into India by the Mughals and widely used since then , often being thought of as the " Land of the Hindus . " Its meaning varied , referring to a region that encompassed northern India and Pakistan or India in its entirety .
= = History = =
= = = Ancient India = = =
The earliest authenticated human remains in South Asia date to about 30 @,@ 000 years ago . Nearly contemporaneous Mesolithic rock art sites have been found in many parts of the Indian subcontinent , including at the Bhimbetka rock shelters in Madhya Pradesh . Around 7000 BCE , the first known Neolithic settlements appeared on the subcontinent in Mehrgarh and other sites in western Pakistan . These gradually developed into the Indus Valley Civilisation , the first urban culture in South Asia ; it flourished during 2500 – 1900 BCE in Pakistan and western India . Centred around cities such as Mohenjo @-@ daro , Harappa , Dholavira , and Kalibangan , and relying on varied forms of subsistence , the civilisation engaged robustly in crafts production and wide @-@ ranging trade .
During the period 2000 – 500 BCE , in terms of culture , many regions of the subcontinent transitioned from the Chalcolithic to the Iron Age . The Vedas , the oldest scriptures of Hinduism , were composed during this period , and historians have analysed these to posit a Vedic culture in the Punjab region and the upper Gangetic Plain . Most historians also consider this period to have encompassed several waves of Indo @-@ Aryan migration into the subcontinent . The caste system arose during this period , creating a hierarchy of priests , warriors , free peasants and traders , and lastly the indigenous peoples who were regarded as impure ; and small tribal units gradually coalesced into monarchical , state @-@ level polities . On the Deccan Plateau , archaeological evidence from this period suggests the existence of a chiefdom stage of political organisation . In southern India , a progression to sedentary life is indicated by the large number of megalithic monuments dating from this period , as well as by nearby traces of agriculture , irrigation tanks , and craft traditions .
In the late Vedic period , around the 6th century BCE , the small states and chiefdoms of the Ganges Plain and the north @-@ western regions had consolidated into 16 major oligarchies and monarchies that were known as the mahajanapadas . The emerging urbanisation gave rise to non @-@ Vedic religious movements , two of which became independent religions . Jainism came into prominence during the life of its exemplar , Mahavira . Buddhism , based on the teachings of Gautama Buddha attracted followers from all social classes excepting the middle class ; chronicling the life of the Buddha was central to the beginnings of recorded history in India . In an age of increasing urban wealth , both religions held up renunciation as an ideal , and both established long @-@ lasting monastic traditions . Politically , by the 3rd century BCE , the kingdom of Magadha had annexed or reduced other states to emerge as the Mauryan Empire . The empire was once thought to have controlled most of the subcontinent excepting the far south , but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large autonomous areas . The Mauryan kings are known as much for their empire @-@ building and determined management of public life as for Ashoka 's renunciation of militarism and far @-@ flung advocacy of the Buddhist dhamma .
The Sangam literature of the Tamil language reveals that , between 200 BCE and 200 CE , the southern peninsula was being ruled by the Cheras , the Cholas , and the Pandyas , dynasties that traded extensively with the Roman Empire and with West and South @-@ East Asia . In North India , Hinduism asserted patriarchal control within the family , leading to increased subordination of women . By the 4th and 5th centuries , the Gupta Empire had created in the greater Ganges Plain a complex system of administration and taxation that became a model for later Indian kingdoms . Under the Guptas , a renewed Hinduism based on devotion rather than the management of ritual began to assert itself . The renewal was reflected in a flowering of sculpture and architecture , which found patrons among an urban elite . Classical Sanskrit literature flowered as well , and Indian science , astronomy , medicine , and mathematics made significant advances .
= = = Medieval India = = =
The Indian early medieval age , 600 CE to 1200 CE , is defined by regional kingdoms and cultural diversity . When Harsha of Kannauj , who ruled much of the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plain from 606 to 647 CE , attempted to expand southwards , he was defeated by the Chalukya ruler of the Deccan . When his successor attempted to expand eastwards , he was defeated by the Pala king of Bengal . When the Chalukyas attempted to expand southwards , they were defeated by the Pallavas from farther south , who in turn were opposed by the Pandyas and the Cholas from still farther south . No ruler of this period was able to create an empire and consistently control lands much beyond his core region . During this time , pastoral peoples whose land had been cleared to make way for the growing agricultural economy were accommodated within caste society , as were new non @-@ traditional ruling classes . The caste system consequently began to show regional differences .
In the 6th and 7th centuries , the first devotional hymns were created in the Tamil language . They were imitated all over India and led to both the resurgence of Hinduism and the development of all modern languages of the subcontinent . Indian royalty , big and small , and the temples they patronised , drew citizens in great numbers to the capital cities , which became economic hubs as well . Temple towns of various sizes began to appear everywhere as India underwent another urbanisation . By the 8th and 9th centuries , the effects were felt in South @-@ East Asia , as South Indian culture and political systems were exported to lands that became part of modern @-@ day Myanmar , Thailand , Laos , Cambodia , Vietnam , Philippines , Malaysia , and Java . Indian merchants , scholars , and sometimes armies were involved in this transmission ; South @-@ East Asians took the initiative as well , with many sojourning in Indian seminaries and translating Buddhist and Hindu texts into their languages .
After the 10th century , Muslim Central Asian nomadic clans , using swift @-@ horse cavalry and raising vast armies united by ethnicity and religion , repeatedly overran South Asia 's north @-@ western plains , leading eventually to the establishment of the Islamic Delhi Sultanate in 1206 . The sultanate was to control much of North India , and to make many forays into South India . Although at first disruptive for the Indian elites , the sultanate largely left its vast non @-@ Muslim subject population to its own laws and customs . By repeatedly repulsing Mongol raiders in the 13th century , the sultanate saved India from the devastation visited on West and Central Asia , setting the scene for centuries of migration of fleeing soldiers , learned men , mystics , traders , artists , and artisans from that region into the subcontinent , thereby creating a syncretic Indo @-@ Islamic culture in the north . The sultanate 's raiding and weakening of the regional kingdoms of South India paved the way for the indigenous Vijayanagara Empire . Embracing a strong Shaivite tradition and building upon the military technology of the sultanate , the empire came to control much of peninsular India , and was to influence South Indian society for long afterwards .
= = = Early modern India = = =
In the early 16th century , northern India , being then under mainly Muslim rulers , fell again to the superior mobility and firepower of a new generation of Central Asian warriors . The resulting Mughal Empire did not stamp out the local societies it came to rule , but rather balanced and pacified them through new administrative practices and diverse and inclusive ruling elites , leading to more systematic , centralised , and uniform rule . Eschewing tribal bonds and Islamic identity , especially under Akbar , the Mughals united their far @-@ flung realms through loyalty , expressed through a Persianised culture , to an emperor who had near @-@ divine status . The Mughal state 's economic policies , deriving most revenues from agriculture and mandating that taxes be paid in the well @-@ regulated silver currency , caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets . The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India 's economic expansion , resulting in greater patronage of painting , literary forms , textiles , and architecture . Newly coherent social groups in northern and western India , such as the Marathas , the Rajputs , and the Sikhs , gained military and governing ambitions during Mughal rule , which , through collaboration or adversity , gave them both recognition and military experience . Expanding commerce during Mughal rule gave rise to new Indian commercial and political elites along the coasts of southern and eastern India . As the empire disintegrated , many among these elites were able to seek and control their own affairs .
By the early 18th century , with the lines between commercial and political dominance being increasingly blurred , a number of European trading companies , including the English East India Company , had established coastal outposts . The East India Company 's control of the seas , greater resources , and more advanced military training and technology led it to increasingly flex its military muscle and caused it to become attractive to a portion of the Indian elite ; both these factors were crucial in allowing the Company to gain control over the Bengal region by 1765 and sideline the other European companies . Its further access to the riches of Bengal and the subsequent increased strength and size of its army enabled it to annex or subdue most of India by the 1820s . India was then no longer exporting manufactured goods as it long had , but was instead supplying the British Empire with raw materials , and many historians consider this to be the onset of India 's colonial period . By this time , with its economic power severely curtailed by the British parliament and itself effectively made an arm of British administration , the Company began to more consciously enter non @-@ economic arenas such as education , social reform , and culture .
= = = Modern India = = =
Historians consider India 's modern age to have begun sometime between 1848 and 1885 . The appointment in 1848 of Lord Dalhousie as Governor General of the East India Company set the stage for changes essential to a modern state . These included the consolidation and demarcation of sovereignty , the surveillance of the population , and the education of citizens ( English Education Act 1835 ) . Technological changes — among them , railways , canals , and the telegraph — were introduced not long after their introduction in Europe . However , disaffection with the Company also grew during this time , and set off the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Fed by diverse resentments and perceptions , including invasive British @-@ style social reforms , harsh land taxes , and summary treatment of some rich landowners and princes , the rebellion rocked many regions of northern and central India and shook the foundations of Company rule . Although the rebellion was suppressed by 1858 , it led to the dissolution of the East India Company and to the direct administration of India by the British government . Proclaiming a unitary state and a gradual but limited British @-@ style parliamentary system , the new rulers also protected princes and landed gentry as a feudal safeguard against future unrest . In the decades following , public life gradually emerged all over India , leading eventually to the founding of the Indian National Congress in 1885 .
The rush of technology and the commercialisation of agriculture in the second half of the 19th century was marked by economic setbacks — many small farmers became dependent on the whims of far @-@ away markets . There was an increase in the number of large @-@ scale famines , and , despite the risks of infrastructure development borne by Indian taxpayers , little industrial employment was generated for Indians . There were also salutary effects : commercial cropping , especially in the newly canalled Punjab , led to increased food production for internal consumption . The railway network provided critical famine relief , notably reduced the cost of moving goods , and helped nascent Indian @-@ owned industry . After World War I , in which approximately one million Indians served , a new period began . It was marked by British reforms but also repressive legislations , by more strident Indian calls for self @-@ rule , and by the beginnings of a nonviolent movement of non @-@ co @-@ operation , of which Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi would become the leader and enduring symbol . During the 1930s , slow legislative reform was enacted by the British ; the Indian National Congress won victories in the resulting elections . The next decade was beset with crises : Indian participation in World War II , the Congress 's final push for non @-@ co @-@ operation , and an upsurge of Muslim nationalism . All were capped by the advent of independence in 1947 , but tempered by the partition of India into two states : India and Pakistan .
Vital to India 's self @-@ image as an independent nation was its constitution , completed in 1950 , which put in place a secular and democratic republic . In the 60 years since , India has had a mixed record of successes and failures . It has remained a democracy with civil liberties , an active Supreme Court , and a largely independent press . Economic liberalisation , which was begun in the 1990s , has created a large urban middle class , transformed India into one of the world 's fastest @-@ growing economies , and increased its geopolitical clout . Indian movies , music , and spiritual teachings play an increasing role in global culture . Yet , India is also shaped by seemingly unyielding poverty , both rural and urban ; by religious and caste @-@ related violence ; by Maoist @-@ inspired Naxalite insurgencies ; and by separatism in Jammu and Kashmir and in Northeast India . It has unresolved territorial disputes with China and with Pakistan . The India – Pakistan nuclear rivalry came to a head in 1998 . India 's sustained democratic freedoms are unique among the world 's newer nations ; however , in spite of its recent economic successes , freedom from want for its disadvantaged population remains a goal yet to be achieved .
= = Geography = =
India comprises the bulk of the Indian subcontinent , lying atop the Indian tectonic plate , and part of the Indo @-@ Australian Plate . India 's defining geological processes began 75 million years ago when the Indian plate , then part of the southern supercontinent Gondwana , began a north @-@ eastward drift caused by seafloor spreading to its south @-@ west , and later , south and south @-@ east . Simultaneously , the vast Tethyn oceanic crust , to its northeast , began to subduct under the Eurasian plate . These dual processes , driven by convection in the Earth 's mantle , both created the Indian Ocean and caused the Indian continental crust eventually to under @-@ thrust Eurasia and to uplift the Himalayas . Immediately south of the emerging Himalayas , plate movement created a vast trough that rapidly filled with river @-@ borne sediment and now constitutes the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plain . Cut off from the plain by the ancient Aravalli Range lies the Thar Desert .
The original Indian plate survives as peninsular India , the oldest and geologically most stable part of India . It extends as far north as the Satpura and Vindhya ranges in central India . These parallel chains run from the Arabian Sea coast in Gujarat in the west to the coal @-@ rich Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand in the east . To the south , the remaining peninsular landmass , the Deccan Plateau , is flanked on the west and east by coastal ranges known as the Western and Eastern Ghats ; the plateau contains the country 's oldest rock formations , some over one billion years old . Constituted
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Today , television is the most penetrative media in India ; industry estimates indicate that as of 2012 there are over 554 million TV consumers , 462 million with satellite and / or cable connections , compared to other forms of mass media such as press ( 350 million ) , radio ( 156 million ) or internet ( 37 million ) .
= = = Society = = =
Traditional Indian society is sometimes defined by social hierarchy . The Indian caste system embodies much of the social stratification and many of the social restrictions found in the Indian subcontinent . Social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups , often termed as jātis , or " castes " . India declared untouchability to be illegal in 1947 and has since enacted other anti @-@ discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives . At the workplace in urban India and in international or leading Indian companies , the caste related identification has pretty much lost its importance .
Family values are important in the Indian tradition , and multi @-@ generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm in India , though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas . An overwhelming majority of Indians , with their consent , have their marriages arranged by their parents or other elders in the family . Marriage is thought to be for life , and the divorce rate is extremely low . As of 2001 , just 1 @.@ 6 percent of Indian women were divorced but this figure was rising due to their education and economic independence . Child marriages are common , especially in rural areas ; many women wed before reaching 18 , which is their legal marriageable age . Female infanticide and female foeticide in the country have caused a discrepancy in the sex ratio , as of 2005 it was estimated that there were 50 million more males than females in the nation . However a report from 2011 has shown improvement in the gender ratio . The payment of dowry , although illegal , remains widespread across class lines . Deaths resulting from dowry , mostly from bride burning , are on the rise .
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin . The best known include Diwali , Ganesh Chaturthi , Thai Pongal , Holi , Durga Puja , Eid ul @-@ Fitr , Bakr @-@ Id , Christmas , and Vaisakhi . India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories – Republic Day , Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti . Other sets of holidays , varying between nine and twelve , are officially observed in individual states .
= = = Clothing = = =
Cotton was domesticated in India by 4000 BCE . Traditional Indian dress varies in colour and style across regions and depends on various factors , including climate and faith . Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as the sari for women and the dhoti or lungi for men . Stitched clothes , such as the shalwar kameez for women and kurta – pyjama combinations or European @-@ style trousers and shirts for men , are also popular . Use of delicate jewellery , modelled on real flowers worn in ancient India , is part of a tradition dating back some 5 @,@ 000 years ; gemstones are also worn in India as talismans .
= = = Sports = = =
In India , several traditional indigenous sports remain fairly popular , such as kabaddi , kho kho , pehlwani and gilli @-@ danda . Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts , such as kalarippayattu , musti yuddha , silambam , and marma adi , originated in India . Chess , commonly held to have originated in India as chaturaṅga , is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian grandmasters . Pachisi , from which parcheesi derives , was played on a giant marble court by Akbar .
The improved results garnered by the Indian Davis Cup team and other Indian tennis players in the early 2010s have made tennis increasingly popular in the country . India has a comparatively strong presence in shooting sports , and has won several medals at the Olympics , the World Shooting Championships , and the Commonwealth Games . Other sports in which Indians have succeeded internationally include badminton ( Saina Nehwal is the top ranked female badminton player in the world ) , boxing , and wrestling . Football is popular in West Bengal , Goa , Tamil Nadu , Kerala , and the north @-@ eastern states . India is scheduled to host the 2017 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Cup .
Field hockey in India is administered by Hockey India . The Indian national hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and have , as of 2012 , taken eight gold , one silver , and two bronze Olympic medals , making it the sport 's most successful team in the Olympics .
India has also played a major role in popularising cricket . Thus , cricket is , by far , the most popular sport in India . The Indian national cricket team won the 1983 and 2011 Cricket World Cup events , the 2007 ICC World Twenty20 , shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka , and won 2013 ICC Champions Trophy . Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India ( BCCI ) ; the Ranji Trophy , the Duleep Trophy , the Deodhar Trophy , the Irani Trophy , and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy are domestic competitions . The BCCI is also responsible for conducting an annual Twenty20 competition known as the Indian Premier League .
India has hosted or co @-@ hosted several international sporting events : the 1951 and 1982 Asian Games ; the 1987 , 1996 , and 2011 Cricket World Cup tournaments ; the 2003 Afro @-@ Asian Games ; the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy ; the 2010 Hockey World Cup ; and the 2010 Commonwealth Games . Major international sporting events held annually in India include the Chennai Open , the Mumbai Marathon , the Delhi Half Marathon , and the Indian Masters . The first Indian Grand Prix featured in late 2011 but has been discontinued from the F1 season calendar since 2014 .
India has traditionally been the dominant country at the South Asian Games . An example of this dominance is the basketball competition where Team India won three out of four tournaments to date . The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are the highest forms of government recognition for athletic achievement ; the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching .
= Atlantic Wall =
The Atlantic Wall ( German : Atlantikwall ) was an extensive system of coastal defence and fortifications built by Nazi Germany between 1942 and 1944 along the coast of continental Europe and Scandinavia as a defence against an anticipated Allied invasion of Nazi @-@ occupied Europe from Great Britain during World War II .
Hitler ordered the construction of the fortifications in 1942 . Almost a million French workers were drafted to build it . The wall was frequently mentioned in Nazi propaganda , where its size and strength were usually exaggerated . The fortifications included colossal coastal guns , batteries , mortars , and artillery , and thousands of German troops were stationed in its defences . When the Allies eventually invaded the Normandy beaches in 1944 , most of the defences were stormed within hours . Today , ruins of the wall exist in all of the nations where the wall was built , although many structures have fallen into the ocean or have been demolished over the years .
= = Background = =
World War II in Europe began on 1 September 1939 , with Nazi Germany 's invasion of Poland . Two days later , Britain and France declared war on Germany . Poland 's geographical location , however , prevented the Allies from intervening directly . Four weeks into the attack , the Germans had successfully occupied Poland .
Less than a month after this victory , Adolf Hitler issued a directive stating that Germany must be ready for an offensive through France and the Low Countries . However , the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( German high command ; OKW ) was convinced that preparations would take at least until the following year . After furious arguments , Hitler reluctantly agreed to wait . In May 1940 , three massive German army groups overran France and the Low Countries in little more than six weeks .
= = History = =
= = = Creation = = =
On 23 March 1942 , Hitler issued Führer Directive No. 40 , which called for the creation of an " Atlantic Wall " . He ordered naval and submarine bases to be heavily defended . Fortifications remained concentrated around ports until late in 1943 , when defences were increased in other areas . Nazi propaganda claimed that the wall stretched from the cape of Norway down to the Spanish border .
Organisation Todt , which had designed the Siegfried Line during the prewar years along the Franco @-@ German border , was the chief engineering group responsible for the design and construction of the wall 's major gun emplacements and fortifications . The Vichy regime imposed a compulsory labour system , drafting some 600 @,@ 000 French workers to construct these permanent fortifications along the Dutch , Belgian , and French coasts facing the English Channel .
= = = British attacks = = =
Throughout most of 1942 – 43 , the Atlantic Wall remained a relaxed front for the Axis troops manning it , with only two large @-@ scale British attacks . Operation Chariot , launched near St Nazaire in March 1942 , was an attempt to destroy German pumping machinery and installations . The second attack was the Dieppe Raid , launched near the French port of Dieppe in August 1942 to test the German defences and provide combat experience for Canadian troops . The Germans were defeated at St. Nazaire , but had little difficulty in repulsing the attack at Dieppe , where they inflicted heavy casualties . Although the Dieppe raid was a disaster for the Allies , it alarmed Hitler , who was sure an Allied invasion in the West would shortly follow . Following Dieppe , Hitler gave Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt , the overall German Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief in the West , 15 further divisions to shore up the German positions .
= = = Reorganisation = = =
Early in 1944 , with an Allied invasion of Nazi @-@ occupied Europe becoming ever more likely , Field Marshal Erwin Rommel was assigned to improve the wall 's defences . Believing the existing coastal fortifications to be entirely inadequate , he immediately began strengthening them . Rommel 's main concern was Allied air power . He had seen it first @-@ hand when fighting the British and Americans in North Africa , and it had left a profound impression on him . He feared that any German counterattack would be broken up by Allied aircraft long before it could make a difference . Under his direction , hundreds of reinforced concrete pillboxes were built on the beaches , or sometimes slightly inland , to house machine guns , antitank guns , and light and heavy artillery . Land mines and antitank obstacles were planted on the beaches , and underwater obstacles and naval mines were placed in waters just offshore . The intent was to destroy the Allied landing craft before they could unload on the beaches .
= = = D @-@ Day = = =
By the time of the Allied invasion , the Germans had laid almost six million mines in Northern France . More gun emplacements and minefields extended inland along roads leading away from the beaches . In likely landing spots for gliders and parachutists , the Germans emplanted slanted poles with sharpened tops , which the troops called Rommelspargel ( " Rommel 's Asparagus " ) . Low @-@ lying river and estuarine areas were intentionally flooded . Rommel believed that Germany would inevitably be defeated unless the invasion could be stopped on the beach , declaring , " It is absolutely necessary that we push the British and Americans back from the beaches . Afterwards it will be too late ; the first 24 hours of the invasion will be decisive . "
The Channel Islands were heavily fortified , particularly the island of Alderney , which is closest to Britain . Hitler had decreed that one @-@ twelfth of the steel and concrete used in the Atlantic Wall should go to the Channel Islands , because of the propaganda value of controlling British territory . The islands were some of the most densely fortified areas in Europe , with a host of Hohlgangsanlage tunnels , casemates , and coastal artillery positions . Walcheren Island is considered to be the " strongest concentration of defences the Nazis had ever constructed . "
However , as the Channel Islands lacked strategic significance , the Allies bypassed them when they invaded Normandy . As a result , the German garrisons stationed on the islands did not surrender until 9 May 1945 — one day after Victory in Europe Day . The garrison on Alderney did not surrender until 16 May . Because most of their garrisons surrendered peacefully , the Channel Islands are host to some of the best @-@ preserved Atlantic Wall sites .
= = Fortresses = =
Many major ports and positions were incorporated into the Atlantic Wall , receiving heavy fortifications . Hitler ordered all positions to fight to the end , and some of them remained in German hands until Germany 's unconditional surrender . Several of the port fortresses were resupplied by submarines after being surrounded by Allied Forces . The defenders of these positions included foreign volunteers and SS troops .
= = Preservation = =
= = = France = = =
Immediately after the war , there was little interest in preserving the wall due to the negative memories associated with the Nazi occupation . One of the best preserved parts is the Todt Battery . In 2011 , renewed efforts to preserve the wall were spearheaded by organisations in Germany , the Netherlands , and the United Kingdom . Many of the beach fortifications have toppled or are underwater , while the ones further inland are still mainly extant due to their location .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
Although the defensive wall was never fully completed , many bunkers still exist near Ostend , Channel Islands , Scheveningen , Den Haag , Katwijk , and in Scandinavia .
= = = Printed = = =
Ambrose , Stephen ( 1994 ) . D @-@ Day , June 6 , 1944 : The Climactic Battle Of World War II . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 67334 @-@ 3 .
Darman , Peter ( 2012 ) . The Allied Invasion Of Europe . Rosen Publishing Group . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4488 @-@ 9234 @-@ 1 .
Delaforce , Patrick ( 2005 ) . Smashing The Atlantic Wall : The Destruction Of Hitler 's Coastal Fortresses . Casemate Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84415 @-@ 256 @-@ 8 .
Hakim , Joy ( 1995 ) . A History Of Us : War , Peace And All That Jazz . Oxford University . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 509514 @-@ 6 .
Hastings , Max ( 2004 ) . Armageddon : The Battle for Germany 1944 – 45 . Macmillan . ISBN 0 @-@ 333 @-@ 90836 @-@ 8 .
Kaufmann , J. E. ; Robert , Jurga ( 2003 ) . Fortress Third Reich : German Fortifications And Defense Systems In World War II . Da Capo Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 81239 @-@ 8 .
McNab , Chris ( 2014 ) . Hitler ’ s Fortresses : German Fortifications And Defences 1939 – 45 . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 78200 @-@ 828 @-@ 6 .
Mountbatten , Chris ( 2007 ) . Combined Operations : The Official Story Of The Commandos . Read Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 4067 @-@ 5957 @-@ 0 .
Pauls , Michael ; Facaros , Dana ( 2007 ) . Cadogan Guide Dordogne , the Lot & Bordeaux . New Holland Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 86011 @-@ 354 @-@ 3 .
Saunders , Anthony ( 2001 ) . Hitler 's Atlantic Wall : Fortress Europe . University of Michigan . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7509 @-@ 4554 @-@ 7 .
Stephenson , Charles ; Taylor , Chris ( 2013 ) . The Channel Islands 1941 – 45 : Hitler 's Impregnable Fortress . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4728 @-@ 0375 @-@ 7 .
Williamson , Louis ( 2012 ) . U @-@ Boat Bases And Bunkers 1941 – 45 . Osprey Publishing . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 78200 @-@ 002 @-@ 0 .
Williams , Paul ( 2013 ) . Hitler 's Atlantic Wall : Pas De Calais . Casemate Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84884 @-@ 817 @-@ 7 .
Zuehlke , Mark ( 2009 ) . Terrible Victory : First Canadian Army And The Scheldt Estuary Campaign : September 13 – November 6 , 1944 . D & M Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 926685 @-@ 80 @-@ 9 .
= = = Online = = =
" Assault Plan " . United States Army Center of Military History . Retrieved 22 March 2015 .
Schofield , Hugh ( 13 September 2011 ) . " Hitler 's Atlantic Wall : Should France Preserve It ? " . British Broadcasting Corporation . Retrieved 25 March 2015 .
" Jersey – My Island – History – German Occupation " . British Broadcasting Corporation . Retrieved 25 March 2015 .
= = = Media = = =
Lighting War ( television documentary ) . United States : World Media Rights . 2009 . Retrieved 22 March 2015 .
The Great Landings ( television documentary ) . France : France 2 . 2009 . Retrieved 22 March 2015 .
Overlord ( television documentary ) . United States : World Media Rights . 2009 . Retrieved 22 March 2015 .
The Atlantic Wall features in the novel Villa Normandie by Kevin Doherty .
The many constructions of the Wall still standing have been photographed by Jonathan Andrew .
= Marilyn Monroe =
Marilyn Monroe ( born Norma Jeane Mortenson ; June 1 , 1926 – August 5 , 1962 ) was an American actress and model . Famous for playing " dumb blonde " characters , she became one of the most popular sex symbols of the 1950s , emblematic of the era 's attitudes towards sexuality . Although she was a top @-@ billed actress for only a decade , her films grossed $ 200 million by the time of her unexpected death in 1962 . She continues to be considered a major popular culture icon .
Born and raised in Los Angeles , Monroe spent most of her childhood in foster homes and an orphanage and married for the first time at the age of sixteen . While working in a factory as part of the war effort in 1944 , she met a photographer and began a successful pin @-@ up modeling career . The work led to short @-@ lived film contracts with Twentieth Century @-@ Fox ( 1946 – 47 ) and Columbia Pictures ( 1948 ) . After a series of minor film roles , she signed a new contract with Fox in 1951 . Over the next two years , she became a popular actress with roles in several comedies , including As Young as You Feel and Monkey Business , and in the dramas Clash by Night and Don 't Bother to Knock . Monroe faced a scandal when it was revealed that she had posed for nude photos before becoming a star , but rather than damaging her career , the story increased interest in her films .
By 1953 , Monroe was one of the most bankable Hollywood stars , with leading roles in three films : the noir Niagara , which focused on her sex appeal , and the comedies Gentlemen Prefer Blondes and How to Marry a Millionaire , which established her star image as a " dumb blonde " . Although she played a significant role in the creation and management of her public image throughout her career , she was disappointed at being typecast and underpaid by the studio . She was briefly suspended in early 1954 for refusing a film project , but returned to star in one of the biggest box office successes of her career , The Seven Year Itch ( 1955 ) . When the studio was still reluctant to change her contract , Monroe founded a film production company in late 1954 , Marilyn Monroe Productions ( MMP ) . She dedicated 1955 to building her company and began studying method acting at the Actors Studio . In late 1955 , Fox awarded her a new contract , which gave her more control and a larger salary . After a critically acclaimed performance in Bus Stop ( 1956 ) and acting in the first independent production of MMP , The Prince and the Showgirl ( 1957 ) , she won a Golden Globe for Best Actress for Some Like It Hot ( 1959 ) . Her last completed film was the drama The Misfits ( 1961 ) .
Monroe 's troubled private life received much attention . She struggled with addiction , depression , and anxiety . She had two highly publicized marriages , to baseball player Joe DiMaggio and playwright Arthur Miller , which both ended in divorce . She died at the age of 36 from an overdose of barbiturates at her home in Los Angeles on August 5 , 1962 . Although the death was ruled a probable suicide , several conspiracy theories have been proposed in the decades following her death .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Childhood and first marriage ( 1926 – 44 ) = = =
Monroe was born Norma Jeane Mortenson at the Los Angeles County Hospital on June 1 , 1926 , as the third child of Gladys Pearl Baker ( née Monroe , 1902 – 84 ) . Gladys , the daughter of two poor Midwestern migrants to California , was a flapper and worked as a film negative cutter at Consolidated Film Industries . When she was fifteen , she married a man nine years her senior , John Newton Baker , and had two children by him , Robert ( 1917 – 33 ) and Berniece ( born 1919 ) . She filed for divorce in 1921 , and Baker took the children with him to his native Kentucky . Monroe was not told that she had a sister until she was twelve , and met her for the first time as an adult . Gladys married her second husband Martin Edward Mortensen in 1924 , but they separated before she became pregnant with Monroe ; they divorced in 1928 . The identity of Monroe 's father is unknown and Baker was most often used as her surname .
Monroe 's early childhood was stable and happy . While Gladys was mentally and financially unprepared for a child , she was able to place Monroe with foster parents Albert and Ida Bolender in the rural town of Hawthorne soon after the birth . They raised their foster children according to the principles of evangelical Christianity . At first , Gladys lived with the Bolenders and commuted to work in Los Angeles , until longer work shifts forced her to move back to the city in early 1927 . She then began visiting her daughter on the weekends , often taking her to the cinema and to sightsee in Los Angeles . Although the Bolenders wanted to adopt Monroe , by the summer of 1933 , Gladys felt stable enough for Monroe to move in with her and bought a small house in Hollywood . They shared it with lodgers , actors George and Maude Atkinson and their daughter , Nellie . Some months later , in January 1934 , Gladys had a mental breakdown and was diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia . After several months in a rest home , she was committed to the Metropolitan State Hospital . She spent the rest of her life in and out of hospitals , and was rarely in contact with Monroe .
Monroe was declared a ward of the state , and her mother 's friend , Grace McKee Goddard , took responsibility over her and her mother 's affairs . In the following four years , she lived with several foster families , and often switched schools . For the first sixteen months , she continued living with the Atkinsons ; she was sexually abused during this time . Always a shy girl , she now also developed a stutter and became withdrawn . In the summer of 1935 , she briefly stayed with Grace and her husband Erwin " Doc " Goddard and two other families , until Grace placed her in the Los Angeles Orphans Home in Hollywood in September 1935 . While the orphanage was " a model institution " , and was described in positive terms by her peers , Monroe found being placed there traumatizing , as to her " it seemed that no one wanted me " .
Encouraged by the orphanage staff , who thought that Monroe would be happier living in a family , Grace became her legal guardian in 1936 , although she was not able to take her out of the orphanage until the summer of 1937 . Monroe 's second stay with the Goddards lasted only a few months , as Doc molested her . After staying with various of her and Grace 's relatives and friends in Los Angeles and Compton , Monroe found a more permanent home in September 1938 , when she began living with Grace 's aunt , Ana Atchinson Lower , in the Sawtelle district . She was enrolled in Emerson Junior High School and was taken to weekly Christian Science services with Lower . While otherwise a mediocre student , Monroe excelled in writing and contributed to the school 's newspaper . Due to the elderly Lower 's health issues , Monroe returned to live with the Goddards in Van Nuys in either late 1940 or early 1941 . After graduating from Emerson , she began attending Van Nuys High School .
In early 1942 , the company that Doc Goddard worked for required him to relocate to West Virginia . California laws prevented the Goddards from taking Monroe out of state , and she faced the possibility of having to return to the orphanage . As a solution , she married their neighbors ' son , 21 @-@ year @-@ old factory worker James " Jim " Dougherty , on June 19 , 1942 , just after her 16th birthday . Monroe subsequently dropped out of high school and became a housewife ; she later stated that the " marriage didn 't make me sad , but it didn 't make me happy , either . My husband and I hardly spoke to each other . This wasn 't because we were angry . We had nothing to say . I was dying of boredom . " In 1943 , Dougherty enlisted in the Merchant Marine . He was initially stationed on Catalina Island , where she lived with him until he was shipped out to the Pacific in April 1944 ; he would remain there for most of the next two years . After Dougherty 's departure , Monroe moved in with his parents and began working at the Radioplane Munitions Factory to participate in the war effort and to earn her own income .
= = = Modeling and first film roles ( 1945 – 49 ) = = =
In late 1944 , Monroe met photographer David Conover , who had been sent by the U.S. Army Air Forces ' First Motion Picture Unit ( FMPU ) to the factory to shoot morale @-@ boosting pictures of female workers . Although none of her pictures were used by the FMPU , she quit working at the factory in January 1945 and began modeling for Conover and his friends . She moved out of her in @-@ laws ' home , and defying them and her husband , signed a contract with the Blue Book Model Agency in August 1945 . She began to occasionally use the name Jean Norman when working , and had her curly brunette hair straightened and dyed blond to make her more employable . As her figure was deemed more suitable for pin @-@ up than fashion modeling , she was employed mostly for advertisements and men 's magazines . According to the agency 's owner , Emmeline Snively , Monroe was one of its most ambitious and hard @-@ working models ; by early 1946 , she had appeared on 33 magazine covers for publications such as Pageant , U.S. Camera , Laff , and Peek .
Impressed by her success , Snively arranged a contract for Monroe with an acting agency in June 1946 . After an unsuccessful interview with producers at Paramount Pictures , she was given a screentest by Ben Lyon , a 20th Century @-@ Fox executive . Head executive Darryl F. Zanuck was unenthusiastic about it , but he was persuaded to give her a standard six @-@ month contract to avoid her being signed by rival studio RKO Pictures . Monroe began her contract in August 1946 , and together with Lyon selected the screen name of " Marilyn Monroe " . The first name was picked by Lyon , who was reminded of Broadway star Marilyn Miller ; the last was picked by Monroe after her mother 's maiden name . In September 1946 , she was granted a divorce from Dougherty , who was against her having a career .
Monroe had no film roles during the first months of her contract and instead dedicated her days to acting , singing and dancing classes . Eager to learn more about the film industry and to promote herself , she also spent time at the studio lot to observe others working . Her contract was renewed in February 1947 , and she was soon given her first two film roles : nine lines of dialogue as a waitress in the drama Dangerous Years ( 1947 ) and a one @-@ line appearance in the comedy Scudda Hoo ! Scudda Hay ! ( 1948 ) . The studio also enrolled her in the Actors ' Laboratory Theatre , an acting school teaching the techniques of the Group Theatre ; she later stated that it was " my first taste of what real acting in a real drama could be , and I was hooked " . Monroe 's contract was not renewed in August 1947 , and she returned to modeling while also doing occasional odd jobs at the studio .
Determined to make it as an actor , Monroe continued studying at the Actors ' Lab , and in October appeared as a blonde vamp in the short @-@ lived play Glamour Preferred at the Bliss @-@ Hayden Theater , but the production was not reviewed by any major publication . To promote herself , she frequented producers ' offices , befriended gossip columnist Sidney Skolsky , and entertained influential male guests at studio functions , a practice she had begun at Fox . She also became a friend and occasional sexual partner of Fox executive Joseph M. Schenck , who persuaded his friend Harry Cohn , the head executive of Columbia Pictures , to sign her in March 1948 .
While at Fox her roles had been that of a " girl next door " , at Columbia she was modeled after Rita Hayworth . Monroe 's hairline was raised by electrolysis and her hair was bleached even lighter , to platinum blond . She also began working with the studio 's head drama coach , Natasha Lytess , who would remain her mentor until 1955 . Her only film at the studio was the low @-@ budget musical Ladies of the Chorus ( 1948 ) , in which she had her first starring role as a chorus girl who is courted by a wealthy man . During the production , she began an affair with her vocal coach , Fred Karger , who paid to have her slight overbite corrected . Despite the starring role and a subsequent screen test for the lead role in Born Yesterday ( 1950 ) , Monroe 's contract was not renewed . Ladies of the Chorus was released in October and was not a success .
After leaving Columbia in September 1948 , Monroe became a protégée of Johnny Hyde , vice president of the William Morris Agency . Hyde began representing her and their relationship soon became sexual , although she refused his proposals of marriage . To advance Monroe 's career , he paid for a silicone prosthesis to be implanted in her jaw and possibly for a rhinoplasty , and arranged a bit part in the Marx Brothers film Love Happy ( 1950 ) . Monroe also continued modeling , and in May 1949 posed for nude photos taken by Tom Kelley . Although her role in Love Happy was very small , she was chosen to participate in the film 's promotional tour in New York that year .
= = = Breakthrough ( 1950 – 52 ) = = =
Monroe appeared in six films released in 1950 . She had bit parts in Love Happy , A Ticket to Tomahawk , Right Cross and The Fireball , but also made minor appearances in two critically acclaimed films : John Huston 's crime film The Asphalt Jungle and Joseph Mankiewicz 's drama All About Eve . In the former , Monroe played Angela , the young mistress of an aging criminal . Although only on the screen for five minutes , she gained a mention in Photoplay and according to Spoto " moved effectively from movie model to serious actress " . In All About Eve , Monroe played Miss Caswell , a naïve young actress .
Following Monroe 's success in these roles , Hyde negotiated a seven @-@ year contract with 20th Century @-@ Fox in December 1950 . He died of a heart attack only days later , leaving her devastated . Despite her grief , 1951 became the year in which she gained more visibility . In March , she was a presenter at the 23rd Academy Awards , and in September , Collier 's became the first national magazine to publish a full @-@ length profile of her . She had supporting roles in four low @-@ budget films : in the MGM drama Home Town Story , and in three moderately successful comedies for Fox , As Young as You Feel , Love Nest , and Let 's Make It Legal . According to Spoto all four films featured her " essentially [ as ] a sexy ornament " , but she received some praise from critics : Bosley Crowther of The New York Times described her as " superb " in As Young As You Feel and Ezra Goodman of the Los Angeles Daily News called her " one of the brightest up @-@ and @-@ coming [ actresses ] " for Love Nest . To further develop her acting skills , Monroe began taking classes with Michael Chekhov and mime Lotte Goslar . Her popularity with audiences was also growing : she received several thousand letters of fan mail a week , and was declared " Miss Cheesecake of 1951 " by the army newspaper Stars and Stripes , reflecting the preferences of soldiers in the Korean War . In her private life , Monroe was in a relationship with director Elia Kazan , and also briefly dated several other men , including directors Nicholas Ray and Yul Brynner and actor Peter Lawford .
The second year of the Fox contract saw Monroe become a top @-@ billed actress , with gossip columnist Florabel Muir naming her the year 's " it girl " and Hedda Hopper describing her as the " cheesecake queen " turned " box office smash " . In February , she was named the " best young box office personality " by the Foreign Press Association of Hollywood , and began a highly publicized romance with retired New York Yankee Joe DiMaggio , one of the most famous sports personalities of the era . The following month , a scandal broke when she revealed in an interview that she had posed for nude pictures in 1949 , which were featured in calendars . The studio had learned of the photographs some weeks earlier , and to contain the potentially disastrous effects on her career , they and Monroe had decided to talk about them openly while stressing that she had only posed for them in a dire financial situation . The strategy succeeded in getting her public sympathy and increased interest in her films : the following month , she was featured on the cover of Life as " The Talk of Hollywood " . Monroe added to her reputation as a new sex symbol with other publicity stunts that year , such as wearing a revealing dress when acting as Grand Marshal at the Miss America Pageant parade , and by stating to gossip columnist Earl Wilson that she usually wore no underwear .
Regardless of the popularity her sex appeal brought , Monroe wished to present more of her acting range , and in the summer of 1952 appeared in two commercially successful dramas . The first was Fritz Lang 's Clash by Night , for which she was loaned to RKO and played a fish cannery worker ; to prepare , she spent time in a real fish cannery in Monterey . She received positive reviews for her performance : The Hollywood Reporter stated that " she deserves starring status with her excellent interpretation " , and Variety wrote that she " has an ease of delivery which makes her a cinch for popularity " . The second film was the thriller Don 't Bother to Knock , in which she starred as a mentally disturbed babysitter and which Zanuck had assigned for her to test her abilities in a heavier dramatic role . It received mixed reviews from critics , with Crowther deeming her too inexperienced for the difficult role , and Variety blaming the script for the film 's problems .
Monroe 's three other films in 1952 continued her typecasting in comic roles which focused on her sex appeal . In We 're Not Married ! , her starring role as a beauty pageant contestant was created solely to " present Marilyn in two bathing suits " , according to its writer Nunnally Johnson . In Howard Hawks ' Monkey Business , in which she was featured opposite Cary Grant , she played a secretary who is a " dumb , childish blonde , innocently unaware of the havoc her sexiness causes around her " . In O. Henry 's Full House , her final film of the year , she had a minor role as a prostitute .
During this period Monroe gained a reputation for being difficult on film sets , which worsened as her career progressed : she was often late or did not show up at all , did not remember her lines , and would demand several re @-@ takes before she was satisfied with her performance . A dependence on her acting coaches , first Natasha Lytess and later Paula Strasberg , also irritated directors . Monroe 's problems have been attributed to a combination of perfectionism , low self @-@ esteem , and stage fright ; she disliked the lack of control she had on her work on film sets , and never experienced similar problems during photo shoots , in which she had more say over her performance and could be more spontaneous instead of following a script . To alleviate her anxiety and chronic insomnia , she began to use barbiturates , amphetamines and alcohol , which also exacerbated her problems , although she did not become severely addicted until 1956 . According to Sarah Churchwell , some of Monroe 's behavior especially later in her career was also in response to the condescension and sexism of her male co @-@ stars and directors . Similarly , Lois Banner has stated that she was bullied by many of her directors .
= = = Rising star ( 1953 ) = = =
Monroe starred in three movies released in 1953 , emerging as a major sex symbol and one of Hollywood 's most bankable performers . The first of these was the Technicolor film noir Niagara , in which she played a femme fatale scheming to murder her husband , played by Joseph Cotten . By then , Monroe and her make @-@ up artist Allan " Whitey " Snyder had developed the make @-@ up look that became associated with her : dark arched brows , pale skin , " glistening " red lips and a beauty mark . According to Sarah Churchwell , Niagara was one of the most overtly sexual films of Monroe 's career , and it included scenes in which her body was covered only by a sheet or a towel , considered shocking by contemporary audiences . Its most famous scene is a 30 @-@ second long shot of Monroe shown walking from behind with her hips swaying , which was heavily used in the film 's marketing .
Upon Niagara 's release in January , women 's clubs protested against it as immoral , but it proved popular with audiences , grossing $ 6 million in the box office . While Variety deemed it " clichéd " and " morbid " , The New York Times commented that " the falls and Miss Monroe are something to see " , as although Monroe may not be " the perfect actress at this point ... she can be seductive – even when she walks " . Monroe continued to attract attention with her revealing outfits in publicity events , most famously at the Photoplay awards in January 1953 , where she won the " Fastest Rising Star " award . She wore a skin @-@ tight gold lamé dress , which prompted veteran star Joan Crawford to describe her behavior as " unbecoming an actress and a lady " to the press .
While Niagara made Monroe a sex symbol and established her " look " , her second film of the year , the satirical musical comedy Gentlemen Prefer Blondes , established her screen persona as a " dumb blonde " . Based on Anita Loos ' bestselling novel and its Broadway version , the film focuses on two " gold @-@ digging " showgirls , Lorelei Lee and Dorothy Shaw , played by Monroe and Jane Russell . The role of Lorelei was originally intended for Betty Grable , who had been 20th Century @-@ Fox 's most popular " blonde bombshell " in the 1940s ; Monroe was fast eclipsing her as a star who could appeal to both male and female audiences . As part of the film 's publicity campaign , she and Russell pressed their hand and footprints in wet concrete outside Grauman 's Chinese Theatre in June . Gentlemen Prefer Blondes was released shortly after and became one of the biggest box office successes of the year by grossing $ 5 @.@ 3 million , more than double its production costs . Crowther of The New York Times and William Brogdon of Variety both commented favorably on Monroe , especially noting her performance of " Diamonds Are a Girl 's Best Friend " ; according to the latter , she demonstrated the " ability to sex a song as well as point up the eye values of a scene by her presence " .
In September , Monroe made her television debut in the Jack Benny Show , playing Jack 's fantasy woman in the episode " Honolulu Trip " . Her third movie of the year , How to Marry a Millionaire , co @-@ starred Betty Grable and Lauren Bacall and was released in November . It featured Monroe in the role of a naïve model who teams up with her friends to find rich husbands , repeating the successful formula of Gentlemen Prefer Blondes . It was the second film ever released in CinemaScope , a widescreen format which Fox hoped would draw audiences back to theaters as television was beginning to cause losses to film studios . Despite mixed reviews , the film was Monroe 's biggest box office success so far , earning $ 8 million in world rentals .
Monroe was listed in the annual Top Ten Money Making Stars Poll in both 1953 and 1954 , and according to Fox historian Aubrey Solomon became the studio 's " greatest asset " alongside CinemaScope . Monroe 's position as a leading sex symbol was confirmed in December , when Hugh Hefner featured her on the cover and as centerfold in the first issue of Playboy . The cover image was a shot of her at the Miss America Pageant parade in 1952 , and the centerfold featured one of her 1949 nude photographs .
= = = Conflicts with 20th Century @-@ Fox and marriage to Joe DiMaggio ( 1954 – 55 ) = = =
Although Monroe had become one of 20th Century @-@ Fox 's biggest stars , her contract had not changed since 1950 , meaning that she was paid far less than other stars of her stature and could not choose her projects or co @-@ workers . She was also tired of being typecast , and her attempts to appear in films other than comedies or musicals had been thwarted by Zanuck , who had a strong personal dislike of her and did not think she would earn the studio as much revenue in dramas . When she refused to begin shooting yet another musical comedy , a film version of The Girl in Pink Tights , which was to co @-@ star Frank Sinatra , the studio suspended her on January 4 , 1954 .
The suspension was front page news and Monroe immediately began a publicity campaign to counter any negative press and to strengthen her position in the conflict . On January 14 , she and Joe DiMaggio , whose relationship had been subject to constant media attention since 1952 , were married at the San Francisco City Hall . They then traveled to Japan , combining a honeymoon with his business trip . From there , she traveled alone to Korea , where she performed songs from her films as part of a USO show for over 60 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines over a four @-@ day period . After returning to Hollywood in February , she was awarded Photoplay 's " Most Popular Female Star " prize . She reached a settlement with the studio in March : it included a new contract to be made later in the year , and a starring role in the film version of the Broadway play The Seven Year Itch , for which she was to receive a bonus of $ 100 @,@ 000 .
The following month saw the release of Otto Preminger 's Western River of No Return , in which Monroe appeared opposite Robert Mitchum . She called it a " Z @-@ grade cowboy movie in which the acting finished second to the scenery and the CinemaScope process " , although it was popular with audiences . The first film she made after returning to Fox was the musical There 's No Business Like Show Business , which she strongly disliked but the studio required her to do in exchange for dropping The Girl in Pink Tights . The musical was unsuccessful upon its release in December , and Monroe 's performance was considered vulgar by many critics .
In September 1954 , Monroe began filming Billy Wilder 's comedy The Seven Year Itch , in which she starred opposite Tom Ewell as a woman who becomes the object of her married neighbor 's sexual fantasies . Although the film was shot in Hollywood , the studio decided to generate advance publicity by staging the filming of one scene on Lexington Avenue in New York . In it , Monroe is standing on a subway grate with the air blowing up the skirt of her white dress , which became one of the most famous scenes of her career . The shoot lasted for several hours and attracted a crowd of nearly 2 @,@ 000 spectators , including professional photographers .
While the publicity stunt placed Monroe on front pages all over the world , it also marked the end of her marriage to DiMaggio , who was furious about it . The union had been troubled from the start by his jealousy and controlling attitude ; Spoto and Banner have also asserted that he was physically abusive . After returning to Hollywood , Monroe hired famous attorney Jerry Giesler and announced that she was filing for divorce in October 1954 . The Seven Year Itch was released the following June , and grossed over $ 4 @.@ 5 million at the box office , making it one of the biggest commercial successes that year .
After filming for Itch wrapped in November , Monroe began a new battle for control over her career and left Hollywood for the East Coast , where she and photographer Milton Greene founded their own production company , Marilyn Monroe Productions ( MMP ) – an action that has later been called " instrumental " in the collapse of the studio system . Announcing its foundation in a press conference in January 1955 , Monroe stated that she was " tired of the same old sex roles . I want to do better things . People have scope , you know . " She asserted that she was no longer under contract to Fox , as the studio had not fulfilled its duties , such as paying her the promised bonus for The Seven Year Itch . This began a year @-@ long legal battle between her and the studio . The press largely ridiculed Monroe for her actions and she was parodied in Itch writer George Axelrod 's Will Success Spoil Rock Hunter ? ( 1955 ) , in which her lookalike Jayne Mansfield played a dumb actress who starts her own production company .
Monroe dedicated 1955 to studying her craft . She moved to New York and began taking acting classes with Constance Collier and attending workshops on method acting at the Actors Studio , run by Lee Strasberg . She grew close to Strasberg and his wife Paula , receiving private lessons at their home due to her shyness , and soon became like a family member . She dismissed her old drama coach , Natasha Lytess , and replaced her with Paula ; the Strasbergs remained an important influence for the rest of her career . Monroe also started undergoing psychoanalysis at the recommendation of Strasberg , who believed that an actor must confront their emotional traumas and use them in their performances .
In her private life , Monroe continued her relationship with DiMaggio despite the ongoing divorce proceedings while also dating actor Marlon Brando and playwright Arthur Miller . She had first been introduced to Miller by Kazan in the early 1950s . The affair between Monroe and Miller became increasingly serious after October 1955 , when her divorce from DiMaggio was finalized , and Miller separated from his wife . The studio feared that Monroe would be blacklisted and urged her to end the affair , as Miller was being investigated by the FBI for allegations of communism and had been subpoenaed by the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . The FBI also opened a file on her . Despite the risk to her career , Monroe refused to end the relationship , later calling the studio heads " born cowards " .
By the end of the year , Monroe and Fox had come to an agreement about a new seven @-@ year contract . It was clear that MMP would not be able to finance films alone , and the studio was eager to have Monroe working again . The contract required her to make four movies for Fox during the seven years . The studio would pay her $ 100 @,@ 000 for each movie , and granted her the right to choose her own projects , directors and cinematographers . She would also be free to make one film with MMP per each completed film for Fox .
= = = Critical acclaim and marriage to Arthur Miller ( 1956 – 59 ) = = =
Monroe began 1956 by announcing her win over 20th Century @-@ Fox ; the press , which had previously derided her , now wrote favorably about her decision to fight the studio . Time called her a " shrewd businesswoman " and Look predicted that the win would be " an example of the individual against the herd for years to come " . She also officially changed her name to Marilyn Monroe in March . Her relationship with Miller prompted some negative comments from the press , including Walter Winchell 's statement that " America 's best @-@ known blonde moving picture star is now the darling of the left @-@ wing intelligentsia . " Monroe and Miller were married at the Westchester County Court in White Plains , New York on June 29 , and two days later had a Jewish ceremony at his agent 's house at Waccabuc , New York . Monroe converted to Judaism with the marriage , which led Egypt to ban all of her films . The media saw the union as mismatched given her star image as a sex symbol and his position as an intellectual , as demonstrated by Variety 's headline " Egghead Weds Hourglass " .
The first film that Monroe chose to make under the new contract was the drama Bus Stop , released in August 1956 . She played Chérie , a saloon singer whose dreams of stardom are complicated by a naïve cowboy who falls in love with her . For the role , she learnt an Ozark accent , chose costumes and make @-@ up that lacked the glamour of her earlier films , and provided deliberately mediocre singing and dancing . Broadway director Joshua Logan agreed to direct , despite initially doubting her acting abilities and knowing of her reputation for being difficult . The filming took place in Idaho and Arizona in early 1956 , with Monroe " technically in charge " as the head of MMP , occasionally making decisions on cinematography and with Logan adapting to her chronic lateness and perfectionism . The experience changed Logan 's opinion of Monroe , and he later compared her to Charlie Chaplin in her ability to blend comedy and tragedy . Bus Stop became a box office success , grossing $ 4 @.@ 25 million , and received mainly favorable reviews . The Saturday Review of Literature wrote that Monroe 's performance " effectively dispels once and for all the notion that she is merely a glamour personality " and Crowther proclaimed : " Hold on to your chairs , everybody , and get set for a rattling surprise . Marilyn Monroe has finally proved herself an actress . " She received a Golden Globe for Best Actress nomination for her performance .
In August 1956 , Monroe began filming MMP 's first independent production , The Prince and the Showgirl , at Pinewood Studios in England . It was based on Terence Rattigan 's The Sleeping Prince , a play about an affair between a showgirl and a prince in the 1910s . The main roles had first been played on stage by Laurence Olivier and Vivien Leigh ; he reprised his role and directed and co @-@ produced the film . The production was complicated by conflicts between him and Monroe . He angered her with the patronizing statement " All you have to do is be sexy " , and by wanting her to replicate Leigh 's interpretation . He also disliked the constant presence of Paula Strasberg , Monroe 's acting coach , on set .
In retaliation to what she considered Olivier 's " condescending " behavior , Monroe started arriving late and became uncooperative , stating later that " if you don 't respect your artists , they can 't work well . " Her drug use increased and , according to Spoto , she became pregnant and miscarried during the production . She also had arguments with Greene over how MMP should be run , including whether Miller should join the company . Despite the difficulties , the film was completed on schedule by the end of the year . It was released in June 1957 to mixed reviews , and proved unpopular with American audiences . It was better received in Europe , where she was awarded the Italian David di Donatello and the French Crystal Star awards , and was nominated for a BAFTA .
After returning to the United States , Monroe took an 18 @-@ month hiatus from work to concentrate on married life on the East Coast . She and Miller split their time between their apartment in New York and an eighteenth @-@ century farmhouse they purchased in Roxbury , Connecticut , and spent the summer in Amagansett , Long Island . She became pregnant in mid @-@ 1957 , but it was ectopic and had to be terminated . She suffered a miscarriage a year later . Her gynecological problems were largely caused by endometriosis , a disease from which she suffered throughout her adult life . Monroe was also briefly hospitalized during this time due to a barbiturate overdose . During the hiatus , she dismissed Greene from MMP and bought his share of the company as they could not settle their disagreements and she had begun to suspect that he was embezzling money from the company .
Monroe returned to Hollywood in July 1958 to act opposite Jack Lemmon and Tony Curtis in Billy Wilder 's comedy on gender roles , Some Like It Hot . Although she considered the role of Sugar Kane another " dumb blonde " , she accepted it due to Miller 's encouragement and the offer of receiving ten percent of the film 's profits in addition to her standard pay . The difficulties of the film 's production have since become " legendary " . Monroe would demand dozens of re @-@ takes , and could not remember her lines or act as directed – Curtis famously stated that kissing her was " like kissing Hitler " due to the number of re @-@ takes . Monroe herself privately likened the production to a sinking ship and commented on her co @-@ stars and director saying " [ but ] why should I worry , I have no phallic symbol to lose . " Many of the problems stemmed from a conflict between her and Wilder , who also had a reputation for being difficult , on how she should play the character . Monroe made Wilder angry by asking him to alter many of her scenes , which in turn made her stage fright worse , and it is suggested that she deliberately ruined several scenes to act them her way .
In the end , Wilder was happy with Monroe 's performance , stating : " Anyone can remember lines , but it takes a real artist to come on the set and not know her lines and yet give the performance she did ! " Despite the difficulties of its production , when Some Like It Hot was released in March 1959 , it became a critical and commercial success . Monroe 's performance earned her a Golden Globe for Best Actress , and prompted Variety to call her " a comedienne with that combination of sex appeal and timing that just can 't be beat " . It has been voted one of the best films ever made in polls by the American Film Institute and Sight & Sound .
= = = Career decline and personal difficulties ( 1960 – 62 ) = = =
After Some Like It Hot , Monroe took another hiatus until late 1959 , when she returned to Hollywood to star in the musical comedy Let 's Make Love , about an actress and a millionaire who fall in love when performing in a satirical play . She chose George Cukor to direct and Miller re @-@ wrote portions of the script , which she considered weak ; she accepted the part solely because she was behind on her contract with Fox , having only made one of four promised films . Its production was delayed by her frequent absences from set . She had an affair with Yves Montand , her co @-@ star , which was widely reported by the press and used in the film 's publicity campaign . Let 's Make Love was unsuccessful upon its release in September 1960 ; Crowther described Monroe as appearing " rather untidy " and " lacking ... the old Monroe dynamism " , and Hedda Hopper called the film " the most vulgar picture she 's ever done " . Truman Capote lobbied for her to play Holly Golightly in a film adaptation of Breakfast at Tiffany 's , but the role went to Audrey Hepburn as its producers feared that Monroe would complicate the production .
The last film that Monroe completed was John Huston 's The Misfits , which Miller had written to provide her with a dramatic role . She played a recently divorced woman who becomes friends with three aging cowboys , played by Clark Gable , Eli Wallach and Montgomery Clift . Its filming in the Nevada desert between July and November 1960 was again difficult . Monroe and Miller 's four @-@ year marriage was effectively over , and he began a new relationship . Monroe disliked that he had based her role partly on her life , and thought it inferior to the male roles ; she also struggled with Miller 's habit of re @-@ writing scenes the night before filming . Her health was also failing : she was in pain from gallstones , and her drug addiction was so severe that her make @-@ up usually had to be applied while she was still asleep under the influence of barbiturates . In August , filming was halted for her to spend a week detoxing in a Los Angeles hospital .
Monroe and Miller separated after filming wrapped , and she was granted a quick divorce in Mexico in January 1961 . The Misfits was released the following month , failing at the box office . Its reviews were mixed , with Bosley Crowther calling Monroe " completely blank and unfathomable " and stating that " unfortunately for the film 's structure , everything turns upon her " . Despite the film 's initial failure , in 2015 Geoff Andrew of the British Film Institute described it as a classic .
Monroe was next to star in a television adaptation of W. Somerset Maugham 's short story Rain for NBC , but the project fell through as the network did not want to hire her choice of director , Lee Strasberg . Instead of working , she spent the first six months of 1961 preoccupied by health problems , undergoing surgery for her endometriosis and a cholecystectomy , and spending four weeks in hospital care – including a brief stint in a mental ward – for depression . She was helped by her ex @-@ husband Joe DiMaggio , with whom she now rekindled a friendship . In spring 1961 , Monroe also moved back to California after six years on the East Coast . She dated Frank Sinatra for several months , and in early 1962 purchased a house in Brentwood , Los Angeles .
Monroe returned to the public eye in spring 1962 : she received a " World Film Favorite " Golden Globe award and began to shoot a new film for 20th Century @-@ Fox , Something 's Got to Give , a re @-@ make of My Favorite Wife ( 1940 ) . It was to be co @-@ produced by MMP , directed by George Cukor and to co @-@ star Dean Martin and Cyd Charisse . Days before filming began , Monroe caught sinusitis ; despite medical advice to postpone the production , Fox began it as planned in late April . Monroe was too ill to work for the majority of the next six weeks , but despite confirmations by multiple doctors , the studio tried to pressurize her by alleging publicly that she was faking it . On May 19 , she took a break to sing " Happy Birthday " on stage at President John F. Kennedy 's birthday celebration at Madison Square Garden in New York . She drew attention with her costume : a beige , skintight dress covered in rhinestones , which made her appear nude . Monroe 's trip to New York caused even more irritation in Fox executives , who had wanted her to cancel it .
Monroe next filmed a scene for Something 's Got to Give in which she swam naked in a swimming pool . To generate advance publicity , the press were invited to take photographs of the scene , which were later published in Life ; this was the first time that a major star had posed nude while at the height of their career . When she was again on sick leave for several days , Fox decided that it could not afford to have another film running behind schedule when it was already struggling to cover the rising costs of Cleopatra ( 1963 ) . On June 7 , Monroe was fired and sued for $ 750 @,@ 000 in damages . She was replaced by Lee Remick , but after Martin refused to make the film with anyone other than Monroe , Fox sued him as well and shut down the production . The studio blamed Monroe for the film 's demise and began spreading negative publicity about her , even alleging that she was mentally disturbed .
Fox soon regretted its decision , and re @-@ opened negotiations with Monroe later in June ; a settlement about a new contract , including re @-@ commencing Something 's Got to Give and a starring role in the black comedy What a Way to Go ! ( 1964 ) , was reached later that summer . To repair her public image , Monroe engaged in several publicity ventures , including interviews for Life and Cosmopolitan and her first photo shoot for Vogue . For Vogue , she and photographer Bert Stern collaborated for two series of photographs , one a standard fashion editorial and another of her posing nude , which were both later published posthumously with the title The Last Sitting . In the last weeks of her life , she was also planning on starring in a biopic of Jean Harlow .
= = Death = =
Monroe was found dead in the bedroom of her Brentwood home by her psychiatrist , Dr. Ralph Greenson , in the early morning hours of August 5 , 1962 . Greenson had been called there by her housekeeper Eunice Murray , who was staying overnight and had awoken at 3 : 00 a.m. " sensing that something was wrong " . Murray had seen light from under Monroe 's bedroom door , but had not been able to get a response and found the door locked . The death was officially confirmed by Monroe 's physician , Dr. Hyman Engelberg , who arrived at the house at around 3 : 50 a.m. At 4 : 25 a.m. , they notified the Los Angeles Police Department .
The Los Angeles County Coroners Office was assisted in their investigation by experts from the Los Angeles Suicide Prevention Team . It was estimated that Monroe had died between 8 : 30 and 10 : 30 p.m. , and the toxicological analysis concluded that the cause of death was acute barbiturate poisoning , as she had 8 mg % of chloral hydrate and 4 @.@ 5 mg % of pentobarbital ( Nembutal ) in her blood , and a further 13 mg % of pentobarbital in her liver . Empty bottles containing these medicines were found next to her bed . The possibility of Monroe having accidentally overdosed was ruled out as the dosages found in her body were several times over the lethal limit . Her doctors and psychiatrists stated that she had been prone to " severe fears and frequent depressions " with " abrupt and unpredictable " mood changes , and had overdosed several times in the past , possibly intentionally . Due to these facts and the lack of any indication of foul play , her death was classified a probable suicide .
Monroe 's unexpected death was front @-@ page news in the United States and Europe . According to Lois Banner , " it 's said that the suicide rate in Los Angeles doubled the month after she died ; the circulation rate of most newspapers expanded that month " , and the Chicago Tribune reported that they had received hundreds of phone calls from members of the public requesting information about her death . French artist Jean Cocteau commented that her death " should serve as a terrible lesson to all those , whose chief occupation consists of spying on and tormenting film stars " , her former co @-@ star Laurence Olivier deemed her " the complete victim of ballyhoo and sensation " , and Bus Stop director Joshua Logan stated that she was " one of the most unappreciated people in the world " . Her funeral , held at the Westwood Village Memorial Park Cemetery on August 8 , was private and attended by only her closest associates . It was arranged by Joe DiMaggio and her business manager Inez Melson . Hundreds of spectators crowded the streets around the cemetery . Monroe was later interred at crypt No. 24 at the Corridor of Memories .
Several conspiracy theories about Monroe 's death have been proposed in the decades afterwards , including murder and accidental overdose . The murder speculations first gained mainstream attention with the publication of Norman Mailer 's Marilyn : A Biography in 1973 , and in the following years became widespread enough for the Los Angeles County District Attorney John Van de Kamp to conduct a " threshold investigation " in 1982 to see whether a criminal investigation should be opened . No evidence of foul play was found .
= = Screen persona and reception = =
When beginning to develop her star image , 20th Century @-@ Fox wanted Monroe to replace the aging Betty Grable , their most popular " blonde bombshell " of the 1940s . While the 1940s had been the heyday of actresses perceived as tough and smart , such as Katharine Hepburn and Barbara Stanwyck , who appealed to women @-@ dominated audiences , the studio wanted Monroe to be a star of the new decade that would draw men to movie theaters . She played a significant part in the creation of her public image from the beginning , and towards the end of her career exerted almost full control over it . Monroe devised many of her publicity strategies , cultivated friendships with gossip columnists such as Sidney Skolsky and Louella Parsons , and controlled the use of her images . Besides Grable , she was often compared to another iconic blonde , 1930s film star Jean Harlow . The comparison was partly prompted by Monroe , who named Harlow as her childhood idol , wanted to play her in a biopic , and even employed Harlow 's hair stylist to color her hair .
Monroe 's screen persona centered on her blond hair , and the stereotypes associated with it , especially dumbness , naïveté , sexual availability and artificiality . She often used a breathy , childish voice in her films , and in interviews gave the impression that everything she said was " utterly innocent and uncalculated " , parodying herself with double entendres that came to be known as " Monroeisms " . For example , when she was asked what she had on in the 1949 nude photo shoot , she replied , " I had the radio on " . Having begun her career as a pin @-@ up model , Monroe 's hourglass figure was one of her most often noted features . Film scholar Richard Dyer has written that Monroe was often positioned so that her curvy silhouette was on display , and in her publicity photos often posed like a pin @-@ up . Her distinctive , hip @-@ swinging walk also drew attention to her body , earning
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The staple foods were generally consumed around 11 o 'clock , and consisted of bread , lettuce , cheese , fruits , nuts , and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before . The Roman poet Horace mentions another Roman favorite , the olive , in reference to his own diet , which he describes as very simple : " As for me , olives , endives , and smooth mallows provide sustenance . " The family ate together , sitting on stools around a table . Fingers were used to eat solid foods and spoons were used for soups .
Wine was considered the basic drink , consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite inexpensive . Cato the Elder once advised cutting his rations in half to conserve wine for the workforce . Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well . Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for alcoholism , the debilitating physical and psychological effects of which were known to the Romans . An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was an effective way to discredit political rivals . Prominent Roman alcoholics included Mark Antony , and Cicero 's own son Marcus ( Cicero Minor ) . Even Cato the Younger was known to be a heavy drinker .
= = = Education and language = = =
Following various military conquests in the Greek East , Romans adapted a number of Greek educational precepts to their own fledgling system . They began physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual recruitment into the army . Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis . Girls generally received instruction from their mothers in the art of spinning , weaving , and sewing . Schooling in a more formal sense was begun around 200 BC . Education began at the age of around six , and in the next six to seven years , boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of reading , writing and counting . By the age of twelve , they would be learning Latin , Greek , grammar and literature , followed by training for public speaking . Oratory was an art to be practiced and learnt , and good orators commanded respect .
The native language of the Romans was Latin . Although surviving Latin literature consists almost entirely of Classical Latin , an artificial and highly stylised and polished literary language from the 1st century BC , the actual spoken language was Vulgar Latin , which significantly differed from Classical Latin in grammar , vocabulary , and eventually pronunciation . Rome 's expansion spread Latin throughout Europe , and over time Vulgar Latin evolved and dialectised in different locations , gradually shifting into a number of distinct Romance languages . Many of these languages , including French , Italian , Portuguese , Romanian and Spanish , flourished , the differences between them growing greater over time . Although English is Germanic rather than Roman in origin , English borrows heavily from Latin and Latin @-@ derived words .
= = = The arts = = =
Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors . Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome . As the republic expanded , authors began to produce poetry , comedy , history , and tragedy . Virgil represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry . His Aeneid tells the story of flight of Aeneas from Troy and his settlement of the city that would become Rome . Lucretius , in his On the Nature of Things , attempted to explicate science in an epic poem . The genre of satire was common in Rome , and satires were written by , among others , Juvenal and Persius . The rhetorical works of Cicero are considered to be some of the best bodies of correspondence recorded in antiquity .
In the 3rd century BC , Greek art taken as booty from wars became popular , and many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists . Portrait sculpture during the period utilised youthful and classical proportions , evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism . Advancements were also made in relief sculptures , often depicting Roman victories .
Music was a major part of everyday life . The word itself derives from Greek μουσική ( mousike ) , " ( art ) of the Muses " . Many private and public events were accompanied by music , ranging from nightly dining to military parades and manoeuvres . In a discussion of any ancient music , however , non @-@ specialists and even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1 @,@ 000 years ; thus , our ideas of melody , scales , harmony , and even the instruments we use may not have been familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries earlier .
Over time , Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed , and the civil engineering and building construction technology became developed and refined . The Roman concrete has remained a riddle , and even after more than 2 @,@ 000 years some Roman structures still stand magnificently . The architectural style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centers under Roman control and influence . Roman cities were well planned , efficiently managed and neatly maintained .
= = = Sports and entertainment = = =
The city of Rome had a place called the Campus Martius ( " Field of Mars " ) , which was a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers . Later , the Campus became Rome 's track and field playground . In the campus , the youth assembled to play and exercise , which included jumping , wrestling , boxing and racing . Equestrian sports , throwing , and swimming were also preferred physical activities . In the countryside , pastimes included fishing and hunting . Board games played in Rome included dice ( Tesserae or Tali ) , Roman Chess ( Latrunculi ) , Roman Checkers ( Calculi ) , Tic @-@ tac @-@ toe ( Terni Lapilli ) , and Ludus duodecim scriptorum and Tabula , predecessors of backgammon . Other activities included chariot races , and musical and theatrical performances .
= = = Religion = = =
Roman religious beliefs date back to the founding of Rome , around 800 BC . However , the Roman religion commonly associated with the republic and early empire did not begin until around 500 BC , when Romans came in contact with Greek culture , and adopted many of the Greek religious beliefs . Private and personal worship was an important aspect of religious practices . In a sense , each household was a temple to the gods . Each household had an altar ( lararium ) , at which the family members would offer prayers , perform rites , and interact with the household gods . Many of the gods that Romans worshiped came from the Proto @-@ Indo @-@ European pantheon , others were based on Greek gods . The two most famous deities were Jupiter ( the king God ) and Mars ( the god of war ) . With its cultural influence spreading over most of the Mediterranean , Romans began accepting foreign gods into their own culture , as well as other philosophical traditions such as Cynicism and Stoicism .
= Battle of the Bowling Alley =
In the Battle of the Bowling Alley ( August 12 – 25 , 1950 ) , United Nations ( UN ) forces defeated North Korean ( NK ) forces early in the Korean War near the city of Taegu , South Korea . The battle took place in a narrow valley , dubbed the " Bowling Alley " , which was north of Taegu . It followed a week of fighting between the North Korean People 's Army 13th Division and the Republic of Korea Army 's ( ROK ) 1st Division along the latter 's last defensible line in the hills north of the city . Reinforcements , including the US Army 's 27th and 23rd Infantry Regiments were committed to bolster the South Koreans ' defenses . This battle and several others were smaller engagements of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter .
For another week , North Korean divisions launched all the troops they had in massed attacks against the ROK and US lines . Their attacks , which usually occurred at night and were supported by armor and artillery , advanced with infantry and tanks in close support of one another . Each North Korean attack ran into well @-@ established UN lines , where US tanks , mines and entrenched infantry were positioned to counter them . Strikes by US aircraft ravaged the attacking North Koreans . The fighting was fierce with many casualties on both sides , particularly where the North and South Koreans fought one another . The repeated attacks eventually broke and pushed back the North Korean forces . They continued their push against the Pusan Perimeter until they were turned back in the Battle of Inchon .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , and the subsequent outbreak of the Korean War on June 25 , 1950 , the United Nations voted to enter the conflict on behalf of South Korea . The United States , a member of the UN , simultaneously committed ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of pushing back the North Korean invasion and preventing South Korea from collapsing . But US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier , and at the time the closest forces were the US 24th Infantry Division , headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Nevertheless , the 24th was ordered to South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow reinforcements to arrive . The division fought for several weeks while the 1st Cavalry , 7th Infantry and 25th Infantry Divisions and Eighth United States Army supporting units were arriving . Advance elements of the 24th were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , the first encounter between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat at Osan , the 24th Infantry Division was repeatedly defeated and forced south by superior North Korean numbers and equipment . The regiments of the division were systematically pushed south in engagements around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The 24th was finally annihilated in the Battle of Taejon , but was able to delay the North Korean forces until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
After the fight at Taejon , UN forces were pushed back repeatedly before finally halting the North Korean advance in a series of engagements in the southern section of the country . Forces of the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry , newly arrived in the country , were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27 , opening a pass to the Pusan area from the west . Soon after , North Korean forces took Chinju , east of Hadong , pushing back the US 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving routes to Pusan open to direct North Korean attacks . The UN formations were subsequently able to defeat the North Koreans in the Battle of the Notch on August 2 , halting their advance from the west . Suffering mounting losses , the Korean People 's Army force withdrew for several days to re @-@ equip and receive reinforcements . This granted both sides a reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter .
= = = Taegu = = =
Meanwhile , the Eighth Army commander Lieutenant General Walton Walker had established Taegu as his headquarters . At the center of the Pusan Perimeter line , Taegu stood at the entrance to the Naktong River valley , an area where North Korean forces could advance in large numbers in close support . The natural barriers provided by the Naktong River to the south and the mountainous terrain to the north converged around Taegu , a transportation hub and the last major South Korean city aside from Pusan itself to remain in UN hands . From south to north , the city was defended by the US 1st Cavalry Division , the ROK 1st Division , and the ROK 6th Division , which were under the command of ROK II Corps . The 1st Cavalry Division was spread out along a long line on the Naktong River to the south , with its 5th Cavalry and 8th Cavalry regiments holding a 24 @,@ 000 @-@ meter ( 79 @,@ 000 ft ) line along the river south of Waegwan , facing west . The 7th Cavalry held position to the east in reserve , along with artillery forces , ready to reinforce anywhere a North Korean crossing could be attempted . The ROK 1st Division held a northwest @-@ facing line in the mountains immediately north of the city while the ROK 6th Division held position to the east , guarding the narrow valley holding the Kunwi road into the Pusan Perimeter area .
Five North Korean divisions amassed around Taegu to oppose the UN forces in the city . From south to north , the 10th , 3rd , 15th , 13th , and 1st North Korean Divisions occupied a wide line encircling Taegu from Tuksong @-@ dong and around Waegwan to Kunwi . The North Korean army planned to use the natural corridor of the Naktong River valley from Sangju to Taegu as its main axis of attack for the next push south , so the North Korean divisions all eventually moved through this valley , crossing the Naktong at different areas along the low ground . Elements of the NK 105th Armored Division also supported the attack .
= = Prelude = =
= = = US forces assemble = = =
During mid @-@ August , US 27th Infantry Regiment of the US 25th Infantry Division was mopping up North Korean resistance from the southern part of the Naktong Bulge area to counter a North Korean attack there . The regiment , temporarily attached to the US 24th Infantry Division , was recalled by the Eighth Army when a new North Korean threat formed to the north of Taegu , alarming Walker . Acting on the threat , Walker relieved the regiment from the 24th Infantry Division on August 14 and the next day ordered it northward to Kyongsan as a reserve force . Arriving at Kyongsan on August 16 , Colonel John H. Michaelis , 27th Infantry 's commander , was ordered to reconnoiter routes east , north , northwest , and west of Kyongsan and counter any North Korean attacks from these directions . During the day , two North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks came through the ROK 1st Division lines 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Taegu at Tabu @-@ dong , but South Korean 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch bazooka teams knocked out both of them . The ROK 1st Division , also in the area , was ordered to assemble in the hills around the road and wait for reinforcements or make a last stand if needed to prevent the North Koreans from coming any closer to Taegu . To its east was the ROK 6th Division and to its west was the Naktong River .
At 12 : 00 the next day , August 17 , Eighth Army ordered the 27th Infantry to move its headquarters and a reinforced battalion " without delay " to a point across the Kumho River 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Taegu on the road from Tabu @-@ dong to Sangju " to secure Taegu from enemy penetration " from that direction . South Korean sources reported a North Korean regiment , led by six T @-@ 34 tanks , had entered the village of Kumhwa , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Tabu @-@ dong . The 1st Battalion , 27th Infantry , a platoon of the Heavy Mortar Company , and most of the 8th Field Artillery Battalion moved north to Ch 'ilgok where the ROK 1st Division command post was located . By nightfall , the entire 27th Regiment was north of Taegu on the Tabu @-@ dong road , reinforced by C Company , 73rd Tank Battalion . US Army commanders also ordered the 37th Field Artillery Battalion to move from the area around Kyongju and P 'ohang @-@ dong , where a heavy battle had been in progress for days , for attachment to the US 27th Infantry Regiment in order to reinforce the 8th Field Artillery Battalion above Taegu . It arrived there the next day . At the front , ROK 1st Division commander Brigadier General Paik Sun @-@ yup assumed senior command of the 27th Infantry and the other US units , to the chagrin of Michaelis .
= = = NK forces assemble = = =
In its engagements during the Perimeter battle , the North Korean 13th Division , with 9 @,@ 500 men , had forced South Korean troops into the Tabu @-@ dong corridor and started advancing on Taegu . This division had battled the ROK 11th and 12th Regiments in the Yuhak @-@ san area for a week before it broke through to the corridor on August 17 . A regimental commander of the division said later it suffered 1 @,@ 500 casualties in the process . On August 18 , the 13th Division was concentrated mostly west of the road just north of Tabu @-@ dong .
To the west of the NK 13th Division , the NK 15th Division with 5 @,@ 000 men was also deployed on Yuhak @-@ san . It , too , had begun battling the ROK 1st Division , but thus far only in minor engagements . The North Korean High Command then ordered the NK 15th Division to move from its position northwest of Tabu @-@ dong eastward , to the Yongch 'on front , where the NK 8th Division had tried and failed to advance to the Taegu lateral corridor . The NK 15th Division left the Yuhak @-@ san area on August 20 . Meanwhile , the NK 1st Division , to the east of the 13th , advanced to the Kunwi area , 25 miles ( 40 km ) north of Taegu . The North Korean command ordered it to proceed to the Tabu @-@ dong area and maneuver astride the 13th Division for the attack on Taegu down the Tabu @-@ dong corridor . At the same time , the North Koreans received their only substantial tank reinforcements during the Pusan Perimeter fighting . On August 15 , the NK 105th Armored Division received 21 new T @-@ 34 tanks and 200 troop replacements , which it distributed to the divisions attacking Taegu . The tank regiment with the NK 13th Division reportedly had 14 T @-@ 34 tanks .
On August 18 , the NK 13th Division was astride the Sangju – Taegu road just above Tabu @-@ dong and only 13 miles ( 21 km ) from Taegu . The Eighth Army ordered the 27th Infantry Regiment to attack north along the road to counter the threat . At the same time , two regiments of the ROK 1st Division were to attack along high ground on either side of the road . The plan called for a limited @-@ objective attack to restore the ROK 1st Division lines in the vicinity of Sokchok , a village 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north of Tabu @-@ dong . M26 Pershing tanks of C Company , 73rd Tank Battalion , and two batteries of the 37th Field Artillery Battalion were to support the 27th Infantry in the attack .
= = = Terrain = = =
In front of the 27th Infantry position , the poplar @-@ lined Taegu – Sangju road ran northward in the narrow mountain valley . A stream on the west closely paralleled the road , which was nearly straight on a north @-@ south axis through the 27th Infantry position and for some distance northward . This stretch of the road later became known as the " Bowling Alley . " About 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in front of the 27th Infantry position the road forked at a small village called Ch 'onp 'yong @-@ dong ; the western prong was the main Sangju road , the eastern one was the road to Kunwi . At the road fork , the Sangju road bends to the northwest in a long curve . The village of Sinjumak lay on this curve a short distance north of the fork . Hills protected it against direct fire from the 27th Infantry position . It was there that the North Korean tanks remained hidden during the daytime .
Rising from the valley on the west side was the Yuhak @-@ san mountain range which swept up to a height of 2 @,@ 700 feet ( 820 m ) . On the east , a similar mountain range rose to a height of 2 @,@ 400 feet ( 730 m ) , culminating 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) southward in a mountain called Ka @-@ san , more than 2 @,@ 900 feet ( 880 m ) high at its walled summit . The Kunwi and Sangju roads from the northeast and northwest entered the natural and easy corridor between Yuhak @-@ san and Ka @-@ san at Ch 'onp 'yong @-@ dong , leading into the Taegu basin . The battles in the Bowling Alley occurred south of this road junction .
= = Battle = =
= = = Deadlock = = =
The ROK 1st Infantry Division , with 7 @,@ 500 men had held the line around the Bowling Alley since August 12 . The Bowling Alley area was selected because of its advantageous high ground which provided natural barriers to funnel North Korean troops into smaller fronts where South Korean defenses could attack them from the high ground in concealed positions . In the meantime , the NK 3rd , 13th , and 15th Divisions were advancing south and preparing to close on Taegu . The North Korean 13th Division converged on the Tabu @-@ dong corridor and a vicious melee ensued between the North and South Korean troops , with ROK 1st Division 's 11th , 12th , and 13th regiments committed against the NK 13th Division 's 19th , 21st and 23rd regiments . The fight became a battle of attrition . As the two sides closed on one another , the battle took a brutal turn by August 15 as supplies ran low and units were locked in close quarters combat with little ammunition for the weapons . Fighting across the entire front became hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat and grenade fights at close range . The two divisions were so evenly matched that neither could make any appreciable gains for days of fighting and huge numbers of casualties .
The bloody fighting obliged Paik to call for emergency reinforcements to hold the line . The Eighth Army responded immediately by sending the US 27th Infantry from the US 25th Infantry Division as well as the ROK 10th Regiment from the ROK 8th Division to reinforce the ROK 1st Division 's three regiments . US Air Force aircraft also conducted a carpet bombing campaign against the advancing North Korean positions to undetermined effect . Around that time the NK 15th Division , which had been supporting the NK 13th Division , withdrew from the front to attack elsewhere , leaving the ROK 1st Division , with the US 27th Infantry , and the NK 13th Division as principal opponents in the conflict that followed .
= = = US infantry advance = = =
As the 27th Infantry 's trucks rolled northward from Tabu @-@ dong and approached their Line of Departure , the men inside could see the North Koreans and South Koreans fighting on the ridges overlooking the road . The infantry dismounted and deployed an attacking line , with the 1st Battalion on the left of the road and the 2nd Battalion on the right . With US tanks leading the infantry on the road , the two battalions crossed the line at 13 : 00 . The tanks opened fire against the mountain escarpments to aid the South Korean infantry engaged there . The US infantry on either side of the road swept the lower hills , as the tanks on the road paced their advance with the infantry . A North Korean outpost line in the valley withdrew and there was almost no North Korean opposition during the first hour of the US advance . North Korean outpost lines were 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) in front of their main positions . The 27th Infantry had reached a point about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) north of Tabu @-@ dong when Michaelis was informed that neither of the ROK regiments on the high ground flanking the valley road had been able to advance . He was ordered to halt and form a perimeter defense with both battalions astride the road .
The two battalions of the 27th Infantry went into a perimeter defense just north of the village of Soi @-@ ri . The 1st Battalion , on the left of the road , took a position with C Company on high ground in front , and with A Company on a ridge behind it . On their right , B Company was placed parallel to A Company , and carried the line across the stream and the narrow valley to the road . There the 2nd Battalion took up the defense line with E Company on the road and F Company on its right , while G Company held a ridge behind F Company . Thus , the two battalions presented a four @-@ company front , with one company holding a refused flank position on either side . A platoon of tanks took positions on the front line , two tanks on the road and two in the stream bed , with four more tanks in reserve . The artillery went into firing positions behind the force . Six bazooka teams took up positions in front of the infantry positions along the road and in the stream bed . At the same time , the ROK 1st Division remained in control of the high ground on either side of the 27th Infantry positions .
= = = August 18 attack = = =
The first of seven successive North Korean night attacks struck the 27th Infantry defensive perimeter shortly after dark that night , August 18 . North Korean mortars and artillery fired a heavy preparation for the general attack for several hours . Two T @-@ 34 tanks and an SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled gun moved out of the village of Sinjumak 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) in front of the 27th Infantry lines . Infantry followed them , some in trucks and others on foot . The lead tank moved slowly and without firing , apparently observing , while the second one and the SU @-@ 76 fired repeatedly into F Company 's position . As the tanks drew near , a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch bazooka team from F Company destroyed the second one in the line .
Bazooka teams also hit the lead tank , causing its crew to abandon it . Fire from the 8th Field Artillery Battalion knocked out the self @-@ propelled gun , destroyed two trucks , and killed or wounded an estimated 100 North Korean troops at the point of the advance . US First Lieutenant Lewis Millett , an artillery forward observer and later a Medal of Honor winner after he transferred to the infantry , directed this artillery fire on the North Koreans , even as a T @-@ 34 tank approached within 50 yards ( 46 m ) of his position . Three more North Korean tanks had come down the road but , on realizing that the Americans had effective anti @-@ tank weapons , they switched on their running lights and retreated north without engaging the UN troops . Around 00 : 30 on August 19 the first North Korean attack had stalled and they withdrew . North Korean troops made a second effort , much weaker than the first , around 02 : 30 but artillery and mortar fire dispersed them before they reached the UN lines .
Over the course of the next week , the US troops were able to discern the North Koreans ' system of attack and use it to their advantage . The North Koreans used a system of flares to signal various actions and coordinate them . It quickly became apparent to the defending Americans that green flares were used to signal an attack on a given area . So the 27th Infantry obtained its own green flares and then , after the North Korean attack had begun , fired them over its main defensive positions . This confused the attacking forces and often drew them to the points of greatest US strength where they suffered massive casualties from defensive machine @-@ gun crossfire . The US troops also began using land mines in front of their positions to stall the North Koreans . The mines stopped the tanks and the infantry tried to remove them . When this happened , US troops fired flares to illuminate the scene and pre @-@ registered artillery and mortar fire blasted the immobilized North Koreans . This tactic was effective in inflicting further significant casualties .
= = = Stalemate = = =
On the morning of August 19 , the ROK 11th and 13th Regiments launched counterattacks along the ridges with some gains , however the fight continued to produce heavy casualties for both sides . Walker ordered another reserve unit , a battalion of the ROK 10th Regiment , to the Taegu front to close a gap between the ROK 1st and 6th Divisions . Later in the day , Walker also ordered the US 23rd Infantry Regiment , under command of Colonel Paul L. Freeman , Jr . , to move up and establish a defense perimeter around the 8th and 37th Field Artillery Battalions at their positions 8 miles ( 13 km ) north of Taegu , to protect them from North Korean attack . This was the only occasion during the war that two US regiments were assigned to a South Korean command . The 3rd Battalion , 23rd Infantry took up a defensive position around the artillery while the 2nd Battalion occupied a defensive position on the road behind the 27th Infantry . The next day the two battalions exchanged places . South Korean troops , suffering losses from the fighting , began recruiting students and civilians from nearby villages to fight .
There was little fighting on the ground during the day on August 20 . However , US aircraft attacked North Korean positions around Taegu repeatedly during the day , often in close proximity to American ground forces . As night fell , North Korean troops launched a second attack , firing a barrage of 120 – mm. mortar shells into the US 27th Infantry 's Heavy Weapons Company area at 17 : 00 ; several of their tanks also began advancing down the corridor . The US troops responded with artillery and mortar fire , hitting the North Korean column and its accompanying infantry . Waiting Americans held their small arms and machine gun fire until the North Koreans were within 200 yards ( 180 m ) of their positions . The combined fire of all the US weapons repulsed this attack .
The next morning , August 21 , a US patrol of two platoons of infantry and M26 Pershing tanks went up the road toward the North Korean positions . White flags had appeared in front of the American line , and civilians in the area said many North Koreans wanted to surrender . The US patrol 's mission was to investigate this situation and to form an estimate of North Koreans losses . The patrol advanced about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , engaging small North Korean groups and receiving some artillery fire . On its way it destroyed five disabled North Korean tanks with thermite grenades . The patrol also found a 37 mm anti @-@ tank gun , two SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled guns , and a 120 mm mortar among the destroyed North Korean equipment , as well as recognizing a large number of North Korean dead . At the point of farthest advance , the patrol found and destroyed an abandoned T @-@ 34 tank in a village schoolhouse courtyard .
= = = August 21 attack = = =
That evening , the 27th Infantry placed two belts of antipersonnel mines and trip flares across the road and stream bed 250 yards ( 230 m ) and 150 yards ( 140 m ) in front of its positions in the valley . After dusk , the North Koreans began shelling the general area of the 27th Infantry positions until just before midnight . ROK troops had planned to mount an attack , but it became apparent that the North Koreans would hit first . Then the NK 13th Division launched a major attack against the entire UN front in and around the valley . Nine US tanks supported the infantry troops in the valley . Because it was on higher ground and positioned in front of all the other American units , C Company on the left of the road usually was the first to detect an approaching attack . That evening the C Company commander telephoned the regimental headquarters that he could hear tanks . When the artillery fired an illuminating shell he was able to count 19 North Korean vehicles in the attacking column on the road . The tanks and self @-@ propelled guns approached the American positions , firing rapidly . Most of their shells landed in the rear areas . North Korean infantry moved forward on both sides of the road . Simultaneously , other North Korean units attacked the ROK troops on the high ridges flanking the valley .
American artillery and mortar fire bombarded the North Koreans , trying to separate the tanks from the infantry . US machine gun fire opened on the NK infantry only after they had entered the mine field and were at close range . The US Pershing tanks in the front line held their fire until the North Korean tanks came very close . One of the American tanks knocked out the lead North Korean tank and a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch bazooka team from F Company knocked out a towed gun , the third vehicle in column . The trapped second tank was disabled by bazooka fire and abandoned by its crew . It was during this fight that the battle received its name . The US troops at the battle noted the tank shells being fired up and down the valley in the dark looked " like bowling balls . "
Artillery and 90 mm tank fire destroyed seven more North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks , three more SU @-@ 76 towed guns , and several trucks and personnel carriers . This night battle , which was at times very intense , lasted about five hours . The US B Battery , 8th Field Artillery Battalion alone fired 1 @,@ 661 105 mm rounds , the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ inch mortar platoon fired 902 rounds , the 81 mm mortar platoon fired 1 @,@ 200 rounds , and F Company , 27th Infantry fired 385 60 mm mortar rounds . The North Korean column was completely destroyed . US patrols after daylight estimated the North Koreans had suffered 1 @,@ 300 casualties in the fight . Eleven prisoners captured by the patrol said the action had decimated their units and that the division was only at 25 percent strength .
= = = NK flanking moves = = =
During the night battle , North Korean forces infiltrated along the high ridge line around the east flank of the 27th Infantry and appeared the next day at about 12 : 00 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) in the rear of that regiment and only 9 miles ( 14 km ) from Taegu . This force was a regiment of the NK 1st Division , and was 1 @,@ 500 men strong . The regiment had just arrived from the Kunwi area to join in the battle for Taegu . It began ambushing supply lines to the American forces in the valley . One of the regiment 's companies attacked the ROK 1st Division 's headquarters with intent to capture Paik , but was repulsed by the ROK 10th Regiment .
About this time , Michaelis sent an urgent message to Eighth Army saying that the ROK troops on his left had given way and that " those people are not fighting . " One of the battalions of the ROK 11th Regiment had been driven back and was retreating in disarray . Prisoners told him that about 1 @,@ 000 North Koreans were on his west flank . He asked for an air strike . Had these South Korean troops been driven from this high ground , the perimeter position of the 27th Infantry Regiment would have been untenable . Paik bitterly resented Michaelis ' charge that his men were not fighting , and in the argument , Eighth Army Korean Military Advisory Group advisers visited each ROK unit to ensure they were remaining in position . Paik personally rallied the ROK 11th Regiment for a charge back into its positions , impressing Michaelis . Later , Michaelis apologized to Paik though their relationship for the remainder of the battle remained strained .
The afternoon of August 22 , US 2nd Battalion , 23rd Infantry , guarding the support artillery behind the 27th Infantry , came under attack by the NK 1st Division troops that had passed around the forward positions . Freeman reported to Eighth Army at 16 : 40 that the North Koreans had shelled the rear battery of the 37th Field Artillery Battalion , that North Korean infantry were between the US 27th and US 23rd Regiments on the road , and that other North Korean groups had passed around the east side of his forward battalion . An intense artillery barrage began falling on the headquarters area of the 8th Field Artillery Battalion at 16 : 05 , and 25 minutes later two direct hits destroyed the fire direction center , killing four officers and two non @-@ commissioned officers . The individual batteries quickly took over control of the battalion fires and continued to support the infantry , while the battalion Headquarters and Headquarters Company withdrew under fire .
UN aircraft launched air strikes on the North Korean @-@ held ridge east of the road and on the valley beyond . That night , Walker released control of the 23rd Infantry , less the 1st Battalion , to the US 1st Cavalry Division with orders for it to clear the North Koreans from the road and the commanding ground overlooking the main supply route .
About 10 : 00 , Lieutenant Colonel Chong Pong Uk , commanding the artillery regiment supporting the NK 13th Division , walked up alone to a ROK 1st Division position 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Tabu @-@ dong and defected . Chong , the highest ranking North Korean prisoner of war thus far in the war , gave precise information on the location of his artillery . According to him , there were seven 122 mm howitzers and thirteen 76 mm guns emplaced and camouflaged in an orchard 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) north of Tabu @-@ dong , in a little valley on the north side of Yuhak @-@ san . Upon receiving this information , Eighth Army immediately prepared to destroy the North Korean weapons . Fighter @-@ bombers attacked the orchard site with napalm , and US artillery took the location under fire . Chong was eventually commissioned in South Korea 's armed forces .
= = = Final moves = = =
During the night of August 22 – 23 , the North Koreans launched a weak attack against the 27th Infantry , which was quickly repulsed . Just before 12 : 00 on August 23 , however , a violent action occurred some distance behind the front line when about 100 North Korean soldiers , undetected , succeeded in reaching the positions of K Company , 27th Infantry and of the 1st Platoon , C Company , 65th Engineer Combat Battalion . They overran parts of these positions before being driven off and suffering 50 killed . Meanwhile , as ordered by Walker , the 2nd Battalion , 23rd Infantry , after repelling several North Korean night attacks , counterattacked at dawn and seized the high ground overlooking the road at the artillery positions . At the same time the 3rd Battalion started an all @-@ day attack that swept a stretch of high ground east of the road . This action largely cleared the North Koreans from the area behind and on the flanks of the 27th Infantry . At 13 : 35 , Michaelis reported from the Bowling Alley to Eighth Army that the NK 13th Division had blown the road to his front , had mined it , and was withdrawing .
The next day , August 24 , the 23rd Infantry continued clearing the rear areas and by night it estimated that there were fewer than 200 North Koreans behind the forward positions . The Bowling Alley front was quiet during the day . Shortly after midnight on August 24 the North Koreans launched what had by now become their regular nightly attack down the Bowling Alley . This attack was in an estimated two @-@ company strength supported by a few tanks . The 27th Infantry broke up the attack and two more North Korean tanks were destroyed by the supporting artillery fire . This was the last night the 27th Infantry Regiment spent in the Bowling Alley .
With the North Koreans turned back north of Taegu , Walker issued orders for the 27th Infantry to leave the Bowling Alley and return to the 25th Division in the Masan area . The ROK 1st Division was to assume responsibility for the Bowling Alley , but the US 23rd Infantry was to remain north of Taegu in its support . ROK relief of the 27th Infantry began at 18 : 00 , 25 August , and continued throughout the night until completed at 03 : 45 August 26 . Survivors of the 1st Regiment , NK 1st Division , joined the rest of that division in the mountains east of the Taegu – Sangju road near the walled summit of Ka @-@ san . Prisoners reported that the 1st Regiment was down to about 400 men and had lost all its 120 mm mortars , 76 mm howitzers , and antitank guns as a result of its action on the east flank of the NK 13th Division at the Bowling Alley .
= = Aftermath = =
The confirmed North Korean losses from August 18 to 25 included 13 T @-@ 34 tanks , five SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled guns , and 23 trucks . The NK 13th Division 's troops suffered heavy casualties during the fight with the American unit , with an estimated 3 @,@ 000 killed , wounded and captured . The division withdrew to rebuild . The North Koreans ' total casualties from August 12 to 25 were 5 @,@ 690 killed .
US losses during the battle were extremely light ; unusual for fighting at a time in which other UN offensive forces were paying a heavy price when making similar pushes against the North Korean troops . The US infantry forces suffered only five killed and 54 wounded in the 27th Infantry , plus three killed and 16 wounded in the 23rd Infantry . This brought the total American casualty count to 8 dead , 70 wounded . South Korean troops suffered much more heavily during the fight . An estimated 2 @,@ 300 South Korean men were killed in the fighting ; 2 @,@ 244 enlisted men and 56 officers . However , these losses were not crippling , as volunteers poured in from the surrounding countryside to fight for the South Korean Army .
= Out of This World Adventures =
Out of This World Adventures was a pulp magazine which published two issues , in July and December 1950 . It included several pages of comics as well as science fiction stories . It was edited by Donald A. Wollheim and published by Avon . Sales were weak , and after two issues Avon decided to cancel it .
= = Publication history = =
The early 1950s saw dramatic changes in the world of U.S. science fiction publishing . At the start of 1949 , all but one of the major magazines in the field were in pulp format ; by the end of 1955 , almost all had either ceased publication or switched to digest format . Despite the rapid decline of the pulp market , several new science fiction magazines were launched in pulp format during these years ; Out of This World Adventures was one of these .
In 1947 Avon Books launched the Avon Fantasy Reader , a series of fantasy anthologies in digest format , edited by Donald A. Wollheim . Two years later , Joseph Meyers , Avon 's president , decided to launch a science fiction magazine , and Wollheim purchased six stories for it before it was cancelled for financial reasons . The following year , Avon 's printer , J.W. Clements , suggested to Meyers the idea of a pulp magazine which included a few pages of comics . Meyers asked Wollheim to try the idea , thinking that the additional section might draw comics readers to buy a pulp magazine , and in July 1950 Wollheim duly launched Sparkling Love Stories and Out of This World Adventures . The romance magazine was cancelled after a single issue because of poor sales ; but Out of This World Adventures seemed promising enough to try a second issue , which appeared in December 1950 , along with a third magazine in the part @-@ comic format : Pioneer Western . Neither sold well enough to extend their runs any further .
Donald A. Wollheim was the editor for both issues . His editorial policy was slanted towards interplanetary fiction , according to his editorial in the first issue . The magazine included stories by several writers who were either already well @-@ known or who would go on to more success ; the first issue featured A.E. van Vogt , Lester del Rey , Kris Neville , William Tenn , Mack Reynolds , Ray Cummings and A. Bertram Chandler . Science fiction historians Mike Ashley and Wendy Bousfield both regard Tenn 's story , " The Puzzle of Priipiirii " , as the best in the magazine . The 32 @-@ page comics section , which was taken directly from an existing Avon comic called Out of This World , included comics written by John Michel and Gardner Fox ; the latter , a pastiche of Robert E. Howard 's " Conan " stories , was titled " Crom the Barbarian " and was illustrated by John Giunta . Michel , like Wollheim a member of the Futurians , a group of sf fans and aspiring writers , wrote the lead comic for both issues , though the second issue of the Canadian edition used a different comic section than the U.S. edition . The interior artwork was the responsibility of Avon 's art director , rather than Wollheim , and illustrators such as William McWilliam , who worked on Avon 's comics , were used .
= = Bibliographic details = =
Out of This World Adventures was intended to be bi @-@ monthly , but only two issues were produced , dated July and December 1950 . It was priced at 25 cents for both issues ; each issue was 128 pages and was in pulp format . The publisher was Avon Periodicals for both issues . A Canadian edition appeared , also priced at 25 cents ; the cover of the Canadian edition omitted the dates , but the issues appeared in November 1950 and April 1951 .
= Titanfall =
Titanfall is a multiplayer first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Respawn Entertainment and published by Electronic Arts . It was released for Microsoft Windows and Xbox One on March 11 , 2014 ; an Xbox 360 version ported by Bluepoint Games was released April 8 , 2014 . The game was highly anticipated as the debut title from developers formerly behind the successful Call of Duty franchise .
In Titanfall , players control " pilots " and their mech @-@ style Titans , and fight in six @-@ on @-@ six matches set in war @-@ torn outer space colonies . The game is optimized for fast @-@ paced , continual action , aided by wall @-@ running abilities and populations of computer @-@ controlled soldiers . Up to 50 characters can be active in a single game , and non @-@ player activity is offloaded to Microsoft 's cloud computing services to optimize local graphical performance . The game 's development team began work on the title in 2011 , and their Titan concept grew from a human @-@ sized suit into a battle tank exoskeleton . The team sought to bring " scale , verticality , and story " to its multiplayer genre through elements traditionally reserved for single @-@ player campaigns . The 65 @-@ person project took inspiration from Blade Runner , Star Wars , Abrams Battle Tank , and Masamune Shirow of Ghost in the Shell .
Titanfall won over 60 awards at its E3 2013 reveal , including a record @-@ breaking six E3 Critics Awards and " Best of Show " from several media outlets . It also won official awards at Gamescom and the Tokyo Game Show . Titanfall received generally favorable reviews . Reviewers praised its balance , Smart Pistol weapon , player mobility , and overall accessibility for players of all skill sets , but criticized its thin campaign , disappointing artificial intelligence , and lack of community features and multiplayer modes . Critics considered the game a successful evolution for the first @-@ person shooter genre but did not agree as to whether the game delivered on its anticipation . On March 12 , 2015 , it was announced that a sequel is in production for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 , and Xbox One .
= = Gameplay = =
Titanfall is a shooter game played from a first @-@ person perspective . Players fight as free @-@ running foot soldier " pilots " who can command agile , mech @-@ style exoskeletons — " Titans " — to complete team @-@ based objectives . The game is set on derelict and war @-@ torn colonies at the Frontier fringe of space exploration as either the Interstellar Manufacturing Corporation ( IMC ) or the Frontier Militia . Online multiplayer is the sole game mode , but contains single @-@ player elements such as plot , character dialogue , and non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) . While Titanfall has no offline , single @-@ player , or local splitscreen modes , it supports system link over a local area network ( LAN ) . Respawn founder Vince Zampella described the game as bringing " scale , verticality , and story " to the first @-@ person shooter genre of multiplayer gaming .
Up to twelve human players choose their pilot types and are dropped on the map , beginning the game . Titans can be deployed periodically , based on an onscreen timer , which must complete its countdown to zero before a Titan can be summoned . Killing other players reduces the amount of time remaining . When summoned , players are told to " standby for Titanfall " , whereupon a Titan drops from the sky , surrounded by a protective forcefield . Unlike player @-@ characters in games like Call of Duty and Battlefield , pilots are agile and accumulate momentum while running ( similar to Tribes ) . Players run on walls , double jump with a jet pack , vault over obstacles , glide across ziplines , and chain together combos . Pilot and Titan controls are identical except where the pilot 's double jump becomes the Titan 's dash , as Titans cannot jump . The Titans , somewhere between battle tanks and a mecha , are slower than the nimble pilots . Battles include artificial intelligence soldiers ( human grunts and robotic spectres ) that are designed as human player competition , support , and scenery . Games end with a race to the losing team 's evacuation dropship .
The pilot 's tactical abilities include x @-@ ray vision , invisibility cloaking , and regenerating speed boosts . Pilots use ten traditional customizable weapons , including a semi @-@ automatic shotgun , machine guns , assault rifles , sniper rifles , and the Smart Pistol Mk5 . The latter locks onto multiple targets before firing multiple shots in a burst . Players generally require three Smart Pistol shots to die . The pistol can also shoot around corners . All pilots have anti @-@ Titan weapons equipped . Pilots can hop on a Titan 's back to " rodeo " and shoot its weak spot , or otherwise use four anti @-@ Titan weapons to take them down . Player @-@ pilots can eject from Titans that take too much damage , and the Titan replacement timer is reset upon the Titan 's death .
There are three unique Titan classes , variants of light , medium , and heavy , with inversely related speed and armor : the all @-@ around Atlas , the ponderous Ogre , and the lithe Stryder . The latter two chassis are unlocked upon finishing both faction campaigns and were later made unlockable by leveling up as well . Each chassis has a respective Core power that works on a cooldown timer : respectively , increased damage , increased shields , and unlimited dashes . Titan tactical ability options include stopping enemy ammunition in midair to throw back in their direction , emitting electrified smoke to hurt and repel pilots climbing the Titan 's back , and deploying a defensive wall . Additionally , players can equip two perk kits to customize for their preferred strategy . Their primary weapons include rocket launchers , lightning cannons , and chainguns . Titans can act autonomously when put in guard and follow modes , which directs the Titan either to protect their vicinity or to tail their pilot , respectively .
There are 15 multiplayer maps and five multiplayer modes in the base game . In Attrition , a traditional Team Deathmatch , teams compete for the greatest kill count , and bot kills and Titan kills are counted . Pilot Hunter is similar to Attrition , but only counts pilot kills . In Hardpoint Domination , the object is to capture and defend areas of the map . In Last Titan Standing , players begin the match in Titans and have a single life . There is also a Capture the Flag mode . All modes are team @-@ based and there are no free @-@ for @-@ alls . Completing challenges unlocks new abilities , weapons , customization opportunities , and burn cards : single @-@ use , single @-@ life power @-@ ups that bestow a temporary gain , such as reduced Titan drop waits , unlimited grenades weapons , or disguise as a computer @-@ controlled Spectre . Players can bring up to three cards into a match . Through multiplayer matches , players earn experience points that unlock new equipment and perks . Players who reach level 50 can " regenerate " to back to level 1 , trading their rank and unlocks for faster experience gain and a prestige icon next to their names .
The game 's " campaign multiplayer " is separate from the game 's regular multiplayer ( called classic internally ) , and serves as an extended tutorial . It plays as multiplayer with single @-@ player elements , such as scripted cinematic sequences , non @-@ playable character dialogue , an in @-@ game soundtrack , and audio briefings . There are separate campaigns for the Militia and IMC factions , and the game randomly assigns the player to one for a series of nine maps . Each mission is paired with a specific game type and map , supplemented by minimal voiceover narration , which was later removed . The Militia are the civilian military of the Frontier and the resistance against IMC use of colony resources . Their most important members include Titan War veteran and former mutiny leader MacAllan , intel specialist and engineer Bish , and Marauder Corps leader Sarah . The corporate conglomerate IMC specializes in natural resource extraction , and came to the resource @-@ rich Frontier for business . Their major players are Frontier operations commander @-@ in @-@ chief Vice Admiral Graves , intel specialist Blisk , and artificial intelligence companion Spyglass .
= = Development = =
Following Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 's release , Activision fired Infinity Ward co @-@ founders Jason West and Vince Zampella in March 2010 for " breaches of contract and insubordination " . Their departure resulted in a series of lawsuits and a staff exodus . Later that year , West and Zampella founded a game development company , Respawn Entertainment , composed largely of the former Infinity Ward staff — those responsible for the successful Call of Duty series . The company started with a completely blank slate . The ideas that became Titanfall slowly accreted over the next two years .
Pre @-@ production began in 2011 , and Respawn 's first game was originally planned for seventh generation consoles . The idea for the game did not come easily , and the team arrived at its multiplayer @-@ only and human @-@ mech focus after much internal debate . The team started with open collaboration about games and game mechanics they found exciting , and no market research . Respawn artist Joel Emslie recalled starting with a human @-@ sized suit as a " second skin " , which the designers grew in size . As Respawn didn 't have the necessary computers , the artists resorted to kitbashing and model making — Emslie prototyped by putting a figurine inside a plastic model kit . The team progressed to detailed , foot @-@ high " mechettes " made of wood , wire , and plastic , which became the Atlas Titan . Project influences include Blade Runner , Star Wars , Abrams Battle Tank , and Masamune Shirow of Ghost in the Shell . Emslie refers to the aesthetic as a " used future " . Their production was unconventional , similar to Infinity Ward 's old practices , and the game didn 't have design documentation . At E3 2011 , Electronic Arts Labels president Frank Gibeau revealed that Respawn 's first project was a science fiction shooter published by Electronic Arts . Two project leads left the company to begin their own studio in mid @-@ 2012 , and West retired in March 2013 .
Rather than responding to the outgoing console generation 's technical restrictions with code optimization and a tight release near the end of the consoles ' life cycle , the team decided to focus on the eighth generation with more time to try new ideas . Zampella announced that Respawn would show at E3 2013 via Twitter on February 25 , 2013 . Their planned announcement leaked early through the premature release of Game Informer 's July 2013 issue on Google Play , which revealed their first game 's title , premise , and release date . Other advance public information included the company 's trademark filing for " Titan " in April 2013 , and an April 2013 Kotaku report of the game 's Titan mech gameplay and Xbox One exclusivity . The game was officially announced during Microsoft 's E3 2013 press conference , with expected Windows PC , Xbox 360 , and Xbox One releases in Q1 2014 . The Xbox 360 version was announced as in development with Respawn 's support at another studio , though Bluepoint Games was not announced as the studio until January 2014 . Electronic Arts CFO Blake Jorgensen later added that the Microsoft exclusivity agreement would last " for the life of the title " , such that other consoles , including the PlayStation 4 , will not receive a Titanfall port . In February 2014 , Zampella tweeted that Respawn was discussing an OS X port for release some time after launch . The team 's small size — less than a quarter of similar triple A studios — also contributed to the game 's exclusivity .
The 65 @-@ person development team experimented with different gameplay before consolidating to three goals : " player mobility , survivability , and the merging of cinematic design with fast @-@ paced action " . They identified contemporary first @-@ person shooters as restricted to " a single plane of movement " , the cardinal directions and hiding in place , and considered new features to increase mobility , such as a three @-@ story @-@ high jump . Final mobility features include wall running and the pilot 's jump kit , which allows for double jumps . The parkour mechanics came from a similar , basic wall running mod made by a Respawn programmer for Half @-@ Life 2 when testing potential game engines . Additionally , the game does not cordon off parts of the environment . Concerning survivability , Respawn chose to populate the environment with dozens of computer @-@ controlled characters to give players the reward of consecutive kills while reducing the player deaths necessary in return . The team spent significant time balancing the " cat and mouse " combat between pilots and Titans . They annulled advanced sniping techniques known as " quickscoping and no @-@ scoping " . Thirdly , the cinematic storytelling segments associated with single @-@ player campaigns were merged into the multiplayer mode .
The decision to combine modes allowed Respawn to conserve resources traditionally split between separate teams . Player count changed weekly and was playtested often , more as a question of design than technical feasibility . Early Titanfall playtest players did not realize that they were playing against human opponents for over 45 minutes . Respawn originally tested teams of eight , 12 , and various decreasing sizes before they decided on teams of six Lead designer Justin Hendry said that more human players make the game " uncomfortable " not due to overcrowding but to the intensity of maintaining one 's surroundings against many points of entrance . Producer Drew McCoy wrote that the non @-@ human artificial intelligence
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6 ″ S 148 ° 03 ′ 21 ″ E. The reef around the wreck provides good diving with an extensive coral garden . A strict non @-@ disturbance policy applies to marine flora and fauna as well as to the fabric of the wreck . Pelagic fish and reef sharks are common .
= = = Legacy = = =
The northern Darwin suburb of Millner was named after Dr James Millner who , together with his family , lost their lives on the Gothenburg . Most streets in the northern Darwin suburb of Coconut Grove and some in the adjacent suburb of Millner , were named after local Darwin residents , interstate visitors and crew who lost their lives during the shipwreck . Gothenburg Crescent , in the inner Darwin suburb of Stuart Park , was named after the ship .
The large turtle shell , which was engraved by the 18 survivors at Holbourne Island , is displayed at the South Australian Museum , on North Terrace in Adelaide .
= = Survivors = =
In 1875 , a detailed list of all passengers and crew was published by J.H. Lewis , Printer & Publisher , albeit with several errors and spelling mistakes . That document was used as the main source of the following survivors ' table .
The survivors ' surnames have been reconciled against rescue ships ' log books , other records and a photo of the engraved turtle shell . Known discrepancies have been clarified , where possible , in the comments section .
= = = Full known passenger list = = =
= = = Full known crew list = = =
= 17th Airborne Division ( United States ) =
The 17th Airborne Division was an airborne infantry division of the United States Army during World War II , and was commanded by Major General William M. Miley .
It was officially activated as an airborne division in April 1943 but was not immediately sent to a combat theater , remaining in the United States to complete its training . During this training process , the division took part in several training exercises , including the Knollwood Maneuver , in which it played a vital part in ensuring that the airborne division remained as a military formation in the U.S. Army after the poor performance of American airborne forces in the invasion of Sicily . As such it did not take part in the first two large @-@ scale airborne operations conducted by the Allies , Operation Husky and Operation Neptune , only transferring to Britain after the end of Operation Overlord .
When the division arrived in Britain , it came under the command of XVIII Airborne Corps , part of the First Allied Airborne Army , but was not chosen to participate in Operation Market Garden , the airborne landings in the Netherlands , as Allied planners believed it had arrived too late and could not be " trained up " in time for the operation . However , after the end of Operation Market Garden the division was shipped to France and then Belgium to fight in the Ardennes during the Battle of the Bulge . The 17th gained its first Medal of Honor during its time fighting in the Ardennes , and was then withdrawn to Luxembourg to prepare for an assault over the River Rhine . In March 1945 , the division participated in its first , and only , airborne operation , dropping alongside the British 6th Airborne Division as a part of Operation Varsity , where it gained three more Medals of Honor . The division then advanced through Northern Germany until the end of World War II , when it briefly undertook occupation duties in Germany before shipping back to the United States . There , it was officially inactivated in September 1945 , although it was briefly reactivated as a training division between 1948 and 1949 .
= = Formation = =
The German Armed Forces pioneered the use of large @-@ scale airborne formations , first during the invasion of Norway and Denmark and later that year during the assaults on the Netherlands and Belgium in 1940 and later in the Battle of Crete in 1941 . The Allied governments were aware of the success of these operations ( but not of the heavy German casualties incurred , particularly during the assault on the Netherlands and the invasion of Crete ) and decided to form their own airborne formations . This decision would eventually lead to the creation of five American and two British airborne divisions , as well as many smaller units . The 17th Airborne Division was activated on 15 April 1943 at Camp Mackall in North Carolina , under the command of the newly promoted Major General William Miley . The division was originally composed of the 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment , activated on 11 January 1943 at Fort Benning , the 193rd Glider Infantry Regiment , and the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment . The official dedication ceremony for the unit took place on 1 May 1943 , with thousands of civilian and military spectators , including Major General Eldridge G. Chapman , overall commander of Airborne Command and of all American airborne forces during World War II .
Once activated , the division remained in the United States for training and exercises . As the division , like all airborne units , was intended to be an elite formation , the training regime was extremely arduous . There were 250 feet ( 76 m ) and 34 feet ( 10 m ) towers built from which prospective airborne troops would jump off of to simulate landing by parachute , lengthy forced marches and practice jumps from transport aircraft ; to pause in the doorway of an aircraft during a practice jump resulted in an automatic failure for the candidate . The resultant failure rate was accordingly high , but there was never a shortage of candidates , especially for the American divisions , as the rate of pay was much higher than that of an ordinary infantryman . As the division trained , a debate developed in the U.S. Army over whether the best use of airborne forces was en masse or as small compact units . On 9 July 1943 , the first large @-@ scale Allied airborne operation – the Allied invasion of Sicily ( Operation Husky ) – was carried out by elements of the U.S. 82nd Airborne Division and the British 1st Airborne Division . The commanding general of the U.S. 11th Airborne Division , Major General Joseph May Swing , had been temporarily assigned to act as airborne advisor to General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Supreme Allied Commander Mediterranean , for the invasion of Sicily , and had observed the airborne assault , which went badly . The U.S. 82nd Airborne Division had been deployed by both parachute and glider and had suffered high casualties , leading to a perception that it had failed to achieve many of its objectives .
= = = Swing Board = = =
General Eisenhower had reviewed the airborne role in Operation Husky , and had concluded that large @-@ scale formations were too difficult to control in combat to be practical . Lieutenant General Lesley J. McNair , commander of Army Ground Forces , had similar misgivings : once an airborne supporter , he had been greatly disappointed by their performance in North Africa and , more recently , Sicily . However , other high @-@ ranking officers believed otherwise , notably the U.S. Army Chief of Staff , George Marshall . He persuaded Eisenhower to set up a review board and to withhold judgement on the effectiveness of divisional @-@ sized airborne forces until a large @-@ scale maneuver could be tried in December . When Swing returned to the United States to resume command of the 11th Airborne Division in mid @-@ September 1943 , he had an additional role . McNair ordered him to form a committee – the Swing Board – composed of U.S. Army Air Forces , parachute and glider infantry , and artillery officers to arrange a large @-@ scale maneuver that would effectively decide the fate of the divisional @-@ sized airborne force . As the 11th Airborne Division was in reserve in the United States , and had not yet been earmarked for overseas shipment , the Swing Board chose it as the test formation ; it would be opposed by a composite combat team from the 17th Airborne Division with a battalion from the 541st Parachute Infantry Regiment temporarily attached . The maneuver would also provide both divisions with further airborne training , as had occurred several months previously in a large @-@ scale maneuver undertaken by the 82nd and the 101st Airborne Divisions .
= = = Knollwood Maneuver = = =
The objective for the 11th as the attacking force was to capture Knollwood Army Auxiliary Airfield near Fort Bragg in North Carolina , after which the maneuver was named . The defending forces were to try to defend the airport and the surrounding area and repel the airborne assault . The entire operation would be observed by Lieutenant General McNair . His observations and reports to the U.S. War Department , and ultimately General Eisenhower , would do much to decide the success or failure of the exercise . The Knollwood Maneuver took place on the night of 7 December , with the troops of the 11th Airborne Division being delivered to thirteen separate objectives by 200 C @-@ 47 Dakota transport aircraft and 234 Waco CG @-@ 4A gliders , with eighty @-@ five percent of the airborne troops being delivered to their target without navigational error . The transport aircraft were divided into four groups , each taking off from a different airfield in the Carolinas , with two groups dropping paratroopers and two towing gliders , and between them deployed 4 @,@ 800 airborne troops in the first wave . These airborne troops then seized the Knollwood Army Auxiliary Airfield from the defending troops and secured the area in which the rest of the division landed , all before daylight . Having secured their initial objectives , the 11th Airborne Division then conducted a coordinated ground attack against a reinforced infantry regiment , as well as several aerial resupply and casualty evacuation missions in coordination with transport aircraft . The exercise was judged to be a great success by those who observed it . McNair reported that the success of the maneuver pleased him , and highlighted the great improvements in airborne training that had occurred in the months between the end of Operation Husky and the Knollwood Maneuver . Due to the success of the units of the 17th Airborne Division during the exercise , the divisional @-@ sized airborne force was deemed to be effective and was allowed by Eisenhower to remain .
= = World War II = =
The division also participated in the Second Army maneuvers in the Tennessee Maneuver Area from 6 February 1944 . It finished its training on 27 March 1944 , and transferred to Camp Forrest on 24 March 1944 . The division staged at Camp Myles Standish on 12 August 1944 before departing Boston Port of Embarkation on 20 August 1944 . It arrived in the United Kingdom on 26 August .
Once in Britain the division was attached to U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps , under Major General Matthew Ridgway , which commanded all American airborne formations , and which in turn became part of the First Allied Airborne Army when it was formed on 21 August , under the command of Lieutenant General Lewis H. Brereton . Although attached to XVIII Airborne Corps , the division was not chosen to participate in Operation Market Garden , a large @-@ scale airborne operation intended to seize several bridges through the Netherlands to allow the Allied armies to bypass the Rhine river and enter Germany . The 17th was passed over in favour of the 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions because it had only recently arrived in the European Theater and was considered to be unprepared logistically as it was still collecting its combat equipment . The division , now with the 507th Parachute Infantry Regiment – which had fought in Normandy under command of the 82nd – remained in England as a theater reserve during Market Garden and its aftermath , as the Allied armies continued their advance towards Germany .
= = = Battle of the Bulge = = =
On 16 December 1944 the Wehrmacht launched an offensive in the Ardennes region of Belgium , breaking through Allied lines and rapidly advancing towards Antwerp . On the afternoon of 17 December , General Eisenhower , the Supreme Allied Commander , decided to commit his theater reserve to the Ardennes in an attempt to halt the German advance ; this consisted of the 17th , 82nd and 101st Airborne Divisions under the control of XVIII Airborne Corps . The three divisions were to be attached to Courtney Hodges 's U.S. First Army and were ordered to concentrate around the town of St Vith . However , while the other two airborne divisions were able to immediately make their way to the Ardennes as they were already stationed in France , bad weather prevented the 17th from flying in from where the division was stationed in Britain for several days . On 23 December the weather cleared and the division was finally flown to France by emergency night flights . It moved to an assembly area near Rheims . On Christmas Day , the division was attached to George Patton 's U.S. Third Army and ordered to assume a thirty @-@ mile long defensive position that ran along the Meuse River near Charleville .
By 1 January 1945 the threat to Charleville had eased sufficiently for the division to be transferred to another area of the Ardennes , being transported to an area south @-@ west of Bastogne near the village of Morhet on 3 January ; there it relieved the 11th Armored Division which had occupied the village prior to its arrival . On 4 January the division entered combat for the first time when it was ordered alongside the 87th Infantry Division to seize a number of key towns to the west of Bastogne , in order to prevent German forces from encircling the town a second time ; it had been relieved by the Third Army on 26 December . With the 87th Infantry Division on its left flank , the division advanced towards German positions with the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment and 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment forming the division 's assault element ; the 193rd Glider Infantry Regiment and the 507th Parachute Infantry Regiment moved behind these two regiments to deal with expected German armoured counter @-@ attacks against them . During its initial advance the division engaged German forces , including infantry and armour , in an attempt to secure a narrow , high @-@ rimmed road to the north @-@ west of Bastogne ; during a battle that lasted three days the division suffered nearly 1 @,@ 000 casualties attempting to hold what the division 's official historian labeled ' Dead Man 's Ridge ' . It was during the opening stages of this battle that the division earned its first Medal of Honor . Staff Sergeant Isadore S. Jachman of the 513th Parachute Infantry engaged and destroyed two German tanks with a bazooka that formed part of an armoured column attacking American positions , forcing the column to retreat but simultaneously being killed by machine gun fire . Between 19 and 26 January , the division broke through German lines and captured several towns before linking up with elements of the British 51st Infantry Division . After it had captured the town of Espeler on 26 January the entire division was withdrawn from the front and transported by truck to Luxembourg , effectively ending its participation in the Ardennes campaign .
= = = Operation Varsity = = =
= = = = Preparation = = = =
After participating in the Battle of the Bulge , the division was moved behind the front @-@ lines as a reserve formation and theater reserve , whilst the Allies continued their advance towards the German interior . However , even as the division received replacements and trained , it had already been selected to take part in a highly ambitious airborne operation code @-@ named Operation Eclipse . This operation , which got to such an advanced stage that plans had been created and divisional commanders briefed , called for the 17th and 82nd Airborne divisions , along with a brigade from the British 6th Airborne Division , to be dropped in daylight in and around Berlin to capture the city . The operation received the support of General Henry H. Arnold , the Chief of the United States Army Air Corps , but planning ended on 28 March , when General Eisenhower sent a message to Joseph Stalin indicating that the Allied armies would not attempt to capture Berlin , thereby making Eclipse obsolete . Eclipse and several other similarly ambitious airborne operations came to nothing , but in February the division finally received word that it would be involved in an Allied airborne operation to cross the River Rhine in support of the Anglo @-@ Canadian 21st Army Group that would take place during March .
By March 1945 , the Allies had advanced into Germany and had reached the River Rhine . The Rhine was a formidable natural obstacle to the Allied advance , but if breached would allow the Allies to access the North German Plain and ultimately advance on Berlin and other major cities in Northern Germany . Following the ' Broad Front Approach ' laid out by General Eisenhower , it was decided to attempt to breach the Rhine in several areas . British Field Marshal Sir Bernard Montgomery , commanding the 21st Army Group , devised a plan to allow the forces under his command to breach the Rhine , which he entitled Operation Plunder , and which was subsequently authorized by Eisenhower . Plunder envisioned the British Second Army , under Lieutenant @-@ General Miles Dempsey and the U.S. Ninth Army under Lieutenant General William Simpson crossing the Rhine at Rees , Wesel , and an area south of the Lippe Canal . To ensure that the operation was a success , Montgomery insisted that an airborne component was inserted into the plans for the operation to support the amphibious assaults that would take place , which was code @-@ named Operation Varsity . Three airborne divisions were initially chosen to take part in Varsity , these being the British 6th Airborne Division , the U.S. 13th Airborne Division and the 17th Airborne Division , all of which were assigned to the U.S. XVIII Airborne Corps .
However , as planning for Operation Varsity began , it soon became obvious that there was a lack of suitable transport aircraft to transport all three airborne divisions . As such the 13th Airborne Division was dropped from the operational plan , primarily because it had no combat experience , whereas the 6th Airborne Division had participated in Operation Tonga , the British airborne landings during Operation Neptune , and the 17th had seen combat in the Ardennes . The plan for the operation was therefore altered to accommodate the two remaining airborne divisions . This would be the first airborne operation the 17th would take part in , and indeed would be its only before it was disbanded . The two airborne divisions would be dropped behind German lines , with their objective to land around Wesel and disrupt enemy defences in order to aid the advance of the British Second Army . To achieve this , both divisions would be dropped near the town of Hamminkeln , and were tasked with a number of objectives ; they were to seize the Diersfordter Wald , a forest that overlooked the Rhine and had a road linking several towns together ; several bridges over a smaller waterway , the Issel , were to be seized to facilitate the advance ; and the town of Hamminkeln was to be captured . Once these objectives were taken , the airborne troops would consolidate their positions and await the arrival of Allied ground forces , defending the territory captured against the German forces known to be in the area .
The 17th Airborne was to land its units in the southern portion of the area chosen for the operation , engaging the German forces that were defending the area , securing the Diersfordterwald Forest which dominated the surrounding area and capturing three bridges that spanned the River Issel . It would then hold the territory it had captured until it linked up units from the British 6th Airborne Division , which would land in the northern section of the operational area , and finally advance alongside 21st Army Group once the Allied ground forces had made contact with the airborne forces . To avoid the heavy casualties incurred by the British 1st Airborne Division that had occurred during Operation Market Garden , both Allied airborne divisions would only be dropped after Allied ground units had crossed the Rhine and secured crossings ; the two divisions would also be dropped only a relatively short distance behind German lines , to ensure that reinforcements would be able to link up with them after only a few hours and they would not be isolated .
= = = = Battle = = = =
Operation Plunder began at 21 : 00 on 23 March after a week @-@ long aerial bombardment of Luftwaffe airfields and the German transport system , involving more than ten thousand Allied aircraft . By the early hours of 24 March units of 21st Army Group had crossed the Rhine against heavy German opposition and secured several crossings on the eastern bank of the river . In the first few hours of 24 March , the transport aircraft carrying the two airborne divisions that formed Operation Varsity took off from airbases in England and France and rendezvoused over Brussels , before turning north @-@ east for the Rhine dropping zones . The airlift consisted of 541 transport aircraft containing airborne troops , and a further 1 @,@ 050 troop @-@ carriers towing 1 @,@ 350 gliders . The 17th Airborne Division consisted of 9 @,@ 387 personnel , who were transported in 836 C @-@ 47 Dakota transports , 72 C @-@ 46 Commando transports , and more than 900 Waco CG @-@ 4A gliders . At 10 : 00 on the morning of the 24th , the first Allied airborne units began to land on German soil on the eastern bank of the Rhine , some thirteen hours after the Allied assault had begun .
The 507th Parachute Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel Edson Raff , was the lead assault formation for the 17th Airborne Division , and was consequently the first U.S. airborne unit to land as part of Operation Varsity . The entire regiment was meant to be dropped in drop zone W , a clearing two miles north of Wesel ; however , excessive ground haze confused the pilots of the transport aircraft carrying the 507th , and as such when the regiment dropped it split into two halves . Colonel Raff and approximately 690 of his paratroopers landed north @-@ west of the drop zone near the town of Diersfordt , with the rest of the regiment successfully landing in drop zone W. The colonel rallied his separated paratroopers and led them to the drop zone , engaging a battery of German artillery en route , killing or capturing the artillery crews before reuniting with the rest of the regiment . By 14 : 00 the 507th PIR had secured all of its objectives and cleared the area around Diersfordt , having engaged numerous German troops and destroying a German tank . The actions of the regiment during the initial landing also gained the division its second Medal of Honor , when Private George J. Peters posthumously received the award after charging a German machine gun nest and eliminating it with rifle fire and grenades , allowing his fellow paratroopers to gather their equipment and capture the regiments first objective .
The 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment was the second divisional unit to land , and was under the command of Colonel James W. Coutts . En route to the drop zone , the transport aircraft containing the regiment had the misfortune to pass through a belt of German anti @-@ aircraft weapons , losing twenty @-@ two of the C @-@ 46 transport aircraft and damaging a further thirty @-@ eight . Just as the 507th had , the 513th also suffered from pilot error due to the ground haze , and as such the regiment actually missed their designated drop zone , and were dropped on one of the landing zones designated for the British 6th Airlanding Brigade . However , despite this inaccuracy the paratroopers swiftly rallied and aided the British glider @-@ borne troops who were landing simultaneously , eliminating several German artillery batteries which were covering the area . Once the German troops in the area had been eliminated , a combined force of American and British airborne troops stormed Hamminkeln and secured that town . By 14 : 00 , Colonel Coutts reported to the Divisional Headquarters that the 513th had secured all of its objectives , having knocked out two tanks and destroyed two complete regiments of artillery during its assault . During its attempts to secure its objectives , the regiment also gained a third Medal of Honor for the division when Private First Class Stuart S. Stryker posthumously received the award after leading a charge against a German machine gun nest , creating a distraction to allow the rest of his platoon to capture the fortified position the machine gun was situated in .
The third component of the 17th Airborne Division to take part in the operation was the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel James Pierce . The regiment landed accurately in landing zone S , but their gliders and the aircraft that towed them took heavy casualties ; twelve C @-@ 47 transports were lost due to anti @-@ aircraft fire , and a further one hundred and forty were damaged by the same fire . The regiment landed in the midst of a number of German artillery batteries that were engaging Allied ground forces crossing the Rhine , and as such many of the gliders were engaged by German artillery pieces which had their barrels lowered for direct @-@ fire . However , these artillery batteries and their crews were defeated by the glider @-@ borne troops , and the regiment was soon able to report that its objectives had been secured , having destroyed forty @-@ two artillery pieces , ten tanks , two mobile @-@ flak wagons and five self @-@ propelled guns .
= = = = Aftermath = = = =
Operation Varsity was a successful large @-@ scale airborne operation . All of the objectives that the airborne troops of the 17th had been tasked with had been captured and held , usually within only a few hours of the operation beginning . The bridges over the Issel had been successfully captured , although one later had to be destroyed to prevent its capture by counter @-@ attacking German forces . The Diersfordter Forest had been cleared of enemy troops , and the roads through which the Germans might have routed reinforcements against the advance had been cut by airborne troops . By nightfall of the 24th , the British 15th Infantry Division had joined up with elements of 6th Airborne , and by midnight the first light bridge was across the Rhine . By the 27th , twelve bridges suitable for heavy armour had been installed over the Rhine and the Allies had fourteen divisions on the east bank of the river which had penetrated up to ten miles . The division also gained its fourth Medal of Honor in the days following Operation Varsity , when Technical Sergeant Clinton M. Hedrick of the 194th Glider Infantry Regiment received the award posthumously after aiding in the capture of Lembeck Castle , which had been turned into a fortified position by the Germans . In terms of casualties , the 17th suffered a total of 1 @,@ 346 casualties between 24 and 29 March , when Operation Plunder came to an end .
= = = Inactivation = = =
After it had participated in Operation Varsity , the 17th Airborne Division continued to advance through Germany as a part of XVIII Airborne Corps , engaging German forces around Wesel , Essen and Münster . The division had only served in combat for five months and seen only one combat drop , but in that short period of time it had seen 1 @,@ 314 men killed in action and 4 @,@ 904 men wounded or otherwise injured in action . When Germany unconditionally surrendered on 7 May 1945 , the division was conducting occupation duties in northern Germany , which it continued to do until it was relieved by British troops on 14 June . From that date , the division was split up and its component units attached to other airborne divisions , either to the 82nd Airborne Division in Berlin or to the 13th Airborne Division which was preparing to participate in the invasion of Japan . When Japan surrendered , all of the division 's units returned to their parent formation and the division moved to Camp Myles Standish in Taunton , Massachusetts , being officially inactivated on 16 September 1945 . The formation was reactivated at Camp Pickett , VA , on 6 July 1948 as a training division , but on 19 June 1949 it was permanently inactivated .
= = Order of battle = =
Units of the 17th Airborne Division during World War II included :
Division Headquarters
193rd Glider Infantry Regiment ( disbanded 1 March 1945 )
194th Glider Infantry Regiment
507th Parachute Infantry Regiment ( attached 27 August 1944 to 1 March 1945 , thereafter assigned )
513th Parachute Infantry Regiment ( replaced 517th Parachute Infantry Regiment on 10 March 1944 )
517th Parachute Infantry Regiment ( relieved 10 March 1944 , replaced by the 513th Parachute Infantry Regiment )
Division Artillery
464th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion ( 75mm ) ( assigned 4 June 1945 )
466th Parachute Field Artillery Battalion ( 75mm )
680th Glider Field Artillery Battalion ( 75mm )
681st Glider Field Artillery Battalion ( 75mm )
139th Airborne Engineer Battalion
155th Airborne Antiaircraft Battalion
224th Airborne Medical Company
17th Parachute Maintenance Company
Headquarters Special Troops
Headquarters Company , 17th Airborne Division
Military Police Platoon
717th Airborne Ordnance Maintenance Company
517th Airborne Signal Company
411th Airborne Quartermaster Company
17th Counter Intelligence Corps Detachment
Band ( assigned 1 March 1945 )
Reconnaissance Platoon ( assigned 1 March 1945 )
550th Airborne Infantry Battalion ( not assigned ; under division operational control during the Ardennes Offensive )
761st Tank Battalion ( attached 15 – 27 January 1945 )
811th Tank Destroyer Battalion ( attached 17 – 27 January 1945 )
= M @-@ 28 Business ( Ishpeming – Negaunee , Michigan ) =
Business M @-@ 28 ( Bus . M @-@ 28 ) is a state trunkline highway serving as a business route that runs for 4 @.@ 841 miles ( 7 @.@ 791 km ) through the downtown districts of Ishpeming and Negaunee in the US state of Michigan . The trunkline provides a marked route for traffic diverting from U.S. Highway 41 ( US 41 ) and M @-@ 28 through the two historic iron @-@ mining communities . It is one of three business loops for M @-@ numbered highways in the state of Michigan . There have previously been two other Bus . M @-@ 28 designations for highways in Newberry and Marquette .
The trunkline was originally a section of US 41 / M @-@ 28 and M @-@ 35 . Before the 1930s , the main highways ran through the two downtown areas when US 41 / M @-@ 28 was relocated to run near Teal Lake . The former routing had various names over the years . It was designated as an alternate route of the main highways , using both the US 41A / M @-@ 28A and Alt . US 41 / ALT M @-@ 28 designations before it was designated as Bus . M @-@ 28 in 1958 . M @-@ 35 continued to run through downtown Negaunee along a section of the highway until the 1960s . A rerouting in 1999 moved the trunkline designation along Lakeshore Drive in Ishpeming , and a streetscape project rebuilt the road in Negaunee in 2005 .
= = Route description = =
There are currently three business routes in the state of Michigan derived from M @-@ numbered highways . The other two are in Hillman and Niles for M @-@ 32 and M @-@ 60 respectively . In the past , two other business routes for M @-@ 28 existed in Newberry and Marquette , but they have since been retired . The extant Bus . M @-@ 28 designation remains for the loop through Ishpeming and Negaunee .
= = = Ishpeming = = =
Bus . M @-@ 28 begins at a signalized intersection on US 41 / M @-@ 28 with Lakeshore Drive in the city of Ishpeming . The trunkline runs south along Lakeshore Drive under the tracks of the Lake Superior and Ishpeming Railroad ( LS & I ) and southeasterly towards Lake Bancroft . South of the lake , Bus . M @-@ 28 turns east on Division Street . Traffic along the highway here can view the towers of the Cliffs Shaft Mine Museum ; the museum is dedicated to telling the story of underground iron ore mining in the region .
Division Street carries the Bus . M @-@ 28 designation into the central business district of Ishpeming , where it runs past local businesses , Ishpeming High School and the original Ishpeming City Hall . On the east side of downtown , both the central machine shops and the research labs for Cleveland @-@ Cliffs Iron Company are located on Division Street . Continuing east , the trunkline follows Ready Street over hills and through a residential area to the Ishpeming – Negaunee city line .
= = = Negaunee = = =
In Negaunee , the routing uses a street named County Road east from the city line . County Road passes Jackson Park , location of the first iron ore discovery in the area . The iron mined from the region supplied half of the nation 's supply between 1850 and 1900 . South of downtown Negaunee , Bus . M @-@ 28 turns north along the west fork of Silver Street . The street runs north under an overpass that carries Rail Street , so named because it was once a rail line into downtown Negaunee . The trunkline turns east on Jackson Street , running next to the Negaunee City Hall , which was built in 1914 – 15 at a time when the city 's population was increasing and iron production was peaking . The building still houses the city 's offices , police station and library .
The business loop follows Jackson Street east to Division Street , where the street curves slightly and becomes Main Street . Bus . M @-@ 28 follows Main Street one block to the intersection with Teal Lake Avenue . Turning north , the trunkline follows Teal Lake Avenue through residential areas of town past the Negaunee Middle School and up over a hill . On the opposite side of the hill next to Teal Lake Bluff , the business loop intersects Arch Street , which carries traffic to Negaunee High School to the west or the football field complex to the east . Negaunee High School was the site of the former Mather B Mine Complex . The administration building for the mine was converted to its present educational use in 1986 . Bus . M @-@ 28 continues along Teal Lake Avenue past the football field and under the LS & I tracks where it ends at another signalized intersection with US 41 / M @-@ 28 by Teal Lake . The total length of Bus . M @-@ 28 is 4 @.@ 873 miles ( 7 @.@ 842 km ) .
= = = Traffic counts = = =
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) publishes traffic data for the highways it maintains . On Lakeshore Drive in Ishpeming , MDOT stated that 5 @,@ 857 vehicles on average used the roadway daily in 2014 . Along Division Street , traffic drops to 4 @,@ 044 vehicles before dropping further to 1 @,@ 617 vehicles along the section on Silver Street in Negaunee . Traffic increases along Jackson and Main streets to 4 @,@ 340 vehicles on an average day . Traffic is heaviest along Teal Lake Avenue , at 7 @,@ 521 vehicles .
= = History = =
The state highway system was created on May 13 , 1913 , with the passage of the State Reward Trunk Line Highway Act . The state originally signposted these highways by July 1 , 1919 , and the roadways that make up Bus . M @-@ 28 were originally a portion of M @-@ 15 . Later when the United States Numbered Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , the highway was redesignated as a part of US 41 and part of M @-@ 28 . The main highway was moved with the construction of a northerly bypass of Ishpeming and Negaunee in 1937 . The business loop was not designated Bus . M @-@ 28 permanently and marked on state maps until 1958 . It was designated US 41A / M @-@ 28A before being redesignated ALT US 41 / ALT M @-@ 28 @.@ or Bus . US 41 / Bus . M @-@ 28 . This dual designation later was mirrored by the other Marquette County business route , Bus . US 41 . Occasionally , more recent maps use this older numbering to label the highway .
When M @-@ 35 was routed through downtown Negaunee , it joined Bus . M @-@ 28 northward from the east fork of Silver Street on to US 41 / M @-@ 28 . This routing was moved to bypass the city in 1964 when iron ore mining activity destabilized a portion of the M @-@ 35 routing southeast of town . From this point on , Bus . M @-@ 28 has not shared its routing with any other state trunklines .
In 1969 , the Michigan Department of State Highways petitioned the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) to approve a Bus . US 41 designation for the trunkline . Action on the request was deferred by AASHTO 's U.S. Route Numbering Subcommittee , and then denied the following year . The western end of Bus . M @-@ 28 was rerouted on June 4 , 1999 , when the City of Ishpeming petitioned MDOT to reroute the highway along Lakeshore Drive to US 41 / M @-@ 28 . Previously , it ran along Greenwood Street and North Lake Road and met US 41 / M @-@ 28 in the West Ishpeming neighborhood of Ishpeming Township .
MDOT in a partnership with the City of Negaunee upgraded Teal Lake Avenue between Arch and Rock streets in a streetscaping project to provide a " pedestrian refuge area " . This work entailed reconstruction of the retaining wall , curbing and gutters in 2005 . Arch Street is the access to Negaunee High School , and this section of Bus . M @-@ 28 is near the athletic field complex in Negaunee . The project budgeted $ 120 @,@ 200 with $ 24 @,@ 200 from the City of Negaunee ( equivalent to $ 151 @,@ 500 and $ 30 @,@ 500 respectively in 2015 ) .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists Bus . M @-@ 28 's major intersections with the primary Marquette County Roads . The entire highway is in Marquette County .
= Bounce ( Iggy Azalea song ) =
" Bounce " is a song recorded by Australian rapper Iggy Azalea for her debut album , The New Classic ( 2014 ) . It was released as the album 's second single internationally on 27 May 2013 , with the exception of the United States where " Change Your Life " was released instead . " Bounce " was written by Azalea , its producers Reeva & Black , Speedy Jay , Talay Riley , Oladayo Olatunji and Natalie Sims . Developed as a festival anthem about celebration , Azalea wanted the track to showcase a fun side to her artistry and offset the seriousness of her previous single " Work " . Distinctly more pop @-@ indebted than her previous material , the EDM , hip hop and trap song contains a prominent build @-@ drop production formula and elements of Eastern music with tabla and sarangi instruments .
The track received generally positive reviews from music critics who complimented its catchy tune and tempo . Commercially , " Bounce " became Azalea 's second top 20 hit on the UK Singles Chart where it peaked at number 13 . It also reached the top 40 in Ireland . An accompanying music video was released on 6 May 2013 . It was filmed in Mumbai , India , and inspired by the Bollywood disco era . The video features Azalea donning saris and bindis , performing belly dancing and traditional Indian dance sequences in Hindu wedding and Holi celebration settings . Most critics praised the video 's concept and fashion , although public reaction saw it being accused of cultural appropriation by some . Azalea promoted " Bounce " with a series of live festival performances and on the premiere of Channel 4 's Smells Like Friday Night . It was also included in the setlist for her 2014 The New Classic Tour . " Bounce " is featured on the soundtracks for the 2014 film Vampire Academy and the 2015 film Spy .
= = Background = =
" Bounce " was written by Iggy Azalea , Speedy Jay , Talay Riley , Oladayo Olatunji , Natalie Sims , and its producers Reeva & Black for Azalea 's debut album , The New Classic . With the song , Azalea wanted to showcase a fun side to herself and her artistry , and to offset the seriousness of her previous single , " Work " . " Bounce " was written as " something light and fun for the summer " and a " festival anthem " about celebration . Azalea also wanted " to see how the pop @-@ rap thing would go " . She recorded the track in early 2013 , when she was on tour with Nas in London . Olatunji recorded background vocals for the track with Azalea at Grove Studios in London . The song was mixed by Anthony Kilhoffer at The Mix Spot in Los Angeles , with assistance from Kyle Ross .
Azalea found " Bounce " to be different from her previous releases and the most commercial song on The New Classic . She initially felt that it was a risky choice for a single , and consulted Nas regarding the decision ; " With ' Bounce , ' I was like , ' It 's a pop record . I don 't know . ' [ Nas ] was like , ' Just fucking do it . It 's something different . It 's one song , what 's the big deal ? ' I couldn 't believe Nas was telling me to do a hip @-@ pop record . " Azalea also did not intend to include the song on The New Classic , believing that it strayed too far from the album 's musical and lyrical themes , but her record label convinced her otherwise and it was included as one of the album 's three bonus tracks . The song was later included in the main track listing of the album 's reissue , Reclassified .
= = Composition = =
" Bounce " is an EDM , hip hop and trap song . It incorporates elements of house and Eastern music . Charley Rogulewski of Vibe writes that the song adds a pop element to Azalea 's " trademark trap sound " . The track combines busy production with Azalea 's energetic rapping — a combination viewed as " relentless " and " overwhelming " by some critics . The production consists of an uptempo , " club @-@ friendly " beat and " squiggle " sound effects . Its instrumentation comprises winding synths , deep bass , and tabla and sarangi melodies .
In contrast with the song 's tempo , Azalea 's rapping is fast @-@ paced and in Southern American English pronunciation throughout . A timed build @-@ drop production formula is used to vary her delivery in which she puts emphasis on certain lyrics and lifts off on others . During the verses , Azalea 's delivery is expletively riddled and contains trill consonants , particularly during the bridge , " All about money , the nice never ending / We party till morning , tomorrow we kick it " . According to Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner , the chorus causes the listener to " adhere to the song 's title " . In it , Azalea repeatedly raps , " Make it bounce / Make it bounce / Make it bounce / Shake it , break it , make it bounce " . Lyrically , " Bounce " is about being carefree , partying , dancing , and celebrating life . Sam Lansky of Idolator describes the lyrics as " party @-@ happy uncomplicated fun " . Several critics compared the song to 2 Unlimited 's " No Limit " ( 1993 ) .
= = Release = =
" Bounce " served as the second single from The New Classic internationally , with the exception of Canada and the United States where " Change Your Life " was released instead . The song 's title was first revealed in an announcement about its accompanying music video on 15 April 2013 . Azalea posted the single 's cover art on Twitter on 24 April 2013 . " Bounce " premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 26 April 2013 , with Azalea uploading the song to her SoundCloud and YouTube channels the same day .
" Bounce " was first released as a digital extended play ( EP ) — which included a remix by DJ Green Lantern — on 27 May 2013 in selected countries such as France , while the release in several other countries were postponed to a later date . The delays prompted Azalea 's fans to campaign an earlier release of the single ; in a press release , Azalea explained : " The problem with kids – and I was one of these people too – is that they think they work in the industry and know how it all works . They 're like , ' put ' Bounce ' out now or it 's gonna flop ! ' . I 'm like , ' I need to promote it first or it 's gonna flop ! ' . It 's coming out on July 8 and I need fans to trust their fave on this one because it 's for the best . I need to hashtag that – # trustyourfaves . " The EP was later released on 5 July 2013 in Germany , 7 July 2013 in the United Kingdom , and 8 July 2013 in Italy and Spain .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
" Bounce " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Eric Diep of XXL praised Azalea 's " rapid @-@ fire rhymes " and said the track " will certainly burn up the dance floor " . Lucy O 'Brien of The Quietus called the song " irrepressible " . AllMusic 's David Jeffries opined that " Bounce " was " simple and infectious " , and " does just what it says on the tin " . Jeffries ' view was shared by Mark Beaumont of NME who also deemed the song " infectious " , and Matt Jost of RapReviews.com who called it " simply fun " . Rory Cashin of Entertainment.ie described its production as " overwhelmingly busy in a good way " . In a State publication , Cashin deemed it a " warped earworm " and a " belter " . Rap @-@ Up hailed it as Azalea 's " new anthem " , and felt it was timed for the summer to " [ shake ] up the dancefloor " . Similarly , Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly opined that the song was " thumping " and " a thoroughbred entry in the song @-@ of @-@ summer race " , while Juliana June Rasul of The Straits Times said it was " a perfect summer pop song " . In a publication for The Atlantic , Nolan Feeney highlighted it as a " colorful butt @-@ shaker " . Idolator 's Sam Lansky called the track a " twerk anthem " and considered it to be Azalea 's most impressive and most commercial single .
Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner gave the song a four ( out of five ) -star rating , and wrote that its production was of a " summer anthem level " . Corner said the track felt " slightly lighter " than Azalea 's previous releases , adding : " ... but if it means she crosses over into superstardom territory , it 's a job well done " . While Robert Copsey of the same website believed that it " felt like a somewhat needless moment of pop frivolity " . Complex reviewers were also divided ; Brian Josephs considered the track a " [ clear ] club banger " , but David Drake criticized Azalea 's " nimble rapping and forced accent " . According to Drake , " [ ' Bounce ' ] is the kind of thing that might work in the UK , where a digitally @-@ animated frog once had a No. 1 hit with a cover of the theme to Beverly Hills Cop , but this will probably be a long shot at getting stateside club play " . John Robinson of The Guardian felt it was " second @-@ division " and " sheeeeeit " . Karen Lawler of Blues & Soul opined that it recalled " a lost track " from Miley Cyrus ' 2013 album , Bangerz , and dismissed its " nod " to 2 Unlimited as " cringe worthy " . While Clash called " Bounce " an inferior version of " No Limit " and " criminal in every way " , and opined that it lacked tune ; " No Auto @-@ Tune , though , because you need a tune to Auto " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
" Bounce " first charted on the Irish Singles Chart issued for 11 July 2013 , where it debuted and peaked at number 34 . It marked Azalea 's first top 40 hit in Ireland . In the United Kingdom , Music Week reported that " Bounce " placed at number eight in the mid @-@ week UK Singles Chart . However , the single 's sales declined through the rest of the week and it entered the chart at number 13 with first @-@ week sales of 22 @,@ 401 copies . It became Azalea 's second top 20 hit in the country and spent a total of five weeks on the chart . Although not released as a single in the United States , " Bounce " reached number one on the Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart issued for 21 June 2014 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The accompanying music video for " Bounce " was directed by BRTHR . It was filmed in Mumbai , India over a 10- to 12 @-@ day period with 16- to 18 @-@ hour working days . BRTHR previously applied to direct Azalea 's music video for " Work " , but Jonas & François were hired instead ; BRTHR 's strong interest in working with Azalea encouraged them to try again with " Bounce " . Azalea 's label wanted BRTHR to work with executive producer Eli Born for the music video because they felt confident in him after his involvement in the " Work " music video . BRTHR were guided by their producer Brendan Lynch and executive producer Geoff McLean . Equipment by the Red Digital Cinema Camera Company and Carl Zeiss AG were used for filming . In an interview for MTV UK , Azalea detailed the inspiration behind the video :
" My mother growing up was really , really close friends with an Indian woman . She ended up having an arranged marriage oddly enough and I remember going to her wedding and it was one of the only weddings that I 've EVER been to , besides my own mother 's , and it was the biggest party , the most fun ever . So when I was doing ' Bounce ' , you know I don 't actually drink or smoke so I thought I don 't wanna do a video in a club like poppin ' bottles and all this stuff , although the song 's about partying . I [ wanted to ] do a celebration ... and it made me think of that experience with my mother 's friend going to an Indian wedding and having the most crazy and amazing time and I though I wanna do an Indian wedding ! And I wanna do it in India ! And I wanna do it properly ... and I put an elephant in there for good luck . "
Azalea also envisioned an Eastern theme for the music video because of the song 's Eastern music influences and her interest in Bollywood films . BRTHR wrote a Hindu wedding scenario for the video , with Azalea as the bride . At Azalea 's request , the video was filmed in Mumbai 's streets and slums , and on Bollywood sets . Because of the increased cost of filming on location , Azalea decided to personally contribute to the video 's budget . T.I. was scheduled to appear in the music video , but was unable due to visa delays . Azalea 's stylist , Alejandra Hernandez , coordinated the rapper 's wardrobe , inspired by Bollywood disco era and Indian actress Parveen Babi . Hernandez used bold @-@ coloured saris in the video ; she prepared Azalea 's wardrobe in Los Angeles , and her creations were made in London and Mumbai . Azalea 's jewelry was also purchased in Mumbai .
The team hired an Indian film crew , and spent the entire budget in India . Stratum Films in Mumbai helped find locations and cast extras . Choreographer Devang Desai assembled Indian dancers , and worked with Azalea on a Bollywood dance routine unique to " Bounce " and Azalea 's style . With the exception of the video 's celebration scenes , BRTHR filmed in guerilla " run and gun " style , and occasionally paid local police to facilitate a setup . According to Azalea , the Indian elephant in the clip took a month to find , and " the Indian mafia " were needed to shut down a street in Mumbai for the filming of her scene with it . Avinash Shankar was later hired to consult to the filming 's cultural and visual issues . BRTHR stated that " Bounce " was the most difficult music video they had ever directed because of the persistent difficulties they encountered with its on @-@ location production and final version @-@ editing . A narrative with a speech introducing Azalea at the wedding was cut from the final version . In an interview for Rap @-@ Up , Azalea stated , " It 's just so crazy to dream something so big and actually see it happen " .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video opens with a bird 's @-@ eye view of Mumbai , with Azalea 's name and " Bounce " in large yellow text . Scenes with local residents include a young Indian boy and children playing cricket . Azalea , in a gold bodysuit and Indian inspired clothing , slouches atop an Indian elephant . The song begins with Azalea and a troupe of female Indian dancers entering a darkened Bollywood set for a traditional Indian wedding . Azalea and the dancers , in traditional red saris with bindis , begin belly dancing and modernised Indian dance routines . The scene is intercut with snippets of Azalea walking and dancing in Mumbai 's slums . On the Bollywood set , a large Indian family are seen celebrating , drinking and dancing . Azalea ( in a green sari ) dances in a garden , rides an elephant along city streets and travels in an auto rickshaw , wearing a printed silk blouse , with the wind blowing through her hair . Now in a blue sari , she lies on the elephant , gesturing with her hands and dancing next to Indian children on a cluttered platform .
The video returns to the Bollywood set , where Azalea dances at the wedding and
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before a moving backdrop with occasional slow @-@ motion sequences . In a white sari with a golden crown , she performs ( surrounded by children ) at a Holi celebration . After a series of jump cuts , the video ends with Azalea driving off on a motorcycle under a shower of flower petals .
= = = Release and reception = = =
A teaser of the video was first unveiled by Azalea for Digital Spy on 1 May 2013 . Prior to the video 's release , Azalea also posted images of her wardrobe on Instagram . The video premiered on Vevo on 6 May 2013 . A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes segment was released on 10 June 2013 . The music video received positive reviews from critics and was nominated for Best Video at the 2014 MtvU Woodie Awards , but lost to Chance the Rapper 's " Everybody 's Something " . Some critics compared the video to Selena Gomez 's " Come & Get It " ( 2013 ) .
Digital Spy 's Lewis Corner wrote , " We knew [ Azalea ] had the tunes , but now we know she has the moves " . Jean Trinh of The Daily Beast said that Azalea never disappoints with her music videos , and described the " Bounce " video as " breathtaking " and " entertaining " . Liza Darwin of MTV News praised the video 's fashion , and quipped , " Now that the clip 's finally premiered , everyone can bask in its glimmering , glittering glory " . Jessie Peterson of the same website likened Azalea 's bodysuit to Babi in the 1982 film Namak Halaal , and zentai . Natalie Wall of Cosmopolitan complimented the Bollywood theme and called Azalea her " new style crush " . Stephen Kearse of Respect. wrote that the artistic texture of the visual was " so rich that the song and music video became inextricable , each always invoking each other " . Kearse said it brought the song to life , and added , " It is unclear whether or not the song was produced with such an affinity for Indian images , but the match up genuinely works " . Brian Josephs of Complex commended the avoidance of a clichéd club setting , and called the video " fun to watch " . Idolator 's Sam Lansky said the video " does the trick " and was " fun , in a super @-@ culturally appropriate way " . The video 's global theme was compared to that of Macklemore & Ryan Lewis ' " Can 't Hold Us " by a writer for MuchMusic who opined that Azalea provided a good representation of Indian style and culture , and complimented her appreciation of it . Conversely , Ingrid Kesa of Oyster felt it followed the trend of filming a high @-@ budget video in a developing country . While John Robinson of The Guardian was critical of the video 's " rather tired Bollywood concept " .
A report by The Northern Star highlighted that public reaction to the music video saw some accusing it of cultural appropriation . According to Nico Lang of the Los Angeles Times , Azalea 's sari and bindi attire " drew ire " . Similar blog reaction led to Bruce Sterling of Wired invoking Kareena Kapoor 's " Hai Re Hai Re " from the 2003 Hindi film , Khushi : " Bring in some class analysis , too , ' cause our Kareena 's a born starchild who is worth millions while Iggy is a high @-@ school dropout who used to clean hotels . " The Sunshine Coast Daily hosted an online poll asking if the music video was offensive ; 63 % of its readers voted " no " and 36 % voted " yes " . BRTHR later addressed the accusations , and stated that they specifically hired an Indian producer for the filming to avoid the video from offending Indian culture . According to BRTHR , the producer 's requests were to remove profanity from the dialogue and to ensure Azalea 's wardrobe was " not too offensive " . The music video has received over 50 million views on YouTube as of September 2015 .
= = Live performances = =
Azalea first performed " Bounce " during her sets at The Great Escape Festival on 21 May 2013 , and Radio 1 's Big Weekend later that month . She also performed the song during her setlists for Gucci 's Chime for Change Concert , The Parklife Weekender and the Glastonbury Festival in June 2013 . Azalea gave her first live , televised performance of the track on the premiere of Channel 4 's Smells Like Friday Night on 21 June 2013 . The song was then performed during her sets at the Wireless Festival , and London nightclubs G @-@ A @-@ Y and Fabric in July 2013 . " Bounce " was later included in Azalea 's setlist at the 2013 iTunes Festival , where she was a supporting act for Katy Perry . In October 2013 , Azalea performed the track as part of her sets during Beyoncé 's The Mrs. Carter Show World Tour .
In 2014 , " Bounce " featured in the setlist for Azalea 's first headlining tour , The New Classic Tour . She also performed the song during her sets for the 2014 MtvU Woodie Awards at South by Southwest in April , and the Jingle Ball Tour 2014 in December . Azalea performed " Bounce " in her setlist for the Redfest in February 2015 . She reprised the song for her set at South by Southwest in March 2015 ; the rendition incorporated elements of Silentó 's " Watch Me " . Azalea also performed " Bounce " during her gigs at the Ottawa Bluesfest and Quebec City Summer Festival in July 2015 .
= = Usage in media = =
In 2013 , " Bounce " was used in the commercials for the tenth series of Big Brother Australia , and ABC 's Super Fun Night . The track was featured in an episode of the television show EastEnders which aired on 13 August 2013 . It was also included in an episode of the television show Love & Hip Hop on 4 November 2013 . Contestants of the fifteenth series of Big Brother UK performed a dance to " Bounce " in a task which aired on 27 July 2014 . The song was used for the 2014 films Vampire Academy and Step Up : All In ; appearing on the soundtrack for the former and in the trailer for the latter . It also featured on the soundtrack for the 2015 film Spy and was used for its accompanying trailer .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download ( EP )
" Bounce " – 2 : 47
" Bounce " ( DJ Green Lantern Remix ) – 4 : 24
" Bounce " ( Instrumental ) – 2 : 46
" Bounce " ( Acappella ) – 2 : 46
= = Credits and personnel = =
Iggy Azalea – writer , vocals
Reeva & Black – writers , producers , vocal engineering
Speedy Jay – writer
Talay Riley – writer
Oladayo Olatunji – writer , background vocals
Natalie Sims – writer
Anthony Kilhoffer – mixing
Kyle Ross – mixing assistant
Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Themes in Maya Angelou 's autobiographies =
The themes encompassing African @-@ American writer Maya Angelou 's seven autobiographies include racism , identity , family , and travel . Angelou ( 1928 – 2014 ) is best known for her first autobiography , the critically acclaimed I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) . The rest of the books in her series are Gather Together in My Name ( 1974 ) , Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas ( 1976 ) , The Heart of a Woman ( 1981 ) , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes ( 1986 ) , A Song Flung Up to Heaven ( 2002 ) , and Mom & Me & Mom ( 2013 ) .
Beginning with Caged Bird and ending with her final autobiography , Angelou used the metaphor of a bird , which represented Angelou 's confinement resulting from racism and depression , struggling to escape its cage , as described in the Paul Laurence Dunbar poem " Sympathy " . Angelou 's autobiographies can be placed in the African @-@ American literature tradition of political protest . Their unity underscored one of Angelou 's central themes : the injustice of racism and how to eat it . According to scholar Pierre A. Walker , all of Angelou 's books described " a sequence of lessons about resisting racist oppression " . In the course of her autobiographies , her views about Black @-@ white relationships changed and she learned to accept different points of view . Angelou 's theme of identity was established from the beginning of her autobiographies , with the opening lines in Caged Bird , and like other female writers in the late 1960s and early 1970s , she used the autobiography to reimagine ways of writing about women 's lives and identities in a male @-@ dominated society . Her original goal was to write about the lives of Black women in America , but it evolved in her later volumes to document the ups and downs of her life .
The theme of family and family relationships — from the character @-@ defining experience of Angelou 's parents ' abandonment in Caged Bird to her relationships with her son , husbands , friends , and lovers — are important in all of her books . As in American autobiography generally and in African @-@ American autobiography specifically , which has its roots in the slave narrative , travel is another important theme in Angelou 's autobiographies . Scholar Yolanda M. Manora called the travel motif in Angelou 's autobiographies , beginning in Caged Bird , " a central metaphor for a psychic mobility " . Angelou 's autobiographies take place all over the world , from Arkansas to Africa and back to the US , and span almost forty years , beginning from the start of World War II to the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr .
= = Overview = =
The themes encompassing Angelou 's seven autobiographies include racism , identity , family , and travel . She is best known for her first autobiography , the critically acclaimed I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) , which was nominated for a National Book Award . Angelou did not write Caged Bird with the intention of writing a series of autobiographies ; critics have " judged the subsequent autobiographies in light of the first " . Her series also includes Gather Together in My Name ( 1974 ) , Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas ( 1976 ) , The Heart of a Woman , ( 1981 ) , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes ( 1986 ) , A Song Flung Up to Heaven ( 2002 ) , and Mom & Me & Mom ( 2013 ) . Angelou 's autobiographies have a distinct style , and " stretch over time and place " , from Arkansas to Africa and back to the US . They take place from the beginnings of World War II to the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr .
According to scholar Mary Jane Lupton , Angelou 's autobiographies have been characterized as autobiographical fiction , but Lupton disagrees , stating that they conform to the genre 's standard structure : they are written by a single author , they are chronological , and they contain elements of character , technique , and theme . Angelou 's use of themes , especially that of racism , connects all seven autobiographies . One of her goals , beginning with Caged Bird , was to incorporate " organic unity " into them , and the events she described were episodic , crafted like a series of short stories , and were placed to emphasize the themes of her books .
= = Racism = =
Angelou used the metaphor of a bird struggling to escape its cage described in the Paul Laurence Dunbar poem " Sympathy " throughout all of her autobiographies ; she used the metaphor in the titles of both I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings and her sixth autobiography A Song Flung Up to Heaven . Like elements within a prison narrative , the caged bird represented Angelou 's confinement resulting from racism and oppression . This metaphor also invoked the " supposed contradiction of the bird singing in the midst of its struggle " . Reviewer Hilton Als observed that Angelou 's witness of the evil in her society , as directed towards Black women , shaped Angelou 's young life and informed her views into adulthood . Despite this , scholar Lynn Z. Bloom asserted that Angelou 's autobiographies and lectures , which he called " ranging in tone from warmly humorous to bitterly satiric " , have gained a respectful and enthusiastic response from the general public and critics .
I know why the caged bird sings , ah me ,
When his wing is bruised and his bosom sore ,
When he beats his bars and would be free ;
It is not a carol of joy or glee ,
But a prayer that he sends from his heart 's deep core ,
But a plea , that upward to Heaven he flings –
I know why the caged bird sings .
1st stanza of Paul Lawrence Dunbar 's poem " Sympathy " .
Reviewer Daisy Aldan of World Literature Today criticized Angelou for harboring " a fanatic hostility expressed toward all white people " , but writer Lyman B. Hagen disagreed , stating that like Angelou 's friend and mentor Langston Hughes , Angelou explained and illuminated the condition of African Americans , but without alienating her readers . Angelou promoted the importance of hard work , a common theme in slave narratives , throughout all her autobiographies , in order to break the African @-@ American stereotype of laziness . Her description of the strong and cohesive Black community of Stamps demonstrated how African Americans have subverted repressive institutions to withstand racism . Angelou evolved from wishing that she could become white in Caged Bird to later shedding her self @-@ loathing and embracing a strong racial identity .
Critic Pierre A. Walker placed Angelou 's autobiographies in the African @-@ American literature tradition of political protest written in the years following the American Civil Rights Movement . He emphasized that the unity of Angelou 's autobiographies underscored one of her central themes : the injustice of racism and how to fight it . Angelou 's biographies , beginning with Caged Bird , consisted of " a sequence of lessons about resisting racist oppression " . This sequence led Angelou , as the protagonist , from " helpless rage and indignation to forms of subtle resistance , and finally to outright and active protest " throughout all seven of her autobiographies . Angelou changed her views in the course of her autobiographies about Black @-@ white relationships and learned to accept different points of view . It was changes in how she regarded race , and her views of white people , that provided Angelou with freedom . According to Hagen , one of Angelou 's themes was that humans tend to be more alike than different .
" Human beings are more alike than unalike " .
Maya Angelou , 1994 ( Scholar Mary Jane Lupton has called this one of Angelou 's most well @-@ known sayings . )
In Angelou 's third autobiography Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas , in which she married a white man , she came into intimate contact with whites for the first time — whites very different from the racist people she encountered in her childhood . She discovered that her stereotypes of whites were developed to protect herself from their cruelty and indifference . As critic Dolly A. McPherson indicated , " Conditioned by earlier experiences , Angelou distrusts everyone , especially whites . Nevertheless , she is repeatedly surprised by the kindness and goodwill of many whites she meets , and , thus , her suspicions begin to soften into understanding . " Selwyn Cudjoe wrote that in Singin ' and Swingin ' , Angelou effectively demonstrated " the inviolability of the African American personhood " , as well as her own closely guarded defense of it . In order for her to have any positive relationships with whites and people of other races , however , McPherson insisted that Angelou " must examine and discard her stereotypical views about Whites " . Scholar Lyman B. Hagen agreed and pointed out that Angelou had to re @-@ examine her lingering prejudices when faced with the broader world full of whites , but it was a complex process because most of Angelou 's experiences with whites were positive during this time . Angelou moved between the white and Black worlds , both defining herself as a member of her community and encountering whites in " a much fuller , more sensuous manner " . Angelou 's experiences with the Porgy and Bess tour , as described in Singin ' and Swingin ' , expanded her understanding of other races and race relations as she met people of different nationalities during her travels . All these experiences were instrumental in Angelou 's maturity and growth , and served as a basis for her later acceptance and tolerance of other races .
Angelou 's fourth autobiography The Heart of a Woman opened with Angelou and her son Guy living in an experimental commune with whites , in an attempt to participate in the new openness between Blacks and whites . She was not completely comfortable with the arrangement , however ; as Lupton pointed out , Angelou never named her roommates . For the most part , Angelou was able to freely interact with whites in this book , but she occasionally encountered prejudice similar to earlier episodes , like when she required the assistance of white friends to rent a home in a segregated neighborhood . Lupton stated that compared to her other books , Angelou had come " a long way " from her interactions with whites and people of other races . Hagen called the descriptions of whites and the hopes for eventual equality in this book " optimistic " . Angelou continued , however , her indictment of white power structure and her protests against racial injustice that had been a theme throughout all her books . Instead of offering solutions , however , she simply reported on , reacted to , and dramatized events .
Angelou became more " politicized " in The Heart of Woman , and developed a new sense of Black identity . McPherson argued that even Angelou 's decision to leave show business was political , and regarded this book as " a social and cultural history of Black Americans " during the late 1950s and early 1960s . Angelou saw herself as a historian of both the Civil Rights movement and the Black literary movement of the time . She became more attracted to the causes of Black militants , both in the U.S. and in Africa , to the point of entering into a relationship with South African freedom fighter Vusumzi Make , and became more committed to activism . She became an active political protestor during this period , but she did not think of herself in that way . Instead , the focus was on herself , and she used the autobiographical form to demonstrate how the Civil Rights movement influenced one person involved in it . According to Hagen , her contributions to civil rights as a fundraiser and SCLC organizer were successful and effective .
According to Lupton , " Angelou 's exploration of her African and African @-@ American identities " was an important theme in her fifth autobiography All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes . The alliances and relationships with those she met in Ghana contributed to Angelou 's identity and growth . Her experiences as an expatriate helped her come to terms with her personal and historical past , and by the end of the book she was ready to return to America with a deeper understanding of both the African and American parts of her character . McPherson called Angelou 's parallels and connections between Africa and America her " double @-@ consciousness " , which contribute to her understanding of herself .
In Traveling Shoes , Angelou was able to recognize similarities between African and African @-@ American culture ; as Lupton put it , the " blue songs , shouts , and gospels " she has grown up with in America " echo the rhythms of West Africa " . Marcia Ann Gillespie and her colleagues , writing in A Glorious Celebration , the book published in 2008 for Angelou 's 80th birthday , agreed , stating that Angelou recognized the connections between African and American Black cultures , including the children 's games , the folklore , the spoken and non @-@ verbal languages , the food , sensibilities , and behavior . She connected the behavior of many African mother figures , especially their generosity , with her grandmother 's actions . In one of the most significant sections of Traveling Shoes , Angelou recounted an encounter with a West African woman who recognized her , on the basis of her appearance , as a member of the Bambara group of West Africa . These and other experiences in Ghana demonstrated Angelou 's maturity , as a mother able to let go of her adult son , as a woman no longer dependent upon a man , and as an American able to " perceive the roots of her identity " and how they affected her personality .
Also in Traveling Shoes , Angelou came to terms with her difficult past , both as a descendent of Africans taken forcibly to America as slaves and as an African America who had experienced racism . As she told an interviewer , she brought her son to Ghana to protect him from the negative effects of racism because she did not think he had the tools to withstand them . For the first time in Angelou 's life , she did not " feel threatened by racial hate " in Ghana . The theme of racism was still an important theme in Traveling Shoes , but she has matured in the way she dealt with it . As Hagen stated , Angelou was " not yet ready to toss off the stings of prejudice , but tolerance and even a certain understanding can be glimpsed " . This was demonstrated in Angelou 's treatment of the " genocidal involvement of Africans in slave @-@ trading " , something that has often been overlooked or misrepresented by other Black writers . Angelou was taught an important lesson about combating racism by Malcolm X , who compared it to a mountain in which everyone 's efforts was needed to overcome it .
Angelou learned about herself and about racism throughout Traveling Shoes , even during her brief tour of Venice and Berlin for the revival of The Blacks , the play by Jean Genet that Angelou had originally performed in 1961 . She revived her passion for African @-@ American culture while associating with other African Americans for the first time since moving to Ghana . She compared her experiences of American racism with Germany 's history of racial prejudice and military aggression . The verbal violence of the folk tales shared during her luncheon with her German hosts and Israeli friend was as significant to Angelou as physical violence , to the point that she became ill . Angelou 's first @-@ hand experience with fascism , as well as the racist sensibilities of the German family she visited , " help [ ed ] shape and broaden her constantly changing vision " regarding racial prejudice .
= = Identity = =
The theme of identity was established from the beginning of Angelou 's series of autobiographies , with the opening lines in Caged Bird , which " foretell Angelou ’ s autobiographical project : to write the story of the developing black female subject by sharing the tale of one Southern Black girl ’ s becoming " . Angelou and other female writers in the late 1960s and early 1970s used the autobiography to reimagine ways of writing about women 's lives and identities in a male @-@ dominated society . Feminist scholar Maria Lauret has made a connection between Angelou 's autobiographies , which Lauret called " fictions of subjectivity " and " feminist first @-@ person narratives " , with fictional first @-@ person narratives ( such as The Women 's Room by Marilyn French and The Golden Notebook by Doris Lessing ) written during the same period . Both genres employed the narrator as protagonist and used " the illusion of presence in their mode of signification " . Scholar Yolanda M. Manora agreed , stating that Angelou broke stereotypes of African @-@ American women by describing these images and stereotypes , and then disproving them , which set the stage for Angelou 's identity development in her later autobiographies .
When I try to describe myself to God I say , " Lord , remember me ? Black ? Female ? Six @-@ foot tall ? The writer ? " And I almost always get God 's attention .
Maya Angelou , 2008 .
Angelou , as a woman , demonstrated the formation of her own cultural identity throughout her narratives . Angelou presented herself as a role model for African @-@ American women by reconstructing the Black woman 's image throughout her autobiographies , and has used her many roles , incarnations , and identities to connect the layers of oppression with her personal history . Angelou 's themes of the individual 's strength and ability to overcome appeared throughout Angelou 's autobiographies as well . The women Angelou presented in her autobiographies , especially Caged Bird , influenced the woman Angelou became . According to Manora , three characters in Caged Bird , Angelou 's mother Vivian , her grandmother Annie Henderson , and Mrs. Flowers ( who helps Angelou find her voice again after her rape ) , collaborated to " form a triad which serves as the critical matrix in which the child is nurtured and sustained during her journey through Southern Black girlhood " .
Angelou 's original goal was to write about the lives of Black women in America , but her goal evolved in her later volumes to document the ups and downs of her own life . Angelou 's autobiographies had the same structure : a historical overview of the places she was living in at the time and how she coped within the context of a larger white society , as well as the ways that her story played out within that context . Angelou , especially in her third autobiography , Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas , successfully demonstrated the integrity of the African @-@ American character as she experienced more positive interactions with whites . In Angelou 's second volume , Gather Together in My Name , Angelou was concerned with what it meant to be a Black female in the U.S. , but she focused upon herself at a certain point in history . Writer Selwyn Cudjoe said regarding her second autobiography : " It is almost as though the incidents in the text were simply ' gathered together ' under the name of Maya Angelou . "
= = Family = =
The theme of family and family relationships ( which scholar Mary Jane Lupton called " kinship concerns " ) , from the character @-@ defining experience of Angelou 's parents ' abandonment to her relationships with her son , husbands , friends , and lovers are important in all of her books . Angelou 's description of close familial relationships , such as her relationships with her parents and son ( which Lupton called " the mother @-@ child pattern " ) was the only unifying theme that connected all of her autobiographies . Angelou 's concept of family was affected by Maya and Bailey 's displacement at the beginning of Caged Bird . Motherhood was a theme that connected all of Angelou 's autobiographies , specifically her experiences as a single mother , a daughter , and a granddaughter . Lupton believed that Angelou 's plot construction and character development were influenced by this mother / child motif found in the work of Harlem Renaissance poet Jessie Fauset .
Scholar Yolanda M. Manora insisted that three women in Caged Bird — the " hybridized mother " of Angelou 's grandmother , her mother , and her friend Mrs. Flowers — taught her how to be a mother to her son Guy . Although Angelou 's grandmother died early in the series , in her third autobiography Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas , Angelou quoted her many times throughout the series . Angelou 's desire for security for Guy drove her to marry Tosh Angelos in Singin ' and Swingin ' , and drove many of her decisions , job choices , and romantic relationships . Scholar Siphokazi Koyana stated that due to Angelou 's race and economic background , her " experience of motherhood is inseparably intertwined with work " . According to Koyana , " ... Black motherhood always encompassed work " . Angelou 's long list of occupations attested to the challenges , especially in her second autobiography Gather Together in My Name , she faced as a working teenager mother , which often led Angelou to questionable decisions . Koyana stated that it was not until Angelou was able to take advantage of opportunities , such as her role in Porgy and Bess , when she was able to fully support her and Guy , and the quality of her life and her contribution to society improved . It was impossible , however , for Angelou to become successful without her extended family to provide childcare for her ; i.e. , when she left Guy in the care of his grandmother in spite of the conflict and guilt she experienced as a result ( something Koyana insisted was imposed on her by the larger society ) , a pattern established in Caged Bird by her own mother when she left Angelou and her brother in the care of Angelou 's grandmother .
The woman who survives intact and happy must be at once tender and tough .
Maya Angelou , Wouldn 't Take Nothing For My Journey Now ( 1993 )
Black women autobiographers like Angelou have debunked the stereotypes of African @-@ American mothers of " breeder and matriarch " and have presented them as having more creative and satisfying roles . According to scholar Sondra O 'Neale , Angelou 's autobiographies presented Black women differently from their literary portrayals up to that time . O 'Neale maintained that " no Black woman in the world of Angelou 's books are losers " , and that Angelou was the third generation of intelligent and resourceful women who overcame the obstacles of racism and oppression . Koyana recognized that Angelou depicted women , which Koyana called her " womanist theories " , in an era of cultural transition , and that her books described one Black woman 's attempts to create and maintain a healthy self @-@ esteem . Angelou 's experiences as a working @-@ class single mother challenged traditional and Western viewpoints of women and family life , including the nuclear family structure . Angelou described societal forces that eventually expanded to the white family , and that Angelou 's strategies of economic survival and experiences of family structure enabled Black families to survive economically .
= = Travel = =
Travel is a common theme in American autobiography as a whole ; as McPherson stated , it is something of a national myth to Americans as a people . This was also the case for African @-@ American autobiography , which was rooted in and developed out of the slave narrative . Like those narratives that focused on the writers ' search for freedom from bondage , modern African @-@ American autobiographers like Angelou sought to develop " an authentic self " and the freedom to find it in their community . Scholar Yolanda M. Manora called the travel motif in Angelou 's autobiographies " fluidity " . This fluidity began in Caged Bird and was a metaphor for her psychological movements and growth caused by her displacement and trauma throughout the book , something Manora stated Angelou had to escape in order to transcend it . As Hagen stated , Angelou structured Caged Bird into three parts : arrival , sojourn , and departure , with both geographic and psychological aspects .
As McPherson stated , " The journey to a distant goal , the return home , and the quest which involves the voyage out , achievement , and return are typical patterns in Black autobiography . " For Angelou , this quest took her from her childhood and adolescence , as described in her first two books , into the adult world . The setting in Angelou 's first two autobiographies was limited to three places ( Arkansas , Missouri , and California ) , but the " setting breaks open " in Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas to include Europe as she traveled with her Porgy and Bess company . McPherson saw Angelou 's third autobiography as " a sunny tour of Angelou 's twenties " , from early years marked by disappointments and humiliation , into the broader world — to the white world and to the international community . This period described " years of joy " , as well as the start of Angelou 's great success and fulfillment as an entertainer . Lupton stated that Angelou 's travel narrative in Singin ' and Swingin ' , which took up approximately 40 percent of the book , gave the book its organized structure . Angelou 's observations about race , gender , and class made the book more than a simple travel narrative . As a Black American , her travels around the world put her in contact with many nationalities and classes , expanded her experiences beyond her familiar circle of community and family , and complicated her understandings of race relations .
Angelou continued to expand the settings of her autobiographies in her subsequent volumes . The Heart of a Woman had three primary settings — the San Francisco Bay Area , New York , and Egypt — and two secondary ones — London and Accra . Lupton stated that like all of Angelou 's books , the structure of The Heart of a Woman was based upon a journey . Angelou emphasized the theme of movement by opening the book with a spiritual ( " The ole ark 's a moverin ' " ) , stating , " That ancient spiritual could have been the theme song of the United States in 1957 " . This spiritual , which contained a reference to Noah 's ark , presented Angelou as a type of Noah and demonstrated her spirituality . Angelou also mentioned Alan Ginsberg and On the Road , the 1951 novel by Jack Kerouac , thus connecting her own journey and uncertainty about the future with the journeys of literary figures . Even though the reason Angelou traveled to Africa is an eventual failed relationship , she made a connection with the continent , both in this book and in the one that follows it , All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes . As Lupton stated , " Africa is the site of her growth " . Angelou 's time in Africa made her more aware of her African roots . Lupton insisted , however , that although Angelou journeys to many places in the book , the most important journey she described is " a voyage into the self " .
The travel motif is a recurring theme in Traveling Shoes , as evidenced in the book 's title , but Angelou 's primary motivation in living in Africa , as she told interviewer George Plimpton , was " trying to get home " . Angelou not only related her own journey of an African @-@ American woman searching for a home , but the journeys of other Black expatriates at the time , whom McPherson compared to the descriptions of white expatriates in Europe in the 1920s by Ernest Hemingway and Henry James . Angelou 's issues were resolved at the end of Traveling Shoes when she decided to return to America . She called her departure a " second leave @-@ taking " , and compared it to the last time she left her son with his grandmother in Singin ' and Swingin ' when he was a child , and to the forced departure from Africa by her ancestors . As Lupton states , " Angelou 's journey from Africa back to America is in certain ways a restatement of the historical phase known as mid @-@ passage , when slaves were brutally transported in ships from West Africa to the so @-@ called New World " . Even though Angelou 's final autobiography A Song Flung Up to Heaven took place in her home country , the travel motif continued . Reviewer Patricia Elam described Song as a " journey through an authentic and artistic life " .
= Solange Knowles =
Solange Piaget Knowles ( born June 24 , 1986 ) is an American singer , songwriter , model , and actress . Knowles was born in Houston , Texas to Mathew and Tina Knowles , both of whom left their careers to support her older sister Beyoncé 's recording interests . Expressing an interest in music from an early age , Knowles had several temporary stints in Destiny 's Child , before signing with her father 's Music World Entertainment label . Aged sixteen , Knowles released her first studio album Solo Star ( 2002 ) to moderate commercial and critical success . In 2004 , Knowles married Daniel Smith , eventually giving birth to their son Daniel Julez J. Smith Jr . , which prompted a move to Idaho . Between 2005 and 2007 , Knowles had several minor acting roles , including the direct @-@ to @-@ video Bring It On : All or Nothing ( 2006 ) and continued writing music for Beyoncé and ex @-@ Destiny 's Child band members Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams . In 2007 , Knowles divorced Smith and moved to Los Angeles , California , beginning to write and record music again . Her second studio album Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams ( 2008 ) deviated from the pop @-@ oriented music of her debut to the Motown Sound of the 1960s and 1970s . It peaked at number 9 on US Billboard 200 and received positive reviews from critics . She followed this up with the 1980s pop / R & B – inspired extended play True ( 2012 ) and intends to release her third studio album in the future on her own label Saint Records .
Knowles is heavily influenced by Motown girl groups and says that her first passion is songwriting . She has been recognised as a fashion icon and has received frequent comparisons to sister Beyoncé from the media , although insists they have different aspirations and are musically different . Her other ventures include an endorsement deal with Rimmel London and a line of hip @-@ hop @-@ oriented merchandise for young children , which was inspired by her son . On November 16 , 2014 , Knowles married music video director Alan Ferguson in New Orleans , Louisiana .
= = Early life = =
Knowles was born in Houston , Texas , to Mathew Knowles and Tina Knowles . Solange 's older sister is singer Beyoncé . Her father , originally from Alabama , is African American , and her mother , originally from south Louisiana , is Creole ( with African , Native American , French , and 1 / 32nd Irish ancestry ) . Her maternal grandparents are Lumis Beyincé and Agnéz Deréon , ( a seamstress ) . She is also a descendant of Acadian leader Joseph Broussard . As a child , Knowles studied dance and theater . At the age of five , she made her singing debut at an amusement park . She began writing songs at the age of nine . At 13 , she decided to pursue recording , but her parents initially advised her to wait . At the age of 15 Knowles replaced a departed dancer and performed with her sister 's group Destiny 's Child on tour . During the group 's opening stint for American pop singer Christina Aguilera 's tour , Knowles temporarily replaced Destiny 's Child member Kelly Rowland after Kelly broke her toes backstage during a costume change . When Knowles was 16 , her father , who was then also her manager , signed her to his recording company , Music World Entertainment along with Columbia .
= = Career = =
= = = 2001 – 03 : Early career and Solo Star = = =
Managed by her father Mathew , Knowles ' first time into the music business was in 2001 as the lead singer , backed with Destiny 's Child , on the title theme song for the animated television series The Proud Family . She also was a featured performer on " Hey Goldmember " for the soundtrack to the 2002 film Austin Powers in Goldmember , as well as a backup singer on the track " Little Drummer Boy " on her sister 's group 's 2001 holiday album 8 Days of Christmas . In 2002 , she was featured on Lil Romeo 's second studio album Game Time , singing portions of Luther Vandross @-@ penned " So Amazing " on the single " True Love " , and on Rowland 's debut solo album Simply Deep , for which she also wrote the title track and " Alone " . In 2001 she also appeared as Lil ' Bow Wow 's date in the music video for his single " Puppy Love " . She also made an appearance on The Master of Disguise soundtrack and made cameos in Play 's video for " M.A.S.T.E.R. ( Part II ) " featuring Lil ' Fizz .
In 2002 , she lent her voice for the character Chanel , the cousin of the protagonist Penny Proud , in the episode " Behind Family Lines " to the animated television series The Proud Family . In June 2003 , Mathew Knowles excitedly announced that he was considering adding Solange to Destiny 's Child when the group reunited in 2004 , thus turning them into a quartet for the first time since short @-@ lived member Farrah Franklin left in 2000 . Mathew Knowles said he was testing the reactions , and , judging by what he had heard , " it seems like a good idea " . Later in August , however , Beyoncé said it was only a rumor and Destiny 's Child would remain a trio . Rowland added , " She 's a solo star , " name @-@ dropping Knowles ' debut album .
At the age of 14 , Solange Knowles started working on her debut album Solo Star , which involved American producers such as Jermaine Dupri , The Neptunes , Linda Perry and Timbaland among others . The album is primarily uptempo R & B , although Knowles said there are pop , rock , reggae and hip hop influences . Knowles co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced some of the 15 tracks in the album , including its lead single , " Feelin ' You ( Part II ) " . The song failed to enter the Billboard Hot 100 , but reached number three on both the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles Sales and Hot Dance Singles Sales chart . Solo Star was released on January 21 , 2003 in the United States , where it debuted at number 49 on the Billboard 200 and reached number 23 on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . Solo Star had a mixed critical reception : William Ruhlmann of AllMusic called it a " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art contemporary R & B album " , but deemed Knowles " lost somewhere in the mix " . By mid @-@ 2008 , the album had sold 112 @,@ 000 copies domestically according to Nielsen SoundScan .
= = = 2004 – 08 : Films and Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams = = =
In 2004 , she guest starred in the episode " The Catch " of the sitcom One on One . Knowles appeared as a nubile teenager in the 2004 comedy film Johnson Family Vacation , starring alongside American actors Cedric the Entertainer , Vanessa Williams and Bow Wow . She provided a song for its soundtrack — " Freedom " , a collaboration with the Houston @-@ based funk @-@ jazz band Drop Trio . Although the reviews were generally negative , Knowles earned praise from Variety magazine : " Solange Knowles is nearly as dazzling as big sister Beyoncé and does little more than smile winningly in her first bigscreen outing . " In 2006 , she starred as a cheerleading captain in the film Bring It On : All or Nothing , the third installment of the Bring It On series , alongside American actress and singer Hayden Panettiere . What little critical reaction the low @-@ budget , direct @-@ to @-@ DVD movie got was negative , and Knowles was described as an " affordable young starlet " . Knowles uses her full name for her acting , rather than just the first name she uses when singing ; for Bring It On : All or Nothing , she was billed as Solange Knowles @-@ Smith , reflecting her married state at the time .
After the release of her debut album , Knowles started acting in films followed by a career break . While she was married , her family moved to Idaho , and , while staying there , resumed writing songs including the singles " Get Me Bodied " and " Upgrade U " from her sister 's second solo album , B 'Day . Knowles earned the R & B and Hip @-@ Hop Song accolade for " Get Me Bodied " at the 2008 ASCAP Awards . She had also written songs for Destiny 's Child , and members Rowland and Michelle Williams . In 2004 , while pregnant with son Daniel , she made a cameo appearance in Destiny 's Child 's music video for " Soldier " .
After the divorce , Knowles returned to Houston to begin working on her second album . Knowles renewed her management , signing a record deal with Geffen and a publishing deal with EMI . Knowles finished working on her second studio album in 2008 and titled the project Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams . It includes production by CeeLo Green , Soulshock & Karlin and Mark Ronson as well as an appearance by Bilal . A collection of 1960s- and 1970s @-@ influenced songs , it is seen as a departure from her pop @-@ oriented debut , with what Billboard magazine called " more of a modern twist on hip @-@ hop and R & B flecked with tinges of blues and jazz " . The album was released on August 26 , 2008 in the United States . By December 2008 , the album had sold over 114 @,@ 000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album was positively received by critics , some of whom considered it far better than her debut . The album 's lead single , " I Decided " , was released in April 2008 , and reached the top of the Billboard Hot Dance Club Play chart ; Rolling Stone magazine labelled it her breakthrough single . In support of the album , Knowles began the Solange Presents Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams Tour in Britain in November 2008 .
Knowles announced , via her blog HadleyStreetJournal.com , that she would be releasing a series of mixtapes to coincide with the album . The first mixtape , I Can 't Get Clearance ... , includes the leaked track " Fuck the Industry ( Signed Sincerely ) " . On this record , Knowles expressed her views on the current state of the music industry . The lyrics to the song name check some major artists such as Mary J. Blige , Ashanti , Keyshia Cole , and Beyoncé , although she made a point of stating that it does not have " a negative light to any of [ them ] " . The mixtape was never released , but Solange released " Fuck the Industry ( Signed Sincerely ) " as a single in 2010 .
= = = 2009 – 14 : True EP and Saint Records = = =
In an interview with MTV in 2009 , Knowles revealed that she was determining the type of sound for the follow @-@ up to Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams . Knowles also parted ways with the Interscope @-@ Geffen @-@ A & M record label group . She would now release her third studio album independently . Early in 2010 , Knowles traveled to Australia to work with Australian rock band , Midnight Juggernauts on her third studio album . Knowles had planned to release the album in summer as revealed on her official Twitter account in 2009 . She also revealed on her Twitter account that she rented a house in Santa Barbara , California to get into a certain state of mind while writing and making music . On May 7 , 2010 , Knowles made a guest appearance on the popular children show , Yo Gabba Gabba ! for a " Mothers Day Special " where she performed an original song called " Momma Loves Baby " .
In an interview with Vibe on July 7 , 2010 , Knowles said she suffered " a little bit of a breakdown " while recording her new album : " I literally gave up my sanity for a while to do this record . [ ... ] We literally were waking up in the morning and just making music all day and all night . [ ... ] It just started to wear on me in so many different ways . I started having these crazy panic attacks . " Knowles explained how she made sacrifices " mentally , emotionally and financially " , and continued , " It 's more than an album to me . It 's a transitional time in my life . " Regarding the musical direction of the album , she said the inspiration came from new wave and stated , " This is a dance record , but the lyrics can get pretty dark at times . " The singer has also worked on songs with Chromeo and long @-@ time collaborator Pharrell Williams .
In September 2012 , Solange released a teaser video for " Losing You " , which was announced as the lead single from her third studio album . This release marked Solange 's first release as a signee of the independent label Terrible Records . The video was shot in Cape Town , South Africa in early September 2012 . Knowles revealed in an interview that her mother Tina Knowles had paid for Solange and her friends to fly out and record the video as her birthday gift . On October 24 , 2012 , Knowles held a listening party in New York City for her EP True , released for digital download on iTunes November 27 , 2012 . The CD and vinyl was made available January 8 , 2013 . Following the EP 's release , Solange appeared on the cover of The FADER magazine 's 84th issue .
On May 14 , 2013 , Knowles announced that she had launched her own record label named Saint Records , which she will be using to release her third full @-@ length album and future music projects distributed through Sony . Solange also collaborated with The Lonely Island on the song " Semicolon " which was featured as part of YouTube 's Comedy Week and is featured on The Lonely Island 's album , The Wack Album . On November 11 , 2013 , Knowles ' record label released its first compilation album , Saint Heron .
= = = 2015 : Upcoming third studio album = = =
On May 15 , 2015 Knowles performed a new song at an HBO @-@ sponsored event . The song , entitled " Rise " , is inspired by police killings in Ferguson and Baltimore and the subsequent protests . The song is expected to feature on her upcoming album and is a funk song that utilizes synth . The following day Knowles revealed she has written twenty @-@ four songs for her third studio album ; the songs were written to piano , with Knowles structuring them on her own before finding the producers to finish them . In July 2015 , Knowles announced that her third studio album was nearly complete , and that she was laying low on the performance side until her new music was complete , however she made an exception performing at the FYF festival . On her thirtieth birthday , she stated that she completed her third studio album ( fourth overall ) three days before her birthday , on 21 June 2016 .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Music and influences = = =
Knowles cites as her influences Motown girl groups such as The Supremes and The Marvelettes , and Martha Reeves , lead singer of Martha and the Vandellas . She also listened to the music of English pop singer Dusty Springfield , and according to Knowles , her " greatest music influence " is her mother , Tina Knowles , who was a one @-@ time member of the 1960s harmony group The Veltones . Knowles says her first passion is writing songs . Her early writings were vastly inspired by the writing style of French poet Paul Verlaine . She has been doing this since she was nine years old , and has collaborated with a number of songwriters and producers .
On her debut album , Knowles had no control over which kinds of music to produce , because " when you 're 14 , everyone else is older and more seasoned and you trust their decisions " . Knowles was more concerned with pleasing her record label by submitting to their desires . Her musical influences were better expressed on Sol @-@ Angel and the Hadley St. Dreams , when she considered herself mature and was able to write and produce songs as she wished , without worrying about the expectations of others . Knowles ' lyrics tackle relationships , world issues , and deceased friends , with her second album focusing on events in her life , such as marriage , divorce , and parenthood . The album touched upon a variety of genres including pop @-@ soul , psychedelic soul , electronica , and R & B. Knowles ' debut extended play True is a new wave album with Knowles stating , " This is a dance record , but the lyrics can get pretty dark at times . " Knowles described the EP as " eclectic with ' 80s references and African percussion influences . " Sonically the extended play is influenced by the keyboard sounds and beats of early 1980s pop and R & B music . The extended play was recorded in five cities including Santa Barbara , Los Angeles , Houston , New York , and on the German autobahn .
Aside from recording , Knowles occasionally paints as her hobby : " I think that painting , for me , is such an affirmative expression in that sometimes you don 't know what the outcome is gonna be and each stroke and each brush for me is an emotion and , in the end , it comes out as a piece which is the most amazing thing . ... It definitely provides a different outlet . "
= = = Public image = = =
Knowles has always been compared by the media to her sister , Beyoncé , whom she considers one of her role models . She has expressed her opinion of the comparison in the lyrics to " God Given Name " : " I 'm not her and never will be " — which was purposely set as the album 's opening track to show their differences . In his review for the album , Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone magazine referred to the lyrics as a declaration of independence . In an interview with the Daily Mail , Knowles commented : " People think there should be this great rivalry between us , but there 's never been any competition . There 's a big age gap and we are two very different characters . " In another interview , Knowles said that she would not live by her sister 's level of stardom , stressing that she and Beyoncé are artistically different , even stating that blogger Teddy Birmingham was " disrespectful " for saying she was living in her sister 's shadow on his website " Teddytalks " in June 2009 . Beyoncé was unwilling to bring her sister into the recording industry , reasoning that it " involves a lot of pressure " . Knowles countered by saying , " It 's good to have her advice , but we really have different goals " .
In recent years , Solange has also garnered considerable attention as a fashion icon . Her knack for bold colors , mixed prints and retro styles as well as her knack for glamorous , fashion forward looks in her music videography and public appearances has become integral to her current image . She has been photographed wearing Alexander Wang , Alexander McQueen and Chanel . The music video for her 2012 single " Losing You " featured a heavy demonstration of the contemporary sartorial movement throughout Africa , La Sape . Similarly , her decision to grow her natural hair initially generated strong reactions from the public . Since trimming off her straightened hair , her nostalgic and modern afro hairstyles have captured the attention of the media and the public alike .
= = Other ventures = =
Knowles has been promoting Baby Jamz , a hip hop @-@ styled toy line for pre @-@ schoolers . It was inspired by her son , Julez , who is fond of hip hop music . She is the executive producer of the CD , composed of updated hip hop inspired nursery rhymes , which is featured in all of the toys .
Also , Knowles has been known for her work in the award @-@ winning children 's television show , Yo Gabba Gabba ! . She performed " Momma Loves Baby " during the live performance when it toured the Dallas – Fort Worth area . She also performed " Mama Loves Baby " during a 2010 episode called " Baby " .
In 2011 , Knowles along with Alejandra Ramos Munoz and Zooey Deschanel , was announced as the new face of Rimmel London . In February 2012 , Solange became VOGUE.COM 's Today I 'm Wearing guest blogger sharing a photograph of her outfits daily for one month .
= = = House of Deréon = = =
Knowles and sister Beyoncé model for their family 's clothing line , House of Deréon , named after their grandmother , Agnéz Deréon . She also helped launch Deréon , a junior apparel collection and a sister line to House of Deréon . Both sisters model for Deréon , and are featured in most of Deréon 's marketing campaigns . Together they were featured in a " Got Milk ? " campaign ad , while still wearing House of Deréon . In 2008 , Knowles was named as ambassador for Giorgio Armani 's younger diffusion line , Armani Jeans . Armani said Knowles epitomizes the style , which is a " vision of a young , independent , casual lifestyle with a strong and cool , fashion sensibility " .
= = Personal life = =
Knowles married Daniel Smith in February 2004 when she was 17 and he was 19 . On October 18 , 2004 , Knowles gave birth to their son , Daniel Julez Judo Smith , Jr . Knowles has partly expressed regret that she bore a child at an early age , but calls her son the greatest unplanned blessing . A song she wrote for her baby , " 6 O 'Clock Blues
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-@ bankruptcy . It was eventually bought by venture capitalists HgCapital in 2003 for £ 40 million .
On 11 February 2003 , Boosey & Hawkes sold its musical instrument division , which included clarinet maker Buffet Crampon and guitar manufacturer Höfner , to The Music Group , a company formed by rescue buyout specialists Rutland Fund Management , for £ 33 @.@ 2 million . An archive of musical instruments manufactured or collected by the company throughout its history was passed to the Horniman Museum in Forest Hill , South London .
In September 2005 the company was again offered for sale by HgCapital which announced that it was seeking between £ 60 and £ 80 million . One of the interested buyers was Elevation Partners , a private equity firm which counts U2 lead singer Bono as a partner and managing director . Despite offers of about £ 115 million from a number of parties , the sale was later cancelled in November 2005 . In April 2008 , Boosey & Hawkes was bought by the Imagem Music Group .
Today , partly due to the foresight or business acumen of Ralph Hawkes , the company owns the copyrights or agencies to much major 20th @-@ century music , including works by Bartók , Leonard Bernstein , Britten ( notably all his output between 1938 and 1963 ) , Copland , Kodály , Prokofiev , Rachmaninoff , Richard Strauss and Stravinsky . It also publishes many prominent contemporary composers , such as John Adams , Louis Andriessen , Sir Harrison Birtwistle , Unsuk Chin , Michael Daugherty , Peter Maxwell Davies , Henryk Górecki , Heinz Karl Gruber , Robin Holloway , Magnus Lindberg , James MacMillan , Olga Neuwirth , Kurt Schwertsik and Mark @-@ Anthony Turnage . The company 's New York branch has developed its own catalogue emphasising the works of American composers , including Elliott Carter , David Del Tredici , Walter Piston , Ned Rorem and Steve Reich .
295 Regent Street , which was the home of Boosey & Company since 1874 and of Boosey & Hawkes ' publishing business and music shop from 1930 , was finally given up by the company in 2005 which then relocated to Aldwych House . Boosey & Hawkes Music Shop claims to have the UK 's largest selection of printed music from all publishers , and operates a worldwide mail order service .
The company had a major division , BooseyMedia , that commissioned and produced music for radio , television and advertising jingles , and the administration of copyrights owned by media companies . This has now been split into commercial synchronisation and production music departments , both under the Imagem name . Its Cavendish Production Music Library provides ready @-@ made production music for television , radio and audio @-@ visual use .
The Boosey & Hawkes group has branches in five countries on four continents , including companies in Germany ( Bote & Bock GmbH & Co . KG and Anton J. Benjamin GmbH ) , the UK ( Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd . ) and the USA ( Boosey & Hawkes , Inc . ) . In North America , Boosey & Hawkes ' print sales catalogue is distributed by the Hal Leonard Corporation .
Boosey & Hawkes launched its Online Scores service in 2011 , allowing customers to view full scores of works in its catalogue .
= = Parodies = =
The company was lampooned by The Goon Show as " Goosy and Borks " in their episode , " Lurgy Strikes Britain " , as well as by musical parodist Peter Schickele who named one of the friends of fictional composer P.D.Q. Bach Jonathan " Boozey " Hawkes . Somewhat more recondite was the punning reference delivered in one of Gerard Hoffnung 's parody concerts : " If Boosey 's will Hawk it , Schott 's will Tippett " ( from Punkt Contrapunkt at Hoffnung Interplanetary Music Festival with John Amis , Royal Festival Hall , 21 and 22 November 1958 )
= = = Articles = = =
Mortimer , C.G. ( 1938 – 1939 ) . " Leading Music Publishers : Boosey & Hawkes Ltd . " . Musical Opinion ( Luton , Bedfordshire : Musical Opinion Ltd . ) 62 : 181 – 190 . ISSN 0027 @-@ 4623 . 02 .
" The Music Publisher of Tradition : The Booseys : Thomas and John ; The Hawkes : William Henry and Oliver " . Musical Opinion ( Luton , Bedfordshire : Musical Opinion Ltd . ) 65 : 68 . 1941 – 1942 . ISSN 0027 @-@ 4623 . 02 .
" Boosey & Hawkes Settle with Disney " . The Daily Telegraph . 21 March 2001 .
Aldrick , Philip ( 1 May 2001 ) . " Boosey in Talks with Lenders after Account Irregularities " . The Daily Telegraph .
Fagan , Mary ( 7 October 2001 ) . " Boosey & Hawkes Faces £ 50m Bid " . The Daily Telegraph .
Aldrick , Philip ( 13 February 2002 ) . " Steinway Quits Boosey Auction " . The Daily Telegraph .
Parkinson , Gary ( 25 February 2002 ) . " Equity Groups Make a Play for Boosey " . The Daily Telegraph .
Osborne , Alistair ( 30 April 2002 ) . " Boosey & Hawkes in Sale Talks " . The Daily Telegraph .
Jay , Adam ( 27 May 2003 ) . " Boosey Stands Firm on EMI Deal " . The Daily Telegraph .
Jay , Adam ( 11 September 2003 ) . " Final Notes Sound in Boosey Sale Opera " . The Daily Telegraph .
Jay , Adam ( 10 September 2003 ) . " Fresh Bidder Chimes in on Boosey Sale " . The Daily Telegraph .
Lawson , Annie ( 10 September 2003 ) . " Boosey Trumpets £ 40m Buyout " . The Guardian .
Osborne , Alistair ( 17 September 2003 ) . " Boosey Prepared for Trio of Suitors " . The Daily Telegraph .
Osborne , Alistair ( 4 October 2003 ) . " Hg Offer Tops Boosey Buyout " . The Daily Telegraph .
Milmo , Dan ( 23 November 2004 ) . " La Donna e mobile ? Key in a Classic Ringtone " . The Guardian .
Hopkins , Nic ( 20 September 2005 ) . " Clamour of Interest in £ 130m Sale of Boosey " . The Times ( London ) .
= = = Books = = =
Boosey , William ( 1931 ) . Fifty Years of Music . London : Ernest Benn . OCLC 1150185 .
Wallace , Helen ( 2007 ) . Boosey & Hawkes : The Publishing Story . London : Boosey & Hawkes Music Publishers Ltd . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 85162 @-@ 514 @-@ 0 .
= Lose Yourself ( Entourage ) =
" Lose Yourself " is the seventh season finale of the American comedy @-@ drama television series Entourage . It originally aired on HBO in the United States on September 12 , 2010 . The episode mainly centers on Vincent Chase ( Adrian Grenier ) , whose issues begin to intensify between his ex @-@ girlfriend and his current girlfriend , Sasha Grey . Although riddled with similar issues , Ari Gold ( Jeremy Piven ) , Eric Murphy ( Kevin Connolly ) , and Turtle ( Jerry Ferrara ) collaborate with each other in an attempt to orchestrate an intervention for Vince , only for things to get worse .
" Lose Yourself " was written by Doug Ellin , and directed by David Nutter . The episode features guest and cameo appearances from notable music artists , including Christina Aguilera and Eminem . It marked the conclusion of the plot arc between Grey and Chase . The episode was well received by television critics . Upon its initial airing , it attained 2 @.@ 72 million viewers and garnered a 1 @.@ 6 / 4 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen ratings .
= = Plot = =
After Sasha informs Vince that she will participate in a pornographic film , he expresses his disapproval . While on the set of production , the couple engage in an intense argument and simultaneously break up . Vincent storms off in anger . Meanwhile , Johnny and his friends orchestrate an intervention , much to Vincent 's dismay . Enraged , he leaves the premises .
Eric begins to worry that his relationship with his fiancée may be crumbling . He has dinner with Sloan ’ s father , Terrence , but is shocked when Terrence asks him to sign a prenuptial agreement . Eric gets upset and confronts Sloan about it . She tells him they will talk about it when he gets home and he agrees . However , upon discovering that Murray has been reporting to Terrence , Eric changes his mind and instantly contacts Scott Lavin , telling him he 'll side with Lavin who 's planning on taking over the company which in turn will result in Murray losing his business .
Similarly , Ari suffers further setbacks in his personal life when despite his best efforts , his wife decides to leave him .
Overwhelmed with depression , Vincent consumes alcohol and cocaine in his hotel room . He then decides to attend Eminem 's private party at the hotel lobby . He walks around being rude and offending guests and when asked to leave he refuses . Johnny attempts to bring him home , but Vincent refuses to go with him . After being greeted , Vince begins to insult Eminem . Angry , Eminem punches Vincent , initiating a brawl in the process . Vincent is rushed to the hospital shortly thereafter . A bloodied and bruised Vincent attempts to leave the hospital , despite the orders of the medical staff . As he nears the entrance , he is confronted by a police officer .
Confused , Vince hesitantly comes to the police officer , where the officer informs him that he has taken a bag of cocaine from his clothes which leaves everyone including Vince stunned .
= = Production = =
" Lose Yourself " was written by series creator Doug Ellin and directed by David Nutter . In June 2010 , it was announced that Eminem and Christina Aguilera would make guest appearances in the episode . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly , Ellin explained that " [ Eminem ] has a little conflict [ ... ] with Vince [ Adrian Grenier ] . " Similarly , Ellin revealed that Aguilera would perform a song in the episode , adding that " she [ does ] Ari a favor and [ performs ] at a party for him . " Principal photography for the episode commenced shortly thereafter , and concluded two weeks later . In an interview with PopEater , Greiner revealed that he had offered Eminem a guest role in the series . He stated , " I actually met Eminem several months ago , interviewing him for a documentary we 're making . He mentioned that he loved the show . " Upon his approval , Greiner contacted creator Ellin , who agreed to cast Eminem for a future appearance . The episode was used to promote Recovery , the seventh studio album of Eminem .
" Lose Yourself " marks the conclusion of the plot arc between Sasha Grey and Vincent Chase ( Adrian Grenier ) . Grey was cast for the seventh season in May 2010 , where she played a fictionalized version of herself , in a relationship with Chase .
The episode features appearances from several recurring actors and actresses for the series . " Lose Yourself " marked the introduction of Marci , who is portrayed by Illeana Douglas . Janet Montgomery reprised her role as Jenni , the assistant of Eric Murphy . This would be Montgomery 's first recurring appearance in the series since " Sniff Sniff Gang Bang " . Rhys Coiro guest starred as Billy Walsh , having last appeared in the season seven episode " Porn Scenes from an Italian Restaurant " . Other appearances include Bob Odenkirk , Jami Gertz , Dania Ramirez , and Malcolm McDowell . Cameo appearances were made by Mark Cuban , Drew Brees , John Cleese , Jordan Farmar , Ryan Howard , Minka Kelly , The Alchemist , Paul Rosenberg , Royce da 5 ' 9 " , and Kon Artis .
= = Reception = =
" Lose Yourself " was initially broadcast on September 12 , 2010 , in the United States on HBO . It received 2 @.@ 72 million viewers upon airing , and garnered a 1 @.@ 6 / 4 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . Total viewership was up 8 % from the previous season finale ; however , total viewership and ratings for the episode were slightly down from the previous episode , " Porn Scenes from an Italian Restaurant " , which was viewed by 2 @.@ 86 million households and achieved a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 rating in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , according to the Nielsen ratings .
" Lose Yourself " was well received by most television critics . James Poniewozik of Time has mixed reactions to the episode . He was critical of the plot arc between Grey and Chase , harshly criticizing Grey 's acting and expressing that " [ he ] didn 't think that Adrian Grenier had completely sold Vince ’ s downward spiral . " He continued : " There ’ s something half @-@ jokey about his manner that makes me think he ’ s about to break up laughing , as in a blooper reel . " In contrast , Poniewozik felt that " for the first time in a while , I ’ m really interested to see what happens on Entourage next . " Dan Philips of IGN gave the episode a nine out of ten , signifying an " amazing " rating . Philips praised " Lose Yourself " , opining that it was an " excellent , extremely entertaining climax to this season 's two main plot lines . " He added , " Even though the episode never got around to providing any resolution , the overall journey was engaging enough to make its cliffhanger feel less like a cheap trick to get us to tune in for season eight . " Similar sentiments were expressed by Josh Wagler of MTV , who praised Grenier 's performance , opining that it was his best performance to date . The A.V. Club writer Kyle Ryan gave the episode a ' B- ' grade . Ryan wrote , " The last episode teed up tonight ’ s many confrontations [ ... ] . For a show that has specialized in spinning its wheels , these were surprisingly high stakes . " He was critical with the development of Vincent Chase , as well as his storyline with Sasha Grey , commenting that " Vincent and his coterie just aren ’ t that interesting . "
Blair Marnell of CraveOnline gave the episode an eight out of ten rating , noting that the episode " hit its dramatic points . " Marnell commended Grenier 's acting , as he opined , " I 've never hated Vince before this season , but that 's the reaction that he was meant to elicit . Vince has always been a little bit shallow , but never to this extent . Vince never told his friends that they needed him more than he needed them before . And while it 's definitely true to a certain extent , part of Vince 's charm was that he never threw that back in their faces . " In concurrence , TV Fanatic 's Eric Hochberger expressed that " Lose Yourself " was a " stellar season finale with plenty of unanswered cliffhangers for next season . " Concluding his review , Hochberger gave the episode a 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars .
= Survivor Series ( 2004 ) =
Survivor Series ( 2004 ) was the 18th annual Survivor Series professional wrestling pay @-@ per @-@ view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) . It was presented by Microsoft 's Xbox and took place on November 14 , 2004 , at the Gund Arena in Cleveland , Ohio and starred talent from both the Raw and SmackDown ! brands .
The main match on the Raw brand was a 4 on 4 Survivor Series match , a type of elimination match , between Team Orton ( Randy Orton , Chris Benoit , Chris Jericho , and Maven ) and Team Triple H ( Triple H , Edge , Batista , and Snitsky ) , which Team Orton won after Orton last eliminated Triple H. The predominant match on the SmackDown ! brand was John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) versus Booker T for the WWE Championship , which JBL won by pinfall after hitting Booker with the title belt . The primary match on the undercard was a 4 on 4 Survivor Series match between Team Guerrero ( Eddie Guerrero , The Big Show , Rob Van Dam , and John Cena ) and Team Angle ( Kurt Angle , Carlito , Luther Reigns and Mark Jindrak ) , which Team Guerrero won after Big Show last eliminated Angle .
Several of the existing feuds carried on following the event . Triple H continued feuding with Randy Orton , and at New Year 's Revolution in January , Triple H last eliminated Orton in an Elimination Chamber match to win the vacant World Heavyweight Championship . John " Bradshaw " Layfield also continued his feud with Booker T , defeating him , Eddie Guerrero , and The Undertaker at Armageddon . Following the event , Carlito sustained a legitimate injury and lost the WWE United States Championship to John Cena , with whom he was in a storyline .
= = Background = =
The event featured seven professional wrestling matches with outcomes predetermined by WWE script writers . The matches featured wrestlers portraying their characters in planned storylines that took place before , during and after the event . All wrestlers were from one of the WWE 's brands – SmackDown and Raw – the two storyline divisions in which WWE assigned its employees .
The main feud on the Raw brand was between Team Orton ( Randy Orton , Chris Benoit , Chris Jericho and Maven ) and Team Triple H ( Triple H , Edge , Batista and Snitsky ) . On the October 25 , 2004 episode of Raw , Evolution ( Triple H , Ric Flair and Batista ) were put in charge of Raw , after General Manager Eric Bischoff took the night off . Triple H granted Flair the match of his choice ; Flair wanted a rematch with Orton , as he lost a Steel Cage match to Orton at Taboo Tuesday . Orton accepted Flair 's challenge , with a stipulation that if he defeated Flair he would get an opportunity to face Triple H for the World Heavyweight Championship at Survivor Series . Orton , however , lost the match after interference by Triple H , giving the win to Flair , so Orton did not receive an opportunity for the World Heavyweight title . On the November 1 episode of Raw , General Manager Eric Bischoff scheduled a traditional 8 @-@ man elimination tag team match between Orton , Jericho , Maven and Benoit and Triple H , Batista , Edge and Snistky at Survivor Series . The winning team at Survivor Series would be granted absolute control of running Raw for a month . The following week , Bischoff concluded with adding that the winning members at Survivor Series would all get a week to be in charge of Raw . That same night , Edge and Chris Benoit were scheduled in a match , where Triple H , Batista , Orton , Jericho and Maven came out to ringside to watch the match . At ringside , a fight broke out between Triple H and Orton 's team , which caused the match to end in a No Contest .
The predominant feud on the SmackDown ! brand was between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) versus Booker T , with the two battling over JBL 's WWE Championship . On the October 21 , 2004 episode of SmackDown ! , SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long booked a six @-@ man tag team match involving Booker T , Rob Van Dam , and Rey Mysterio taking on JBL , Kenzo Suzuki , and René Duprée . At the time , Booker T was a heel and congratulated JBL 's success with the company in a segment backstage . The tag team match got underway , and JBL was led to believe that Booker T was going to betray Van Dam and Mysterio , as Booker T warned both Van Dam and Mysterio not to interfere with him during the match . The match concluded with Booker T pinning JBL after an axe kick , thus turning Booker face . The following week on SmackDown ! , Booker T defeated Orlando Jordan to earn the right to face JBL for the WWE Championship at Survivor Series . On the November 4 episode of SmackDown ! , JBL interfered in a match between Booker T and Orlando Jordan , which ended in a disqualification , giving Booker T the win . After the disqualification by JBL , Theodore Long scheduled a tag team match between Booker T and Josh Mathews versus JBL and Orlando Jordan . The tag team victory was given to Booker T and Matthews , as Booker pinned Jordan for the win .
One of the primary matches on the SmackDown ! brand was between Team Guerrero ( Eddie Guerrero , The Big Show , Rob Van Dam and John Cena ) versus Team Angle ( Kurt Angle , Carlito , Luther Reigns and Mark Jindrak ) . On the October 28 , 2004 episode of SmackDown , Theodore Long booked a 4 @-@ on @-@ 4 Survivor Series elimination match between Team Guerrero , Big Show , Van Dam , and Rey Mysterio against Team Angle , Carlito , Reigns and Jindrak . The following week , however , Mysterio was removed from the elimination match , as Long booked Mysterio in a Fatal Four @-@ Way match for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship . Guerrero was given a week to choose a member for his team at Survivor Series . On the November 11 episode of SmackDown ! , Guerrero announced that John Cena , who was recovering from a storyline injury , would be joining his team at Survivor Series .
= = Event = =
Before the event went live on pay @-@ per @-@ view , World Tag Team Champions La Résistance ( Sylvan Grenier and Robért Conway ) defeated The Hurricane and Rosey in a non @-@ title match shown live on Sunday Night Heat .
= = = Preliminary matches = = =
The first match that aired was a Fatal Four @-@ Way match for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship between Spike Dudley , Billy Kidman , Chavo Guerrero , and Rey Mysterio . After back and forth action , Spike pinned Chavo , after Billy Kidman performed a springboard leg drop on Chavo , to retain the WWE Cruiserweight Championship .
Next was a match between Shelton Benjamin and Christian for the WWE Intercontinental Championship . During the match , Benjamin got up on the ring apron and tried to take out Tyson Tomko , who accompanied Christian to the match , but Christian ran and launched Benjamin him off , sending Benjamin to the outside . Control of the match went back and forth , but the bout came to an end when Benjamin pinned Christian after a T @-@ Bone Suplex .
The third match of the night was the SmackDown ! Survivor Series match with Team Guerrero ( Eddie Guerrero , The Big Show , Rob Van Dam , and John Cena ) versus Team Angle ( Kurt Angle , Mark Jindrak , Luther Reigns , and Carlito ) . Carlito was the first competitor eliminated , as he was chased from the arena by John Cena before the match began . Rob Van Dam was then eliminated by Kurt Angle after a pinfall with a roll @-@ up using the ropes for leverage . Mark Jindrak was then eliminated by Eddie Guerrero , as Guerrero gained a pinfall similar to Angle eliminating Van Dam . Luther Reigns was eliminated from the match , after a Big Show performed a chokeslam . Angle was the final member eliminated from his team , after an FU by Cena and a frog splash by Guerrero , which led to Big Show covering Angle for the pinfall victory for Team Guerrero .
= = = Main event matches = = =
The fourth match was the bout between The Undertaker and Heidenreich . Both the Undertaker and Heidenreich managed to get the upper hand in the match . During the match , Paul Heyman interfered on behalf of Heidenreich . As Undertaker connected with a chokeslam on Heidenreich , he proceeded to perform a Tombstone Piledriver and pinned Heidenreich for the pinfall victory .
The fifth match was the encounter between Trish Stratus and Lita for the WWE Women 's Championship . The match saw Stratus smash Lita 's head on the Raw announcers ' table . Lita , however , responded by hitting Stratus with a steel chair . As a result , Lita was disqualified , and Stratus retained the Women 's Championship .
The sixth match was for the WWE Championship between John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) and Booker T. The match saw both men take the advantage over one another . Orlando Jordan interfered several times by attacking Booker T. During the match , the referee was knocked out by JBL . Booker T managed to perform the scissors kick on JBL , as a new referee came down to the ring to officiate the match . Jordan , however , removed JBL from the ring and tried to hit Booker T with the WWE Championship title belt . Booker T countered by performing the Book End on Jordan . JBL then grabbed the belt , hit Booker T with it , and pinned him to retain the WWE Championship .
The final match was the Survivor Series match between Team Orton ( Randy Orton , Chris Benoit , Chris Jericho , and Maven ) versus Team Triple H ( Triple H , Batista , Edge , and Snitsky ) . Maven , however , was attacked backstage by Snitsky and removed from the elimination match . Chris Benoit was the first man to be eliminated , as he was pinned by Edge , after Triple H performed the Pedigree . Batista was then eliminated by Chris Jericho , after Randy Orton hit Batista with the World Heavyweight title belt and a running enziguri by Jericho . Snitsky was disqualified and eliminated from the match for hitting Maven , who had returned to the ring for the match . Maven was the second eliminated member of Team Orton , as he was pinned by Triple H. Jericho was the next member eliminated , after a spear from Edge . Orton eliminated Edge , after he performed an RKO for the elimination . Triple H was the final member eliminated from his team , after an RKO by Orton for the pinfall victory for Team Orton .
= = Aftermath = =
As Team Orton ( Randy Orton , Chris Benoit , Chris Jericho and Maven ) defeated Team Triple H ( Triple H , Edge , Batista and Snitsky ) at Survivor Series , they were given the opportunity to be in charge of Raw for a month ; On the November 29 episode of Raw , Randy Orton was in charge and scheduled a World Heavyweight title Battle Royal . WWE Chairman Vince McMahon , however , overruled the Battle Royal match and instead booked Triple H to face the winner of the Battle Royal . The battle royal match saw Chris Benoit and Edge , as the final two participants , going over the top rope at the same time , ostensibly ending the match . Orton , acting as General Manager , booked a Triple Threat match between Benoit , Edge , and Triple H for the World Heavyweight title . The match resulted in Benoit applying the Crossface on Edge , only for Edge to manage to roll Benoit over , while the Crossface was still locked in , causing Benoit ’ s shoulders to touch the mat . The referee began counting , which moments later led to Edge to submit to the maneuver . The following week , with Chris Jericho in charge , Vince McMahon vacated the World Heavyweight title , concluding the match ended in a tie . On the December 13 episode of Raw , Eric Bischoff , who had resumed his position as General Manager , scheduled an Elimination Chamber match between Triple H , Edge , Benoit , Chris Jericho , Orton and Batista at New Year 's Revolution for the vacant World Heavyweight title . The following week , Bischoff concluded with adding a Special Guest Referee for the Elimination Chamber : Shawn Michaels . At New Year 's Revolution , Triple H won the Elimination Chamber to begin his tenth world title reign .
After retaining the WWE Championship against Booker T , John " Bradshaw " Layfield ( JBL ) was inserted into previous feuds with Eddie Guerrero , Booker T , and The Undertaker . The feud led to SmackDown ! General Manager Theodore Long to book a Fatal Four @-@ Way match at Armageddon in December . The match was won by JBL , as he pinned Booker T after a Clothesline from Hell and successfully retained the title .
In October , John Cena lost the WWE United States Championship to Carlito Caribbean Cool , who debuted on SmackDown ! . As part of the storyline , Carlito 's bodyguard , Jesús , stabbed Cena in the kidney while at a nightclub . On the November 18 episode of SmackDown ! , Cena regained the United States Championship by defeating Carlito . Cena also debuted a " custom made " spinner @-@ style title belt .
= = Results = =
= = = Survivor Series elimination matches = = =
= Atmosphere of Jupiter =
The atmosphere of Jupiter is the largest planetary atmosphere in the Solar System . It is mostly made of molecular hydrogen and helium in roughly solar proportions ; other chemical compounds are present only in small amounts and include methane , ammonia , hydrogen sulfide and water . Although water is thought to reside deep in the atmosphere , its directly measured concentration is very low . The nitrogen , sulfur , and noble gas abundances in Jupiter 's atmosphere exceed solar values by a factor of about three .
The atmosphere of Jupiter lacks a clear lower boundary and gradually transitions into the liquid interior of the planet . From lowest to highest , the atmospheric layers are the troposphere , stratosphere , thermosphere and exosphere . Each layer has characteristic temperature gradients . The lowest layer , the troposphere , has a complicated system of clouds and hazes , comprising layers of ammonia , ammonium hydrosulfide and water . The upper ammonia clouds visible at Jupiter 's surface are organized in a dozen zonal bands parallel to the equator and are bounded by powerful zonal atmospheric flows ( winds ) known as jets . The bands alternate in color : the dark bands are called belts , while light ones are called zones . Zones , which are colder than belts , correspond to upwellings , while belts mark descending air . The zones ' lighter color is believed to result from ammonia ice ; what gives the belts their darker colors is not known with certainty . The origins of the banded structure and jets are not well understood , though two models exist . The shallow model holds that they are surface phenomena overlaying a stable interior . In the deep model , the bands and jets are just surface manifestations of deep circulation in Jupiter 's mantle of molecular hydrogen , which is organized into cylinders .
The Jovian atmosphere shows a wide range of active phenomena , including band instabilities , vortices ( cyclones and anticyclones ) , storms and lightning . The vortices reveal themselves as large red , white or brown spots ( ovals ) . The largest two spots are the Great Red Spot ( GRS ) and Oval BA , which is also red . These two and most of the other large spots are anticyclonic . Smaller anticyclones tend to be white . Vortices are thought to be relatively shallow structures with depths not exceeding several hundred kilometers . Located in the southern hemisphere , the GRS is the largest known vortex in the Solar System . It could engulf two or three Earths and has existed for at least three hundred years . Oval BA , south of GRS , is a red spot a third the size of GRS that formed in 2000 from the merging of three white ovals .
Jupiter has powerful storms , often accompanied by lightning strikes . The storms are a result of moist convection in the atmosphere connected to the evaporation and condensation of water . They are sites of strong upward motion of the air , which leads to the formation of bright and dense clouds . The storms form mainly in belt regions . The lightning strikes on Jupiter are hundreds of times more powerful than those seen on Earth . However , there are so few , that the amount of lightning activity is comparable to Earth .
= = Vertical structure = =
The atmosphere of Jupiter is classified into four layers , by increasing altitude : the troposphere , stratosphere , thermosphere and exosphere . Unlike the Earth 's atmosphere , Jupiter 's lacks a mesosphere . Jupiter does not have a solid surface , and the lowest atmospheric layer , the troposphere , smoothly transitions into the planet 's fluid interior . This is a result of having temperatures and the pressures well above those of the critical points for hydrogen and helium , meaning that there is no sharp boundary between gas and liquid phases . Hydrogen becomes a supercritical fluid at a pressure of around 12 bar .
Since the lower boundary of the atmosphere is ill @-@ defined , the pressure level of 10 bars , at an altitude of about 90 km below 1 bar with a temperature of around 340 K , is commonly treated as the base of the troposphere . In scientific literature , the 1 bar pressure level is usually chosen as a zero point for altitudes — a " surface " of Jupiter . As with Earth , the top atmospheric layer , the exosphere , does not have a well defined upper boundary . The density gradually decreases until it smoothly transitions into the interplanetary medium approximately 5 @,@ 000 km above the " surface " .
The vertical temperature variations in the Jovian atmosphere are similar to those of the atmosphere of Earth . The temperature of the troposphere decreases with height until it reaches a minimum at the tropopause , which is the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere . On Jupiter , the tropopause is approximately 50 km above the visible clouds ( or 1 bar level ) , where the pressure and temperature are about 0 @.@ 1 bar and 110 K. In the stratosphere , the temperatures rise to about 200 K at the transition into the thermosphere , at an altitude and pressure of around 320 km and 1 μbar . In the thermosphere , temperatures continue to rise , eventually reaching 1000 K at about 1000 km , where pressure is about 1 nbar .
Jupiter 's troposphere contains a complicated cloud structure . The upper clouds , located in the pressure range 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 9 bar , are made of ammonia ice . Below these ammonia ice clouds , denser clouds made of ammonium hydrosulfide or ammonium sulfide ( between 1 – 2 bar ) and water ( 3 – 7 bar ) are thought to exist . There are no methane clouds as the temperatures are too high for it to condense . The water clouds form the densest layer of clouds and have the strongest influence on the dynamics of the atmosphere . This is a result of the higher condensation heat of water and higher water abundance as compared to the ammonia and hydrogen sulfide ( oxygen is a more abundant chemical element than either nitrogen or sulfur ) . Various tropospheric ( at 200 – 500 mbar ) and stratospheric ( at 10 – 100 mbar ) haze layers reside above the main cloud layers . The latter are made from condensed heavy polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons or hydrazine , which are generated in the upper stratosphere ( 1 – 100 μbar ) from methane under the influence of the solar ultraviolet radiation ( UV ) . The methane abundance relative to molecular hydrogen in the stratosphere is about 10 − 4 , while the abundance ratio of other light hydrocarbons , like ethane and acetylene , to molecular hydrogen is about 10 − 6 .
Jupiter 's thermosphere is located at pressures lower than 1 μbar and demonstrates such phenomena as airglow , polar aurorae and X @-@ ray emissions . Within it lie layers of increased electron and ion density that form the ionosphere . The high temperatures prevalent in the thermosphere ( 800 – 1000 K ) have not been fully explained yet ; existing models predict a temperature no higher than about 400 K. They may be caused by absorption of high @-@ energy solar radiation ( UV or X @-@ ray ) , by heating from the charged particles precipitating from the Jovian magnetosphere , or by dissipation of upward @-@ propagating gravity waves . The thermosphere and exosphere at the poles and at low latitudes emit X @-@ rays , which were first observed by the Einstein Observatory in 1983 . The energetic particles coming from Jupiter 's magnetosphere create bright auroral ovals , which encircle the poles . Unlike their terrestrial analogs , which appear only during magnetic storms , aurorae are permanent features of Jupiter 's atmosphere . The thermosphere was the first place outside the Earth where the trihydrogen cation ( H +
3 ) was discovered . This ion emits strongly in the mid @-@ infrared part of the spectrum , at wavelengths between 3 and 5 μm ; this is the main cooling mechanism of the thermosphere .
= = Chemical composition = =
The composition of Jupiter 's atmosphere is similar to that of the planet as a whole . Jupiter 's atmosphere is the most comprehensively understood of those of all the gas giants because it was observed directly by the Galileo atmospheric probe when it entered the Jovian atmosphere on December 7 , 1995 . Other sources of information about Jupiter 's atmospheric composition include the Infrared Space Observatory ( ISO ) , the Galileo and Cassini orbiters , and Earth @-@ based observations .
The two main constituents of the Jovian atmosphere are molecular hydrogen ( H
2 ) and helium . The helium abundance is 0 @.@ 157 ± 0 @.@ 0036 relative to molecular hydrogen by number of molecules , and its mass fraction is 0 @.@ 234 ± 0 @.@ 005 , which is slightly lower than the Solar System 's primordial value . The reason for this low abundance is not entirely understood , but some of the helium may have condensed into the core of Jupiter . This condensation is likely to be in the form of helium rain : as hydrogen turns into the metallic state at depths of more than 10 @,@ 000 km , helium separates from it forming droplets which , being denser than the metallic hydrogen , descend towards the core . This can also explain the severe depletion of neon ( see Table ) , an element that easily dissolves in helium droplets and would be transported in them towards the core as well .
The atmosphere contains various simple compounds such as water , methane ( CH4 ) , hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) , ammonia ( NH3 ) and phosphine ( PH3 ) . Their abundances in the deep ( below 10 bar ) troposphere imply that the atmosphere of Jupiter is enriched in the elements carbon , nitrogen , sulfur and possibly oxygen by factor of 2 – 4 relative to the Sun . The noble gases argon , krypton and xenon also appear in abundance relative to solar levels ( see table ) , while neon is scarcer . Other chemical compounds such as arsine ( AsH3 ) and germane ( GeH4 ) are present only in trace amounts . The upper atmosphere of Jupiter contains small amounts of simple hydrocarbons such as ethane , acetylene , and diacetylene , which form from methane under the influence of the solar ultraviolet radiation and charged particles coming from Jupiter 's magnetosphere . The carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and water present in the upper atmosphere are thought to originate from impacting comets , such as Shoemaker @-@ Levy 9 . The water cannot come from the troposphere because the cold tropopause acts like a cold trap , effectively preventing water from rising to the stratosphere ( see Vertical structure above ) .
Earth- and spacecraft @-@ based measurements have led to improved knowledge of the isotopic ratios in Jupiter 's atmosphere . As of July 2003 , the accepted value for the deuterium abundance is 2 @.@ 25 ± 0 @.@ 35 × 10 − 5 , which probably represents the primordial value in the protosolar nebula that gave birth to the Solar System . The ratio of nitrogen isotopes in the Jovian atmosphere , 15N to 14N , is 2 @.@ 3 × 10 − 3 , a third lower than that in the Earth 's atmosphere ( 3 @.@ 5 × 10 − 3 ) . The latter discovery is especially significant since the previous theories of Solar System formation considered the terrestrial value for the ratio of nitrogen isotopes to be primordial .
= = Zones , belts and jets = =
The visible surface of Jupiter is divided into several bands parallel to the equator . There are two types of bands : lightly colored zones and relatively dark belts . The wider Equatorial Zone ( EZ ) extends between latitudes of approximately 7 ° S to 7 ° N. Above and below the EZ , the North and South Equatorial belts ( NEB and SEB ) extend to 18 ° N and 18 ° S , respectively . Farther from the equator lie the North and South Tropical zones ( NtrZ and STrZ ) . The alternating pattern of belts and zones continues until the polar regions at approximately 50 degrees latitude , where their visible appearance becomes somewhat muted . The basic belt @-@ zone structure probably extends well towards the poles , reaching at least to 80 ° North or South .
The difference in the appearance between zones and belts is caused by differences in the opacity of the clouds . Ammonia concentration is higher in zones , which leads to the appearance of denser clouds of ammonia ice at higher altitudes , which in turn leads to their lighter color . On the other hand , in belts clouds are thinner and are located at lower altitudes . The upper troposphere is colder in zones and warmer in belts . The exact nature of chemicals that make Jovian zones and bands so colorful is not known , but they may include complicated compounds of sulfur , phosphorus and carbon .
The Jovian bands are bounded by zonal atmospheric flows ( winds ) , called jets . The eastward ( prograde ) jets are found at the transition from zones to belts ( going away from the equator ) , whereas westward ( retrograde ) jets mark the transition from belts to zones . Such flow velocity patterns mean that the zonal winds decrease in belts and increase in zones from the equator to the pole . Therefore , wind shear in belts is cyclonic , while in zones it is anticyclonic . The EZ is an exception to this rule , showing a strong eastward ( prograde ) jet and has a local minimum of the wind speed exactly at the equator . The jet speeds are high on Jupiter , reaching more than 100 m / s . These speeds correspond to ammonia clouds located in the pressure range 0 @.@ 7 – 1 bar . The prograde jets are generally more powerful than the retrograde jets . The vertical extent of jets is not known . They decay over two to three scale heights above the clouds , while below the cloud level , winds increase slightly and then remain constant down to at least 22 bar — the maximum operational depth reached by the Galileo Probe .
The origin of Jupiter 's banded structure is not completely clear , though it may be similar to that driving the Earth 's Hadley cells . The simplest interpretation is that zones are sites of atmospheric upwelling , whereas belts are manifestations of downwelling . When air enriched in ammonia rises in zones , it expands and cools , forming high and dense clouds . In belts , however , the air descends , warming adiabatically , and white ammonia clouds evaporate , revealing lower , darker clouds . The location and width of bands , speed and location of jets on Jupiter are remarkably stable , having changed only slightly between 1980 and 2000 . One example of change is a decrease of the speed of the strongest eastward jet located at the boundary between the North Tropical zone and North Temperate belts at 23 ° N. However bands vary in coloration and intensity over time ( see below ) . These variations were first observed in the early seventeenth century .
= = = Specific bands = = =
The belts and zones that divide Jupiter 's atmosphere each have their own names and unique characteristics . They begin below the North and South Polar Regions , which extend from the poles to roughly 40 – 48 ° N / S. These bluish @-@ gray regions are usually featureless .
The North North Temperate Region rarely shows more detail than the polar regions , due to limb darkening , foreshortening , and the general diffuseness of features . However , the North @-@ North Temperate Belt ( NNTB ) is the northernmost distinct belt , though it occasionally disappears . Disturbances tend to be minor and short @-@ lived . The North @-@ North Temperate Zone ( NNTZ ) is perhaps more prominent , but also generally quiet . Other minor belts and zones in the region are occasionally observed .
The North Temperate Region is part of a latitudinal region easily observable from Earth , and thus has a superb record of observation . It also features the strongest prograde jet stream on the planet — a westerly current that forms the southern boundary of the North Temperate Belt ( NTB ) . The NTB fades roughly once a decade ( this was the case during the Voyager encounters ) , making the North Temperate Zone ( NTZ ) apparently merge into the North Tropical Zone ( NTropZ ) . Other times , the NTZ is divided by a narrow belt into northern and southern components .
The North Tropical Region is composed of the NTropZ and the North Equatorial Belt ( NEB ) . The NTropZ is generally stable in coloration , changing in tint only in tandem with activity on the NTB 's southern jet stream . Like the NTZ , it too is sometimes divided by a narrow band , the NTropB . On rare occasions , the southern NTropZ plays host to " Little Red Spots " . As the name suggests , these are northern equivalents of the Great Red Spot . Unlike the GRS , they tend to occur in pairs and are always short @-@ lived , lasting a year on average ; one was present during the Pioneer 10 encounter .
The NEB is one of the most active belts on the planet . It is characterized by anticyclonic white ovals and cyclonic " barges " ( also known as " brown ovals " ) , with the former usually forming farther north than the latter ; as in the NTropZ , most of these features are relatively short @-@ lived . Like the South Equatorial Belt ( SEB ) , the NEB has sometimes dramatically faded and " revived " . The timescale of these changes is about 25 years .
The Equatorial Region ( EZ ) is one of the more stable regions of the planet , in latitude and in activity . The northern edge of the EZ hosts spectacular plumes that trail southwest from the NEB , which are bounded by dark , warm ( in infrared ) features known as festoons ( hot spots ) . Though the southern boundary of the EZ is usually quiescent , observations from the late 19th into the early 20th century show that this pattern was then reversed relative to today . The EZ varies considerably in coloration , from pale to an ochre , or even coppery hue ; it is occasionally divided by an Equatorial Band ( EB ) . Features in the EZ move roughly 390 km / h relative to the other latitudes .
The South Tropical Region includes the South Equatorial Belt ( SEB ) and the South Tropical Zone . It is by far the most active region the planet , as it is home to its strongest retrograde jet stream . The SEB is usually the broadest , darkest belt on Jupiter ; it is sometimes split by a zone ( the SEBZ ) , and can fade entirely every 3 to 15 years before reappearing in what is known as an SEB Revival cycle . A period of weeks or months following the belt 's disappearance , a white spot forms and erupts dark brownish material which is stretched into a new belt by Jupiter 's winds . The belt most recently disappeared in May 2010 . Another characteristic of the SEB is a long train of cyclonic disturbances following the Great Red Spot . Like the NTropZ , the STropZ is one of the most prominent zones on the planet ; not only does it contain the GRS , but it is occasionally rent by a South Tropical Disturbance ( STropD ) , a division of the zone that can be very long @-@ lived ; the most famous one lasted from 1901 to 1939 .
The South Temperate Region , or South Temperate Belt ( STB ) , is yet another dark , prominent belt , more so than the NTB ; until March 2000 , its most famous features were the long @-@ lived white ovals BC , DE , and FA , which have since merged to form Oval BA ( " Red Jr . " ) . The ovals were part of South Temperate Zone , but they extended into STB partially blocking it . The STB has occasionally faded , apparently due to complex interactions between the white ovals and the GRS . The appearance of the South Temperate Zone ( STZ ) — the zone in which the white ovals originated — is highly variable .
There are other features on Jupiter that are either temporary or difficult to observe from Earth . The South South Temperate Region is harder to discern even than the NNTR ; its detail is subtle and can only be studied well by large telescopes or spacecraft . Many zones and belts are more transient in nature and are not always visible . These include the Equatorial band ( EB ) , North Equatorial belt zone ( NEBZ , a white zone within the belt ) and South Equatorial belt zone ( SEBZ ) . Belts are also occasionally split by a sudden disturbance . When a disturbance divides a normally singular belt or zone , an N or an S is added to indicate whether the component is the northern or southern one ; e.g. , NEB ( N ) and NEB ( S ) .
= = Dynamics = =
Circulation in Jupiter 's atmosphere is markedly different from that in the atmosphere of Earth . The interior of Jupiter is fluid and lacks any solid surface . Therefore , convection may occur throughout the planet 's outer molecular envelope . As of 2008 , a comprehensive theory of the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere has not been developed . Any such theory needs to explain the following facts : the existence of narrow stable bands and jets that are symmetric relative to Jupiter 's equator , the strong prograde jet observed at the equator , the difference between zones and belts , and the origin and persistence of large vortices such as the Great Red Spot .
The theories regarding the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere can be broadly divided into two classes : shallow and deep . The former hold that the observed circulation is largely confined to a thin outer ( weather ) layer of the planet , which overlays the stable interior . The latter hypothesis postulates that the observed atmospheric flows are only a surface manifestation of deeply rooted circulation in the outer molecular envelope of Jupiter . As both theories have their own successes and failures , many planetary scientists think that the true theory will include elements of both models .
= = = Shallow models = = =
The first attempts to explain Jovian atmospheric dynamics date back to the 1960s . They were partly based on terrestrial meteorology , which had become well developed by that time . Those shallow models assumed that the jets on Jupiter are driven by small scale turbulence , which is in turn maintained by moist convection in the outer layer of the atmosphere ( above the water clouds ) . The moist convection is a phenomenon related to the condensation and evaporation of water and is one of the major drivers of terrestrial weather . The production of the jets in this model is related to a well @-@ known property of two dimensional turbulence — the so @-@ called inverse cascade , in which small turbulent structures ( vortices ) merge to form larger ones . The finite size of the planet means that the cascade can not produce structures larger than some characteristic scale , which for Jupiter is called the Rhines scale . Its existence is connected to production of Rossby waves . This process works as follows : when the largest turbulent structures reach a certain size , the energy begins to flow into Rossby waves instead of larger structures , and the inverse cascade stops . Since on the spherical rapidly rotating planet the dispersion relation of the Rossby waves is anisotropic , the Rhines scale in the direction parallel to the equator is larger than in the direction orthogonal to it . The ultimate result of the process described above is production of large scale elongated structures , which are parallel to the equator . The meridional extent of them appears to match the actual width of jets . Therefore , in shallow models vortices actually feed the jets and should disappear by merging into them .
While these weather – layer models can successfully explain the existence of a dozen narrow jets , they have serious problems . A glaring failure of the model is the prograde ( super @-@ rotating ) equatorial jet : with some rare exceptions shallow models produce a strong retrograde ( subrotating ) jet , contrary to observations . In addition , the jets tend to be unstable and can disappear over time . Shallow models cannot explain how the observed atmospheric flows on Jupiter violate stability criteria . More elaborated multilayer versions of weather – layer models produce more stable circulation , but many problems persist . Meanwhile , the Galileo Probe found that the winds on Jupiter extend well below the water clouds at 5 – 7 bar and do not show any evidence of decay down to 22 bar pressure level , which implies that circulation in the Jovian atmosphere may in fact be deep .
= = = Deep models = = =
The deep model was first proposed by Busse in 1976 . His model was based on another well @-@ known feature of fluid mechanics , the Taylor – Proudman theorem . It holds that in any fast @-@ rotating barotropic ideal liquid , the flows are organized in a series of cylinders parallel to the rotational axis . The conditions of the theorem are probably met in the fluid Jovian interior . Therefore , the planet 's molecular hydrogen mantle may be divided into cylinders , each cylinder having a circulation independent of the others . Those latitudes where the cylinders ' outer and inner boundaries intersect with the visible surface of the planet correspond to the jets ; the cylinders themselves are observed as zones and belts .
The deep model easily explains the strong prograde jet observed at the equator of Jupiter ; the jets it produces are stable and do not obey the 2D stability criterion . However it has major difficulties ; it produces a very small number of broad jets , and realistic simulations of 3D flows are not possible as of 2008 , meaning that the simplified models used to justify deep circulation may fail to catch important aspects of the fluid dynamics within Jupiter . One model published in 2004 successfully reproduced the Jovian band @-@ jet structure . It assumed that the molecular hydrogen mantle is thinner than in all other models ; occupying only the outer 10 % of Jupiter 's radius . In standard models of the Jovian interior , the mantle comprises the outer 20 – 30 % . The driving of deep circulation is another problem . The deep flows can be caused both by shallow forces ( moist convection , for instance ) or by deep planet @-@ wide convection that transports heat out of the Jovian interior . Which of these mechanisms is more important is not clear yet .
= = = Internal heat = = =
As has been known since 1966 , Jupiter radiates much more heat than it receives from the Sun . It is estimated that the ratio between the power emitted by the planet and that absorbed from the Sun is 1 @.@ 67 ± 0 @.@ 09 . The internal heat flux from Jupiter is 5 @.@ 44 ± 0 @.@ 43 W / m2 , whereas the total emitted power is 335 ± 26 petawatts . The latter value is approximately equal to one billionth of the total power radiated by the Sun . This excess heat is mainly the primordial heat from the early phases of Jupiter 's formation , but may result in part from the precipitation of helium into the core .
The internal heat may be important for the dynamics of the Jovian atmosphere . While Jupiter has a small obliquity of about 3 ° , and its poles receive much less solar radiation than its equator , the tropospheric temperatures do not change appreciably from the equator to poles . One explanation is that Jupiter 's convective interior acts like a thermostat , releasing more heat near the poles than in the equatorial region . This leads to a uniform temperature in the troposphere . While heat is transported from the equator to the poles mainly via the atmosphere on Earth , on Jupiter deep convection equilibrates heat . The convection in the Jovian interior is thought to be driven mainly by the internal heat .
= = Discrete features = =
= = = Vortices = = =
The atmosphere of Jupiter is home to hundreds of vortices — circular rotating structures that , as in the Earth 's atmosphere , can be divided into two classes : cyclones and anticyclones . Cyclones rotate in the direction similar to the rotation of the planet ( counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern ) ; the anticyclones rotate in the reverse direction . However a major difference from the terrestrial atmosphere is that , in the Jovian atmosphere , anticyclones dominate over cyclones , as more than 90 % of vortices larger than 2000 km in diameter are anticyclones . The lifetime of vortices varies from several days to hundreds of years depending on their size . For instance , the average lifetime of anticyclones with diameters from 1000 to 6000 km is 1 – 3 years . Vortices have never been observed in the equatorial region of Jupiter ( within 10 ° of latitude ) , where they are unstable . As on any rapidly rotating planet , Jupiter 's anticyclones are high pressure centers , while cyclones are low pressure .
The anticyclones in Jupiter 's atmosphere are always confined within zones , where the wind speed increases in direction from the equator to the poles . They are usually bright and appear as white ovals . They can move in longitude , but stay at approximately the same latitude as they are unable to escape from the confining zone . The wind speeds at their periphery are about 100 m / s . Different anticyclones located in one zone tend to merge , when they approach each other . However Jupiter has two anticyclones that are somewhat different from all others . They are the Great Red Spot ( GRS ) and the Oval BA ; the latter formed only in 2000 . In contrast to white ovals , these structures are red , arguably due to dredging up of red material from the planet 's depths . On Jupiter the anticyclones usually form through merges of smaller structures including convective storms ( see below ) , although large ovals can result from the instability of jets . The latter was observed in 1938 – 1940 , when a few white ovals appeared as a result of instability of the southern temperate zone ; they later merged to form Oval BA .
In contrast to anticyclones , the Jovian cyclones tend to be small , dark and irregular structures . Some of the darker and more regular features are known as brown ovals ( or badges ) . However the existence of a few long – lived large cyclones has been suggested . In addition to compact cyclones , Jupiter has several large irregular filamentary patches , which demonstrate cyclonic rotation . One of them is located to the west of the GRS ( in its wake region ) in the southern equatorial belt . These patches are called cyclonic regions ( CR ) . The cyclones are always located in the belts and tend to merge when they encounter each other , much like anticyclones .
The deep structure of vortices is not completely clear . They are thought to be relatively thin , as any thickness greater than about 500 km will lead to instability . The large anticyclones are known to extend only a few tens of kilometers above the visible clouds . The early hypothesis that the vortices are deep convective plumes ( or convective columns ) as of 2008 is not shared by the majority of planetary scientists .
= = = = Great Red Spot = = = =
The Great Red Spot ( GRS ) is a persistent anticyclonic storm , 22 ° south of Jupiter 's equator ; observations from Earth establish a minimum storm lifetime of 350 years . A storm was described as a " permanent spot " by Gian Domenico Cassini after observing the feature in July 1665 with his instrument @-@ maker Eustachio Divini . According to a report by Giovanni Battista Riccioli in 1635 , Leander Bandtius , whom Riccioli identified as the Abbot of Dunisburgh who possessed an " extraordinary telescope " , observed a large spot that he described as " oval , equaling one seventh of Jupiter 's diameter at its longest . " According to Riccioli , " these features are seldom able to be seen , and then only by a telescope of exceptional quality and magnification . " The Great Spot has been nearly continually observed since the 1870s , however .
The GRS rotates counter @-@ clockwise , with a period of about six Earth days or 14 Jovian days . Its dimensions are 24 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 km east @-@ to @-@ west and 12 @,@ 000 – 14 @,@ 000 km north @-@ to @-@ south . The spot is large enough to contain two or three planets the size of Earth . At the start of 2004 , the Great Red Spot had approximately half the longitudinal extent it had a century ago , when it was 40 @,@ 000 km in diameter . At the present rate of reduction , it could potentially become circular by 2040 , although this is unlikely because of the distortion effect of the neighboring jet streams . It is not known how long the spot will last , or whether the change is a result of normal fluctuations .
According to a study by scientists at the University of California , Berkeley , between 1996 and 2006 the spot lost 15 percent of its diameter along its major axis . Xylar Asay @-@ Davis , who was on the team that conducted the study , noted that the spot is not disappearing because " velocity is a more robust measurement because the clouds associated with the Red Spot are also strongly influenced by numerous other phenomena in the surrounding atmosphere . "
Infrared data have long indicated that the Great Red Spot is colder ( and thus , higher in altitude ) than most of the other clouds on the planet ; the cloudtops of the GRS are about 8 km above the surrounding clouds . Furthermore , careful tracking of atmospheric features revealed the spot 's counterclockwise circulation as far back as 1966 – observations dramatically confirmed by the first time @-@ lapse movies from the Voyager flybys . The spot is spatially confined by a modest eastward jet stream ( prograde ) to its south and a very strong westward ( retrograde ) one to its north . Though winds around the edge of the spot peak at about 120 m / s ( 432 km / h ) , currents inside it seem stagnant , with little inflow or outflow . The rotation period of the spot has decreased with time , perhaps as a direct result of its steady reduction in size . In 2010 , astronomers imaged the GRS in the far infrared ( from 8 @.@ 5 to 24 μm ) with a spatial resolution higher than ever before and found that its central , reddest region is warmer than its surroundings by between 3 – 4 K. The warm airmass is located in the upper troposphere in the pressure range of 200 – 500 mbar . This warm central spot slowly counter @-@ rotates and may be caused by a weak subsidence of air in the center of GRS .
The Great Red Spot 's latitude has been stable for the duration of good observational records , typically varying by about a degree . Its longitude , however , is subject to constant variation . Because Jupiter 's visible features do not rotate uniformly at all latitudes , astronomers have defined three different systems for defining the longitude . System II is used for latitudes of more than 10 ° , and was originally based on the average rotation rate of the Great Red Spot of 9h 55m 42s . Despite this , the spot has ' lapped ' the planet in System II at least 10 times since the early 19th century . Its drift rate has changed dramatically over the years and has been linked to the brightness of the South Equatorial Belt , and the presence or absence of a South Tropical Disturbance .
It is not known exactly what causes the Great Red Spot 's reddish color . Theories supported by laboratory experiments suppose that the color may be caused by complex organic molecules , red phosphorus , or yet another sulfur compound . The GRS varies greatly in hue , from almost brick @-@ red to pale salmon , or even white . The higher temperature of the reddest central region is the first evidence that the Spot 's color is affected by environmental factors . The spot occasionally disappears from the visible spectrum , becoming evident only through the Red Spot Hollow , which is its niche in the South Equatorial Belt ( SEB ) . The visibility of GRS is apparently coupled to the appearance of the SEB ; when the belt is bright white , the spot tends to be dark , and when it is dark , the spot is usually light . The periods when the spot is dark or light occur at irregular intervals ; in the 50 years from 1947 to 1997 , the spot was darkest in the periods 1961 – 1966 , 1968 – 1975 , 1989 – 1990 , and 1992 – 1993 . In November 2014 , an analysis of data from NASA 's Cassini mission revealed that the red color is likely a product of simple chemicals being broken apart by sunlight in the planet 's upper atmosphere
The Great Red Spot should not be confused with the Great Dark Spot , a feature observed near Jupiter 's north pole in 2000 by the Cassini – Huygens spacecraft . A feature in the atmosphere of Neptune was also called the Great Dark Spot . The latter feature , imaged by Voyager 2 in 1989 , may have been an atmospheric hole rather than a storm . It was no longer present in 1994 , although a similar spot had appeared farther to the north .
= = = = Oval BA = = = =
Oval BA is a red storm in Jupiter 's southern hemisphere similar in form to , though smaller than , the Great Red Spot ( it is often affectionately referred to as " Red Spot Jr . " , " Red Jr . " or " The Little Red Spot " ) . A feature in the South Temperate Belt , Oval BA was first seen in 2000 after the collision of three small white storms , and has intensified since then .
The formation of the three white oval storms that later merged into Oval BA can be traced to 1939 , when the South Temperate Zone was torn by dark features that effectively split the zone into three long sections . Jovian observer Elmer J. Reese labeled the dark sections AB , CD , and EF . The rifts expanded , shrinking the remaining segments of the STZ into the white ovals FA , BC , and DE . Ovals BC and DE merged in 1998 , forming Oval BE . Then , in March 2000 , BE and FA joined together , forming Oval BA . ( see White ovals , below )
Oval BA slowly began to turn red in August 2005 . On February 24 , 2006 , Filipino amateur astronomer Christopher Go discovered the color change , noting that it had reached the same shade as the GRS . As a result , NASA writer Dr. Tony Phillips suggested it be called " Red Spot Jr . " or " Red Jr . "
In April 2006 , a team of astronomers , believing that Oval BA might converge with the GRS that year , observed the storms through the Hubble Space Telescope . The storms pass each other about every two years , but the passings of 2002 and 2004 did not produce anything exciting . Dr. Amy Simon @-@ Miller , of the Goddard Space Flight Center , predicted the storms would have their closest passing on July 4 , 2006 . On July 20 , the two storms were photographed passing each other by the Gemini Observatory without converging .
Why Oval BA turned red is not understood . According to a 2008 study by Dr. Santiago Pérez @-@ Hoyos of the University of the Basque Country , the most likely mechanism is " an upward and inward diffusion of either a colored compound or a coating vapor that may interact later with high energy solar photons at the upper levels of Oval BA . " Some believe that small storms ( and their corresponding white spots ) on Jupiter turn red when the winds become powerful enough to draw certain gases from deeper within the atmosphere which change color when those gases are exposed to sunlight .
Oval BA is getting stronger according to observations made with the Hubble Space Telescope in 2007 . The wind speeds have reached 618 km / h ; about the same as in the Great Red Spot and far stronger than any of the progenitor storms . As of July 2008 , its size is about the diameter of Earth — approximately half the size of the Great Red Spot .
Oval BA should not be confused with another major storm on Jupiter , the South Tropical Little Red Spot ( LRS ) ( nicknamed " the Baby Red Spot " by NASA ) , which was destroyed by the GRS . The new storm , previously a white spot in Hubble images , turned red in May 2008 . The observations were led by Imke de Pater of the University of California , at Berkeley , US . The Baby Red Spot encountered the GRS in late June to early July 2008 , and in the course of a collision , the smaller red spot was shredded into pieces . The remnants of the Baby Red Spot first orbited , then were later consumed by the GRS . The last of the remnants with a reddish color to have been identified by astronomers had disappeared by mid @-@ July , and the remaining pieces again collided with the GRS , then finally merged with the bigger storm . The remaining pieces of the Baby Red Spot had completely disappeared by August 2008 . During this encounter Oval BA was present nearby , but played no apparent role in destruction of the Baby Red Spot .
= = = Storms and lightning = = =
The storms on Jupiter are similar to thunderstorms on Earth . They reveal themselves via bright clumpy clouds about 1000 km in size , which appear from time to time in the belts ' cyclonic regions , especially within the strong westward ( retrograde ) jets . In contrast to vortices , storms are short @-@ lived phenomena ; the strongest of them may exist for several months , while the average lifetime is only 3 – 4 days . They are believed to be due mainly to moist convection within Jupiter 's troposphere . Storms are actually tall convective columns ( plumes ) , which bring the wet air from the depths to the upper part of the troposphere , where it condenses in clouds . A typical vertical extent of Jovian storms is about 100 km ; as they extend from a pressure level of about 5 – 7 bar , where the base of a hypothetical water cloud layer is located , to as high as 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 bar .
Storms on Jupiter are always associated with lightning . The imaging of the night – side hemisphere of Jupiter by Galileo and Cassini spacecraft revealed regular light flashes in Jovian belts and near the locations of the westward jets , particularly at 51 ° N , 56 ° S and 14 ° S latitudes . On Jupiter lighting strikes are on average a few times more powerful than those on Earth . However , they are less frequent ; the light power emitted from a given area is similar to that on Earth . A few flashes have been detected in polar regions , making Jupiter the second known planet after Earth to exhibit polar lightning .
Every 15 – 17 years Jupiter is marked by especially powerful storms . They appear at 23 ° N latitude , where the strongest eastward jet , that can reach 150 m / s , is located . The last time such an event was observed was in March – June 2007 . Two storms appeared in the northern temperate belt 55 ° apart in longitude . They significantly disturbed the belt . The dark material that was shed by the storms mixed with clouds and changed the belt 's color . The storms moved with a speed as high as 170 m / s , slightly faster than the jet itself , hinting at the existence of strong winds deep in the atmosphere .
= = = Disturbances = = =
The normal pattern of bands and zones is sometimes disrupted for periods of time . One particular class of disruption are long @-@ lived darkenings of the South Tropical Zone , normally referred to as " South Tropical Disturbances " ( STD ) . The longest lived STD in recorded history was followed from 1901 until 1939 , having been first seen by Percy B. Molesworth on February 28 , 1901 . It took the form of darkening over part of the normally bright South Tropical zone . Several similar disturbances in the South Tropical Zone have been recorded since then .
= = = Hot spots = = =
One of the most mysterious features in the atmosphere of Jupiter are hot spots . In them the air is relatively free of clouds and heat can escape from the depths without much absorption . The spots look like bright spots in the infrared images obtained at the wavelength of about 5 μm . They are preferentially located in the belts , although there is a train
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was then numbered Bus . US 112 . The current designation was changed to Bus . US 12 in 1962 when US 12 replaced US 112 .
Major intersections
= = = Suffixed route = = =
US Highway 112S ( US 112S ) was a spur route of US 112 in the mid @-@ 1930s . Originally , US 112 turned southward at Union and ran to US 20 in Elkhart , Indiana . In 1933 , this section of highway was renumbered US 112S , before US 112 was relocated to go through Michigan 's southwestern most counties in 1935 . At the same time , US 112S was renumbered M @-@ 205 , a designation it would hold until it was transferred to local control on October 10 , 2002 , decommissioning the trunkline .
= Sierra Leone at the 2012 Summer Olympics =
Sierra Leone competed at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , from 27 July to 12 August 2012 . This marked the nation 's tenth appearance at the Summer Olympics since its debut in the 1968 Summer Olympics . The Sierra Leone delegation included two track and field athletes ; Ibrahim Turay , a sprinter and Ola Sesay , a long jumper . Sesay and Turay were selected as flag bearers for the opening and closing ceremonies respectively . Neither of the two athletes progressed beyond the first round .
= = Background = =
Sierra Leone participated in ten Summer Olympic games between its debut in the 1968 Summer Olympics in Mexico City , Mexico and the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , with the exception of the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich , and the 1976 Summer Olympics in Montreal , the latter because of a boycott relating to the New Zealand national rugby union team touring South Africa . The highest number of Sierra Leonean athletes participating in a summer games is fourteen in the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow , Russia and the 1996 Summer Olympics in Atlanta , USA . As of 2015 , no Sierra Leonean athlete has ever won a medal at the Olympics . Two athletes from Sierra Leone qualified for the London games ; Ibrahim Turay in the track and field 200 m and Ola Sesay in the long jump . They both qualified after meeting the " A " and " B " qualifying standards for their events respectively . Sesay and Turay were flag bearers for the opening and closing ceremonies respectively .
= = Athletics = =
The 2012 Summer Games marked Ibrahim Turay 's Olympic debut . He qualified for the 200 metres after posting a time of 22 @.@ 54 seconds in the 2010 Commonwealth Games Men 's 200 metres , 0 @.@ 01 seconds faster than the " A " qualifying standard . He competed on 7 August in heat two , finishing last out of eight athletes , despite achieving a personal best time of 21 @.@ 90 seconds . He ranked behind Chile 's Cristián Reyes ( 21 @.@ 29 seconds ) , in a heat led by France 's Christophe Lemaitre ( 20 @.@ 34 @.@ seconds ) . Overall he finished 51st out of 55 athletes , and was 1 @.@ 18 seconds slower than the slowest athlete that progressed to the final round and , therefore , that was the end of his competition .
Competing at her first Olympics , Ola Sesay was notable for carrying the Sierra Leone flag for the opening ceremony . She qualified for the Olympics after meeting the " B " qualifying standard in the long jump . She competed on 7 August in Group A , and finished joint 11th out of 16 athletes with Philippines ' Marestella Torres , both of whom posting a jump of 6 @.@ 22 metres . She ranked ahead of Ukraine 's Marharyta Tverdohlib ( 6 @.@ 19 metres ) in a group led by Great Britain 's Shara Proctor ( 6 @.@ 83 metres ) . Sesay finished 23rd out of 32 athletes overall , and was 0 @.@ 18 metres behind a qualification spot , therefore not advancing to the final .
Key
Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only
Q
= Qualified for the next round
q =
Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target
NR
= National record
N / A =
Round not applicable for the event
Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round
Men
Women
= Battersea Bridge =
Battersea Bridge is a five @-@ span arch bridge with cast @-@ iron girders and granite piers crossing the River Thames in London , England . It is situated on a sharp bend in the river , and links Battersea south of the river with Chelsea to the north . The bridge replaced a ferry service that had operated near the site since at least the middle of the 16th century .
The first Battersea Bridge was a toll bridge commissioned by John , Earl Spencer , who had recently acquired the rights to operate the ferry . Although a stone bridge was planned , difficulties in raising investment meant that a cheaper wooden bridge was built instead . Designed by Henry Holland , it was initially opened to pedestrians in November 1771 , and to vehicle traffic in 1772 . The bridge was poorly designed and dangerous both to its users and to passing shipping , and boats often collided with it . To reduce the dangers to shipping , two piers were removed and the sections of the bridge above them were strengthened with iron girders .
Although dangerous and unpopular , the bridge was the last surviving wooden bridge on the Thames in London , and was the subject of paintings by many significant artists such as J. M. W. Turner , John Sell Cotman and James McNeill Whistler , including Whistler 's Nocturne : Blue and Gold – Old Battersea Bridge , and his controversial Nocturne in Black and Gold – The Falling Rocket .
In 1879 the bridge was taken into public ownership , and in 1885 demolished and replaced with the existing bridge , designed by Sir Joseph Bazalgette and built by John Mowlem & Co . The narrowest surviving road bridge over the Thames in London , it is one of London 's least busy Thames bridges . The location on a bend in the river makes the bridge a hazard to shipping , and it has been closed many times due to collisions .
= = Background = =
Chelsea ( Old English Cealchyð , chalk wharf ) , about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of Westminster on the north bank of the River Thames , has existed as a settlement since at least Anglo @-@ Saxon times . The Thames at this point bends through a sharp angle from a south @-@ north to an east @-@ west flow , and the slow @-@ moving and relatively easily fordable river here is popularly believed to be the site of Julius Caesar 's crossing of the Thames during the 54 BC invasion of Britain . Chelsea enjoyed good road and river connections to the seat of government at Westminster and the commercial centre of the City of London since at least the 14th century . It was a centre of the British porcelain industry , and a major producer of baked goods – at peak periods almost 250 @,@ 000 chelsea buns per day were sold . By the 18th century it had large numbers of very prosperous residents .
Battersea , listed as Patricesy ( St Peter 's Water ) in the Domesday Book and first mentioned in records of 693 AD , on the south bank of the river opposite Chelsea , was by contrast low and marshy land , prone to flooding . Conditions were ideal for farming asparagus and lavender , and a small market town grew in the area based on the asparagus and lavender industries .
Although Chelsea and Battersea had been linked by ferry since at least 1550 , the nearest fixed links between the two were Putney Bridge , 2 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) upstream and opened in 1729 , and Westminster Bridge , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) downstream , opened in 1746 . In 1763 John , Earl Spencer , purchased the manor of Battersea , and consequently acquired ownership of the ferry service between Chelsea and Battersea .
The ferry was old and somewhat dangerous , and in 1766 Spencer formed the Battersea Bridge Company and sought and obtained Parliamentary consent to build " a fine stone bridge " across the Thames . The bridge was to be built between Cheyne Walk and Battersea , at the point where the river 's course turns sharply east towards Westminster , at a projected cost of £ 83 @,@ 000 ( about £ 10 @,@ 968 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) . The Earl had anticipated that many local residents would invest in the project , but soon found that there was widespread scepticism about the scheme . Only 15 investors , including the Earl himself , were willing to invest , and a total of only £ 17 @,@ 662 ( about £ 2 @,@ 215 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) was raised , far less than was needed to finance the ambitious project .
= = Old Battersea Bridge = =
Spencer calculated that the money raised would be sufficient to finance a modest timber bridge , and a design was commissioned from rising architect Henry Holland . The bridge was built to Holland 's designs by John Phillips , whose uncle Thomas Phillips had built the 1729 bridge at Putney . The bridge was opened to pedestrians in November 1771 while still incomplete . In 1772 a chalk and gravel surface was added and the bridge was opened to vehicle traffic . Tolls were charged on a sliding scale , ranging from 1 ⁄ 2d for pedestrians to 1 shilling for vehicles drawn by four or more horses . The bridge was never formally named , and was referred to on maps of the period as both " Battersea Bridge " and " Chelsea Bridge " .
The bridge was not a commercial success . It was 734 feet ( 224 m ) long and only 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide , making it impractical for larger vehicles to use . Holland 's design consisted of nineteen separate narrow spans , the widest being only 32 feet ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) wide , and boats found it difficult to navigate beneath the bridge ; there were a number of accidents including serious injuries and deaths . Repeatedly rammed by passing shipping , the bridge required frequent costly repairs , and dividends paid to investors were low . During a particularly cold winter in 1795 the bridge was badly damaged by ice , necessitating lengthy and expensive reconstruction , and no dividends at all were paid for the next three years . Concerns were expressed in Parliament about the reliability of the bridge , and the Battersea Bridge Company was obliged to provide a ferry service at the same rate as the bridge tolls , in the event of the bridge being closed for repairs .
In an effort to improve the bridge 's poor safety record for its customers , oil lamps were added to the deck in 1799 , making Battersea Bridge the first Thames bridge to be lit . Between 1821 and 1824 the flimsy wooden fences along the edges of the bridge , which were often breaking , were replaced by sturdy iron 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) railings , and in 1824 the oil lamps were themselves replaced by gas lighting . In 1873 , in an effort to improve navigation around the bridge and reduce accidents , two of the piers were removed , making the widest span a more easily navigated 77 feet ( 23 m ) , and the bridge deck was strengthened with iron girders to compensate for the missing piers .
= = = Competition and disputes with Vauxhall Bridge = = =
In 1806 , a scheme was proposed by Ralph Dodd to open the south bank of the Thames opposite Westminster and London for development , by building a new major road from Hyde Park Corner to Kennington and Greenwich , crossing the river at Vauxhall , about halfway between Battersea Bridge and Westminster Bridge . The Battersea Bridge Company were concerned about the potential loss of custom , and petitioned Parliament against the scheme , stating that " [ Dodd ] is a well known adventurer and Speculist , and the projector of numerous undertakings upon a large scale most if not all of which have failed " , and the bill was abandoned . However , in 1809 a new bill was presented to Parliament for a bridge at Vauxhall , this time obliging the operators of the new bridge to compensate the Battersea Bridge Company for any losses , and the Company allowed it to pass and accepted compensation . The Act obliged the Vauxhall Bridge Company to reimburse the Battersea Bridge Company for any loss in revenue caused by the new bridge .
After many delays and setbacks , the new bridge at Vauxhall ( initially named Regent Bridge after George , Prince Regent , but shortly afterwards renamed Vauxhall Bridge ) opened on 4 June 1816 . However , the Vauxhall Bridge Company failed to pay the agreed compensation to the Battersea Bridge Company and were taken to court . After a legal dispute lasting five years , a judgement was made in favour of the Battersea Bridge Company , with the Vauxhall Bridge Company being obliged to pay £ 8 @,@ 234 ( about £ 633 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) compensation .
= = = Old Battersea Bridge in art = = =
Although the bridge was inconvenient for its users and flimsily constructed , as the last surviving wooden bridge on the Thames in the London area it was considered an important landmark , and many leading artists of the period were attracted to it . Camille Pissarro , J. M. W. Turner , John Sell Cotman and John Atkinson Grimshaw produced significant paintings of the bridge . Walter Greaves , whose family owned a boathouse adjacent to the bridge and whose father had been boatman to Turner , painted numerous scenes of the bridge . Local resident and mentor to Greaves James McNeill Whistler created many images of it , including the influential Hokusai @-@ inspired Nocturne : Blue and Gold – Old Battersea Bridge ( painted c . 1872 – 5 ) , in which the dimensions of the bridge are intentionally distorted and Chelsea Old Church and the newly built Albert Bridge are visible through a stylised London fog .
Whistler 's Nocturne series achieved notoriety in 1877 , when influential critic John Ruskin visited an exhibition of the series at the Grosvenor Gallery . He wrote of the painting Nocturne in Black and Gold – The Falling Rocket , that Whistler was " asking two hundred guineas for flinging a pot of paint in the public 's face " . Whistler sued for libel , the case reaching the courts in 1878 . The judge in the case caused laughter in the court when , referring to Nocturne : Blue and Gold – Old Battersea Bridge , he asked Whistler " Which part of the picture is the bridge ? " ; the case ended with Whistler awarded token damages of one farthing .
In 1905 , Nocturne : Blue and Gold became the first significant acquisition by the newly formed National Art Collections Fund , and is now in Tate Britain .
= = = Takeover and public ownership = = =
A more modern and convenient competing bridge opened nearby at Chelsea Bridge in 1858 , and usage of Battersea Bridge fell sharply . There were serious public concerns about the safety of the bridge by this time , after an 1844 incident in which a woman was murdered on the bridge in view of one of the toll collectors , who did not intervene because both parties had paid their fares .
The new Albert Bridge opened in 1873 , less than 500 yards ( 460 m ) from Battersea Bridge . Mindful of the impact the new bridge would have on older bridge 's financial viability , the 1864 Act of Parliament authorising the Albert Bridge compelled the Albert Bridge Company to purchase Battersea Bridge at the time of the new bridge 's opening and to compensate the owners of Battersea Bridge with £ 3 @,@ 000 ( about £ 266 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) per annum until the new bridge opened , and so Battersea Bridge was bought outright by the Albert Bridge Company in 1873 . By this time the bridge was in extremely poor condition , and there were many calls from local residents for it to be demolished . As an interim measure , the Albert Bridge 's architect Rowland Mason Ordish strengthened the foundations of the bridge with concrete while debate continued as to its future .
The Metropolis Toll Bridges Act was passed in 1877 , which allowed the Metropolitan Board of Works to buy all London bridges between Hammersmith and Waterloo Bridges and free them from tolls , and in 1879 the Board of Works bought Albert and Battersea bridges for a combined cost of £ 170 @,@ 000 ( about £ 15 @,@ 589 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) and the tolls were removed from both bridges .
Inspections by the Chief Engineer of the Metropolitan Board of Works , Sir Joseph Bazalgette , following the purchase found that Battersea Bridge was in such poor condition that it was unable to be repaired safely . In 1883 it was restricted to pedestrian traffic only , and in 1885 it was demolished to make way for a new bridge designed by Bazalgette .
= = New Battersea Bridge = =
The contract to build the new bridge was awarded to John Mowlem & Co , and in June 1887 the Duke of Clarence laid a ceremonial foundation stone in the southern abutment and construction work began . Bazalgette 's design incorporated five arches with cast iron griders , on granite piers which in turn rest on concrete foundations . The roadway itself is 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) wide , and 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) wide footpaths are cantilevered on either side of the bridge , giving the bridge a total width of 40 feet ( 12 m ) . The balustrade is a distinctive Moorish @-@ style lattice . Construction work was overseen by Bazalgette 's son Edward , and cost a total of £ 143 @,@ 000 ( about £ 14 @,@ 193 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) .
On 21 July 1890 , the bridge was officially opened by future Prime Minister Lord Rosebery , then chairman of the newly formed London County Council . Unlike its predecessor , the new bridge was officially named Battersea Bridge . Although the road was narrow , trams operated on it from the outset . Initially these were horse @-@ drawn , but from 22 June 1911 the electric trams of London County Council Tramways were introduced .
= = = Collisions = = =
Although the five spans of the current bridge are far wider than the nineteen spans of the original bridge , Battersea Bridge 's location on a sharp bend in the river still presents a hazard to navigation . In 1948 , the MV Delta jammed under the bridge , and its master Hendrikus Oostring suffered broken arms and needed to be rescued from the smashed wheelhouse . On 23 March 1950 , the collier John Hopkinson collided with the central pier , causing serious structural damage , leaving the tram tracks as the only element holding the bridge together . The London County Council was concerned that the entire structure would collapse and closed the bridge until January 1951 . Tram services in the area were withdrawn on 30 September 1950 , so when the bridge was re @-@ opened the tram tracks were lifted . Another serious incident took place on 21 September 2005 , when the James Prior , a 200 @-@ ton barge , collided with the bridge , causing serious structural damage costing over £ 500 @,@ 000 to repair . The bridge was closed to all motor vehicles other than buses while repairs were carried out , causing severe traffic congestion ; it eventually reopened on 16 January 2006 . Brian King , the master of the James Prior , was formally cleared of navigating without due care and attention in 2008 , when the judge in the case injured his back and was unable to proceed and prosecutors decided not to re @-@ present the case .
= = = Restoration = = =
At only 40 feet ( 12 m ) wide , Bazalgette 's bridge is now London 's narrowest surviving road bridge over the Thames , and in 2004 was the fifth least @-@ used Thames bridge in London . In 1983 the bridge was designated a Grade II listed structure , protecting its character from further alterations , and in 1992 English Heritage oversaw a project to renovate the bridge , which for some years had been painted blue and red .
Paint samples were analysed and photographs from the time of opening consulted , and the bridge was restored to its original appearance . The main body of the bridge was painted in dark green , with the spandrels decorated in gilding . The lamp standards , which had been removed during the Second World War , were replaced with replicas copied from the surviving posts at the ends of the bridge . A statue of James McNeill Whistler by Nicholas Dimbleby was erected at the north end of the bridge in 2005 .
= = = 2006 Thames whale = = =
Shortly after its reopening following the collision with the James Prior , the bridge briefly attained national prominence on 20 January 2006 when a 19 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 8 m ) long female bottlenose whale became stranded at Battersea Bridge . A rescue operation was mounted , and large crowds flocked to the bridge . The whale was successfully transferred to a barge , but died while being transported back to the sea to be released . A year after the whale 's death , its skeleton was put on public display in the offices of The Guardian newspaper . Today it resides at the Natural History Museum .
= Astley , Greater Manchester =
Astley is a settlement within the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan in Greater Manchester , England , variously described as a suburb or a village . Astley lies on flat land to the northwest of the city of Manchester , and is crossed by the Bridgewater Canal and the A580 " East Lancashire Road " . It forms a continuous urban area with neighbouring Tyldesley , and is equidistant from Wigan and Manchester city centre , both 8 @.@ 3 miles ( 13 @.@ 4 km ) away . The Astley Mosley Common ward of Wigan MBC , which covers both settlements , had a population of 11 @,@ 654 in the 2001 Census , falling to 11 @,@ 270 at the 2011 Census .
Historically a part of Lancashire , the name Astley is derived from Old English , indicating Anglo @-@ Saxon settlement . It means " east Leigh " or " east of Leigh " , a reference to Astley 's location relative to the town of Leigh ; or ēastlēah the " eastern wood or clearing " . Throughout the Middle Ages , Astley constituted a township within the parish of Leigh and hundred of West Derby . Astley first appears in written form as Asteleghe in 1210 , when its lord of the manor granted land to the religious order of Premonstratensian canons at Cockersand Abbey .
Medieval and Early Modern Astley is distinguished by the dignitaries who occupied Damhouse , the local manor house around which a settlement expanded . The newly extended Bridgewater Canal reached Astley in 1795 , and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway in 1830 . The Industrial Revolution introduced mechanised coal mining and the factory system to the region in and around Astley , triggering its expansion . The village 's only cotton mill was built in 1833 .
Mining subsidence coupled with structural and political changes to the mining industry began the decline in Astley 's industrial activities during the mid @-@ 20th century ; its cotton mill closed in 1955 , and the last coal was brought to the surface in 1970 . However , Astley has grown as part of a commuter belt , supported by its proximity to Manchester city centre and inter @-@ city transport links . Astley Green Colliery Museum houses collections of Astley 's industrial heritage .
= = History = =
= = = Toponymy = = =
Astley is of Old English derivation , and means " East Leigh " , a reference to its position in relation to Leigh . Leigh is derived from leah , meaning a " wood " , a " clearing " or a " meadow " . The earliest written record of Astley was in documents dated 1210 when it appeared as the Middle English Asteleghe . Other archaic spellings include Asteleye ( 1292 ) and Astlegh ( 14th and 15th centuries ) .
= = = Early history = = =
The earliest evidence of human activity in the area is the remains of a Roman road which served as the route between Roman camps at Coccium ( Wigan ) and Mamucium ( Manchester ) . The road ran to the north of Astley , past Keeper Delph and through Tyldesley . Evidence for the presence of Anglo @-@ Saxons in the sparsely populated , heavily wooded and isolated region is provided by place names incorporating the Old English suffix leah , such as in Leigh , Tyldesley , Shakerley and Astley .
= = = Manor = = =
Astley emerged during the Early Middle Ages as a township in the parish of Leigh . It was mentioned in documents in 1210 , when Hugh of Tyldesley , Lord of the Manors of Tyldesley and Astley , granted land to Cockersand Abbey . In 1212 , he was recorded as tenant of Astley Hall , the manor house for both Astley and Tyldesley , located just inside the Tyldesley township . After his death , his son Henry inherited the manors . He was succeeded by his son , another Henry , who , when he died in 1301 , divided the lands between three of his six sons . It is from this division that the manors of Astley and Tyldesley were separated . Tyldesleys lived at the Astley manor until April 1353 when Richard Radcliff bought it for 100 marks . The Radcliffs remained there until 1561 when William Radcliff died childless and the land passed to his half @-@ sister Anne , who married Gilbert Gerard .
In 1606 Adam Mort bought the manor house and land in Astley . He was a wealthy man who built the first Astley Chapel as a chapel of ease for the parish church in Leigh . The chapel was consecrated in 1631 , the year that he died . He built a grammar school that stood for over 200 years until 1833 , when it was demolished and rebuilt . Adam Mort 's grandson , also Adam , rebuilt Damhouse in 1650 and his initials are carved in the plaque over the front door . The stone and timber structure was named from the stream which was dammed to supply water to a waterwheel powering a corn mill near the house . It is possible the hall was once surrounded by a moat .
Adam Mort 's descendants continued to support the chapel and school and remained at Damhouse until 1734 when it was bought by Thomas Sutton . After Sutton 's death in 1752 the house was inherited by Thomas Froggatt of Bakewell who contributed to rebuilding the chapel in 1760 . Froggatt 's descendants owned Damhouse until 1800 when it was leased to tenants , one of whom was George Ormerod , owner of the Banks Estate in Tyldesley who gave land for its churchyard and church school . In 1839 the house became the property of Captain Adam Durie of Craig Lascar by marriage to Sarah Froggatt . Damhouse was dilapidated when the Duries moved in . Captain Durie gave land to build a school on Church Road . After his death in 1843 his widow , Sarah , married Colonel Malcolm Nugent Ross . The Ross 's Arms public house at Higher Green is named in his honour . The Durie 's daughter Katharine , who married first , Henry Davenport and second Sir Edward Robert Weatherall , became lady of the manor after her mother 's death but the family was in financial difficulties and the house and estate sold in November 1889 .
The Leigh Hospital Board bought Damhouse in 1893 for use as a sanatorium dealing with cases of diphtheria , scarlet fever and , in 1947 , poliomyelitis . Two bombs fell close to the hospital during the Second World War . It became a general hospital in 1948 dealing with chronically ill and geriatric patients and closed in 1994 .
= = = Industrial Revolution = = =
Astley became more industrialised during the early 19th century , but not so much as neighbouring Leigh , Tyldesley and Boothstown . A factory was built by James and Robert Arrowsmith on Peel Lane at Astley Green , near the Bridgewater Canal in 1833 . Until then , agriculture and cottage spinning and weaving had been the main economic activities . Fustians , muslins and , after 1827 , silk were woven in the area . Handloom weaving declined after the cotton factory was built . Arrowsmith 's factory lasted until 1955 , when mining subsidence damaged its foundations and it was demolished , ending Astley 's link with the textile industry .
Astley on the Lancashire Coalfield and had several coal mines within its boundaries . On a map of 1768 , a lane leading to Nook and Gin Pit Collieries was called the Coal Road and later North Coal Pit Lane . Gin Pit 's name alludes a method of coal mining , raising coal using a horse gin . An early colliery at Cross Hillock was abandoned in 1886 because of flooding . Samuel Jackson developed the mines that became Astley and Tyldesley Collieries between Astley and Tyldesley . Peat works were opened close to Astley railway station by the Astley Peat Moss Litter Company Limited in 1888 .
On 7 May 1908 the Pilkington Colliery Company started sinking No 1 Shaft of Astley Green Colliery near the Bridgewater Canal . A colliery railway moved coal from the screens to the Liverpool and Manchester Railway but some coal was transported to power stations at Trafford Park and Stretford using the Bridgewater Canal . Pit head baths , a canteen and medical centre designed for the Miners ' Welfare Committee by architect C. Kemp , were built in 1935 – 36 at a cost of over £ 24 @,@ 000 ( £ 1 @.@ 5 million as of 2016 ) . There was a mining accident at Astley Green on 7 June 1939 when five men including the manager died in an explosion of firedamp . Women , " pit brow lasses " , worked on the screens sorting coal from rock until 1955 . The last coal was wound on 3 April 1970 .
The headgear at Astley Green Colliery Museum remains a landmark in the 21st century . It is made from wrought @-@ iron lattice girders with rivetted plates at all the joints , three wheels , two large and one small , are mounted at the top . Built by Head Wrightson of Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees in 1912 , it is nearly 30 metres ( 98 ft ) high . In the winding house is a twin tandem compound steam engine made by Yates and Thom of Blackburn who also supplied 16 Lancashire boilers .
= = Governance = =
Historically , Astley formed part of the Hundred of West Derby , a judicial division of southwest Lancashire . It was one of six townships or vills that made up the ancient ecclesiastical parish of Leigh . The townships existed before the parish . Under the terms of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 , the townships formed the Leigh Poor Law Union established on 26 January 1837 , comprising the whole of the ancient parish and part of Winwick . There were workhouses in Pennington , Culcheth , Tyldesley and Lowton , but Leigh Union workhouse at Atherleigh replaced them in the 1850s . In 1894 the civil parishes of Astley , Culcheth , Kenyon and Lowton became part of Leigh Rural District which lasted until it was dissolved in 1933 and Astley was incorporated into the Tyldesley Urban District . The urban district was abolished in 1974 under the Local Government Act 1972 , and Astley became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , a local government district of the metropolitan county of Greater Manchester .
In 2012 Astley and Mosley Common form an electoral ward of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan . The ward elects three councillors to the 75 @-@ member metropolitan borough council . As of 2012 , the Astley Mosley Common ward is represented by three Labour councillors .
After a review of parliamentary representation in Greater Manchester , the Boundary Commission recommended Astley should be part of the Leigh constituency at the United Kingdom general election , 2010 . At the 2010 General Election Andy Burnham retained the Leigh seat with 24 @,@ 295 votes and a majority of 15 @,@ 011 , representing 51 @.@ 3 % of the vote . Burnham was re @-@ elected MP for the Leigh constituency in 2015 with 24 @,@ 312 votes which was 53 @.@ 9 % of the total vote cast .
= = Geography = =
At 53 ° 30 ′ 3 ″ N 2 ° 26 ′ 44 ″ W ( 53 @.@ 5008 ° , − 2 @.@ 4454 ° ) , and 163 miles ( 262 km ) northwest of central London , Astley is on the northern side of the Chat Moss bog , about 177 feet ( 54 m ) above sea level . It forms a continuous urban area with Tyldesley to the north , and , according to the Office for National Statistics , is a part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area , the United Kingdom 's third largest conurbation .
Astley is 8 @.@ 3 miles ( 13 @.@ 4 km ) west @-@ northwest of Manchester city centre , and 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) north of the Bridgewater Canal , which straddles the village 's southern hinterland from east @-@ to @-@ west . Astley is crossed east @-@ to @-@ west by the A572 and A580 roads . The hamlet of Astley Green lines a straight road leading southwards through Chat Moss , to the former Astley railway station , which is 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) south of the village . Astley spans an area of 2 @,@ 685 acres ( 10 @.@ 87 km2 ) , of which 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 km2 ) is peat bog . Astley and Bedford Mosses is one of the last surviving fragments of Chat Moss , most of which has been drained for agriculture or lost through peat removal . It occupies a 33 @-@ hectare ( 82 @-@ acre ) site between Astley and the Liverpool and Manchester Railway . It has been a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) since 1989 . Astley Moss is crossed by the Astley Brook and Moss Brook , tributaries to the Glaze Brook and the River Mersey .
The underlying geology consists of the Permo @-@ Triassic New Red Sandstone in the south , and the Middle Coal Measures of the Manchester Coalfield to the north . The upper soils are a mixture of clay and sand , with a subsoil of clay . The Astley area encompasses smaller , suburban and semi @-@ outlying areas , including Blackmoor , Astley Green , Gin Pit and Cross Hillock . The isolated hamlet of terraced houses at Gin Pit was built by the Astley and Tyldesley Collieries Company . Peace Street , Lord Street and Maden Street were named after directors of the company .
= = Demography = =
= = Economy = =
Before deindustrialisation in the late 20th century , Astley 's economy was linked with the textile industry and coal mines which developed during the Industrial Revolution . Now the main concentration of employment is at the Chaddock Lane Industrial Estate on either side of the A572 road between Astley and the East Lancashire Road .
Since the early 1980s , much of the area between Tyldesley and Astley has been built on for housing . Indicators show that the township has a strong housing market , with a high owner occupancy rate of almost 80 % . Parts of Astley are among the 5 % least deprived areas in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , whilst parts of the Blackmoor area , where social housing is concentrated , are within the 10 – 20 % most deprived neighbourhoods nationally . Facilities in the village include a small local shopping centre at Blackmoor . The development of Astley Green Colliery Museum and the heritage centre at Damhouse attract visitors interested in the area 's heritage .
= = Landmarks = =
The site of Astley Green Colliery Museum , a scheduled ancient monument , retains its engine house and headgear , a prominent feature that can be seen from around the local area .
Damhouse , the former manor house , is a listed building , parts of which were dated to 1595 by the Greater Manchester Archaeological Unit . The house was extended in 1650 . In 1999 , Morts Astley Heritage Trust was formed to preserve Damhouse and open the surrounding woodland to the public . It is situated within the Astley Village conservation area .
Morleys Hall lies on part of the lands donated to Cockersand Abbey by Hugh Tyldesley in 1210 . It was owned by the Morleys until 1431 , then subsequently by the Leylands . In 1540 it was described as being largely built of timber on stone foundations and surrounded by a moat . It was rebuilt in 1804 , but parts of the old hall survive . Edward Tyldesley of Wardley Hall married Anne Leyland and inherited Morleys in 1564 . Their granddaughter , Elizabeth Tyldesley , became abbess of the Convent of Poor Clares at Gravelines in the Spanish Netherlands . Sir Thomas Tyldesley was the most famous of this line of the family , having been a Cavalier commander and supporter of Charles II , King of England during the English Civil War . He died in the Battle of Wigan Lane and is buried at the Church of St Mary the Virgin , Leigh . The hall passed through the Legh and Wilkinson families until it was sold to Tyldesley Urban District Council and the land used for a sewage works . The hall is a private residence .
= = Transport = =
Public transport in Astley is co @-@ ordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester . Bus services operate to Bolton , The Trafford Centre , Tyldesley , Atherton , Wigan and Manchester , operated by Diamond Bus North West , Stagecoach Manchester and First Greater Manchester . Major A roads link Astley with other settlements , including the A580 " East Lancashire Road " , which opened in 1934 bisecting the village . Its dual carriageway crosses the Bridgewater Canal on a bridge at Morleys . The A572 road connects Astley and Worsley and the A5082 road heads north east to Tyldesley .
By 1795 , the original Bridgewater Canal from Worsley to Manchester had proved an economic success , prompting its owner , Francis Egerton , 3rd Duke of Bridgewater , to seek powers to extend it route to Leigh via Astley . The Duke 's plans were approved , despite opposition from the local population . Canal traffic brought trade to Astley Green where the Hope and Anchor Inn ( now the Boathouse ) was built with stabling for horses that pulled the barges . The original canal bridge built to connect Lower and Higher Green lasted until 1904 , when it was replaced . The second bridge was replaced in 1920 by an iron bridge , which could be raised to counter the effects of mining subsidence . A boatyard was established by Lingards Bridge .
The Liverpool and Manchester Railway of 1830 crosses Astley Moss . It was built on a raft of branches and cotton bales to prevent the track sinking into Chat Moss . The early engines reached speeds of 25 mph ( 40 km / h ) . The first passengers told the driver where they wished to alight until Astley railway station was built in the mid @-@ 1840s . The railway was distant from the village and early travellers came on horseback or in carriages .
An early tramway ran to a wharf on the Bridgewater Canal at Marsland Green and a mineral railway system linked Gin Pit Colliery to the Tyldesley Loopline at Jackson 's sidings and Bedford Colliery and Speakman 's Sidings . The colliery locomotives were named after Gin Pit Colliery 's company directors .
= = Education = =
Adam Mort established a grammar school by the chapel in 1631 which was in use until 1833 . Children from poor families were admitted free and those who could afford to pay covered the costs . Mort 's School closed in 1894 . In 1832 children were taught in a barn at the vicarage , the curate , Alfred Hewlett , improved it and the chapel was used as a classroom . A national school built by subscription on land donated by Captain Durie of Damhouse opened in November 1841 . Meanleys Infant School was opened at Gin Pit in 1904 to serve the mining community that had grown up by there . Other schools were built at Ellesmere Street and Marsland Green .
= = Religion = =
Adam Mort built Astley Chapel which was completed in 1630 and consecrated 3 August 1631 . It was the first of three chapels in Astley , and the first chapel of ease of Leigh parish church . Astley Chapel was rebuilt in 1760 ; Thomas Froggatt gave a contribution towards the cost . The new church was built of brick and measured 54 ft 6 in ( 16 @.@ 61 m ) in length and 36 ft ( 11 m ) in width and held 170 people and was enlarged in 1834 , 1842 and 1847 . It had a small chancel and its embattled western tower contained a single bell . The church , dedicated to Saint Stephen , was destroyed by arson on 18 June 1961 . Also destroyed was the book collection , acquired by the Morts , memorials to the old families and the First and Second World War memorials . It was too severely damaged to restore and a third church has been built on a nearby site .
Prominent Catholic families in the Leigh parish did not abandon the Catholic faith after the English Reformation despite penalties levied on papists . Secret Roman Catholic masses were held in private homes , including Morleys Hall , home of the Tyldesleys . On Easter Sunday 1641 , the Catholic priest , Ambrose Barlow was arrested during a service at Morleys Hall at the instigation of the vicar of Leigh . He was taken to Lancaster Castle , tried as a traitor and executed on 10 September 1641 . He was canonised by the Roman Catholic Church as one of the Forty Martyrs of England and Wales . A church and school bear his name . The St Ambrose Barlow parish was formed in 1965 and the church was built in 1981 . St Ambrose Barlow parish is in the Leigh Pastoral Area in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Liverpool .
There were two Methodist churches but one in Lower Green closed in 2009 . Astley Unitarian Chapel was demolished and the site built on . Gin Pit School doubled as a chapel for Wesleyan Methodists .
= = Sport = =
Astley and Tyldesley Miners ' Welfare Club at Gin Pit is the venue for several sporting groups including Astley and Tyldesley Cricket Club and the Astley and Tyldesley Roadrunners . The Astley and Tyldesley Cycle Speedway Club was formed in 1989 and built a race track at the Miners ' Welfare Club in 1991 .
= = Public services = =
Astley is policed by the Greater Manchester Police force from Atherton Police Station , which covers Atherton , Tyldesley , Astley and Mosley Common . The statutory emergency fire and rescue service is provided by the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , from Leigh and Atherton fire stations . Hospital services are provided by the Wrightington , Wigan and Leigh NHS Foundation Trust who provide an Accident and Emergency service at Wigan Hospital and outpatient clinics at Leigh Infirmary . Health services in the Wigan borough are provided by the Wigan Borough Clinical Commissioning Group . Waste management is co @-@ ordinated by Wigan Metropolitan Council , which is a statutory waste disposal authority in its own right . Astley 's Distribution Network Operator for electricity is Electricity North West Ltd . United Utilities manages Astley 's drinking and waste water .
= Gil Grissom =
Gilbert Arthur " Gil " Grissom , Ph.D. is a fictional character on the CBS crime drama CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , portrayed by William Petersen . Grissom is a forensic entomologist and , for the series ' first nine seasons , a CSI Level III Supervisor employed by the Las Vegas Police Department . He appeared in 198 episodes , and was replaced by Laurence Fishburne and , later , Ted Danson .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Series regular = = =
Petersen appeared in every episode of the series ' first eight seasons , with the exceptions of :
Season 05 : " Hollywood Brass "
Season 06 : " Gum Drops " , " The Unusual Suspect "
Season 07 : " Sweet Jane " , " Redrum "
Petersen then appeared in the first ten episodes of the ninth season , before departing the main cast .
= = = Guest star = = =
Following his departure from the main cast , Petersen reprised his role on five occasions .
Voice
Season 09 : " Turn , Turn , Turn "
Season 13 : " Wild Flower " , " Dead Air "
On Screen
Season 11 : " The Two Mrs. Grissoms "
Petersen also guest starred in Immortality , CSI 's feature @-@ length series finale .
= = Creation = =
Anthony E. Zuiker , who created the show , loosely based Grissom on real life Las Vegas Metropolitan Police Department criminalist Daniel Holstein . Zuiker was " fascinated " by Holstein , who , like Grissom , kept maggots and pig 's blood in his refrigerator . Holstein works as a consultant for the show . Zuiker originally named the character Gil Sheinbaum , but after he became part of the cast , William Petersen requested the name to be changed , Petersen and Zuiker decided to rename the character " Grissom , " after astronaut Gus Grissom , of whom Petersen was a great admirer . The name Gil came from one of the actor 's hobbies , fishing .
In 2000 , CBS had bought the pilot script from Zuiker , and Nina Tassler , CBS 's head of drama development , passed it on to Petersen , who had a pay or play contract with the network . Petersen has said that many TV shows were offered to him over the years , but he " didn 't want to get locked down " . However , he was impressed with the complexity of Grissom 's character , and he decided to audition . It was the second time Petersen portrayed a forensic scientist , having portrayed Will Graham in the 1986 film Manhunter .
= = Development = =
Gil Grissom first appears in CSI : Crime Scene Investigation on the pilot episode . After this he appeared in almost every single episode of the show 's first eight years , except in " Hollywood Brass " , from season five , an episode that turns entirely around Jim Brass ; besides him , only three other regular characters appear . William Petersen did not appear during the season six episode " Gum Drops " . This episode was originally going to be how Grissom was convinced that an abduction victim was still alive . When Petersen 's nephew died , he flew home and was unavailable for the filming of the episode , which was rewritten to be centered on Nick . During 2007 ( CSI 's season seven ) William Petersen took a break from CSI to appear in a five @-@ week run of the Trinity Repertory Company production of Dublin Carol in Providence , Rhode Island , resulting in Grissom taking a sabbatical , being replaced by Liev Schreiber , as Michael Keppler , who developed a small story arc through " Sweet Jane " , " Redrum " and " Meet Market " . Also in 2007 , the character appeared in a two part crossover with another CBS series , Without a Trace . It was the sixth episode of the sixth season entitled Where and Why . The plot of the crossover between CSI and Without a Trace involved a serial killer that had eluded capture in Nevada and had escaped to New York City . Gil Grissom was brought in to assist in the apprehension .
= = Character background = =
= = = Early life = = =
Gilbert Arthur " Gil " Grissom was born on August 17 , 1956 , as an only child to a middle @-@ class family in Santa Monica , California . Grissom 's father taught botany at a local college and passed his enthusiasm for natural sciences onto his son . His father died when Grissom was 9 years old . Grissom recalls the day his father died to Catherine Willows in the episode " Still Life " , " He came home from school , one hot humid day , laid down on the couch . I was watching TV , my mom brought in some cold drinks , but she couldn 't wake him up . No one would tell me why . " Consequently , as a young child , Grissom played doctor by performing necropsies on small , deceased animals in the local area .
Gil 's mother , Betty , who became deaf as a result of the genetic disorder Otosclerosis , was responsible for his love of books . As a result of his mother 's deafness , Gil became fluent in American Sign Language in order to be able to communicate with her . In the earlier seasons of CSI , it becomes clear that Gil is also beginning to lose his hearing as well ; however , after seeking medical treatment , the disease was prevented from developing .
Grissom earned his Bachelor of Science degree in biology magna cum laude from the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) , and his Ph.D. in Biology from the University of Chicago . He became a forensic entomologist . In the episode " Grissom vs. the Volcano " , Catherine tells the story of losing at a science competition as a child against a " kid with some lame red ants " . Later in the episode Nick also reveals that he lost a science competition and Grissom tells him to let it go . In his childhood science competition , Grissom was the kid with the ants .
In the season two episode " Bully for You " , he told Warrick that in high school , he was a " ghost " ( meaning that he did not belong to any group in particular ) . When he was in college , Grissom financed his first body farm with his winnings from a high @-@ stakes poker game . At the same time , he also attended boxing matches to learn about the patterns of bruise formations on bodies and eventual blood spatters from the injuries .
= = = Career = = =
Grissom became a crime scene investigator around 1985 ( Grissom mentioned in " Living Doll " , which first aired on May 17 , 2007 , that he had been a crime scene investigator for 22 years ) . Grissom once mentioned losing a body while in Minneapolis , implying he spent time there before taking a job in Las Vegas . This is mentioned again when he works with his former mentor , Dr. Phillip Gerard , played by Raymond J. Barry , stating that he used to work for him in Hennepin County , whose seat is Minneapolis .
He became the night shift team supervisor for the Las Vegas CSI unit on the second episode of the series , after Jim Brass was demoted following the death of co @-@ worker Holly Gribbs . In season seven , Grissom took a sabbatical to teach a class at Williams College in Williamstown , Massachusetts for four weeks . Prior to his sabbatical , Grissom had been showing signs of " burnout " . Upon his return , however , he appears reinvigorated and tells Warrick Brown that he " missed " Las Vegas . After the resignation of Sara Sidle , his fiancée , from the lab , and the murder of Warrick Brown , his burnout seems to be resurfacing . This is particularly evident in " Say Uncle " , where , at the end of the episode , he expresses deep regret over solving a particularly depressing case .
Grissom announced his retirement just as evidence comes to light that The Dick and Jane Killer , a serial killer from the 1990s currently serving two life sentences , did not act alone , and that his accomplice has begun killing again . Rather than leave in the middle of a case , Grissom stays on to help solve it , and ultimately proves instrumental in saving the life of a woman who would have been the killer 's latest victim . The case closed , Grissom , having already had a series of one @-@ on @-@ one farewells with his co @-@ workers , silently left the crime lab and departed for Costa Rica for a reunion with fiancée Sara Sidle , an allusion perhaps to his comments in a season one episode that when he left , people would not throw a party for him because he was not the sort of person who people would get deeply involved with . He also says to Warrick in season two ( " Ellie " ) that when he left there would not be a cake in the break room — he would just pick up and leave .
= = = After CSI = = =
After reuniting with Sara Sidle , Grissom presumably remains in Costa Rica for a short time , before guest @-@ lecturing at the Sorbonne , as noted in the tenth season . During the series ' eleventh season , Grissom begins consulting for the Peruvian government on the etymology and physicality of the Inca . It is during this time that Sara and Grissom divorce , citing geographical differences . He later joins a group dedicated to protecting fish and wildlife in the Pacific , a role described as a " CSI at sea " . After his activities lead him to the Port of San Diego , Grissom reunites with Willows and the CSI team in order to consult on a series of bombings in Las Vegas . During this case , he reconciles with Sidle , and the two sail off together in order to continue his work as a wildlife advocate .
= = Characterization = =
= = = Personality = = =
Early episodes revealed Grissom to be a witty , enthusiastic , and quirky scientist who had some sense of humor . He flirted regularly and seemed to be constantly in a hyperactive state .
However , when he began to lose his hearing , Grissom retreated into himself and became easily irritated and unapproachable . After his surgery , he lightened up a bit , but never returned to the whimsical science nerd he once was .
Grissom is often regarded as well @-@ educated , but unusual in his approach toward his work and social life . In the series , some of his comments and actions can be seen to dumbfound his co @-@ workers and superiors . His relationship with his subordinates in the office is portrayed as being a father figure to the team , but very professional in his work .
Despite being calm , Grissom can get very angry or annoyed if interrupted during an interrogation as seen in season one episode " Table Stakes " when he berates Nick Stokes for calling him out of interrogation .
In addition to being a genius and somewhat of a polymath beyond his career training , he exhibits Asperger @-@ like traits . In " Caged " , it is hinted that ( in fact ) he has Asperger 's syndrome . Another character on CSI who shares these kind of traits is his subordinate ( and ex @-@ wife ) , Sara Sidle . She once insinuated that Grissom was a misanthrope when he quoted her Thoreau 's Walden .
In the season two episode " Alter Boys " , Grissom confides in a priest that he does not believe in the concept of organized religion and is a lapsed Catholic , but does believe in the idea of God . In addition to belief in God , Grissom and Greg would later agree that scientific education should not necessarily preclude belief in occultism and other paranormal concepts .
Although he is very dedicated to his job and sometimes goes to extremes in his investigations , his unwillingness to dabble in office politics often alienates his superiors , and sometimes his subordinates . He gets a lot of help in these areas from right @-@ hand woman Catherine Willows , who is always trying to make him " look up from the microscope " .
Grissom claims to have never hired a prostitute for sex , stating that sex is intended to create a human emotional connection . He has also expressed distaste for carrying a firearm when in the field , a tendency that has brought several scoldings from co @-@ worker Jim Brass . Despite this , he has proven to have an exceptional accuracy at the firing range .
He once listed his hobbies to Lady Heather : " I have outlets . I read . I study bugs . I sometimes even ride roller coasters " . Indeed , he has proven to be a very cultured man on many occasions , having a wide knowledge of history , literature , and art . He often offers quotes from a variety of literary sources , including Shakespeare and Keats . Later in this same season , he reveals himself to be a baseball fan . Sara notes that this is typical of Grissom , saying that he would like " all those stats " . However , Grissom is not too familiar with popular culture . In " Two and a Half Deaths " , Jim Brass was talking about a TV program which he thought had already " jumped the shark , " but Grissom did not know the term . While trying to explain , Brass says , " Remember the Fonz ? " , which Grissom did not know either .
Being an entomologist , he has a wide and varied knowledge of insects , which he applies to his investigations . This has led to his nickname , " The Bug Man " . In the beginning of the show , he was referred as " Gruesome Grissom " for his sometimes morbid fascination with the more bizarre aspects of man and nature . Grissom keeps a variety of specimens in his office , including a radiated fetal pig , a tarantula , and a two @-@ headed scorpion . He also has a bulletin board that looks like a fish on which unsolved cases go : " the ones that got away " . Occasionally , he keeps evidence from closed cases ( such as the models created by " The Miniature Killer " ) . In season seven , CSI newcomer Michael Keppler takes a look around Grissom 's office and observes that he must be quite a freak . In " The Grave Shift " , even after his office has been cleared out ( and later reclaimed by a somewhat @-@ reluctant Nick Stokes after Catherine Willows passed on the offer ) , the fetal pig in a jar was placed back in there by Hodges , who stated simply that " [ it ] belongs here . "
When asked why he is a CSI , he responds , " Because the dead can 't speak for themselves . " This is one of his favorite quotes , and he uses it frequently .
= = = Parallelism with Sherlock Holmes = = =
Gil Grissom has a more than passing similarity to Sherlock Holmes . Like Holmes , Grissom is dispassionate with a fierce devotion to logic and little regard for societal norms of behavior ; Grissom once smashed mustard jars in a grocery store to illustrate a theory ( " I @-@ 15 Murders " ) , much as Holmes once practiced spearing a pig in a butchers to determine how strong a man would have to be to transfix a man with a harpoon .
Grissom possesses a Moriarty @-@ like nemesis , Paul Millander , whom he pursues in several episodes ( " Pilot " , " Anonymous " and " Identity Crisis " ) . Coincidentally , " Paul Millander " has the same initials as " Professor Moriarty . " There 's also a woman , Lady Heather , in whom he takes an unusual interest . Their relationship is similar to that of Irene Adler and Holmes . Both Irene and Lady Heather enchant Holmes and Grissom with their beauty , their wit and their resolution . Lady Heather often wears Victorian @-@ style dresses , referencing Holmes 's era ( " Slaves of Las Vegas " , " Lady Heather 's Box , " " Pirates of the Third Reich , " and " The Good , the Bad , and the Dominatrix " ) .
= = Relationships with other characters = =
In the sixth season episode " Bang @-@ Bang , " Grissom tells Doc Robbins , concerning a woman shot in the mouth , " This was someone who was emotionally close to her . " Doc Robbins asks him if he has ever even been close to getting married . Grissom tells him about " Nicole Daley , " who , like him , was interested in bugs . He goes on a bit about her , then says , " Second grade . "
Grissom may not ask to take on the role of mentor , but it seems to happen naturally , going all the way back to Sara Sidle when they first met in San Francisco , then Nick Stokes and Greg Sanders in Vegas . Although he can be annoyed with his protégés at times , he is visibly proud when they succeed , as Greg did by passing his field test and becoming a CSI . He is also protective of his staff and defends them as much as he can , as seen in episode 521 ( " Rashomama " ) for example .
He also shares a good friendship with Dr. Al Robbins and the two were seen singing together in the autopsy room while processing the body of a murdered rock ' n ' roll star ( season 7 , " Built to Kill , Part 2 " ) . In the season six finale , it was revealed that Jim Brass 's living will gave Grissom power of attorney , showing that Grissom was the one person Brass trusted with his life . He has also been shown to be something of an inadvertent mentor @-@ figure to David Hodges , who looks up to him and often seeks his advice or approval , despite not always receiving it . Upon learning of Grissom 's plans to quit CSI , Hodges becomes visibly upset .
His relationship with Warrick Brown had aspects of a mentor / student bond , but out of all the CSIs ( Catherine included ) , Grissom seemed to view Warrick as his successor , the one who would lead when he was gone .
Some fans have always expected to see a relationship between Grissom and Catherine Willows , in whom he is shown confiding many times , once even likening her to being his " wife " . The two were never more than very good friends , as the show 's producers see them as more of brother and sister than lovers . Catherine has many times encouraged Grissom to be more open and less self @-@ absorbed , and to pursue something with Sara Sidle .
Grissom has been allegedly involved with forensic anthropologist Teri Miller and with S & M parlor operator Lady Heather , whose " safeword " it has been suggested that he knows - however , as all he says is " Heather , stop ! " and " I 'm saying Stop " , he evidently does not use it , as " Stop " is never a " safeword " . Rather , this is a reference to the episode Lady Heather 's Box , in which she reminds Grissom that the submissive is in control ; Grissom tells her when they begin kissing , " You can always say stop , " and she replies , " So can you . "
= = = Sara Sidle = = =
Since the first season , there were hints that both Sara Sidle and Grissom were interested in each other romantically . In fact , the show 's creators made Sara Sidle while thinking of a future love interest for Grissom , but during the show 's first three seasons , Grissom flirted with all the female characters , and when Sara asked him out to dinner , he rejected her , claiming that he did not know what to do about what is going on between them .
In season four , Grissom 's true feelings are revealed in " Butterflied " , an episode that centers entirely around him discovering his sentiments for Sara . It was then that he admitted not being able to risk his career to be with her . In season four , Sara apparently develops a drinking problem , which Grissom acknowledges on the season finale ; after this , they would hardly see each other , and Grissom becomes interested in detective Sofia Curtis .
In mid @-@ season five , Sara is suspended for insubordination and she reveals to Grissom her tormented childhood . He refuses to fire her and has her working in every case of the next two seasons with him .
It was not until the sixth season finale that it is revealed that Grissom and Sara have worked through whatever issues they had , and are , in fact , a couple , and have been for two years . This revelation caused mixed reviews among critics , some of them see this relationship as CSI " jumping the shark " , an attempt to include more drama and romance to the show , so as to be able to compete with the medical drama Grey 's Anatomy , which airs at around the same time . By killing off the sexual tension between the two characters and making them an item , the production crew were seen to be adding more personal drama to the show , increasing the appeal to some of Grey 's Anatomy 's younger audience . This has been denied by the writers , Carol Mendelsohn even said that she has never been able to see Grissom with someone else other than Sara and that this episode was seen by the writers as the right time to reveal the relationship , Jorja Fox and William Petersen have also admitted that the relationship is not new .
Throughout season seven , the audience sees Grissom and Sara as a couple , but the relationship is kept secret from the others in the lab until Sara 's abduction by The Miniature Killer in the season finale when Grissom unwittingly refers to his feelings for Sara . During season eight , they have become engaged . When Jorja Fox decided to leave the show , both she and the writers decided not to kill the character , so as to leave the doors open for a possible comeback . Consequently , Sara Sidle is submerged into depression after her kidnap in the season seven finale , and , even though she accepts Grissom 's marriage proposal on the season 's fourth episode , she shows signs of burnout during the subsequent episodes , breaking down on the season 's seventh episode , leaving Las Vegas and the CSIs with only a goodbye letter for Grissom and a good luck note for Ronnie Lake . In the letter she claims that ever since her father 's death she has been dealing with " ghosts " and that she now needs to go away and deal with them before self @-@ destructing .
After Grissom leaves CSI , he goes to Costa Rica , in hopes of finding Sara . Once they see each other , they embrace in a passionate kiss , and Sara 's return to CSI in the first episode of season ten reveals that she and Grissom are now married . In " Forget Me Not " , Sara reveals " he 's not my husband anymore " as she and Grissom had split up . According to her , he was the one to propose an end to the relationship , saying that it was in her best interest . However , in the series finale , Gil and Sara reunite . They sail off together in the final scene of the series .
= = Reception = =
This fictional character has an extensive fan base . There are more than one thousand videos made using the character on sites such as YouTube and a thousand more depicting his relationship with Sara Sidle .
Of more than twenty @-@ five @-@ thousand fan fictions written about CSI on FanFiction.Net , more than half include Gil Grissom . There are also many other sites that update daily news about either Gil Grissom 's status on CSI or William Petersen 's activities in real life .
On September 27 , 2007 , after CSI 's season eight premiered , a miniature model of Gil Grissom 's office ( which he was seen building during season seven ) was put up for auction on eBay . The auction ended on October 7 with the prop being sold for US $ 15 @,@ 600 , which CBS donated to the National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse Association .
CSI : Crime Scene Investigation executive producer and showrunner Carol Mendelsohn considers Grissom the center of the show . Grissom has received positive responses from critics , ranking number 82 on Bravo 's 100 Greatest TV Characters list , along with Catherine Willows . He was ranked at number 9 on Sleuth Channel 's poll of America 's Top Sleuths . AOL TV named him one of TV 's
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Smartest Detectives . Grissom 's final episode as a regular drew over 23 million viewers .
= = Succession = =
Grissom initially appears as the Grave Shift Assistant Supervisor , a post he holds during " Pilot " . He is succeeded by Catherine Willows .
Grissom is then promoted to Grave Shift Supervisor , replacing Jim Brass . This is a post he holds from " Cool Change " to " One to Go " . He is once again succeeded by Willows .
= = Further Reading = =
Marrinan , Corinne and Parker , Steve . Ultimate CSI : Crime Scene Investigation ( 2006 ) . DK Publishing Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 7566 @-@ 2353 @-@ 7
= George W. Bush =
George Walker Bush ( born July 6 , 1946 ) is an American politician who served as the 43rd President of the United States from 2001 to 2009 and 46th Governor of Texas from 1995 to 2000 . The eldest son of Barbara and George H. W. Bush , he was born in New Haven , Connecticut . After graduating from Yale University in 1968 and Harvard Business School in 1975 , he worked in oil businesses . He married Laura Welch in 1977 and ran unsuccessfully for the House of Representatives shortly thereafter . He later co @-@ owned the Texas Rangers baseball team before defeating Ann Richards in the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election . He was elected president in 2000 after a close and controversial election against Al Gore , becoming the fourth president to be elected while receiving fewer popular votes nationwide than an opponent . He is the second president to have been the son of a former president , the first having been John Quincy Adams . He is also the brother of Jeb Bush , a former Governor of Florida and candidate for the Republican presidential nomination in the 2016 presidential election .
Eight months into Bush 's first term as president , the September 11 terrorist attacks occurred . Bush responded with what became known as the Bush Doctrine : launching a " War on Terror " , an international military campaign which included the war in Afghanistan , in 2001 , and the Iraq War , in 2003 . He also promoted policies on the economy , health care , education , social security reform , and amending the Constitution to prohibit same @-@ sex marriage . He signed into law broad tax cuts , the Patriot Act , the No Child Left Behind Act , the Partial @-@ Birth Abortion Ban Act , Medicare prescription drug benefits for seniors , and funding for the AIDS relief program known as PEPFAR . His tenure saw national debates on immigration , Social Security , electronic surveillance , and torture .
Bush successfully ran for re @-@ election against Democratic Senator John Kerry in 2004 , in another relatively close election . After his re @-@ election , Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the political spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War , Hurricane Katrina , and other challenges . Amid this criticism , the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections . In December 2007 , the United States entered its longest post @-@ World War II recession , often referred to as the " Great Recession " , prompting the Bush administration to obtain congressional passage of multiple economic programs intended to preserve the country 's financial system . Nationally , Bush was both one of the most popular and unpopular presidents in history , having received the highest recorded presidential approval ratings in the wake of the September 11 attacks , as well as one of the lowest approval ratings during the 2008 financial crisis . He was met with public protests during visits to the United Kingdom .
Bush left office in 2009 , returning to Texas where he purchased a home in suburban Dallas . He is currently a public speaker , and has written a memoir , Decision Points . His presidential library was opened in 2013 . His presidency has been ranked among the worst in surveys of presidential scholars published in the late 2000s and 2010s .
= = Childhood to mid @-@ life = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
George Walker Bush was born on July 6 , 1946 , at Grace @-@ New Haven Hospital ( now Yale – New Haven Hospital ) in New Haven , Connecticut , as the first child of George Herbert Walker Bush and Barbara Pierce . He was raised in Midland and Houston , Texas , with four siblings , Jeb , Neil , Marvin and Dorothy . Another younger sister , Robin , died from leukemia at the age of three in 1953 . His grandfather , Prescott Bush , was a U.S. Senator from Connecticut . His father , George H.W. Bush , was Ronald Reagan 's Vice President from 1981 to 1989 and the 41st U.S. President from 1989 to 1993 . Bush has English and some German ancestry , along with more distant Dutch , Welsh , Irish , French , and Scottish roots .
Bush attended public schools in Midland , Texas , until the family moved to Houston after he had completed seventh grade . He then went to The Kinkaid School , a prep school in Houston for two years .
Bush attended high school at the Phillips Academy , a boarding school ( then all @-@ male ) in Andover , Massachusetts , where he played baseball , and during his senior year , was the head cheerleader . He attended Yale University from 1964 to 1968 , graduating with a Bachelor of Arts degree in History . During this time , he was a cheerleader and a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon , serving as the president of the fraternity during his senior year . Bush became a member of the Skull and Bones society as a senior . Bush was a rugby union player and was on Yale 's 1st XV . He characterized himself as an average student . His GPA during his first three years at Yale was 77 , and he had a similar average under a nonnumeric rating system in his final year .
Beginning in the fall of 1973 , Bush attended the Harvard Business School , where he earned an M.B.A. degree . He is the only U.S. President to have earned an M.B.A.
= = = Texas Air National Guard = = =
In May 1968 , Bush was commissioned into the Texas Air National Guard . After two years of active @-@ duty service while training , he was assigned to Houston , flying Convair F @-@ 102s with the 147th Reconnaissance Wing out of the Ellington Field Joint Reserve Base . Critics , including former Democratic National Committee Chairman Terry McAuliffe , have alleged that Bush was favorably treated due to his father 's political standing as a member of the House of Representatives , citing his selection as a pilot despite his low pilot aptitude test scores and his irregular attendance . In June 2005 , the United States Department of Defense released all the records of Bush 's Texas Air National Guard service , which remain in its official archives .
In late 1972 and early 1973 , he drilled with the 187th Fighter Wing of the Alabama Air National Guard , having moved to Montgomery , Alabama , to work on the unsuccessful U.S. Senate campaign of Republican Winton M. Blount . In 1972 , Bush was suspended from flying for failure to take a scheduled physical exam . He was honorably discharged from the Air Force Reserve on November 21 , 1974 .
= = Marriage , family , and personal life = =
At a backyard barbecue in 1977 , friends introduced him to Laura Lane Welch , a school teacher and librarian . Bush proposed to her after a three @-@ month courtship , and they married on November 5 of that year . The couple settled in Midland , Texas . Bush left his family 's Episcopal Church to join his wife 's United Methodist Church . On November 25 , 1981 , Laura Bush gave birth to fraternal twin daughters , Barbara Pierce Bush and Jenna Welch Bush ; they graduated from high school in 2000 and from Yale University and the University of Texas at Austin , respectively , in 2004 .
Prior to his marriage , Bush had multiple episodes of alcohol abuse . In one instance , on September 4 , 1976 , he was arrested near his family 's summer home in Kennebunkport , Maine , for driving under the influence of alcohol . He pleaded guilty , was fined $ 150 , and had his Maine driver 's license briefly suspended . Bush says his wife has had a stabilizing effect on his life , and attributes to her influence his 1986 decision to give up alcohol . While Governor of Texas , Bush said of his wife , " I saw an elegant , beautiful woman who turned out not only to be elegant and beautiful , but very smart and willing to put up with my rough edges , and I must confess has smoothed them off over time . "
Bush has been an avid reader throughout his adult life , preferring biographies and histories . During his time as president , Bush read the Bible daily . He also read 14 Lincoln biographies and , during the last three years of his presidency , he reportedly read 186 books . Walt Harrington , a journalist , recalls seeing " books by John Fowles , F. Scott Fitzgerald , James Joyce , and Gore Vidal lying about , as well as biographies of Willa Cather and Queen Victoria " in his home when Bush was a Texas oilman . Other hobbies include cigar smoking and golf . Since leaving the White House , Bush has also taken up oil painting .
His first granddaughter , Margaret Laura " Mila " Hager , was born to his daughter Jenna Bush on April 14 , 2013 . She is named after her two grandmothers .
= = Early career = =
In 1978 , Bush ran for the House of Representatives from Texas 's 19th congressional district . His opponent , Kent Hance , portrayed him as out of touch with rural Texans . Bush lost the election by 6 @,@ 000 votes ( 6 percent ) of the 103 @,@ 000 votes cast . He returned to the oil industry and began a series of small , independent oil exploration companies . He created Arbusto Energy , and later changed the name to Bush Exploration . In 1984 , his company merged with the larger Spectrum 7 , and Bush became chairman . The company was hurt by decreased oil prices , and it folded into HKN , Inc . Bush served on the board of directors for HKN . Questions of possible insider trading involving HKN arose , but the Securities and Exchange Commission 's ( SEC ) investigation concluded that the information Bush had at the time of his stock sale was not sufficient to constitute insider trading .
Bush moved his family to Washington , D.C. in 1988 to work on his father 's campaign for the U.S. presidency . He served as a campaign adviser and liaison to the media ; he assisted his father by campaigning across the country . Returning to Texas after the successful campaign , he purchased a share in the Texas Rangers baseball franchise in April 1989 , where he served as managing general partner for five years . He actively led the team 's projects and regularly attended its games , often choosing to sit in the open stands with fans . Bush 's sale of his shares in the Rangers in 1998 brought him over $ 15 million from his initial $ 800 @,@ 000 investment .
In December 1991 , Bush was one of seven people named by his father to run his father 's 1992 Presidential re @-@ election campaign as " campaign advisor " . The previous month , his father asked him to tell White House chief of staff John H. Sununu that he should resign .
= = Governor of Texas ( 1995 – 2000 ) = =
As Bush 's brother , Jeb , sought the governorship of Florida , Bush declared his candidacy for the 1994 Texas gubernatorial election . His campaign focused on four themes : welfare reform , tort reform , crime reduction , and education improvement . Bush 's campaign advisers were Karen Hughes , Joe Allbaugh , and Karl Rove .
After easily winning the Republican primary , Bush faced popular Democratic incumbent Governor Ann Richards . In the course of the campaign , Bush pledged to sign a bill allowing Texans to obtain permits to carry concealed weapons . Richards had vetoed the bill , but Bush signed it after he became governor . According to The Atlantic Monthly , the race " featured a rumor that she was a lesbian , along with a rare instance of such a tactic 's making it into the public record – when a regional chairman of the Bush campaign allowed himself , perhaps inadvertently , to be quoted criticizing Richards for ' appointing avowed homosexual activists ' to state jobs " . The Atlantic , and others , connected the lesbian rumor to Karl Rove , but Rove denied being involved . Bush won the general election with 53 @.@ 5 percent against Richards ' 45 @.@ 9 percent .
Bush used a budget surplus to push through Texas 's largest tax @-@ cut , $ 2 billion . He extended government funding for organizations providing education of the dangers of alcohol and drug use and abuse , and helping to reduce domestic violence . Critics contended that during his tenure , Texas ranked near the bottom in environmental evaluations . Supporters pointed to his efforts to raise the salaries of teachers and improve educational test scores .
In 1999 , Bush signed a state law obliging electric retailers to buy a certain amount of energy from renewable sources ( RPS ) , which helped Texas eventually become the leading producer of wind powered electricity in the U.S.
In 1998 , Bush won re @-@ election with a record 69 percent of the vote . He became the first governor in Texas history to be elected to two consecutive four @-@ year terms . For most of Texas history , governors served two @-@ year terms ; a constitutional amendment extended those terms to four years starting in 1975 . In his second term , Bush promoted faith @-@ based organizations and enjoyed high approval ratings . He proclaimed June 10 , 2000 to be Jesus Day in Texas , a day on which he " urge [ d ] all Texans to answer the call to serve those in need " .
Throughout Bush 's first term , national attention focused on him as a potential future presidential candidate . Following his re @-@ election , speculation soared . Within a year , he decided to seek the 2000 Republican presidential nomination .
= = Presidential campaigns = =
= = = 2000 presidential candidacy = = =
= = = = Primary = = = =
In June 1999 , while Governor of Texas , Bush announced his candidacy for President of the United States . With no incumbent running , Bush entered a large field of candidates for the Republican Party presidential nomination consisting of John McCain , Alan Keyes , Steve Forbes , Gary Bauer , Orrin Hatch , Elizabeth Dole , Dan Quayle , Pat Buchanan , Lamar Alexander , John Kasich , and Bob Smith .
Bush portrayed himself as a compassionate conservative , implying he was more centrist than other Republicans . He campaigned on a platform that included bringing integrity and honor back to the White House , increasing the size of the United States Armed Forces , cutting taxes , improving education , and aiding minorities . By early 2000 , the race had centered on Bush and McCain .
Bush won the Iowa caucuses , but , although he was heavily favored to win the New Hampshire primary , he trailed McCain by 19 percent and lost that primary . Despite this , Bush regained momentum and , according to political observers , effectively became the front runner after the South Carolina primary , which according to The Boston Globe made history for his campaign 's negativity ; The New York Times described it as a smear campaign .
= = = = General election = = = =
On July 25 , 2000 , Bush surprised some observers by asking Dick Cheney , a former White House Chief of Staff , U.S. Representative , and Secretary of Defense , to be his running mate . Cheney was then serving as head of Bush 's Vice @-@ Presidential search committee . Soon after , Bush and Cheney were officially nominated by the Republican Party at the 2000 Republican National Convention .
Bush continued to campaign across the country and touted his record as Governor of Texas . Bush 's campaign criticized his Democratic opponent , incumbent Vice President Al Gore , over gun control and taxation .
When the election returns came in on November 7 , Bush won 29 states , including Florida . The closeness of the Florida outcome led to a recount . The initial recount also went to Bush , but the outcome was tied up in courts for a month until reaching the U.S. Supreme Court . On December 9 , in the controversial Bush v. Gore ruling , the Court reversed a Florida Supreme Court decision ordering a third count , and stopped an ordered statewide hand recount based on the argument that the use of different standards among Florida 's counties violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . The machine recount showed that Bush had won the Florida vote by a margin of 537 votes out of six million cast . Although he received 543 @,@ 895 fewer individual votes than Gore nationwide , Bush won the election , receiving 271 electoral votes to Gore 's 266 ( Gore 's statewide victories had electoral votes tallying 267 ; however , one of Gore 's pledged electors abstained , rendering the official tally at 266 ) . Bush was the first person to win an American presidential election with fewer national votes than another candidate since Benjamin Harrison in 1888 .
= = = 2004 presidential candidacy = = =
In 2004 , Bush commanded broad support in the Republican Party and did not encounter a primary challenge . He appointed Ken Mehlman as campaign manager , with a political strategy devised by Karl Rove . Bush and the Republican platform included a strong commitment to the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan , support for the USA PATRIOT Act , a renewed shift in policy for constitutional amendments banning abortion and same @-@ sex marriage , reforming Social Security to create private investment accounts , creation of an ownership society , and opposing mandatory carbon emissions controls . Bush also called for the implementation of a guest worker program for immigrants , which was criticized by conservatives .
The Bush campaign advertised across the U.S. against Democratic candidates , including Bush 's emerging opponent , Massachusetts Senator John Kerry . Kerry and other Democrats attacked Bush on the Iraq War , and accused him of failing to stimulate the economy and job growth . The Bush campaign portrayed Kerry as a staunch liberal who would raise taxes and increase the size of government . The Bush campaign continuously criticized Kerry 's seemingly contradictory statements on the war in Iraq , and argued that Kerry lacked the decisiveness and vision necessary for success in the War on Terror .
In the election , Bush carried 31 of 50 states , receiving a total of 286 electoral votes . He won an absolute majority of the popular vote ( 50 @.@ 7 percent to his opponent 's 48 @.@ 3 percent ) . The previous President to win an absolute majority of the popular vote was Bush 's father in the 1988 election . Additionally , it was the first time since Herbert Hoover 's election in 1928 that a Republican president was elected alongside re @-@ elected Republican majorities in both Houses of Congress .
= = Presidency ( 2001 – 09 ) = =
Though Bush originally outlined an ambitious domestic agenda , his priorities were significantly altered following the September 11 terrorist attacks in 2001 . Wars were waged in Afghanistan and Iraq with significant domestic debates regarding immigration , healthcare , Social Security , economic policy , and treatment of terrorist detainees . Over an eight @-@ year period , Bush 's once @-@ high approval ratings steadily declined , while his disapproval numbers increased significantly . In 2007 , the United States entered the longest post @-@ World War II recession .
= = = Domestic policy = = =
= = = = Economic policy = = = =
Bush took office during a period of economic recession in the wake of the bursting of the Dot @-@ com bubble . The terrorist attacks also impacted the economy . The Bush administration increased federal government spending from $ 1 @.@ 789 trillion to $ 2 @.@ 983 trillion ( 60 percent ) while revenues increased from $ 2 @.@ 025 trillion to $ 2 @.@ 524 trillion ( from 2000 to 2008 ) . Individual income tax revenues increased by 14 percent , corporate tax revenues by 50 percent , customs and duties by 40 percent . Discretionary defense spending was increased by 107 percent , discretionary domestic spending by 62 percent , Medicare spending by 131 percent , social security by 51 percent , and income security spending by 130 percent . Cyclically adjusted , revenues rose by 35 percent and spending by 65 percent .
The increase in spending was more than under any predecessor since Lyndon B. Johnson . The number of economic regulation governmental workers increased by 91 @,@ 196 .
The surplus in fiscal year 2000 was $ 237 billion — the third consecutive surplus and the largest surplus ever . In 2001 , Bush 's budget estimated that there would be a $ 5 @.@ 6 trillion surplus over the next ten years . Facing congressional opposition , Bush held townhall style meetings across the U.S. in order to increase public support for his plan for a $ 1 @.@ 35 trillion tax cut program — one of the largest tax cuts in U.S. history . Bush argued that unspent government funds should be returned to taxpayers , saying " the surplus is not the government 's money . The surplus is the people 's money . " Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan warned of a recession and Bush stated that a tax cut would stimulate the economy and create jobs . Treasury Secretary Paul H. O 'Neill , opposed some of the tax cuts on the basis that they would contribute to budget deficits and undermine Social Security . O 'Neill disputes the claim , made in Bush 's book Decision Points , that he never openly disagreed with him on planned tax cuts . By 2003 , the economy showed signs of improvement , though job growth remained stagnant . Another tax cut program was passed that year .
During the 2001 to 2008 years , GDP grew at an average annual rate of 2 @.@ 125 percent , less than for past business cycles .
Bush entered office with the Dow Jones Industrial Average at 10 @,@ 587 , and the average peaked in October 2007 at over 14 @,@ 000 . When Bush left office , the average was at 7 @,@ 949 , one of the lowest levels of his presidency .
Unemployment originally rose from 4 @.@ 2 percent in January 2001 to 6 @.@ 3 percent in June 2003 , but subsequently dropped to 4 @.@ 5 percent as of July 2007 . Adjusted for inflation , median household income dropped by $ 1 @,@ 175 between 2000 and 2007 , while Professor Ken Homa of Georgetown University has noted that " Median real after @-@ tax household income went up 2 % " . The poverty rate increased from 11 @.@ 3 percent in 2000 to 12 @.@ 3 percent in 2006 after peaking at 12 @.@ 7 percent in 2004 . By October 2008 , due to increases in spending , the national debt had risen to $ 11 @.@ 3 trillion , an increase of over 100 percent from 2000 when the debt was only $ 5 @.@ 6 trillion . Most debt was accumulated as a result of what became known as the " Bush tax cuts " and increased national security spending . In March 2006 , then @-@ Senator Barack Obama said when he voted against raising the debt ceiling : " The fact that we are here today to debate raising America 's debt limit is a sign of leadership failure . " By the end of Bush 's presidency , unemployment climbed to 7 @.@ 2 percent .
In December 2007 , the United States entered the longest post – World War II recession , which included a housing market correction , a subprime mortgage crisis , soaring oil prices , and a declining dollar value . In February , 63 @,@ 000 jobs were lost , a five @-@ year record . To aid with the situation , Bush signed a $ 170 billion economic stimulus package which was intended to improve the economic situation by sending tax rebate checks to many Americans and providing tax breaks for struggling businesses . The Bush administration pushed for significantly increased regulation of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac in 2003 , and after two years , the regulations passed the House but died in the Senate . Many Republican senators , as well as influential members of the Bush Administration , feared that the agency created by these regulations would merely be mimicking the private sector 's risky practices . In September 2008 , the crisis became much more serious beginning with the government takeover of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac followed by the collapse of Lehman Brothers and a federal bailout of American International Group for $ 85 billion .
Many economists and world governments determined that the situation became the worst financial crisis since the Great Depression . Additional regulation over the housing market would have been beneficial , according to former Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenspan . Bush , meanwhile , proposed a financial rescue plan to buy back a large portion of the U.S. mortgage market . Vince Reinhardt , a former Federal Reserve economist now at the American Enterprise Institute , said " it would have helped for the Bush administration to empower the folks at Treasury and the Federal Reserve and the comptroller of the currency and the FDIC to look at these issues more closely " , and additionally , that it would have helped " for Congress to have held hearings " .
In November 2008 , over 500 @,@ 000 jobs were lost , which marked the largest loss of jobs in the United States in 34 years . The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that in the last four months of 2008 , 1 @.@ 9 million jobs were lost . By the end of 2008 , the U.S. had lost a total of 2 @.@ 6 million jobs .
= = = = Education and health = = = =
Bush undertook a number of educational priorities , such as increasing the funding for the National Science Foundation and National Institutes of Health in his first years of office , and creating education programs to strengthen the grounding in science and mathematics for American high school students . Funding for the NIH was cut in 2006 , the first such cut in 36 years , due to rising inflation .
One of the administration 's early major initiatives was the No Child Left Behind Act , which aimed to measure and close the gap between rich and poor student performance , provide options to parents with students in low @-@ performing schools , and target more federal funding to low @-@ income schools . This landmark education initiative passed with broad bipartisan support , including that of Senator Ted Kennedy of Massachusetts . It was signed into law by Bush in early 2002 . Many contend that the initiative has been successful , as cited by the fact that students in the U.S. have performed significantly better on state reading and math tests since Bush signed " No Child Left Behind " into law . Critics argue that it is underfunded and that NCLBA 's focus on " high @-@ stakes testing " and quantitative outcomes is counterproductive .
After being re @-@ elected , Bush signed into law a Medicare drug benefit program that , according to Jan Crawford , resulted in " the greatest expansion in America 's welfare state in forty years ; " the bill 's costs approached $ 7 trillion . In 2007 , Bush opposed and vetoed State Children 's Health Insurance Program ( SCHIP ) legislation , which was added by the Democrats onto a war funding bill and passed by Congress . The SCHIP legislation would have significantly expanded federally funded health care benefits and plans to children of some low @-@ income families from about six million to ten million children . It was to be funded by an increase in the cigarette tax . Bush viewed the legislation as a move toward socialized health care , and asserted that the program could benefit families making as much as $ 83 @,@ 000 per year who did not need the help .
= = = = Social services and social security = = = =
Following Republican efforts to pass the Medicare Act of 2003 , Bush signed the bill , which included major changes to the Medicare program by providing beneficiaries with some assistance in paying for prescription drugs , while relying on private insurance for the delivery of benefits . The retired persons lobby group AARP worked with the Bush Administration on the program and gave their endorsement . Bush said the law , estimated to cost $ 400 billion over the first ten years , would give the elderly " better choices and more control over their health care " .
Bush began his second term by outlining a major initiative to reform Social Security , which was facing record deficit projections beginning in 2005 . Bush made it the centerpiece of his domestic agenda despite opposition from some in the U.S. Congress . In his 2005 State of the Union Address , Bush discussed the potential impending bankruptcy of the program and outlined his new program , which included partial privatization of the system , personal Social Security accounts , and options to permit Americans to divert a portion of their Social Security tax ( FICA ) into secured investments . Democrats opposed the proposal to partially privatize the system .
Bush embarked on a 60 @-@ day national tour , campaigning for his initiative in media events known as " Conversations on Social Security " , in an attempt to gain public support . Nevertheless , public support for the proposal declined and the House Republican leadership decided not to put Social Security reform on the priority list for the remainder of their 2005 legislative agenda . The proposal 's legislative prospects were further diminished by the political fallout from Hurricane Katrina in the fall of 2005 . After the Democrats gained control of both houses of Congress as a result of the 2006 midterm elections , there was no prospect of further congressional action on the Bush proposal for the remainder of his term in office .
= = = = Environmental policies = = = =
Upon taking office in 2001 , Bush stated his opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , an amendment to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change which seeks to impose mandatory targets for reducing greenhouse gas emissions , citing that the treaty exempted 80 percent of the world 's population and would have cost tens of billions of dollars per year . He also cited that the Senate had voted 95 – 0 in 1997 on a resolution expressing its disapproval of the protocol .
In May 2001 , Bush signed an executive order to create an inter @-@ agency task force to streamline energy projects , and later signed two other executive orders to tackle environmental issues .
In 2002 , Bush announced the Clear Skies Act of 2003 , aimed at amending the Clean Air Act to reduce air pollution through the use of emissions trading programs . Many experts argued that this legislation would have weakened the original legislation by allowing higher emission rates of pollutants than were previously legal . The initiative was introduced to Congress , but failed to make it out of committee .
Later in 2006 , Bush declared the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands a national monument , creating the largest marine reserve to date . The Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument comprises 84 million acres ( 340 @,@ 000 km2 ) and is home to 7 @,@ 000 species of fish , birds , and other marine animals , many of which are specific to only those islands . The move was hailed by conservationists for " its foresight and leadership in protecting this incredible area " .
Bush has said that he believes that global warming is real and has noted that it is a serious problem , but he asserted there is a " debate over whether it 's man @-@ made or naturally caused " . The Bush Administration 's stance on global warming remained controversial in the scientific and environmental communities . Critics have alleged that the administration misinformed the public and did not do enough to reduce carbon emissions and deter global warming .
= = = = Energy policies = = = =
In his 2006 State of the Union Address , Bush declared , " America is addicted to oil " and announced his Advanced Energy Initiative to increase energy development research .
In his 2007 State of the Union Address , Bush renewed his pledge to work toward diminished reliance on foreign oil by reducing fossil fuel consumption and increasing alternative fuel production . Amid high gasoline prices in 2008 , Bush lifted a ban on offshore drilling . However , the move was largely symbolic as there is still a federal law banning offshore drilling . Bush said , " This means that the only thing standing between the American people and these vast oil reserves is action from the U.S. Congress . " Bush had said in June 2008 , " In the long run , the solution is to reduce demand for oil by promoting alternative energy technologies . My administration has worked with Congress to invest in gas @-@ saving technologies like advanced batteries and hydrogen fuel cells ... In the short run , the American economy will continue to rely largely on oil . And that means we need to increase supply , especially here at home . So my administration has repeatedly called on Congress to expand domestic oil production . "
In his 2008 State of the Union Address , Bush announced that the U.S. would commit $ 2 billion over the next three years to a new international fund to promote clean energy technologies and fight climate change , saying , " Along with contributions from other countries , this fund will increase and accelerate the deployment of all forms of cleaner , more efficient technologies in developing nations like India and China , and help leverage substantial private @-@ sector capital by making clean energy projects more financially attractive . " He also announced plans to reaffirm the United States ' commitment to work with major economies , and , through the UN , to complete an international agreement that will slow , stop , and eventually reverse the growth of greenhouse gases ; he stated , " This agreement will be effective only if it includes commitments by every major economy and gives none a free ride . "
= = = = Stem cell research and first veto = = = =
Federal funding for medical research involving the creation or destruction of human embryos through the Department of Health and Human Services and the National Institutes of Health has been forbidden by law since the passage in 1995 of the Dickey @-@ Wicker Amendment by Congress and the signature of President Bill Clinton . Bush has said that he supports adult stem cell research and has supported federal legislation that finances adult stem cell research . However , Bush did not support embryonic stem cell research . On August 9 , 2001 , Bush signed an executive order lifting the ban on federal funding for the 71 existing " lines " of stem cells , but the ability of these existing lines to provide an adequate medium for testing has been questioned . Testing can be done on only 12 of the original lines , and all approved lines have been cultured in contact with mouse cells , which creates safety issues that complicate development and approval of therapies from these lines . On July 19 , 2006 , Bush used his veto power for the first time in his presidency to veto the Stem Cell Research Enhancement Act . The bill would have repealed the Dickey @-@ Wicker Amendment , thereby permitting federal money to be used for research where stem cells are derived from the destruction of an embryo .
= = = = Genetic Nondiscrimination = = = =
On May 21 , 2008 President George W. Bush signed into law the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act ( GINA ) . The bill aims to protect Americans against discrimination based on their genetic information when it comes to health insurance and employment . The issue had been debated for 13 years before becoming law . It is designed to protect citizens while not hindering genetic research .
= = = = Immigration = = = =
Nearly 8 million immigrants came to the United States from 2000 to 2005 , more than in any other five @-@ year period in the nation 's history . Almost half entered illegally . In 2006 , Bush urged Congress to allow more than 12 million illegal immigrants to work in the United States with the creation of a " temporary guest @-@ worker program " . Bush also urged Congress to provide additional funds for border security and committed to deploying 6 @,@ 000 National Guard troops to the Mexico – United States border . From May to June 2007 , Bush strongly supported the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , which was written by a bipartisan group of Senators with the active participation of the Bush administration . The bill envisioned a legalization program for illegal immigrants , with an eventual path to citizenship ; establishing a guest worker program ; a series of border and work site enforcement measures ; a reform of the green card application process and the introduction of a point @-@ based " merit " system for green cards ; elimination of " chain migration " and of the Diversity Immigrant Visa ; and other measures . Bush argued that the lack of legal status denies the protections of U.S. laws to millions of people who face dangers of poverty and exploitation , and penalizes employers despite a demand for immigrant labor . Bush contended that the proposed bill did not amount to amnesty .
A heated public debate followed , which resulted in a substantial rift within the Republican Party , most conservatives opposed it because of its legalization or amnesty provisions . The bill was eventually defeated in the Senate on June 28 , 2007 , when a cloture motion failed on a 46 – 53 vote . Bush expressed disappointment upon the defeat of one of his signature domestic initiatives . The Bush administration later proposed a series of immigration enforcement measures that do not require a change in law .
On September 19 , 2010 , former Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert said that Bush offered to accept 100 @,@ 000 Palestinian refugees as American citizens if a permanent settlement had been reached between Israel and the Palestinian Authority .
= = = = Hurricane Katrina = = = =
Hurricane Katrina , one of the most damaging natural disasters in U.S. history , struck early in Bush 's second term . Katrina formed in late August during the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season and devastated much of the north @-@ central Gulf Coast of the United States , particularly New Orleans .
Bush declared a state of emergency in Louisiana on August 27 , and in Mississippi and Alabama the following day ; he authorized the Department of Homeland Security ( DHS ) and Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) to manage the disaster , but his announcement failed to spur these agencies to action . The eye of the hurricane made landfall on August 29 , and New Orleans began to flood due to levee breaches ; later that day , Bush declared that a major disaster existed in Louisiana , officially authorizing FEMA to start using federal funds to assist in the recovery effort .
On August 30 , DHS Secretary Michael Chertoff declared it " an incident of national significance " , triggering the first use of the newly created National Response Plan . Three days later , on September 2 , National Guard troops first entered the city of New Orleans . The same day , Bush toured parts of Louisiana , Mississippi , and Alabama and declared that the success of the recovery effort up to that point was " not enough " .
As the disaster in New Orleans intensified , critics charged that Bush was misrepresenting his administration 's role in what they saw as a flawed response . Leaders attacked Bush for having appointed apparently incompetent leaders to positions of power at FEMA , notably Michael D. Brown ; it was also argued that the federal response was limited as a result of the Iraq War and Bush himself did not act upon warnings of floods . Bush responded to mounting criticism by accepting full responsibility for the federal government 's failures in its handling of the emergency . It has been argued that with Katrina , Bush passed a political tipping point from which he would not recover .
= = = = Midterm dismissal of U.S. attorneys = = = =
During Bush 's second term , a controversy arose over the Justice Department 's midterm dismissal of seven United States Attorneys . The White House maintained that the U.S. attorneys were fired for poor performance . Attorney General Alberto Gonzales later resigned over the issue , along with other senior members of the Justice Department . The House Judiciary Committee issued subpoenas for advisers Harriet Miers and Josh Bolten to testify regarding this matter , but Bush directed Miers and Bolten to not comply with those subpoenas , invoking his right of executive privilege . Bush maintained that all of his advisers were protected under a broad executive privilege protection to receive candid advice . The Justice Department determined that the President 's order was legal .
Although Congressional investigations focused on whether the Justice Department and the White House were using the U.S. Attorney positions for political advantage , no official findings have been released . On March 10 , 2008 , the Congress filed a federal lawsuit to enforce their issued subpoenas . On July 31 , 2008 , a United States district court judge ruled that Bush 's top advisers were not immune from Congressional subpoenas .
In all , twelve Justice Department officials resigned rather than testify under oath before Congress . They included Attorney General Alberto Gonzales and his chief of staff Kyle Sampson , Gonzales ' liaison to the White House Monica Goodling , aide to the president Karl Rove and his senior aide Sara Taylor . In addition , legal counsel to the president Harriet Miers and deputy chief of staff to the president Joshua Bolten were both found in contempt of Congress .
In 2010 , the Justice Department investigator concluded that though political considerations did play a part in as many as four of the attorney firings , the firings were " inappropriately political " , but not criminal . According to the prosecutors , there was insufficient evidence to pursue prosecution for any criminal offense .
= = = Foreign policy = = =
In July 2001 , Bush visited Pope John Paul II at Castel Gandolfo .
During his Presidential campaign , Bush 's foreign policy platform included support for stronger economic and political relationship with Latin America , especially Mexico , and a reduction of involvement in " nation @-@ building " and other small @-@ scale military engagements . The administration pursued a national missile defense . Bush was an advocate of China 's entry into the World Trade Organization .
In his 2002 State of the Union Address , Bush referred to an axis of evil including Iraq , Iran and North Korea . After the September 11 attacks on New York , Bush launched the War on Terror , in which the United States military and a small international coalition invaded Afghanistan . In 2003 , Bush then launched the invasion of Iraq , searching for Weapons of Mass Destruction , which he described as being part of the War on Terrorism . Those invasions led to the toppling of the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and the removal of Saddam Hussein from power in Iraq .
Bush began his second term with an emphasis on improving strained relations with European nations . He appointed long @-@ time adviser Karen Hughes to oversee a global public relations campaign . Bush lauded the pro @-@ democracy struggles in Georgia and Ukraine .
In March 2006 , a visit to India led to renewed ties between the two countries , reversing decades of U.S. policy . The visit focused particularly on areas of nuclear energy and counter @-@ terrorism cooperation , discussions that would lead eventually to the India – United States Civil Nuclear Agreement .
This is in stark contrast to the stance taken by his predecessor , Clinton , whose approach and response to India after the 1998 nuclear tests was that of sanctions and hectoring . The relationship between India and the United States was one that dramatically improved during Bush 's tenure .
Midway through Bush 's second term , it was questioned whether Bush was retreating from his freedom and democracy agenda , highlighted in policy changes toward some oil @-@ rich former Soviet republics in central Asia .
In an address before both Houses of Congress on September 20 , 2001 , Bush thanked the nations of the world for their support following the September 11 attacks . He specifically thanked UK Prime Minister Tony Blair for traveling to Washington to show " unity of purpose with America " , and said " America has no truer friend than Great Britain . "
= = = = September 11 attacks = = = =
The September 11 terrorist attacks were a major turning point in Bush 's presidency . That evening , he addressed the nation from the Oval Office , promising a strong response to the attacks . He also emphasized the need for the nation to come together and comfort the families of the victims . On September 14 , he visited Ground Zero , meeting with Mayor Rudy Giuliani , firefighters , police officers , and volunteers . Bush addressed the gathering via a megaphone while standing on a heap of rubble , to much applause : " I can hear you . The rest of the world hears you . And the people who knocked these buildings down will hear all of us soon . "
In a September 20 speech , Bush condemned Osama bin Laden and his organization Al @-@ Qaeda , and issued an ultimatum to the Taliban regime in Afghanistan , where bin Laden was operating , to " hand over the terrorists , or ... share in their fate " .
= = = = War on Terrorism = = = =
After September 11 , Bush announced a global War on Terror . The Afghan Taliban regime was not forthcoming with Osama bin Laden , so Bush ordered the invasion of Afghanistan to overthrow the Taliban regime . In his January 29 , 2002 State of the Union Address , he asserted that an " axis of evil " consisting of North Korea , Iran , and Iraq was " arming to threaten the peace of the world " and " pose [ d ] a grave and growing danger " . The Bush Administration asserted both a right and the intention to wage preemptive war , or preventive war . This became the basis for the Bush Doctrine which weakened the unprecedented levels of international and domestic support for the United States which had followed the September 11 attacks .
Dissent and criticism of Bush 's leadership in the War on Terror increased as the war in Iraq continued . In 2006 , a National Intelligence Estimate concluded that the Iraq War had become the " cause célèbre for jihadists " .
= = = = Afghanistan invasion = = = =
On October 7 , 2001 , U.S. and British forces initiated bombing campaigns that led to the arrival of Northern Alliance troops in Kabul on November 13 . The main goals of the war were to defeat the Taliban , drive al @-@ Qaeda out of Afghanistan , and capture key al @-@ Qaeda leaders . In December 2001 , the Pentagon reported that the Taliban had been defeated , but cautioned that the war would go on to continue weakening Taliban and al @-@ Qaeda leaders . Later that month the UN had installed the Afghan Transitional Administration chaired by Hamid Karzai . In 2002 , based on UNICEF figures , Nicholas Kristof reported that " our invasion of Afghanistan may end up saving one million lives over the next decade " as the result of improved healthcare and greater access to humanitarian aid .
Efforts to kill or capture al @-@ Qaeda leader Osama bin Laden failed as he escaped a battle in December 2001 in the mountainous region of Tora Bora , which the Bush Administration later acknowledged to have resulted from a failure to commit enough U.S. ground troops . It was not until May 2011 , two years after Bush left office , that bin Laden was killed by U.S. forces . Bin Laden 's successor , Ayman al @-@ Zawahiri , remains at large .
Despite the initial success in driving the Taliban from power in Kabul , by early 2003 the Taliban was regrouping , amassing new funds and recruits . The 2005 failure of Operation Red Wings showed that the Taliban had returned . In 2006 , the Taliban insurgency appeared larger , fiercer and better organized than expected , with large @-@ scale allied offensives such as Operation Mountain Thrust attaining limited success . As a result , Bush commissioned 3 @,@ 500 additional troops to the country in March 2007 .
= = = = Iraq invasion = = = =
Beginning with his January 29 , 2002 State of the Union address , Bush began publicly focusing attention on Iraq , which he labeled as part of an " axis of evil " allied with terrorists and posing " a grave and growing danger " to U.S. interests through possession of weapons of mass destruction .
In the latter half of 2002 , CIA reports contained assertions of Saddam Hussein 's intent of reconstituting nuclear weapons programs , not properly accounting for Iraqi biological and chemical weapons , and that some Iraqi missiles had a range greater than allowed by the UN sanctions . Contentions that the Bush Administration manipulated or exaggerated the threat and evidence of Iraq 's weapons of mass destruction capabilities would eventually become a major point of criticism for the president .
In late 2002 and early 2003 , Bush urged the United Nations to enforce Iraqi disarmament mandates , precipitating a diplomatic crisis . In November 2002 , Hans Blix and Mohamed ElBaradei led UN weapons inspectors in Iraq , but were advised by the U.S. to depart the country four days prior to the U.S. invasion , despite their requests for more time to complete their tasks . The U.S. initially sought a UN Security Council resolution authorizing the use of military force but dropped the bid for UN approval due to vigorous opposition from several countries .
More than 20 nations ( most notably the United Kingdom ) , designated the " coalition of the willing " joined the United States in invading Iraq . They launched the invasion on March 20 , 2003 . The Iraqi military was quickly defeated . The capital , Baghdad , fell on April 9 , 2003 . On May 1 , Bush declared the end of major combat operations in Iraq . The initial success of U.S. operations increased his popularity , but the U.S. and allied forces faced a growing insurgency led by sectarian groups ; Bush 's " Mission Accomplished " speech was later criticized as premature . From 2004 until 2007 , the situation in Iraq deteriorated further , with some observers arguing that there was a full @-@ scale civil war in Iraq . Bush 's policies met with criticism , including demands domestically to set a timetable to withdraw troops from Iraq . The 2006 report of the bipartisan Iraq Study Group , led by James Baker , concluded that the situation in Iraq was " grave and deteriorating " . While Bush admitted that there were strategic mistakes made in regards to the stability of Iraq , he maintained he would not change the overall Iraq strategy .
In January 2005 , free , democratic elections were held in Iraq for the first time in 50 years . According to Iraqi National Security Advisor Mowaffak al @-@ Rubaie , " This is the greatest day in the history of this country . " Bush praised the event as well , saying that the Iraqis " have taken rightful control of their country 's destiny " . This led to the election of Jalal Talabani as President and Nouri al @-@ Maliki as Prime Minister of Iraq . A referendum to approve a constitution in Iraq was held in October 2005 , supported by most Shiites and many Kurds .
On January 10 , 2007 , Bush announced a surge of 21 @,@ 500 more troops for Iraq , as well as a job program for Iraqis , more reconstruction proposals , and $ 1 @.@ 2 billion for these programs . On May 1 , 2007 , Bush used his second @-@ ever veto to reject a bill setting a deadline for the withdrawal of U.S. troops , saying the debate over the conflict was " understandable " but insisting that a continued U.S. presence there was crucial .
In March 2008 , Bush praised the Iraqi government 's " bold decision " to launch the Battle of Basra against the Mahdi Army , calling it " a defining moment in the history of a free Iraq " . He said he would carefully weigh recommendations from his commanding General David Petraeus and Ambassador Ryan Crocker about how to proceed after the end of the military buildup in the summer of 2008 . He also praised the Iraqis ' legislative achievements , including a pension law , a revised de @-@ Baathification law , a new budget , an amnesty law , and a provincial powers measure that , he said , set the stage for the Iraqi elections . By July 2008 , American troop deaths had reached their lowest number since the war began , and due to increased stability in Iraq , Bush announced the withdrawal of additional American forces .
= = = = Surveillance = = = =
Following the events of September 11 , Bush issued an executive order authorizing the President 's Surveillance Program which included allowing the NSA to monitor communications between suspected terrorists outside the U.S and parties within the U.S. without obtaining a warrant as required by the Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Act . As of 2009 , the other provisions of the program remained highly classified . Once the Department of Justice Office of Legal Counsel questioned its original legal opinion that FISA did not apply in a time of war , the program was subsequently re @-@ authorized by the President on the basis that the warrant requirements of FISA were implicitly superseded by the subsequent passage of the Authorization for Use of Military Force Against Terrorists . The program proved to be controversial , as critics of the administration , as well as organizations such as the American Bar Association , argued that it was illegal . In August 2006 , a U.S. district court judge ruled that the NSA electronic surveillance program was unconstitutional , but on July 6 , 2007 , that ruling was vacated by the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit on the grounds that the plaintiffs lacked standing . On January 17 , 2007 , Attorney General Alberto Gonzales informed U.S. Senate leaders that the program would not be reauthorized by the President , but would be subjected to judicial oversight . Later in 2007 , the NSA launched a replacement for the program , referred to as PRISM , that was subject to the oversight of the United States Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court . This program was not publicly revealed until reports by The Washington Post and The Guardian emerged in June 2013 .
= = = = Interrogation policies = = = =
Bush authorized the CIA to use waterboarding as one of several enhanced interrogation techniques . Between 2002 and 2003 the CIA considered certain enhanced interrogation techniques , such as waterboarding , to be legal based on a secret Justice Department legal opinion arguing that terror detainees were not protected by the Geneva Conventions ' ban on torture and Vice President Cheney said enhanced interrogation including waterboarding was not torture or illegal . The CIA had exercised the technique on certain key terrorist suspects under authority given to it in the Bybee Memo from the Attorney General , though that memo was later withdrawn . While not permitted by the U.S. Army Field Manuals which assert " that harsh interrogation tactics elicit unreliable information " , the Bush administration believed these enhanced interrogations " provided critical information " to preserve American lives . Critics , such as former CIA officer Bob Baer , have stated that information was suspect , " you can get anyone to confess to anything if the torture 's bad enough . "
On October 17 , 2006 , Bush signed into law the Military Commissions Act of 2006 , a law enacted in the wake of the Supreme Court 's decision in Hamdan v. Rumsfeld , 548 U.S. 557 ( 2006 ) , which allows the U.S. government to prosecute unlawful enemy combatants by military commission rather than a standard trial . The law also denies them access to habeas corpus and bars the torture of detainees , but allows the president to determine what constitutes torture .
On March 8 , 2008 , Bush vetoed H.R. 2082 , a bill that would have expanded congressional oversight over the intelligence community and banned the use of waterboarding as well as other forms of interrogation not permitted under the United States Army Field Manual on Human Intelligence Collector Operations , saying that " the bill Congress sent me would take away one of the most valuable tools in the War on Terror " . In April 2009 , the ACLU sued and won release of the secret memos that had authorized the Bush administration 's interrogation tactics . One memo detailed specific interrogation tactics including a footnote that described waterboarding as torture as well as that the form of waterboarding used by the CIA was far more intense than authorized by the Justice Department .
= = = = North Korea condemnation = = = =
Bush publicly condemned Kim Jong @-@ il of North Korea , naming North Korea one of three states in an " axis of evil " , and saying that " the United States of America will not permit the world 's most dangerous regimes to threaten us with the world 's most destructive weapons . " Within months , " both countries had walked away from their respective commitments under the U.S. – DPRK Agreed Framework of October 1994 . " North Korea 's October 9 , 2006 , detonation of a nuclear device further complicated Bush 's foreign policy , which centered for both terms of his presidency on " [ preventing ] the terrorists and regimes who seek chemical , biological , or nuclear weapons from threatening the United States and the world " . Bush condemned North Korea 's position , reaffirmed his commitment to " a nuclear @-@ free Korean Peninsula " , and stated that " transfer of nuclear weapons or material by North Korea to states or non @-@ state entities would be considered a grave threat to the United States " , for which North Korea would be held accountable . On May 7 , 2007 , North Korea agreed to shut down its nuclear reactors immediately pending the release of frozen funds held in a foreign bank account . This was a result of a series of three @-@ way talks initiated by the United States and including China . On September 2 , 2007 , North Korea agreed to disclose and dismantle all of its nuclear programs by the end of 2007 . By May 2009 , North Korea had restarted its nuclear program and threatened to attack South Korea .
On June 22 , 2010 , " While South Korea prospers , the people of North Korea have suffered profoundly , " he said , adding that , " communism had resulted in dire poverty , mass starvation and brutal suppression . " In recent years , " he went on to say , " the suffering has been compounded by the leader who wasted North Korea 's precious few resources on personal luxuries and nuclear weapons programs . "
= = = = Syria sanctions = = = =
Bush expanded economic sanctions on Syria . In early 2007 , the Treasury Department , acting on a June 2005 executive order , froze American bank accounts of Syria 's Higher Institute of Applied Science and Technology , Electronics Institute , and National Standards and Calibration Laboratory . Bush 's order prohibits Americans from doing business with these institutions suspected of helping spread weapons of mass destruction and being supportive of terrorism . Under separate executive orders signed by Bush in 2004 and later 2007 , the Treasury Department froze the assets of two Lebanese and two Syrians , accusing them of activities to " undermine the legitimate political process in Lebanon " in November 2007 . Those designated included : Assaad Halim Hardan , a member of Lebanon 's parliament and current leader of the Syrian Socialist National Party ; Wi 'am Wahhab , a former member of Lebanon 's government ( Minister of the Environment ) under Prime Minister Omar Karami ( 2004 – 2005 ) ; Hafiz Makhluf , a colonel and senior official in the Syrian General Intelligence Directorate and a cousin of Syrian President Bashar al @-@ Assad ; and Muhammad Nasif Khayrbik , identified as a close adviser to Assad .
= = = = Africa = = = =
Bush initiated the President 's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief Program ( PEPFAR ) . The U.S. government has spent some $ 44 billion on the project since 2003 ( a figure that includes $ 7 billion contributed to the Global Fund to Fight AIDS , Tuberculosis , and Malaria , a multilateral organization ) , saving an estimated 5 million lives . According to The New York Times correspondent Peter Baker , " Bush did more to stop AIDS and more to help Africa than any president before or since . "
= = = = Assassination attempt = = = =
On May 10 , 2005 , Vladimir Arutyunian , a native Georgian who was born to a family of ethnic Armenians , threw a live hand grenade toward a podium where Bush was speaking at Freedom Square in Tbilisi , Georgia . Georgian President Mikheil Saakashvili was seated nearby . It landed in the crowd about 65 feet ( 20 m ) from the podium after hitting a girl , but it did not detonate . Arutyunian was arrested in July 2005 , confessed , was convicted and was given a life sentence in January 2006 .
= = = = Other issues = = = =
Bush withdrew U.S. support for several international agreements , including the Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty ( ABM ) with Russia . He also signed the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty with Russia .
Bush emphasized a careful approach to the conflict between Israel and the Palestinians ; he denounced Palestine Liberation Organization leader Yasser Arafat for his support of violence , but sponsored dialogues between Prime Minister Ariel Sharon and Palestinian National Authority President Mahmoud Abbas . Bush supported Sharon 's unilateral disengagement plan , and lauded the democratic elections held in Palestine after Arafat 's death .
Bush also expressed U.S. support for the defense of Taiwan following the stand @-@ off in April 2001 with the People 's Republic of China over the Hainan Island incident , when an EP @-@ 3E Aries II surveillance aircraft collided with a People 's Liberation Army Air Force jet , leading to the detention of U.S. personnel . From 2003 to 2004 , Bush authorized U.S. military intervention in Haiti and Liberia to protect U.S. interests . Bush condemned the militia attacks Darfur and denounced the killings in Sudan as genocide . Bush said that an international peacekeeping presence was critical in Darfur , but opposed referring the situation to the International Criminal Court .
In the State of the Union address in January 2003 , Bush outlined a five @-@ year strategy for global emergency AIDS relief , the President 's Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief . Bush announced $ 15 billion for this effort which directly supported life @-@ saving antiretroviral treatment for more than 3 @.@ 2 million men , women and children worldwide .
On June 10 , 2007 , Bush met with Albanian Prime Minister Sali Berisha and became the first president to visit Albania . Bush has voiced his support for the independence of Kosovo . Bush opposed South Ossetia 's independence . On August 15 , 2008 , Bush said of Russia 's invasion of the country of Georgia : " Bullying and intimidation are not acceptable ways to conduct foreign policy in the 21st century . "
Bush opened the 2002 Winter Olympics in Salt Lake City , Utha . Departing from previous practice , he stood among a group of U.S. athletes rather than from a ceremonial stand or box , saying : " On behalf of a proud , determined , and grateful nation , I declare open the Games of Salt Lake City , celebrating the Olympic Winter Games . " In 2008 , in the course of a good @-@ will trip to Asia , he attended the Summer Olympics in Beijing .
Bush twice invoked Section 3 of the Twenty @-@ fifth Amendment , which allows a President to temporarily transfer the powers and duties of his office to the Vice President who then becomes Acting President . On June 29 , 2002 , Bush underwent a colonoscopy and chose to invoke Section 3 of the amendment , making Vice President Dick Cheney the Acting President . The medical procedure began at 7 : 09 a.m. EDT and ended at 7 : 29 a.m. EDT . Bush woke up twenty minutes later , but did not resume his presidential powers and duties until 9 : 24 a.m. EDT after the president 's doctor , Richard Tubb , conducted an overall examination . Tubb said he recommended the additional time to make sure the sedative had no after effects . On July 21 , 2007 , Bush again invoked Section 3 in response to having to undergo a colonoscopy , again making Vice President Cheney the Acting President . Bush invoked Section 3 at 7 : 16 a.m. EDT . He reclaimed his powers at 9 : 21 a.m. EDT . In both cases , Bush specifically cited Section 3 when he transferred the Presidential powers to the Vice President and when he reclaimed those powers .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
= = = = Supreme Court = = = =
Following the announcement of Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor 's retirement on July 1 , 2005 , Bush nominated John Roberts to succeed her . On September 5 , following the death of Chief Justice William Rehnquist , this nomination was withdrawn and Bush instead nominated Roberts for Chief Justice to succeed Rehnquist . Roberts was confirmed by the Senate as the 17th Chief Justice on September 29 , 2005 .
On October 3 , 2005 , Bush nominated long time White House Counsel Harriet Miers for O 'Connor 's position . After facing significant opposition from both parties , who found her to be ill @-@ prepared and uninformed on the law , Miers asked that her name be withdrawn on October 27 . Four days later , on October 31 , Bush nominated federal appellate judge Samuel Alito . Alito was confirmed as the 110th Supreme Court Justice on January 31 , 2006 .
= = = = Other courts = = = =
In addition to his two Supreme Court appointments , Bush appointed 61 judges to the United States courts of appeals and 261 judges to the United States district courts . Each of these numbers , along with his total of 324 judicial appointments , is third in American history , behind both Ronald Reagan and Bill Clinton . Bush experienced a number of judicial appointment controversies . Debate during one confirmation session lasted " 39 stupefying hours " according to The New York Times . On August 3 , 2001 , the Senate did not consent to keep existing nominations in status quo , returning 40 judicial nominations , and 164 total nominations .
At the outset , Judicature magazine noted that the " Senate Democrats were gearing up for the approaching confirmation hearings " before the first set of nominees were sent to the Senate . It then cites The New York Times as saying " Senate Democrats have pledged they will not automatically vote to confirm Mr. Bush 's judicial nominees and will subject them to intense scrutiny . "
The Senate confirmed only 8 out of 60 judicial nominations by October 2001 . In February 2003 , the Democrats successfully filibustered the nomination of Miguel Estrada .
= = = Public image and perception = = =
= = = = Domestic = = = =
= = = = = Image = = = = =
Bush 's upbringing in West Texas , his accent , his vacations on his Texas ranch , and his penchant for country metaphors contribute to his folksy , American cowboy image . " I think people look at him and think John Wayne , " said Piers Morgan , editor of the British Daily Mirror . It has been suggested that Bush 's accent was an active choice , as a way of distinguishing himself from Northeastern intellectuals and anchoring himself to his Texas roots . Both supporters and detractors have pointed to his country persona as reasons for their support or criticism .
Bush has been parodied by the media , comedians , and other politicians . Detractors tended to cite linguistic errors made by Bush during his public speeches , which are colloquially referred to as Bushisms . Some pundits labeled Bush " the worst president ever " . In contrast to his father , who was perceived as having troubles with an overarching unifying theme , Bush embraced larger visions and was seen as a man of larger ideas and associated huge risks . Tony Blair wrote in 2010 that the caricature of Bush as being dumb is " ludicrous " and that Bush is " very smart " . In an interview with Playboy , New York Times columnist David Brooks said George W. Bush " was 60 IQ points smarter in private than he was in public . He doesn 't want anybody to think he 's smarter than they are , so puts on a Texas act . "
= = = = = Job approval = = = = =
Bush began his presidency with approval ratings near 50 percent . After the September 11 attacks , Bush gained an approval rating of 90 percent , maintaining 80 to 90 percent approval for four months after the attacks . It remained over 50 percent during most of his first term and then fell to as low as 19 percent in his second term .
In 2000 and again in 2004 , Time magazine named George W. Bush as its Person of the Year , a title awarded to someone who the editors believe " has done the most to influence the events of the year " . In May 2004 , Gallup reported that 89 percent of the Republican electorate approved of Bush . However , the support waned due mostly to a minority of Republicans ' frustration with him on issues of spending , illegal immigration , and Middle Eastern affairs .
Within the United States armed forces , according to an unscientific survey , the president was strongly supported in the 2004 presidential elections . While 73 percent of military personnel said that they would vote for Bush , 18 percent preferred his Democratic rival , John Kerry . According to Peter Feaver , a Duke University political scientist who has studied the political leanings of the U.S. military , members of the armed services supported Bush because they found him more likely than Kerry to complete the War in Iraq .
Bush 's approval rating went below the 50 percent mark in AP @-@ Ipsos polling in December 2004 . Thereafter , his approval ratings and approval of his handling of domestic and foreign policy issues steadily dropped . Bush received heavy criticism for his handling of the Iraq War , his response to Hurricane Katrina and to the Abu Ghraib prisoner abuse , NSA warrantless surveillance , the Plame affair , and Guantanamo Bay detention camp controversies . There were calls for Bush 's impeachment , though most polls showed a plurality of Americans would not support such an action . The arguments offered for impeachment usually centered on the NSA warrantless surveillance controversy , the Bush administration 's justification for the war in Iraq , and alleged violations of the Geneva Conventions . Representative Dennis Kucinich ( D @-@ OH ) , who had run against Bush during the 2004 presidential campaign , introduced 35 articles of impeachment on the floor of the House of Representatives against Bush on June 9 , 2008 , but Speaker Nancy Pelosi ( D @-@ CA ) declared that impeachment was " off the table " .
Polls conducted in 2006 showed an average of 37 percent approval ratings for Bush , the lowest for any second @-@ term president at that point of his term since Harry S. Truman in March 1951 ( when Truman 's approval rating was 28 percent ) , which contributed to what Bush called the " thumping " of the Republican Party in the 2006 mid @-@ term elections . Throughout most of 2007 , Bush 's approval rating hovered in the mid @-@ thirties ; the average for his entire second term was 37 percent , according to Gallup .
By the beginning of 2008 , his final year in office , Bush 's approval rating had dropped to a low of just 19 percent , largely from the loss of support among Republicans . Commenting on his low poll numbers and accusations of being " the worst president , " Bush would say , " I make decisions on what I think is right for the United States based upon principles . I frankly don 't give a damn about the polls . "
In the spring of that year , Bush 's disapproval ratings reached the highest ever recorded for any president in the 70 @-@ year history of the Gallup poll , with 69 percent of those polled in April 2008 disapproving of the job Bush was doing as president and 28 percent approving — although the majority ( 66 percent ) of Republicans still approved of his job performance .
In polls conducted in the fall , just before the 2008 election , his approval ratings remained at record lows of 19 to 20 percent , while his disapproval ratings ranged from 67 percent to as high as 75 percent . In polling conducted January 9 – 11 , 2009 , his final job approval rating by Gallup was 34 percent , which placed him on par with Jimmy Carter and Harry S. Truman , the other presidents whose final Gallup ratings measured in the low 30s ( Richard Nixon 's final Gallup approval rating was even lower , at 24 percent ) . According to a CBS News / New York Times poll conducted January 11 – 15 , 2009 , Bush 's final approval rating in office was 22 percent , the lowest in American history .
= = = = Foreign perceptions = = = =
Bush was criticized internationally and targeted by the global anti @-@ war and anti @-@ globalization campaigns for his administration 's foreign policy . Views of him within the international community — even in France , a close ally of the United States — were more negative than those of most previous American presidents in history .
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Bush was described as having especially close personal relationships with Tony Blair of Great Britain and Vicente Fox of Mexico , although formal relations were sometimes strained . Other leaders , such as Afghan president Hamid Karzai , Ugandan president Yoweri Museveni , Spanish prime minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero , and Venezuelan president Hugo Chávez , openly criticized the president . Later in Bush 's presidency , tensions arose between him and Vladimir Putin , which led to a cooling of their relationship .
In 2006 , most respondents in 18 of 21 countries surveyed around the world were found to hold an unfavorable opinion of Bush . Respondents indicated that they judged his administration as negative for world security . In 2007 , the Pew Global Attitudes Project reported that during the Bush presidency , attitudes towards the United States , and towards Americans , became less favorable around the world .
A March 2007 survey of Arab opinion conducted by Zogby International and the University of Maryland found that Bush was the most disliked leader in the Arab world .
The Pew Research Center 's 2007 Global Attitudes poll found that out of 47 countries , in only nine countries did most respondents express " a lot of confidence " or " some confidence " in Bush : Ethiopia , Ghana , India , Israel , Ivory Coast , Kenya , Mali , Nigeria , and Uganda .
During a June 2007 visit to the predominantly Muslim Albania , Bush was greeted enthusiastically . Albania has a population of 2 @.@ 8 million , has troops in both Iraq and Afghanistan , and the country 's government is highly supportive of American foreign policy . A huge image of the President was hung in the middle of the capital city of Tirana flanked by Albanian and American flags while a local street was named after him . A shirt @-@ sleeved statue of Bush was unveiled in Fushë @-@ Krujë , a few kilometers northwest of Tirana . The Bush administration 's support for the independence of Albanian @-@ majority Kosovo , while endearing him to the Albanians , has troubled U.S. relations with Serbia , leading to the February 2008 torching of the U.S. embassy in Belgrade .
= = = = Acknowledgments and dedications = = = =
On May 7 , 2005 , during an official state visit to Latvia , Bush was awarded the Order of the Three Stars presented to him by President Vaira Vīķe @-@ Freiberga . A few places outside the United States bear Bush 's name . In 2005 , the Tbilisi City Council voted to rename a street in honor of the U.S. president . Previously known as Melaani Drive , the street links the Georgian capital 's airport with the city center and was used by Bush 's motorcade during his visit four months earlier . A street in Tirana , formerly known as Rruga Puntorët e Rilendjes , situated directly outside the Albanian Parliament , was renamed after Bush a few days before he made the first @-@ ever visit by an American president to Albania in June 2007 . In Jerusalem , a small plaza with a monument bearing his name is also dedicated to Bush .
In 2012 , Estonian President Toomas Hendrik Ilves awarded Bush the Order of the Cross of Terra Mariana for his work in expanding NATO .
= = = Criticism = = =
The Bush Presidency has been ranked among the worst in surveys of presidential scholars published in the late 2000s and 2010s .
After his re @-@ election in 2004 , Bush received increasingly heated criticism from across the political spectrum for his handling of the Iraq War , Hurricane Katrina , and other challenges . Amid this criticism , the Democratic Party regained control of Congress in the 2006 elections . In December 2007 , the United States entered its longest post @-@ World War II recession , often referred to as the " Great Recession " , prompting the Bush administration to obtain congressional passage of multiple economic programs intended to preserve the country 's financial system . Nationally , Bush was both one of the most popular and unpopular presidents in history , having received the highest recorded presidential approval ratings in the wake of the September 11 attacks , as well as one of the lowest approval ratings during the 2008 financial crisis .
= = Post @-@ presidency = =
= = = Residence ( since 2009 ) = = =
Following the inauguration of Barack Obama , Bush and his family flew from Andrews Air Force Base to a homecoming celebration in Midland , Texas , following which they returned to their ranch in Crawford , Texas . They bought a home in the Preston Hollow neighborhood of Dallas , Texas , where they settled down .
He makes regular appearances at various events throughout the Dallas / Fort Worth area , most notably when he conducted the opening coin toss at the Dallas Cowboys first game in the team 's new stadium in Arlington and an April 2009 visit to a Texas Rangers game , where he thanked the people of Dallas for helping him settle in and was met with a standing ovation . He also attended every home playoff game for the Texas Rangers 2010 season and , accompanied by his father , threw out the ceremonial first pitch at Rangers Ballpark in Arlington for Game 4 of the 2010 World Series on October 31 , 2010 .
On August 6 , 2013 , Bush was successfully treated for a coronary artery blockage with a stent . The blockage had been found during an annual medical examination .
In reaction to the 2016 shooting of Dallas police officers , Bush stated : " Laura and I are heartbroken by the heinous acts of violence in our city last night . Murdering the innocent is always evil , never more so than when the lives taken belong to those who protect our families and communities . "
= = = Publications and appearances = = =
Since leaving office , Bush has kept a relatively low profile though he has made public appearances , most notably after the release of his memoirs in 2010 and for the 10th anniversary of the September 11 attacks in 2011 . In March 2009 , he delivered his first post @-@ presidency speech in Calgary , Alberta , appeared via video on The Colbert Report during which he praised U.S. troops for earning a " special place in American history , " and attended the funeral of Senator Ted Kennedy . Bush made his debut as a motivational speaker on October 26 at the " Get Motivated " seminar in Dallas . In the aftermath of the Fort Hood shooting that took place on November 5 , 2009 , in Texas , the Bushes paid an undisclosed visit to the survivors and victims ' families the day following the shooting , having contacted the base commander requesting that the visit be private and not involve press coverage .
Bush released his memoirs , Decision Points , on November 9 , 2010 . During a pre @-@ release appearance promoting the book , Bush said he considered his biggest accomplishment to be keeping " the country safe amid a real danger " , and his greatest failure to be his inability to secure the passage of Social Security reform . He also made news defending his administration 's enhanced interrogation techniques , specifically the waterboarding of Khalid Sheikh Mohammed , saying , " I 'd do it again to save lives . "
In 2012 , he wrote the foreword of The 4 % Solution : Unleashing the Economic Growth America Needs , an economics book published by the George W. Bush Presidential Center . He also presented the book at the Parkland Memorial Hospital in Dallas , Texas .
Bush appeared on NBC 's The Tonight Show with Jay Leno on November 19 , 2013 , along with the former First Lady , Laura Bush . When asked by Leno why he does not comment publicly about the Obama administration , Bush said , " I don 't think it 's good for the country to have a former president criticize his successor . " Despite this statement , on Saturday , April 25 , 2015 , Bush criticized President Barack Obama at a meeting of the Republican Jewish Coalition at the Venetian Hotel in Las Vegas . Bush criticized Obama 's handling of Iran , specifically with respect to sanctions and a nuclear deal , saying : " You think the Middle East is chaotic now ? Imagine what it looks like for our grandchildren . That 's how Americans should view the deal . " Bush also attacked Obama 's withdrawal of U.S. troops from Iraq in 2011 , calling it a " strategic blunder " , borrowing a term that had been used by South Carolina Senator Lindsey Graham .
Alongside the 2014 United States – Africa Leaders Summit , Bush , Michelle Obama , the State Department , and the George W. Bush Institute hosted a daylong forum on education and health with the spouses of the African leaders attending the summit . Bush urged African leaders to avoid discriminatory laws that make the treatment of HIV / AIDS more difficult .
Bush has spoken in favor of increased global participation of women in politics and societal matters in foreign countries .
On November 2 , 2014 , Bush spoke at an event to 200 business and civic leaders at the George W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum to raise awareness for the upcoming Museum of the Bible in Washington D.C.
Bush published a biography of his father , George Bush , called 41 : A Portrait of My Father . It was released on November 11 , 2014 .
In an interview published by Israel Hayom magazine on June 12 , 2015 , Bush said that " boots on the ground " would be needed in order to defeat the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIS ) . He added that people had said during his Presidency that he should withdraw American troops from Iraq , but he chose the opposite , sending 30 @,@ 000 more troops in order to defeat Al Qaeda in Iraq , and that Al Qaeda in Iraq was defeated . Bush was also asked about Iran but declined to answer , stating that any answer he gives would be interpreted as undermining President Barack Obama .
Bush declined to endorse the 2016 Republican nominee Donald Trump and he didn 't attend the 2016 Republican National Convention that formally nominated Trump . On the eve of Trump 's nomination , it was reported that Bush had privately expressed concern about the current direction of the Republican Party and told a group of his former aides and advisors , " I 'm worried that I will be the last Republican president . "
= = = Collaborations = = =
In January 2010 , at President Obama 's request , Bush and Bill Clinton established the Clinton Bush Haiti Fund to raise contributions for relief and recovery efforts following the 2010 Haiti earthquake earlier that month .
On May 2 , 2011 , President Obama called Bush , who was at a restaurant with his wife , to inform him that Osama bin Laden had been killed . The Bushes joined the Obamas in New York City to mark the tenth anniversary of the September 11 , 2001 , terrorist attacks . At the Ground Zero memorial , Bush read a letter that President Abraham Lincoln wrote to a widow who lost five sons during the Civil War .
= = = Visual art = = =
After serving as president , Bush began painting as a hobby . Subjects have included dogs and still life . He has also painted self @-@ portraits and portraits of world leaders , including Vladimir Putin and Tony Blair .
His paintings have been met with a middling reception from art critics . Bill Arning , director of the Contemporary Arts Museum Houston , called his portraits " thickly painted in what I would call ' high @-@ amateur ' mode " and wrote , " I would say they need to be less based on photographic reproduction . You can tell when someone is taking a found photograph and making a painting out of it [ ... ] I think he 'd be well advised to work from other , multiple photographic sources or the real person to get a little bit more liveliness going on . "
= = Legacy = =
George W. Bush 's legacy remains a contested one . Supporters credit Bush 's counterterrorism policies with preventing another major terrorist attack from occurring in the US after 9 / 11 and also praise individual policies such as the Medicare prescription drug benefit and the AIDS relief program known as PEPFAR . Critics often point to his handling of the Iraq War , specifically the failure to find weapons of mass destruction , that were the main rationale behind the initial invasion — as well as his handling of tax policy , Hurricane Katrina and the 2008 financial crisis as proof that George W. Bush was unfit to be president .
Several historians and commentators hold the view that Bush was one of the most consequential presidents in American history . Princeton University scholar Julian Zelizer described Bush 's presidency as a " transformative " one , and said that " some people hate him , some people love him , but I do think he 'll have a much more substantive perception as time goes on " . Bryon Williams of The Huffington Post referred to Bush as " the most noteworthy president since FDR " and said that the Patriot Act " increased authority of the executive branch at the expense of judicial opinions about when searches and seizures are reasonable " as evidence . Bush 's administration presided over the largest tax cuts since the Reagan administration , and his homeland security reforms proved to be the most significant expansion of the federal government since the Great Society . Much of these policies have endured in the administration of Bush 's Democratic successor , Barack Obama .
Among the public , his reputation has improved somewhat since his presidency ended in 2009 . In February 2012 , Gallup reported that " Americans still rate George W. Bush among the worst presidents , though their views have become more positive in the three years since he left office . " Gallup had earlier noted that Bush 's favorability ratings in public opinion surveys had begun to rise a year after he had left office , from 40 percent in January 2009 and 35 percent in March 2009 , to 45 percent in July 2010 , a period during which he had remained largely out of the news . Other pollsters have noted similar trends of slight improvement in Bush 's personal favorability since the end of his presidency . In April 2013 , Bush 's approval rating stood at 47 percent approval and 50 percent disapproval in a poll jointly conducted for The Washington Post and ABC , his highest approval rating since December 2005 . Bush had achieved notable gains among seniors , non @-@ college whites , and moderate and conservative Democrats since leaving office , although majorities disapproved of his handling of the economy ( 53 percent ) and the Iraq War ( 57 percent ) . His 47 percent approval rating was equal to that of President Obama 's in the same polling period . A CNN poll conducted that same month found that 55 percent of Americans said Bush 's presidency had been a failure , with 80 percent of Republican calling it a success , but only 43 percent of independents calling it a success and nearly 90 percent of Democrats calling it a failure .
While President Bush 's approval rating among the public has seen an improvement , the most recent survey of the opinions of historians , political scientists , and Presidential scholars , conducted in 2010 by the Siena Research Institute , ranked him 39th out of 43 Presidents . The survey respondents gave President Bush low ratings on his handling of the U.S. economy , communication , ability to compromise , foreign policy accomplishments , and intelligence .
= CMLL World Welterweight Championship =
The CMLL World Welterweight Championship ( Spanish : Campionato Mundial Peso Welter de CMLL ) is a professional wrestling world championship in the Mexican professional wrestling promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre ( CMLL ) . The official definition of the welterweight division in Mexico is between 70 kg ( 150 lb ) and 78 kg ( 172 lb ) but the official weight limits are not always adhered to these days . As the championship is a professional wrestling championship , it is not won or lost competitively but instead by the decision of the bookers of a wrestling promotion . The title is awarded after the chosen wrestler " wins " a match to maintain the illusion that professional wrestling is a competitive sport .
Overall there have been a total of 32 official championship reigns , shared between 20 different wrestlers . Mephisto is the current and 32bd champion , having won the championship on May 3 , 2016 . Máscara Dorada is the first and only wrestler to hold the championship four times . Mephisto 's first reign was the longest individual reign , 1 @,@ 141 days between 2004 and 2007 . The championship has been defended in Mexico and Japan , including three title changes in Japan . Over the lifetime of the championship was vacated twice and CMLL has held three different tournaments for the championship .
= = History = =
In the late 1980s CMLL left the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) to avoid the politics of the NWA . While they left the NWA they did retain control of the NWA World Welterweight Championship as their main championship of the welterweight division . They also promoted the Mexican National Welterweight Championship as a secondary title in the Welterweight division . In 1991 CMLL decided to create a series of CMLL Branded world championships , one of which was for the welterweight division . CMLL held a four @-@ man tournament on February 15 , 1992 to crown the first welterweight champion. the participants were Fuerza Guerrera , El Felino , América and El Khalifa , the finals saw Fuerza Guerrera defeat El Khalifa to become the first Welterweight champion . On July 16 , 1992 then Mexican National Welterweight Champion defeated CMLL Welterweight Champion América , which led to the Mexican National Welterweight Championship being vacated . In 1993 control of the Mexican National Welterweight Championship was transferred from CMLL to rival promotion Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) .
In 1996 the championship was vacated after then @-@ champion El Pantera lost the Championship to Super Delfin while on tour in Japan . Pantera left CMLL for AAA after the tour , and he decided to give Super Delfin the championship by losing a match to him while in Japan . CMLL knew that Pantera was leaving and nullified the championship change , choosing to not recognize the title change at all , instead announcing that they had wikt : vacated the championship . Subsequently CMLL put together a 16 @-@ man tournament crown a new champion , the tournament saw Máscara Mágica defeat El Felino in the tournament final to become the seventh official CMLL World Welterweight Champion . Máscara Mágica would later defeat Super Delfin to put an end to any questions about the lineage of the championship . In 1998 the Mexican National Welterweight Championship was returned to CMLL , making it a tertiary title behind the CMLL and NWA branded world championships . In 2010 CMLL returned the NWA World Welterweight Championship to the NWA , but immediately replaced it with the NWA World Historic Welterweight Championship .
From the unrecognized title change on March 15 , 1996 , until January 2011 , when Ryusuke Taguchi won the Championship in Tokyo , all championship matches took place in Mexico . In early 2015 it was announced that then @-@ champion Máscara Dorada had signed a contract to work for New Japan Pro Wrestling ( NJPW ) for a year , taking the championship with him to Japan . During his tour of Japan Máscara Dorada lost the championship to Bushi , which was officially acknowledged by CMLL .
= = Reigns = =
The Championship is designated as a welterweight title , which means that the championship can officially only be competed for by wrestlers weighing between 70 kg ( 150 lb ) and 78 kg ( 172 lb ) . In the 20th century Mexican wrestling enforced the weight divisions more strictly , but in the 21st century the rules have occasionally been ignored for the some weight divisions . The heaviest welterweight champion on record is Olímpico who was announced as weighing 92 kg ( 203 lb ) , 14 kg ( 31 lb ) above the maximum weight limit . While the heavyweight championship is traditionally considered the most prestigious weight division in professional wrestling , CMLL places more emphasis on the lower weight divisions . All title matches promoted in Mexico take place under best two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls rules , while championship matches promoted in Japan followed the local custom and were only one fall matches .
Mephisto is the current and two @-@ time after defeating Máscara Dorada at a CMLL show in Arena Mexico May 3 , 2016 . He is the 32nd overall champion . El Felino has the longest combined reigns overall with 1 @,@ 186 days , divided over three separate reigns . Mephisto has the longest individual reign of all champions at 1 @,@ 141 days from 2004 to 2007 . The first champion , Fuerza Guerrera is also the person who 's held the title the shortest time , 22 days but the possibility exists that Mascara Magica 's second reign was shorter as no specific date for the start of the reign has be confirmed , which means his reign lasted between 6 days and 36 days .
= = Tournaments = =
= = = 1992 = = =
On February 15 , 1992 CMLL held a one @-@ night , four @-@ man tournament to crown the first ever CMLL World Welterweight Champion . The welterweight championship was the fifth CMLL branded world championship created after the CMLL World Heavyweight , CMLL World Light Heavyweight , CMLL World Trios and CMLL World Middleweight Championship . In the tournament finals Fuerza Guerrera defeated El Khalifa to win the championship .
= = = 1996 = = =
In 1996 CMLL decided not to acknowledge that La Pantera had lost the CMLL World Welterweight Championship during a tour of Japan , declaring the title vacant instead . They held a 16 @-@ man tournament from May 7 to May 21 , 1996 , in order to crown a new champion . In the finals Máscara Mágica defeated El Felino to become the seventh champion .
= = = 2014 @-@ 2015 = = =
On May 2 , 2015 then @-@ reigning CMLL World Welterweight Champion Místico , crashed his motorcycle , breaking both the fibula and tibia in his right leg , forcing him to undergo surgery the following day . Due to the injury the Welterweight championship became inactive for several months as Místico was unabel to compete . During a press conference on November 19 , 2014 Místico announced that he was not ready to return to the ring , which led to the CMLL World Welterweight Championship being declared vacant . On December 26 , 2014 CMLL held a 10 @-@ man Torneo cibernetico elimination match to determine the next champion . Negro Casas and Máscara Dorada outlasted the other eight competitors ; Delta , Fuego , Kamaitachi , Pólvora , Rey Cometa , Sangre Azteca , Titán and Tritón . A week later Máscara Dorada defeated Negro Casas to become the 29th CMLL World Heavyweight Championship .
Torneo cibernetico order of elimination
= Solar power =
Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity , either directly using photovoltaics ( PV ) , or indirectly using concentrated solar power ( CSP ) . Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . Photovoltaics convert light into an electric current using the photovoltaic effect .
The International Energy Agency projected in 2014 that under its " high renewables " scenario , by 2050 , solar photovoltaics and concentrated solar power would contribute about 16 and 11 percent , respectively , of the worldwide electricity consumption , and solar would be the world 's largest source of electricity . Most solar installations would be in China and India .
Photovoltaics were initially solely used as a source of electricity for small and medium @-@ sized applications , from the calculator powered by a single solar cell to remote homes powered by an off @-@ grid rooftop PV system . As the cost of solar electricity has fallen , the number of grid @-@ connected solar PV systems has grown into the millions and utility @-@ scale solar power stations with hundreds of megawatts are being built . Solar PV is rapidly becoming an inexpensive , low @-@ carbon technology to harness renewable energy from the Sun .
Commercial concentrated solar power plants were first developed in the 1980s . The 392 MW Ivanpah installation is the largest concentrating solar power plant in the world , located in the Mojave Desert of California . The 579 MW Solar Star , near Rosamond , California , is the world 's largest PV power station .
= = Mainstream technologies = =
Many industrialized nations have installed significant solar power capacity into their grids to supplement or provide an alternative to conventional energy sources while an increasing number of less developed nations have turned to solar to reduce dependence on expensive imported fuels ( see solar power by country ) . Long distance transmission allows remote renewable energy resources to displace fossil fuel consumption . Solar power plants use one of two technologies :
Photovoltaic ( PV ) systems use solar panels , either on rooftops or in ground @-@ mounted solar farms , converting sunlight directly into electric power .
Concentrated solar power ( CSP , also known as " concentrated solar thermal " ) plants use solar thermal energy to make steam , that is thereafter converted into electricity by a turbine .
= = = Photovoltaics = = =
A solar cell , or photovoltaic cell ( PV ) , is a device that converts light into electric current using the photovoltaic effect . The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s . The German industrialist Ernst Werner von Siemens was among those who recognized the importance of this discovery . In 1931 , the German engineer Bruno Lange developed a photo cell using silver selenide in place of copper oxide , although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1 % of incident light into electricity . Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s , researchers Gerald Pearson , Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954 . These early solar cells cost 286 USD / watt and reached efficiencies of 4 @.@ 5 – 6 % .
= = = = Conventional PV systems = = = =
The array of a photovoltaic power system , or PV system , produces direct current ( DC ) power which fluctuates with the sunlight 's intensity . For practical use this usually requires conversion to certain desired voltages or alternating current ( AC ) , through the use of inverters . Multiple solar cells are connected inside modules . Modules are wired together to form arrays , then tied to an inverter , which produces power at the desired voltage , and for AC , the desired frequency / phase .
Many residential PV systems are connected to the grid wherever available , especially in developed countries with large markets . In these grid @-@ connected PV systems , use of energy storage is optional . In certain applications such as satellites , lighthouses , or in developing countries , batteries or additional power generators are often added as back @-@ ups . Such stand @-@ alone power systems permit operations at night and at other times of limited sunlight .
= = = Concentrated solar power = = =
Concentrated solar power ( CSP ) , also called " concentrated solar thermal " , uses lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam . Contrary to photovoltaics – which converts light directly into electricity – CSP uses the heat of the sun 's radiation to generate electricity from conventional steam @-@ driven turbines .
A wide range of concentrating technologies exists : among the best known are the parabolic trough , the compact linear Fresnel reflector , the Stirling dish and the solar power tower . Various techniques are used to track the sun and focus light . In all of these systems a working fluid is heated by the concentrated sunlight , and is then used for power generation or energy storage . Thermal storage efficiently allows up to 24 @-@ hour electricity generation .
A parabolic trough consists of a linear parabolic reflector that concentrates light onto a receiver positioned along the reflector 's focal line . The receiver is a tube positioned right above the middle of the parabolic mirror and is filled with a working fluid . The reflector is made to follow the sun during daylight hours by tracking along a single axis . Parabolic trough systems provide the best land @-@ use factor of any solar technology . The SEGS plants in California and Acciona 's Nevada Solar One near Boulder City , Nevada are representatives of this technology .
Compact Linear Fresnel Reflectors are CSP @-@ plants which use many thin mirror strips instead of parabolic mirrors to concentrate sunlight onto two tubes with working fluid . This has the advantage that flat mirrors can be used which are much cheaper than parabolic mirrors , and that more reflectors can be placed in the same amount of space , allowing more of the available sunlight to be used . Concentrating linear fresnel reflectors can be used in either large or more compact plants .
The Stirling solar dish combines a parabolic concentrating dish with a Stirling engine which normally drives an electric generator . The advantages of Stirling solar over photovoltaic cells are higher efficiency of converting sunlight into electricity and longer lifetime . Parabolic dish systems give the highest efficiency among CSP technologies . The 50 kW Big Dish in Canberra , Australia is an example of this technology .
A solar power tower uses an array of tracking reflectors ( heliostats ) to concentrate light on a central receiver atop a tower . Power towers are more cost effective , offer higher efficiency and better energy storage capability among CSP technologies . The PS10 Solar Power Plant and PS20 solar power plant are examples of this technology .
= = = = Hybrid systems = = = =
A hybrid system combines ( C ) PV and CSP with one another or with other forms of generation such as diesel , wind and biogas . The combined form of generation may enable the system to modulate power output as a function of demand or at least reduce the fluctuating nature of solar power and the consumption of non renewable fuel . Hybrid systems are most often found on islands .
CPV / CSP system
A novel solar CPV / CSP hybrid system has been proposed , combining concentrator photovoltaics with the non @-@ PV technology of concentrated solar power , or also known as concentrated solar thermal .
ISCC system
The Hassi R 'Mel power station in Algeria , is an example of combining CSP with a gas turbine , where a 25 @-@ megawatt CSP @-@ parabolic trough array supplements a much larger 130 MW combined cycle gas turbine plant . Another example is the Yazd power station in Iran .
PVT system
Hybrid PV / T ) , also known as photovoltaic thermal hybrid solar collectors convert solar radiation into thermal and electrical energy . Such a system combines a solar ( PV ) module with a solar thermal collector in an complementary way .
CPVT system
A concentrated photovoltaic thermal hybrid ( CPVT ) system is similar to a PVT system . It uses concentrated photovoltaics ( CPV ) instead of conventional PV technology , and combines it with a solar thermal collector .
PV diesel system
It combines a photovoltaic system with a diesel generator . Combinations with other renewables are possible and include wind turbines .
PV @-@ thermoelectric system
Thermoelectric , or " thermovoltaic " devices convert a temperature difference between dissimilar materials into an electric current . Solar cells use only the high frequency part of the radiation , while the low frequency heat energy is wasted . Several patents about the use of thermoelectric devices in tandem with solar cells have been filed . The idea is to increase the efficiency of the combined solar / thermoelectric system to convert the solar radiation into useful electricity .
= = Development and deployment = =
= = = Early days = = =
The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an expectation that coal would soon become scarce . However , development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability , economy , and utility of coal and petroleum . In 1974 it was estimated that only six private homes in all of North America were entirely heated or cooled by functional solar power systems . The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies . Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan . Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the United States ( SERI , now NREL ) , Japan ( NEDO ) , and Germany ( Fraunhofer – ISE ) . Between 1970 and 1983 installations of photovoltaic systems grew rapidly , but falling oil prices in the early 1980s moderated the growth of photovoltaics from 1984 to 1996 .
= = = Mid @-@ 1990s to early 2010s = = =
In the mid @-@ 1990s , development of both , residential and commercial rooftop solar as well as utility @-@ scale photovoltaic power stations , began to accelerate again due to supply issues with oil and natural gas , global warming concerns , and the improving economic position of PV relative to other energy technologies . In the early 2000s , the adoption of feed @-@ in tariffs — a policy mechanism , that gives renewables priority on the grid and defines a fixed price for the generated electricity — lead to a high level of investment security and to a soaring number of PV deployments in Europe .
= = = Current status = = =
For several years , worldwide growth of solar PV was driven by European deployment , but has since shifted to Asia , especially China and Japan , and to a growing number of countries and regions all over the world , including , but not limited to , Australia , Canada , Chile , India , Israel , Mexico , South Africa , South Korea , Thailand , and the United States .
Worldwide growth of photovoltaics has averaged 40 % per year since 2000 and total installed capacity reached 139 GW at the end of 2013 with Germany having the most cumulative installations ( 35 @.@ 7 GW ) and Italy having the highest percentage of electricity generated by solar PV ( 7 @.@ 0 % ) .
Concentrated solar power ( CSP ) also started to grow rapidly , increasing its capacity nearly tenfold from 2004 to 2013 , albeit from a lower level and involving fewer countries than solar PV . As of the end of 2013 , worldwide cumulative CSP @-@ capacity reached 3 @,@ 425 MW .
= = = Forecasts = = =
In 2010 , the International Energy Agency predicted that global solar PV capacity could reach 3 @,@ 000 GW or 11 % of projected global electricity generation by 2050 — enough to generate 4 @,@ 500 TWh of electricity . Four years later , in 2014 , the agency projected that , under its " high renewables " scenario , solar power could supply 27 % of global electricity generation by 2050 ( 16 % from PV and 11 % from CSP ) . In 2015 , analysts predicted that one million homes in the U.S. will have solar power by the end of 2016 .
= = = Photovoltaic power stations = = =
The Desert Sunlight Solar Farm is a 550 MW power plant in Riverside County , California , that uses thin @-@ film CdTe @-@ modules made by First Solar . As of November 2014 , the 550 megawatt Topaz Solar Farm was the largest photovoltaic power plant in the world . This has now been surpassed by the 579 MW Solar Star complex .
= = = Concentrating solar power stations = = =
Commercial concentrating solar power ( CSP ) plants , also called " solar thermal power stations " , were first developed in the 1980s . The 377 MW Ivanpah Solar Power Facility , located in California 's Mojave Desert , is the world ’ s largest solar thermal power plant project . Other large CSP plants include the Solnova Solar Power Station ( 150 MW ) , the Andasol solar power station ( 150 MW ) , and Extresol Solar Power Station ( 150 MW ) , all in Spain . The principal advantage of CSP is the ability to efficiently add thermal storage , allowing the dispatching of electricity over up to a 24 @-@ hour period . Since peak electricity demand typically occurs at about 5 pm , many CSP power plants use 3 to 5 hours of thermal storage .
= = Economics = =
= = = Cost = = =
Adjusting for inflation , it cost $ 96 per watt for a solar module in the mid @-@ 1970s . Process improvements and a very large boost in production have brought that figure down 99 percent , to 68 ¢ per watt in February 2016 , according to data from
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Bloomberg New Energy Finance . Palo Alto California signed a wholesale purchase agreement in 2016 that secured solar power for 3 @.@ 7 cents per kilowatt @-@ hour . And in sunny Dubai large @-@ scale solar generated electricity sold in 2016 for just $ 0 @.@ 0299 per kWh -- " competitive with any form of fossil @-@ based electricity — and cheaper than most . "
Photovoltaic systems use no fuel , and modules typically last 25 to 40 years . Thus , capital costs make up most of the cost of solar power . Operations and maintenance costs for new utility @-@ scale solar plants in the US are estimated to be 9 percent of the cost of photovoltaic electricity , and 17 percent of the cost of solar thermal electricity . Governments have created various financial incentives to encourage the use of solar power , such as feed @-@ in tariff programs . Also , Renewable portfolio standards impose a government mandate that utilities generate or acquire a certain percentage of renewable power regardless of increased energy procurement costs . In most states , RPS goals can be achieved by any combination of solar , wind , biomass , landfill gas , ocean , geothermal , municipal solid waste , hydroelectric , hydrogen , or fuel cell technologies .
= = = = Levelized cost of electricity = = = =
The PV industry is beginning to adopt levelized cost of electricity ( LCOE ) as the unit of cost . The electrical energy generated is sold in units of kilowatt @-@ hours ( kWh ) . As a rule of thumb , and depending on the local insolation , 1 watt @-@ peak of installed solar PV capacity generates about 1 to 2 kWh of electricity per year . This corresponds to a capacity factor of around 10 – 20 % . The product of the local cost of electricity and the insolation determines the break even point for solar power . The International Conference on Solar Photovoltaic Investments , organized by EPIA , has estimated that PV systems will pay back their investors in 8 to 12 years . As a result , since 2006 it has been economical for investors to install photovoltaics for free in return for a long term power purchase agreement . Fifty percent of commercial systems in the United States were installed in this manner in 2007 and over 90 % by 2009 .
Shi Zhengrong has said that , as of 2012 , unsubsidised solar power is already competitive with fossil fuels in India , Hawaii , Italy and Spain . He said " We are at a tipping point . No longer are renewable power sources like solar and wind a luxury of the rich . They are now starting to compete in the real world without subsidies " . " Solar power will be able to compete without subsidies against conventional power sources in half the world by 2015 " .
= = = = Current installation prices = = = =
In its 2014 edition of the Technology Roadmap : Solar Photovoltaic Energy report , the International Energy Agency ( IEA ) published prices for residential , commercial and utility @-@ scale PV systems for eight major markets as of 2013 ( see table below ) . However , DOE 's SunShot Initiative has reported much lower U.S. installation prices . In 2014 , prices continued to decline . The SunShot Initiative modeled U.S. system prices to be in the range of $ 1 @.@ 80 to $ 3 @.@ 29 per watt . Other sources identify similar price ranges of $ 1 @.@ 70 to $ 3 @.@ 50 for the different market segments in the U.S. , and in the highly penetrated German market , prices for residential and small commercial rooftop systems of up to 100 kW declined to $ 1 @.@ 36 per watt ( € 1 @.@ 24 / W ) by the end of 2014 . In 2015 , Deutsche Bank estimated costs for small residential rooftop systems in the U.S. around $ 2 @.@ 90 per watt . Costs for utility @-@ scale systems in China and India were estimated as low as $ 1 @.@ 00 per watt .
= = = Grid parity = = =
Grid parity , the point at which the cost of photovoltaic electricity is equal to or cheaper than the price of grid power , is more easily achieved in areas with abundant sun and high costs for electricity such as in California and Japan . In 2008 , The levelized cost of electricity for solar PV was $ 0 @.@ 25 / kWh or less in most of the OECD countries . By late 2011 , the fully loaded cost was predicted to fall below $ 0 @.@ 15 / kWh for most of the OECD and to reach $ 0 @.@ 10 / kWh in sunnier regions . These cost levels are driving three emerging trends : vertical integration of the supply chain , origination of power purchase agreements ( PPAs ) by solar power companies , and unexpected risk for traditional power generation companies , grid operators and wind turbine manufacturers .
Grid parity was first reached in Spain in 2013 , Hawaii and other islands that otherwise use fossil fuel ( diesel fuel ) to produce electricity , and most of the US is expected to reach grid parity by 2015 .
In 2007 , General Electric 's Chief Engineer predicted grid parity without subsidies in sunny parts of the United States by around 2015 ; other companies predicted an earlier date : the cost of solar power will be below grid parity for more than half of residential customers and 10 % of commercial customers in the OECD , as long as grid electricity prices do not decrease through 2010 .
= = = Self consumption = = =
In cases of self consumption of the solar energy , the payback time is calculated based on how much electricity is not purchased from the grid . For example , in Germany , with electricity prices of 0 @.@ 25 Euro / KWh and insolation of 900 KWh / KW , one KWp will save 225 Euro per year , and with an installation cost of 1700 Euro / KWp the system cost will be returned in less than 7 years . However , in many cases , the patterns of generation and consumption do not coincide , and some or all of the energy is fed back into the grid . The electricity is sold , and at other times when energy is taken from the grid , electricity is bought . The relative costs and prices obtained affect the economics .
= = = Energy pricing and incentives = = =
The political purpose of incentive policies for PV is to facilitate an initial small @-@ scale deployment to begin to grow the industry , even where the cost of PV is significantly above grid parity , to allow the industry to achieve the economies of scale necessary to reach grid parity . The policies are implemented to promote national energy independence , high tech job creation and reduction of CO2 emissions . Three incentive mechanisms are often used in combination as investment subsidies : the authorities refund part of the cost of installation of the system , the electricity utility buys PV electricity from the producer under a multiyear contract at a guaranteed rate ( ) , and Solar Renewable Energy Certificates ( SRECs )
= = = = Rebates = = = =
With investment subsidies , the financial burden falls upon the taxpayer , while with feed @-@ in tariffs the extra cost is distributed across the utilities ' customer bases . While the investment subsidy may be simpler to administer , the main argument in favour of feed @-@ in tariffs is the encouragement of quality . Investment subsidies are paid out as a function of the nameplate capacity of the installed system and are independent of its actual power yield over time , thus rewarding the overstatement of power and tolerating poor durability and maintenance . Some electric companies offer rebates to their customers , such as Austin Energy in Texas , which offers $ 2 @.@ 50 / watt installed up to $ 15 @,@ 000 .
= = = = Net metering = = = =
In net metering the price of the electricity produced is the same as the price supplied to the consumer , and the consumer is billed on the difference between production and consumption . Net metering can usually be done with no changes to standard electricity meters , which accurately measure power in both directions and automatically report the difference , and because it allows homeowners and businesses to generate electricity at a different time from consumption , effectively using the grid as a giant storage battery . With net metering , deficits are billed each month while surpluses are rolled over to the following month . Best practices call for perpetual roll over of kWh credits . Excess credits upon termination of service are either lost , or paid for at a rate ranging from wholesale to retail rate or above , as can be excess annual credits . In New Jersey , annual excess credits are paid at the wholesale rate , as are left over credits when a customer terminates service .
= = = = Feed @-@ in tariffs ( FIT ) = = = =
With feed @-@ in tariffs , the financial burden falls upon the consumer . They reward the number of kilowatt @-@ hours produced over a long period of time , but because the rate is set by the authorities , it may result in perceived overpayment . The price paid per kilowatt @-@ hour under a feed @-@ in tariff exceeds the price of grid electricity . Net metering refers to the case where the price paid by the utility is the same as the price charged .
The complexity of approvals in California , Spain and Italy has prevented comparable growth to Germany even though the return on investment is better . In some countries , additional incentives are offered for BIPV compared to stand alone PV .
France + EUR 0 @.@ 16 / kWh ( compared to semi @-@ integrated ) or + EUR 0 @.@ 27 / kWh ( compared to stand alone )
Italy + EUR 0 @.@ 04 @-@ 0 @.@ 09 kWh
Germany + EUR 0 @.@ 05 / kWh ( facades only )
= = = = Solar Renewable Energy Credits ( SRECs ) = = = =
Alternatively , SRECs allow for a market mechanism to set the price of the solar generated electricity subsity . In this mechanism , a renewable energy production or consumption target is set , and the utility ( more technically the Load Serving Entity ) is obliged to purchase renewable energy or face a fine ( Alternative Compliance Payment or ACP ) . The producer is credited for an SREC for every 1 @,@ 000 kWh of electricity produced . If the utility buys this SREC and retires it , they avoid paying the ACP . In principle this system delivers the cheapest renewable energy , since the all solar facilities are eligible and can be installed in the most economic locations . Uncertainties about the future value of SRECs have led to long @-@ term SREC contract markets to give clarity to their prices and allow solar developers to pre @-@ sell and hedge their credits .
Financial incentives for photovoltaics differ across countries , including Australia , China , Germany , Israel , Japan , and the United States and even across states within the US .
The Japanese government through its Ministry of International Trade and Industry ran a successful programme of subsidies from 1994 to 2003 . By the end of 2004 , Japan led the world in installed PV capacity with over 1 @.@ 1 GW .
In 2004 , the German government introduced the first large @-@ scale feed @-@ in tariff system , under the German Renewable Energy Act , which resulted in explosive growth of PV installations in Germany . At the outset the FIT was over 3x the retail price or 8x the industrial price . The principle behind the German system is a 20 @-@ year flat rate contract . The value of new contracts is programmed to decrease each year , in order to encourage the industry to pass on lower costs to the end users . The programme has been more successful than expected with over 1GW installed in 2006 , and political pressure is mounting to decrease the tariff to lessen the future burden on consumers .
Subsequently , Spain , Italy , Greece — that enjoyed an early success with domestic solar @-@ thermal installations for hot water needs — and France introduced feed @-@ in tariffs . None have replicated the programmed decrease of FIT in new contracts though , making the German incentive relatively less and less attractive compared to other countries . The French and Greek FIT offer a high premium ( EUR 0 @.@ 55 / kWh ) for building integrated systems . California , Greece , France and Italy have 30 @-@ 50 % more insolation than Germany making them financially more attractive . The Greek domestic " solar roof " programme ( adopted in June 2009 for installations up to 10 kW ) has internal rates of return of 10 @-@ 15 % at current commercial installation costs , which , furthermore , is tax free .
In 2006 California approved the ' California Solar Initiative ' , offering a choice of investment subsidies or FIT for small and medium systems and a FIT for large systems . The small @-@ system FIT of $ 0 @.@ 39 per kWh ( far less than EU countries ) expires in just 5 years , and the alternate " EPBB " residential investment incentive is modest , averaging perhaps 20 % of cost . All California incentives are scheduled to decrease in the future depending as a function of the amount of PV capacity installed .
At the end of 2006 , the Ontario Power Authority ( OPA , Canada ) began its Standard Offer Program , a precursor to the Green Energy Act , and the first in North America for distributed renewable projects of less than 10 MW . The feed @-@ in tariff guaranteed a fixed price of $ 0 @.@ 42 CDN per kWh over a period of twenty years . Unlike net metering , all the electricity produced was sold to the OPA at the given rate .
= = Environmental impacts = =
Unlike fossil fuel based technologies , solar power does not lead to any harmful emissions during operation , but the production of the panels leads to some amount of pollution .
= = = Greenhouse gases = = =
The Life @-@ cycle greenhouse @-@ gas emissions of solar power are in the range of 22 to 46 gram ( g ) per kilowatt @-@ hour ( kWh ) depending on if solar thermal or solar PV is being analyzed , respectively . With this potentially being decreased to 15 g / kWh in the future . For comparison ( of weighted averages ) , a combined cycle gas @-@ fired power plant emits some 400 – 599 g / kWh , an oil @-@ fired power plant 893 g / kWh , a coal @-@ fired power plant 915 – 994 g / kWh or with carbon capture and storage some 200 g / kWh , and a geothermal high @-@ temp. power plant 91 – 122 g / kWh . The life cycle emission intensity of hydro , wind and nuclear power are lower than solar 's as of 2011 as published by the IPCC , and discussed in the article Life @-@ cycle greenhouse @-@ gas emissions of energy sources . Similar to all energy sources were their total life cycle emissions primarily lay in the construction and transportation phase , the switch to low carbon power in the manufacturing and transportation of solar devices would further reduce carbon emissions . BP Solar owns two factories built by Solarex ( one in Maryland , the other in Virginia ) in which all of the energy used to manufacture solar panels is produced by solar panels . A 1 @-@ kilowatt system eliminates the burning of approximately 170 pounds of coal , 300 pounds of carbon dioxide from being released into the atmosphere , and saves up to 105 gallons of water consumption monthly .
The US National Renewable Energy Laboratory ( NREL ) , in harmonizing the disparate estimates of life @-@ cycle GHG emissions for solar PV , found that the most critical parameter was the solar insolation of the site : GHG emissions factors for PV solar are inversely proportional to insolation . For a site with insolation of 1700 kWh / m2 / year , typical of southern Europe , NREL researchers estimated GHG emissions of 45 gCO2e / kWh . Using the same assumptions , at Phoenix , USA , with insolation of 2400 kWh / m2 / year , the GHG emissions factor would be reduced to 32 g of CO2e / kWh .
The New Zealand Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment found that the solar PV would have little impact on the country 's greenhouse gas emissions . The country already generates 80 percent of its electricity from renewable resources ( primarily hydroelectricity and geothermal ) and national electricity usage peaks on winter evenings whereas solar generation peaks on summer afternoons , meaning a large uptake of solar PV would end up displacing other renewable generators before fossil @-@ fueled power plants .
= = = Energy payback = = =
The energy payback time ( EPBT ) of a power generating system is the time required to generate as much energy as is consumed during production and lifetime operation of the system . Due to improving production technologies the payback time has been decreasing constantly since the introduction of PV systems in the energy market . In 2000 the energy payback time of PV systems was estimated as 8 to 11 years and in 2006 this was estimated to be 1 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 5 years for crystalline silicon silicon PV systems and 1 – 1 @.@ 5 years for thin film technologies ( S. Europe ) . These figures fell to 0 @.@ 75 – 3 @.@ 5 years in 2013 , with an average of about 2 years for crystalline silicon PV and CIS systems .
Another economic measure , closely related to the energy payback time , is the energy returned on energy invested ( EROEI ) or energy return on investment ( EROI ) , which is the ratio of electricity generated divided by the energy required to build and maintain the equipment . ( This is not the same as the economic return on investment ( ROI ) , which varies according to local energy prices , subsidies available and metering techniques . ) With expected lifetimes of 30 years , the EROEI of PV systems are in the range of 10 to 30 , thus generating enough energy over their lifetimes to reproduce themselves many times ( 6 @-@ 31 reproductions ) depending on what type of material , balance of system ( BOS ) , and the geographic location of the system .
= = = Other issues = = =
One issue that has often raised concerns is the use of cadmium ( Cd ) , a toxic heavy metal that has the tendency to accumulate in ecological food chains . It is used as semiconductor component in CdTe solar cells and as buffer layer for certain CIGS cells in the form of CdS . The amount of cadmium used in thin @-@ film PV modules is relatively small ( 5 – 10 g / m ² ) and with proper recycling and emission control techniques in place the cadmium emissions from module production can be almost zero . Current PV technologies lead to cadmium emissions of 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 9 microgram / kWh over the whole life @-@ cycle . Most of these emissions actually arise through the use of coal power for the manufacturing of the modules , and coal and lignite combustion leads to much higher emissions of cadmium . Life @-@ cycle cadmium emissions from coal is 3 @.@ 1 microgram / kWh , lignite 6 @.@ 2 , and natural gas 0 @.@ 2 microgram / kWh .
In a life @-@ cycle analysis it has been noted , that if electricity produced by photovoltaic panels were used to manufacture the modules instead of electricity from burning coal , cadmium emissions from coal power usage in the manufacturing process could be entirely eliminated .
In the case of crystalline silicon modules , the solder material , that joins together the copper strings of the cells , contains about 36 percent of lead ( Pb ) . Moreover , the paste used for screen printing front and back contacts contains traces of Pb and sometimes Cd as well . It is estimated , that about 1 @,@ 000 metric tonnes of Pb have been used for 100 gigawatts of c @-@ Si solar modules . However , there is no fundamental need for lead in the solder alloy .
Some media sources have reported that concentrated solar power plants have injured or killed large numbers of birds due to intense heat from the concentrated sunrays . This adverse effect does not apply to PV solar power plants , and some of the claims may have been overstated or exaggerated .
A 2014 @-@ published life @-@ cycle analysis of land use for various sources of electricity concluded that the large @-@ scale implementation of solar and wind potentially reduces pollution @-@ related environmental impacts . The study found that the land @-@ use footprint , given in square meter @-@ years per megawatt @-@ hour ( m2a / MWh ) , was lowest for wind , natural gas and rooftop PV , with 0 @.@ 26 , 0 @.@ 49 and 0 @.@ 59 , respectively , and followed by utility @-@ scale solar PV with 7 @.@ 9 . For CSP , the footprint was 9 and 14 , using parabolic troughs and solar towers , respectively . The largest footprint had coal @-@ fired power plants with 18 m2a / MWh .
= = Emerging technologies = =
= = = Concentrator photovoltaics = = =
Concentrator photovoltaics ( CPV ) systems employ sunlight concentrated onto photovoltaic surfaces for the purpose of electrical power production . Contrary to conventional photovoltaic systems , it uses lenses and curved mirrors to focus sunlight onto small , but highly efficient , multi @-@ junction solar cells . Solar concentrators of all varieties may be used , and these are often mounted on a solar tracker in order to keep the focal point upon the cell as the sun moves across the sky . Luminescent solar concentrators ( when combined with a PV @-@ solar cell ) can also be regarded as a CPV system . Concentrated photovoltaics are useful as they can improve efficiency of PV @-@ solar panels drastically .
In addition , most solar panels on spacecraft are also made of high efficient multi @-@ junction photovoltaic cells to derive electricity from sunlight when operating in the inner Solar System .
= = = Floatovoltaics = = =
Floatovoltaics are an emerging form of PV systems that float on the surface of irrigation canals , water reservoirs , quarry lakes , and tailing ponds . Several systems exist in France , India , Japan , Korea , the United Kingdom and the United States . These systems reduce the need of valuable land area , save drinking water that would otherwise be lost through evaporation , and show a higher efficiency of solar energy conversion , as the panels are kept at a cooler temperature than they would be on land .
= = Grid integration = =
Since solar energy is not available at night , storing its energy is an important issue in order to have continuous energy availability . Both wind power and solar power are variable renewable energy , meaning that all available output must be taken when it is available , and either stored for when it can be used later , or transported over transmission lines to where it can be used now . Concentrated solar power plants typically use thermal energy storage to store the solar energy , such as in high @-@ temperature molten salts . These salts are an effective storage medium because they are low @-@ cost , have a high specific heat capacity , and can deliver heat at temperatures compatible with conventional power systems . This method of energy storage is used , for example , by the Solar Two power station , allowing it to store 1 @.@ 44 TJ in its 68 m ³ storage tank , enough to provide full output for close to 39 hours , with an efficiency of about 99 % .
Rechargeable batteries have been traditionally used to store excess electricity in stand alone PV systems . With grid @-@ connected photovoltaic power system , excess electricity can be sent to the electrical grid . Net metering and feed @-@ in tariff programs give these systems a credit for the electricity they produce . This credit offsets electricity provided from the grid when the system cannot meet demand , effectively using the grid as a storage mechanism . Credits are normally rolled over from month to month and any remaining surplus settled annually . When wind and solar are a small fraction of the grid power , other generation techniques can adjust their output appropriately , but as these forms of variable power grow , this becomes less practical . As prices are rapidly declining , PV systems increasingly use rechargeable batteries to store a surplus to be later used at night . Batteries used for grid @-@ storage also stabilize the electrical grid by leveling out peak loads , and play an important role in a smart grid , as they can charge during periods of low demand and feed their stored energy into the grid when demand is high .
Common battery technologies used in today 's PV systems include , the valve regulated lead @-@ acid battery – a modified version of the conventional lead – acid battery , nickel – cadmium and lithium @-@ ion batteries . Lead @-@ acid batteries are currently the predominant technology used in small @-@ scale , residential PV systems , due to their high reliability , low self discharge and investment and maintenance costs , despite shorter lifetime and lower energy density . However , lithium @-@ ion batteries have the potential to replace lead @-@ acid batteries in the near future , as they are being intensively developed and lower prices are expected due to economies of scale provided by large production facilities such as the Gigafactory 1 . In addition , the Li @-@ ion batteries of plug @-@ in electric cars may serve as a future storage devices in a vehicle @-@ to @-@ grid system . Since most vehicles are parked an average of 95 percent of the time , their batteries could be used to let electricity flow from the car to the power lines and back . Other rechargeable batteries used for distributed PV systems include , sodium – sulfur and vanadium redox batteries , two prominent types of a molten salt and a flow battery , respectively .
Conventional hydroelectricity works very well in conjunction with variable electricity sources such as solar and wind , the water can be held back and allowed to flow as required with virtually no energy loss . Where a suitable river is not available , pumped @-@ storage hydroelectricity stores energy in the form of water pumped when surplus electricity is available , from a lower elevation reservoir to a higher elevation one . The energy is recovered when demand is high by releasing the water : the pump becomes a turbine , and the motor a hydroelectric power generator . However , this loses some of the energy to pumpage losses .
The combination of wind and solar PV has the advantage that the two sources complement each other because the peak operating times for each system occur at different times of the day and year . The power generation of such solar hybrid power systems is therefore more constant and fluctuates less than each of the two component subsystems . Solar power is seasonal , particularly in northern / southern climates , away from the equator , suggesting a need for long term seasonal storage in a medium such as hydrogen . The storage requirements vary and in some cases can be met with biomass . The Institute for Solar Energy Supply Technology of the University of Kassel pilot @-@ tested a combined power plant linking solar , wind , biogas and hydrostorage to provide load @-@ following power around the clock , entirely from renewable sources .
Research is also undertaken in this field of artificial photosynthesis . It involves the use of nanotechnology to store solar electromagnetic energy in chemical bonds , by splitting water to produce hydrogen fuel or then combining with carbon dioxide to make biopolymers such as methanol . Many large national and regional research projects on artificial photosynthesis are now trying to develop techniques integrating improved light capture , quantum coherence methods of electron transfer and cheap catalytic materials that operate under a variety of atmospheric conditions . Senior researchers in the field have made the public policy case for a Global Project on Artificial Photosynthesis to address critical energy security and environmental sustainability issues .
= = Geographic solar insolation = =
Different parts of the world experience different amounts of sunshine , depending on latitude and weather . Locations nearer the equator receive many more hours of sunshine than those further north or south , thus photovoltaic panels can be more economically desirable in some places more than others .
= LACM 149371 =
LACM 149371 ( Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County specimen 149371 ) is an enigmatic fossil mammalian tooth from the Paleogene ( 66 to 23 million years ago , mya ) of Peru . It is from the Santa Rosa fossil site , which is of uncertain age but possibly late Eocene ( 55 to 34 mya ) or Oligocene ( 34 to 23 mya ) . The tooth is poorly preserved and may have been degraded by acidic water or because it passed through a predator 's digestive tract . Its largest dimension is 2 @.@ 65 mm . It is triangular in shape and bears six cusps that surround the middle of the tooth , where there are three basins ( fossae ) . Crests connects the cusps and separate the fossae . The microscopic structure of the enamel is poorly preserved .
LACM 149371 was described in 2004 by Francisco Goin and colleagues , who tentatively interpreted the tooth as a left last upper molar . Although they saw similarities with South American ungulates , some early rodents , and multituberculates , they believed the tooth was most likely of a gondwanathere . Among gondwanatheres — a small and poorly known group otherwise known from the Cretaceous through Eocene of some of the southern continents ( Gondwana ) — they thought the Cretaceous Argentinian Ferugliotherium to be the most similar .
= = Discovery and context = =
LACM 149371 was discovered in 1998 at the Santa Rosa fossil site in the Ucayali Region of Peru . The Santa Rosa fauna also contains fossils of various unique species of marsupials and hystricognath rodents , a possible bat , and some notoungulates . The fauna was published in a volume of the Science Series of the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County in 2004 , which included a paper by Francisco Goin and colleagues that described and discussed LACM 149371 .
The age of the Santa Rosa fauna remains highly uncertain , as the outcrop where the fossils were found cannot easily be placed in a known stratigraphical unit , and the fossils are so distinct from other known fossil faunas that biostratigraphy cannot provide a precise estimate . In a summary of the 2004 volume , Kenneth Campbell tentatively referred Santa Rosa to the Mustersan South American Land Mammal Age ( SALMA ) , which he placed near the Eocene – Oligocene boundary , around 35 million years ago . However , Mario Vucetich and colleagues suggested in 2010 that the Santa Rosa fauna may be substantially later — perhaps as young as the Deseadan SALMA ( late Oligocene , around 25 million years ago ) . According to Campbell , the Santa Rosa mammals likely lived in a savanna habitat that contained rivers .
= = Description = =
LACM 149371 is a poorly preserved molar @-@ like tooth that largely lacks a recognizable enamel surface and shows many small grooves and holes on the crown surface . This suggests the tooth may have been chemically degraded , perhaps by acidic water or because it passed through the digestive tract of a predator . The roots are broken off , but remaining pulp cavities suggest the presence of four main roots , which are partially joined into two pairs . A smaller pulp cavity between those roots suggests the likely presence of a fifth root and a slight depression in the tooth may represent another root .
The crown of the tooth is triangular and contains six cusps , connected by low crests , that surround two prominent , low @-@ lying fossae ( basins ) and a third , smaller fossa . Because of the complexity of the crown , Goin and colleagues interpreted it as a molar ; because of the number of roots , the arrangement of the cusps , and the shape of the tooth , as an upper molar ; and because it tapers towards the end , as a last molar . One side , the longest , is flat and low compared to the others , suggesting it is the labial ( outer ) face . This would imply that the tooth is from the left jaw . Under this interpretation , the length of the tooth is 2 @.@ 65 mm , width is 2 @.@ 20 mm , height at the labial side is 1 @.@ 05 mm , and height at the lingual side is 1 @.@ 30 mm .
For convenience , Goin and colleagues designated the six cusps as A through F : A on the front labial corner of the tooth ; B on the labial face ; C on the back corner ; D on the lingual ( inner ) face ; E on the front lingual corner ; and F on the front face . The large front fossa is located between cusps A , B , D , E , and F ; the smaller intermediate fossa is between cusps B and D ; and the much smaller back fossa is just in front of cusp C. All three are nearly round . Cusp A , the largest cusp , is triangular in shape and is separated from the smaller , rounded B by a deep valley ; a low crest connects the two cusps further lingually , separating the valley from the front fossa . At its back , B connects to a long crest that reaches the back fossa and behind it the small cusp C , which has a groove on its labial side . A valley separates it from cusp D. D itself is crest @-@ shaped and forms the lingual wall of the intermediate fossa ; it is described as " very odd " , and may in fact consist of two fused , triangular cusps . A crest issuing from D separates the back from the intermediate fossa , and another , larger crest separates the front from the back fossa and nearly reaches cusp B. Cusp E is triangular and separated from cusps F and D by valleys , which are bordered internally by crests connecting the cusps . F is rounded . The microstructure of the tooth enamel is not clearly recognizable , evidently because the tooth is degraded , though structures resembling enamel prisms ( bundles of hydroxyapatite crystalls ) and Hunter @-@ Schreger bands are recognizable .
= = Identity = =
Because of the complexity of the crown , Goin and colleagues identified the tooth as a mammal ; although some non @-@ mammalian groups , like crocodylians , may have complex teeth , none approach the level of complexity seen in LACM 149371 . They could find no resemblance to australosphenidans including monotremes , metatherians including marsupials , xenarthrans , and some related groups . They did see some general resemblances to the upper premolars of the early South American ungulates , but the cusp arrangement is different from that of any ungulate . There are also some resemblances to the early rodents Ivanantonia from Asia and Nonomys from North America , but Ivanantonia has a central groove and lacks fossae , and Nonomys has a prominent cingulum ( shelf ) at the edges of the tooth and also lacks the fossae of LACM 149371 .
The tooth resembles multituberculates — a large group of extinct mammals with many @-@ cusped teeth — in the shapes of the valleys and crests , but multituberculates lack fossae and usually have quadrangular teeth with two longitudinal rows of cusps separated by a central valley . In the same features , LACM 149371 resembles gondwanatheres , a small and enigmatic group of mammals from the Cretaceous through Eocene of the southern ( Gondwanan ) continents that may be related to multituberculates . In particular , Ferugliotherium from the late Cretaceous of Argentina has similarly formed cusps and also has crests that connect the cusps to the center of the tooth . However , the upper molars are unknown , and the low @-@ crowned teeth of Ferugliotherium lack deep fossae . Members of the higher @-@ crowned gondwanathere family Sudamericidae do have fossae . Goin and colleagues conclude that LACM 149371 most likely represents a member of the gondwanathere family Ferugliotheriidae ; if so , it would be among the youngest known gondwanatheres .
= Disappearance of Natalee Holloway =
Natalee Ann Holloway ( born October 21 , 1986 ) was an American teenager who disappeared on May 30 , 2005 , while on a high school graduation trip to Aruba , a Dutch island in the Caribbean . Holloway lived in Mountain Brook , Alabama , at the time of her disappearance , and graduated from Mountain Brook High School on May 24 , 2005 , shortly before the trip . Her disappearance caused a media sensation in the United States and remains unsolved .
Holloway was scheduled to fly home on May 30 , but failed to appear for her flight . She was last seen by her classmates outside Carlos 'n Charlie 's , a chain restaurant and nightclub in Oranjestad , in a car with locals Joran van der Sloot and brothers Deepak and Satish Kalpoe . When questioned , the three men said they dropped Holloway off at her hotel and denied knowing what became of her . Upon further investigation by authorities , Van der Sloot was arrested twice on suspicion of involvement in her disappearance and the Kalpoes were each arrested three times . Due to lack of evidence the three men were released without charge each time .
With the help of hundreds of volunteers , Aruban investigators conducted an extensive search for Holloway . Special Agents from the FBI , fifty Dutch soldiers and three specially equipped Dutch Air Force F @-@ 16 aircraft participated in the search . In addition to the ground search , divers searched the ocean floor for Holloway 's body . It was never found . On December 18 , 2007 , Aruban prosecutors announced that the case would be closed without any charges made against the former suspects . The Aruban prosecutor 's office reopened the case on February 1 , 2008 , after receiving video footage of Joran van der Sloot , under the influence of marijuana , saying that Holloway died on the morning of May 30 , 2005 , and that a friend had disposed of her body . Van der Sloot later denied that what he said was true , and in an interview with Greta Van Susteren ( the contents of which he later retracted ) said that he sold Holloway into slavery .
Holloway 's parents criticized Aruban police for a lack of rigor in the investigation and questioning of the three men last seen with her . The family also called for a boycott of Aruba , which gained Alabama Governor Bob Riley 's support but failed to gain widespread backing . On January 12 , 2012 , an Alabama judge declared Holloway legally dead .
= = Background = =
Natalee Ann Holloway was the first of two children born to David Edward ( " Dave " ) and Elizabeth Ann Reynolds ( " Beth " ) Holloway in Clinton , Mississippi . Her parents divorced in 1993 , and she and her younger brother Matthew were raised by their mother . In 2000 , Elizabeth Holloway married George " Jug " Twitty , a prominent Alabama businessman , and Natalee moved to Mountain Brook , Alabama . Natalee Holloway graduated with honors from Mountain Brook High School . She was a member of the National Honor Society , her school dance squad , and was a participant in other extracurricular activities . Holloway was to attend the University of Alabama on a full scholarship , where she planned to pursue a pre @-@ med track . At the time of the disappearance , Dave Holloway was an insurance agent for State Farm Insurance in Meridian , Mississippi , while Beth Twitty was employed by the Mountain Brook School System .
= = Disappearance = =
On Thursday , May 26 , 2005 , Holloway and 124 fellow graduates of Mountain Brook High School , located in a wealthy suburb of Birmingham , Alabama , arrived in Aruba for a five @-@ day , unofficial graduation trip . The graduates were accompanied by seven chaperones . According to teacher and chaperone Bob Plummer , the chaperones met with the students each day to ensure nothing was wrong . Jodi Bearman , who organized the trip , stated , " the chaperones were not supposed to keep up with their every move " . Police Commissioner Gerold Dompig , who headed the investigation from mid @-@ 2005 until 2006 , described the behavior of the Mountain Brook students , stating there was " wild partying , a lot of drinking , lots of room switching every night . We know the Holiday Inn told them they weren 't welcome next year . Natalee , we know , she drank all day every day . We have statements she started every morning with cocktails — so much drinking that Natalee didn 't show up for breakfast two mornings " . Two of Holloway 's classmates , Liz Cain and Claire Fierman , " agreed that the drinking was kind of excessive " .
Holloway was last seen by her classmates leaving the Aruban bar and night club Carlos 'n Charlie 's around 1 : 30 a.m. on Monday , May 30 . Holloway left with 17 @-@ year @-@ old Joran van der Sloot , a Dutch honors student living in Aruba and attending the International School of Aruba , and his two Surinamese friends , 21 @-@ year @-@ old Deepak Kalpoe and 18 @-@ year @-@ old Satish Kalpoe , in Deepak Kalpoe 's car . Holloway , who had been scheduled to fly home later on May 30 , did not appear for her return flight , and her packed luggage and passport were found in her Holiday Inn room . Aruban authorities initiated searches for Holloway throughout the island and surrounding waters but did not find her .
= = Investigation = =
= = = Early investigation = = =
On May 30 , 2005 , immediately following Holloway 's missed flight , Jug and Beth Twitty traveled to Aruba with friends by private jet . Within four hours of landing in Aruba , the Twittys presented the Aruban police with the name and address of Van der Sloot as the person with whom Holloway left the nightclub . Beth Twitty has stated that Van der Sloot 's full name was given to her by the night manager at the Holiday Inn , who supposedly recognized him on a videotape . The Twittys and their friends , with two Aruban policemen , went to the Van der Sloot home looking for Holloway . Van der Sloot initially denied knowing Holloway 's name , but he then told the following story , with which Deepak Kalpoe , who was present , agreed : Van der Sloot related that they drove Holloway to the California Lighthouse area of Arashi Beach because Holloway wanted to see sharks , before dropping Holloway off at her hotel around 2 : 00 a.m. According to Van der Sloot , Holloway fell down as she exited the car but refused Van der Sloot 's help . He stated that she was then approached by a dark man in a black shirt similar to those worn by security guards as the young men drove away .
Searches for Holloway began immediately afterwards . Hundreds of volunteers from Aruba and the United States joined the search . During the first days of the search , the Aruban government gave thousands of civil servants the day off to participate in the search . Fifty Dutch marines conducted an extensive search of the shoreline . Aruban banks raised $ 20 @,@ 000 and provided other support to aid volunteer search teams . Beth Twitty was provided with housing , initially at the Holiday Inn where she stayed in her daughter 's former room . She subsequently stayed at the nearby Wy
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ndham Hotel 's presidential suite .
Reports indicate Holloway did not appear on any security camera footage from her hotel 's lobby during the course of the night ; however , Beth Twitty has made varying statements as to whether the cameras were actually working that night . According to an April 19 , 2006 , statement made by her , the security cameras at the Holiday Inn were not working the night Holloway vanished . Twitty has made other statements indicating that they were working , and has stated so in her book . In any event , according to Police Commissioner Jan van der Straten , initial head of the investigation until his 2005 retirement , Holloway did not have to go through the lobby to return to her room .
The search for physical evidence was extensive and , on occasion , subject to false leads ; for example , a possible blood sample taken from Deepak Kalpoe 's car was tested but determined not to be blood .
There was heavy involvement by American law enforcement from the early days of the investigation . United States Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice stated to reporters that the United States was in constant contact with Aruban authorities . Another State Department official indicated , " Substantial resources are being applied to this as they [ Aruba officials ] continue to ask for more " .
= = = 2005 arrests = = =
On June 5 , Aruban police detained Nick John and Abraham Jones , former security guards from the nearby Allegro Hotel which was then closed for renovation , on suspicion of murder and kidnapping . The initial reason for their arrests has never been officially disclosed ; however , according to news accounts , the Van der Sloot and Kalpoe statements may have been a factor in the arrests . Reports also indicate that the two former guards were known for cruising hotels to pick up women , and at least one of them had a prior incident with law enforcement . John and Jones were released on June 13 without being charged .
On June 9 , 2005 , Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers were arrested on suspicion of kidnapping and murdering Holloway . Aruban law allows for arrest on serious suspicion from investigators ; to continue holding the suspect in custody , an increasing evidential burden must be met at periodic reviews . According to Dompig , the focus was on these three suspects from the " get @-@ go " . Aruba police corps chief Gerald Dompig stated that surveillance of the three began three days after Holloway was reported missing , and included surveillance , telephone wire taps , and even monitoring of their e @-@ mail . Dompig indicated pressure from Holloway 's family caused them to stop their surveillance prematurely and to detain the three suspects .
As the investigation continued , on June 11 , David Cruz , spokesman for the Aruban Minister of Justice , indicated that Natalee Holloway was dead and authorities knew the location of her body . Cruz later retracted the statement , saying he was a victim of a " misinformation campaign " . That evening , Dompig alleged to the Associated Press that one of the detained young men admitted " something bad happened " to Holloway after the suspects took her to the beach , and that the suspect was leading police to the scene . The next morning prosecution spokeswoman Vivian van der Biezen refused to confirm or deny the allegation , simply stating that the investigation was at a " very crucial , very important moment " .
On Friday , June 17 , a fourth person , later identified as disc jockey Steve Gregory Croes , was also arrested . Van der Straten told the media that " Croes was detained based on information from one of the other three detainees " . On June 22 Aruban police detained Paulus van der Sloot , Joran van der Sloot 's father , for questioning ; Paulus van der Sloot was arrested that same day . Both Paulus van der Sloot and Croes were ordered to be released on June 26 .
During this period the remaining detained suspects ' stories changed . All three suspects indicated that Van der Sloot and Holloway were dropped off at the Marriott Hotel beach near the fishermen 's huts . Van der Sloot stated that he did not harm Holloway , but left her on the beach . According to Satish Kalpoe 's attorney , David Kock , Van der Sloot called Deepak Kalpoe to tell the latter that he was walking home , and sent him a text message forty minutes later .
At some time during the interrogation Van der Sloot detailed a third account , that he was dropped off at home and Holloway was driven off by the Kalpoe brothers . Dompig discounted the story , stating :
This latest story [ came ] when [ Van der Sloot ] saw the other guys , the Kalpoes , were kind of finger @-@ pointing in his direction , and he wanted to screw them also , by saying he was dropped off . But that story doesn 't check out at all . He just wanted to screw Deepak . They had great arguments about this in front of the judge . Because their stories didn 't match . This girl , she was from Alabama , she 's not going to stay in the car with two black kids . We believe the second story , that they were dropped off by the Marriott .
On Monday , July 4 , following hearings before a judge , Deepak and Satish Kalpoe were released , but Joran van der Sloot was detained for an additional sixty days .
= = = Continued search , suspects rearrested and released again = = =
On July 4 , the Royal Netherlands Air Force deployed three F @-@ 16 aircraft equipped with infrared sensors to aid in the search , without initial result . In March 2006 it was reported that satellite photos were being compared with photographs taken more recently ( presumably from the F @-@ 16s ) in an attempt to find unexpected shifts of ground that might be Holloway 's grave .
A small pond near the Aruba Racquet Club close to the Marriott Hotel beach was partly drained between July 27 and 30 , 2005 , after an individual ( " the gardener " ) came forward . According to Jug Twitty , the gardener claimed to have seen Joran van der Sloot attempting to hide his face , driving into the Racquet Club with the two Kalpoes on the morning of May 30 between 2 : 30 a.m. and 3 : 00 a.m. Nancy Grace described the gardener as " the man whose testimony cracks the case wide open " . Another person , " the jogger " , claimed to have seen men burying a blonde @-@ haired woman in a landfill during the afternoon of May 30 . The police had searched the landfill in the days following Holloway 's disappearance . The landfill was searched three times after the jogger 's statements , including a search by the FBI with cadaver dogs . The searches were fruitless .
On July 25 , 2005 , the reward for Holloway 's safe return was increased from $ 200 @,@ 000 to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , with a $ 100 @,@ 000 reward for information leading to the location of her remains . Following Holloway 's disappearance , a reward of $ 50 @,@ 000 had been established for her return . In August 2005 , the reward for information as to her remains was increased from $ 100 @,@ 000 to $ 250 @,@ 000 .
The FBI announced that Aruban authorities had provided it with documents , suspect interviews , and other evidence . A group from the Aruban police and prosecutor 's office traveled to the FBI central laboratory at Quantico , Virginia , to consult with American investigators . After a piece of duct tape was found with strands of blond hair attached to it , samples were tested both at a Dutch lab and at Quantico . The FBI announced that the hair was not Holloway 's .
The Kalpoe brothers were rearrested on August 26 along with another new suspect . According to his lawyer , 21 @-@ year @-@ old Freddy Arambatzis was suspected of taking photographs of and having physical contact with an underage girl , an incident which allegedly occurred before the Holloway disappearance and in which Arambatzis 's friends Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers were supposedly involved . Van der Sloot 's mother , Anita van der Sloot , stated , " It 's a desperate attempt to get the boys to talk . But there is nothing to talk about " . While no public explanation was then made for the Kalpoe rearrests , Dompig later said that it was an unsuccessful attempt to pressure the Kalpoe brothers into confessing .
On September 3 , 2005 , all four of the detained suspects were released by a judge despite the attempts of the prosecution to keep them in custody , on the condition that they remain available to police . On September 14 , all restrictions on them were removed by the Combined Appeals Court of the Netherlands Antilles and Aruba .
In the months following his release , Joran van der Sloot gave several interviews , expanding upon his version of events , most notably a lengthy interview for Fox News , which aired over three nights in March 2006 . During the interview , Van der Sloot indicated that Holloway wanted to have sex with him , but he did not because he did not have a condom . Van der Sloot stated that Holloway wanted them to stay on the beach , but that he had to go to school in the morning . According to Van der Sloot , he was picked up by Satish Kalpoe at about 3 : 00 am , leaving Holloway sitting on the beach . In August 2005 , David Kock , Satish Kalpoe 's attorney , stated that his client had gone to sleep , and had not returned to drive Van der Sloot home . Van der Sloot stated he was somewhat ashamed to have left a young woman alone on the beach , albeit by her own request , and related that he was not truthful at first because he was convinced Holloway would soon turn up .
The FBI and Aruban authorities interviewed ( or in some cases , re @-@ interviewed ) several of Holloway 's fellow graduates in the United States in January 2006 . On January 17 , 2006 , Aruban police searched sand dunes on the northwest coast of Aruba in search of Holloway 's body , as well as areas close by the Marriott beach . Additional searches took place in March and April 2006 , without result .
Shortly before leaving the case , Dompig gave an interview to CBS correspondent Troy Roberts , which was broadcast on March 25 , 2006 . In that interview , Dompig stated that he believes Holloway probably died from self @-@ consumed alcohol and / or drug poisoning , was not murdered , and that someone later hid her body . Dompig also stated that Aruba had spent about $ 3 million on the investigation , about 40 % of the police operational budget . Dompig indicated that there is evidence that points to possession ( though not necessarily use ) of drugs by Holloway . Members of her family have denied drug use by Holloway .
On April 11 , 2006 , Dave Holloway published his book recounting the search for his daughter , co @-@ authored with R. Stephanie Good and Larry Garrison , Aruba : The Tragic Untold Story of Natalee Holloway and Corruption in Paradise .
= = = 2006 arrest of new suspects , the Dutch take over the investigation = = =
On April 15 , 2006 , Geoffrey von Cromvoirt was arrested by Aruban authorities on suspicion of criminal offenses related to dealing in illegal narcotics that , according to the prosecutor , might have been related to the disappearance of Holloway . At his first court appearance , his detention was extended for eight days . However , Von Cromvoirt was released on April 25 , 2006 . In addition , another individual with initials " A.B. " was arrested on April 22 , 2006 , but was released the same day .
On May 17 , 2006 , another suspect , Guido Wever , the son of a former Aruban politician , was detained in the Netherlands on suspicion of assisting in the abducting , battering , and killing of Holloway . Wever was questioned for six days in Utrecht . While initially Aruban prosecutors sought his transfer to the island , he was instead released by agreement between the prosecutor and Wever 's attorney .
At Aruba 's request the Netherlands took over the investigation . A team of the Dutch National Police started work on the case in September 2006 following receipt of extensive case documentation in Rotterdam . On April 16 , 2007 , a combined Aruban – Dutch team began pursuing the investigation in Aruba .
= = = Book , search , and inspection = = =
A book by Joran van der Sloot and reporter Zvezdana Vukojevic , De zaak Natalee Holloway ( The Case of Natalee Holloway ) was published , in Dutch , in April 2007 . In the book , Van der Sloot gives his perspective of the night Holloway disappeared and the media frenzy which followed . He admits , and apologizes for , his initial untruths , but maintains his innocence .
On April 27 , 2007 , a new search involving some twenty investigators was launched at the Van der Sloot family residence in Aruba . Dutch authorities searched the yard and surrounding area , using shovels and thin metal rods to penetrate the dirt . Prosecution spokeswoman Van der Biezen stated , " The investigation has never stopped and the Dutch authorities are completely reviewing the case for new indications " . A statement from the prosecutor 's office related , " The team has indications that justify a more thorough search " . Investigators did not comment on what prompted the new search , except that it was not related to Van der Sloot 's book . According to Paulus van der Sloot , " nothing suspicious " was found , and all that was seized were diary entries of him and his wife , and his personal computer — which was subsequently returned .
According to Jossy Mansur , managing editor of Aruba 's Diario newspaper , investigators were following up on statements made during early suspect interrogations regarding calls made and emails sent between the Kalpoe brothers and Joran van der Sloot . He also said investigators could be seen examining a laptop at the house .
On May 12 , 2007 , the Kalpoe family home was subject to an " inspection " . The two brothers were detained for about an hour upon objecting to the entry by police and Dutch investigators , but were released when the authorities left . According to Kock , the brothers objected to the search because officials did not show them an order justifying the intrusion . A statement from Van der Biezen did not mention what , if anything , officials were searching for , but indicated nothing was removed from the home . A subsequent statement from Het Openbaar Ministerie van Aruba ( the Aruban prosecutor 's office ) indicated that the purpose of the visit was to " get a better image of the place or circumstances where an offense may have been committed and to understand the chain of events leading to the offense " .
= = = 2007 rearrests and re @-@ releases = = =
With Aruban investigators citing what was described as newly discovered evidence , Joran van der Sloot and Satish and Deepak Kalpoe were rearrested November 21 , 2007 , on suspicion of involvement in " manslaughter and causing serious bodily harm that resulted in the death of Holloway " . Van der Sloot was detained by Dutch authorities in the Netherlands , while the Kalpoe brothers were detained in Aruba . Van der Sloot returned to Aruba and was incarcerated .
In November 2007 , Dave Holloway announced a new search for his daughter , probing the sea beyond the original 330 @-@ foot ( 100 m ) depths in which earlier searches had taken place . That search , involving a vessel called the Persistence , was abandoned due to lack of funds at the end of February 2008 with nothing of significance found .
On November 30 , 2007 , a judge ordered the release of Satish and Deepak Kalpoe , despite attempts by the prosecution to extend their detention . The two brothers were released on the following day . The prosecution appealed the Kalpoes ' release . That appeal was denied on December 5 , 2007 , with the court writing , " Notwithstanding expensive and lengthy investigations on her disappearance and on people who could be involved , the file against the suspect does not contain direct indications that Natalee passed away due to a violent crime . " Van der Sloot was released without charge on December 7 , 2007 , due to lack of evidence implicating him as well as a lack of evidence that Holloway died as the result of a violent crime . The prosecution indicated it would not appeal .
On December 18 , 2007 , prosecutor Hans Mos officially declared the case closed , and that no charges would be filed due to lack of evidence . The prosecution indicated a continuing interest in the Kalpoes and Joran van der Sloot ( though they ceased to be legally suspects ) , and alleged that one of the three , in a chat room message , had stated that Holloway was dead . This was hotly contested by Deepak Kalpoe 's attorney , who stated that the prosecution , in translating from Papiamento to Dutch , had misconstrued a reference to a teacher who had drowned as one to Holloway . Attorney Ronald Wix also stated , " Unless ( Mos ) finds a body in the bathroom of one of these kids , there 's no way in hell they can arrest them anymore . "
= = = Secret cameras , statements , and stories = = =
On January 31 , 2008 , Dutch crime reporter Peter R. de Vries claimed that he had solved the Holloway case . De Vries stated that he would tell all on a special television program on Dutch TV on February 3 . Beth Twitty 's attorney , John Q. Kelly , told ABC News that he had little faith that the supposed evidence would prove pivotal to the case of her daughter and suggested that it would be quickly debunked .
On February 1 , the Dutch media reported that Joran van der Sloot made a confession regarding the disappearance of Natalee Holloway . Later that day , Van der Sloot stated that he was telling the individual what he wanted to hear , and that he had no role in her disappearance . That same day , the Aruba prosecutor 's office announced the reopening of the case .
The broadcast aired February 3 , 2008 . The broadcast included excerpts from footage recorded from hidden cameras and microphones in the vehicle of Patrick van der Eem , a Dutch businessman and ex @-@ convict , who gained Van der Sloot 's confidence . Van der Sloot was seen smoking marijuana and stating that he was with Holloway when she began convulsively shaking , then became unresponsive . Van der Sloot stated that he attempted to revive her , without success . He said that he called a friend , who told Van der Sloot to go home and who disposed of the body . An individual reputed to be this friend , identified in the broadcast as Daury , has denied Van der Sloot 's account , indicating that he was then in Rotterdam at school .
The Aruban prosecutor 's office attempted to obtain an arrest warrant for Van der Sloot based on the tapes ; however , a judge denied the request . The prosecutor appealed the denial , but the appeal failed on February 14 , 2008 . The appeals court held that the statements on the tape were inconsistent with evidence in the case and were insufficient to hold Van der Sloot .
On February 8 , 2008 , Van der Sloot met with Aruban investigators in the Netherlands . Van der Sloot denied that what he said on the tape was true , stating that he was under the influence of marijuana at the time . Van der Sloot indicated that he still maintains that he left Holloway behind on the beach .
In March 2008 , news reports indicated that the tables had been turned on Van der Eem , who himself was secretly taped after giving an interview for Aruban TV . Van der Eem , under the impression that cameras had been turned off , kept talking . Van der Eem disclosed that he had been a friend of Van der Sloot for years ( contradicting his statement on the De Vries show that he had met Van der Sloot in 2007 ) , that he expects to become a millionaire through his involvement in the Holloway case , and that he knew the person who supposedly disposed of Holloway 's body — and that Van der Sloot had asked him for two thousand euros to buy the man 's silence . According to Dutch news service ANP , Van der Eem , who had already signed a book deal , " was furious " after learning of the taping , and " threatened " the interviewer , who sought legal advice . Van der Eem 's book Overboord ( Overboard ) , co @-@ written with E.E. Byars , was released ( in Dutch ) on June 25 , 2008 . Van der Eem was arrested on December 13 , 2008 in the Netherlands for allegedly hitting his girlfriend with a crowbar and engaging in risky driving behavior while fleeing police .
The De Vries broadcast was discussed in a seminar by Dutch legal psychologist Willem Albert Wagenaar , who indicated that the statements did not constitute a confession . Wagenaar criticized De Vries for broadcasting the material , stating that the broadcast made it harder to obtain a conviction , and had De Vries turned over the material to the authorities without broadcasting it , they would have held " all the trumps " in questioning Van der Sloot . Wagenaar opined that not only was the case not solved , it was not even clear that a crime had been committed . Professor Crisje Brants , in the same seminar , also criticized De Vries 's methods .
On November 24 , 2008 , Fox News aired an interview with Van der Sloot in which he alleged that he sold Holloway into sexual slavery , receiving money both when Holloway was taken , and later on to keep quiet . Van der Sloot also alleged that his father paid off two police officers who had learned that Holloway was taken to Venezuela . Van der Sloot later retracted the statements made in the interview . The show also aired part of an audio recording provided by Van der Sloot , which he alleged is a phone conversation between him and his father , in which the father displays knowledge of his son 's purported involvement in human trafficking . According to Mos , this voice heard on the recording is not that of Paulus van der Sloot — the Dutch newspaper De Telegraaf reports that the ' father 's ' voice is almost certainly that of Joran van der Sloot himself , trying to speak in a lower tone . Paulus van der Sloot died of a heart attack on February 10 , 2010 .
On March 20 , 2009 , Dave Holloway flew a search dog to Aruba to search a small reservoir in northern Aruba , previously identified by a supposed witness as a possible location of Natalee 's remains . Aruban authorities indicated that they had no new information in the case , but that Holloway had been given permission to conduct the search .
On February 23 , 2010 , it was reported that Joran van der Sloot had stated in an interview ( first offered to RTL Group in 2009 ) that he had disposed of Holloway 's body in a marsh on Aruba . New chief prosecutor Peter Blanken indicated that authorities had investigated the latest story , and had dismissed it . Blanken stated that " The locations , names , and times he gave just did not make sense " .
Underwater searches were conducted by Aruban authorities in March 2010 after an American couple reported that while snorkeling they had photographed what they thought might be human skeletal remains , possibly those of Holloway . Aruban authorities sent divers to investigate , but no remains were recovered .
= = = Van der Sloot 's extortion of money from Holloway 's family = = =
On March 29 , 2010 , Van der Sloot contacted John Q. Kelly , legal representative of Beth Twitty , with an offer to reveal the location of Holloway 's body and the circumstances surrounding her death for an advance of US $ 25 @,@ 000 against a total of $ 250 @,@ 000 . After Kelly notified the Federal Bureau of Investigation , they arranged to proceed with the transaction . On May 10 , Van der Sloot had $ 15 @,@ 000 wire transferred to his account in the Netherlands , following the receipt of $ 10 @,@ 000 in cash that was videotaped by undercover investigators in Aruba . Authorities state that the information that he provided in return was false because the house in which he said Holloway 's body was located had not yet been built at the time of her disappearance . On June 3 , Van der Sloot was charged in the U.S. District Court of Northern Alabama with extortion and wire fraud . U.S. Attorney Joyce White Vance obtained an arrest warrant and transmitted it to Interpol . Van der Sloot was indicted on the charges on June 30 .
On June 4 , at the request of the U.S. Justice Department , authorities raided and confiscated items from two homes in the Netherlands , one of them belonging to reporter Jaap Amesz who had previously interviewed Van der Sloot and claimed knowledge of criminal activities by Van der Sloot . Aruban investigators used information gathered from the extortion case to launch a new search at a beach , but no new evidence was found . Dave Holloway returned to Aruba on June 14 to pursue possible new clues .
= = = Van der Sloot kills in Peru = = =
On May 30 , 2010 — five years to the day after Holloway 's disappearance — Stephany Tatiana Flores Ramírez , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old business student , was reported missing in Lima , Peru . She was found dead three days later in a hotel room registered in Van der Sloot 's name . Van der Sloot was arrested on June 3 in Chile and was extradited to Peru the next day . On June 7 , 2010 , Peruvian authorities said that Van der Sloot confessed to killing Flores Ramírez after he lost his temper because she accessed his laptop without permission and found information linking him to the disappearance of Holloway . Police chief Cesar Guardia related that Van der Sloot told Peruvian police that he knows where Holloway 's body is and offered to help Aruban authorities find it . However , Guardia stated that the interrogation was limited to their case in Peru , and that questions about Holloway 's disappearance were avoided . On June 11 , Van der Sloot was charged in Lima Superior Court with first @-@ degree murder and robbery . On June 15 , Aruban and Peruvian authorities announced an agreement to cooperate and allow investigators from Aruba to interview Van der Sloot at Miguel Castro Castro prison in Peru . In a September 2010 interview from the prison , Van der Sloot reportedly admitted to the extortion plot , stating : " I wanted to get back at Natalee 's family — her parents have been making my life tough for five years . " Van der Sloot pleaded guilty to murdering Ramirez on January 11 , 2012 , and was sentenced to 28 years in prison .
On November 12 , 2010 , tourists found a jawbone on an Aruban beach near the Phoenix Hotel and Bubali Swamp . Aruban prosecutor Peter Blanken stated that a preliminary examination by a forensic expert on the island determined that the bone was from a young woman . A part of the bone was sent to The Hague for testing by the Netherlands Forensic Institute . On November 23 , 2010 , Aruba Solicitor @-@ General Taco Stein announced that , based on dental records , the jawbone was not from Holloway , and it was not possible to determine whether it had come from a man or woman .
= = = Holloway declared dead = = =
In June 2011 , Dave Holloway filed a petition with the Alabama courts seeking to have his daughter declared legally dead . The papers were served on his former wife , who announced her intention to oppose the petition . A hearing was held on September 23 , 2011 , during which Probate Judge Alan King ruled Dave Holloway had met the requirements for a legal presumption of death . On January 12 , 2012 , a second hearing was held , after which Judge King signed the order declaring Natalee Holloway to be dead .
= = Beth Twitty 's involvement = =
Beth Twitty has alleged in televised interviews that Joran van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers know more than they have told , and that at least one of them sexually assaulted or raped her daughter . Twitty stated that she received copies of police statements stating that Joran van der Sloot admitted having sex with Holloway at his home and described intimate details of her . She has never released copies of the alleged statement , though she characterizes them as admissions of " sexual assault " and Vinda de Sousa , former Holloway – Twitty family Aruban attorney , has indicated that no such admission was made . In addition , Dompig denied that any such statement was made , stating that Van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers consistently denied having sex with Holloway .
On June 12 , 2005 , three days after the arrest of Joran van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers , and in response to a nationally televised address by Aruba Prime Minister Nelson Oduber reaffirming Aruba 's commitment to solving the case , Twitty stated , " I 'm not getting any answers " . She added , " I don 't feel any further along than the day I got here " . Twitty stated that her complaints were not addressed specifically at the Aruban government , but arose from frustration at not knowing what happened to her daughter .
On July 5 , 2005 , following the initial release of the Kalpoes , Twitty alleged , " Two suspects were released yesterday who were involved in a violent crime against my daughter " , and referred to the Kalpoes as " criminals " . A demonstration involving about two hundred Arubans took place that evening outside the courthouse in Oranjestad in anger over Twitty 's remarks , with signs reading " Innocent until proven guilty " and " Respect our Dutch laws or go home " . On July 8 , 2005 , and after Satish Kalpoe 's attorney threatened legal action over Twitty 's allegations , which he described as " prejudicial , inflammatory , libelous , and totally outrageous " , Twitty read a statement that said her remarks were fueled by " despair and frustration " and that she " apologize [ d ] to the Aruban people and to the Aruban authorities if I or my family offended you in any way " .
Twitty was criticized for her focus on Joran van der Sloot and the Kalpoe brothers , to the exclusion of any other theory as to what happened to Holloway . According to the lawsuit filed by the Kalpoe brothers , she has ( on various television programs ) repeatedly accused them , and Joran van der Sloot , of " sexual assault " and " gang rape " of her daughter .
Twitty was also criticized for making what have been deemed to be inconsistent and contradictory statements ( for example , as to whether there were operating security cameras at the Holiday Inn ) . According to Julia Renfro , U.S.-born editor of the Aruban tourist @-@ oriented newspaper , Aruba Today , who befriended Twitty in the early days of the investigation , Twitty pandered to tabloid television and her " behavior was odd from the get @-@ go " . Renfro noted that " Twitty immediately concluded that her daughter had been kidnapped and made no effort to check hospitals or police " , adding that within a couple of days , after fixing responsibility on Joran van der Sloot , Twitty " was telling TV interviewers that she knew her daughter had been gang @-@ raped and murdered " .
Her book Loving Natalee : A Mother 's Testament of Hope and Faith , was published on October 2 , 2007 under the name " Beth Holloway , " which she resumed using following her December 2006 divorce from Jug Twitty .
What we want is , we want justice . And you know — and we have to recognize the fact that , you know , this crime has been committed on the island of Aruba , and we know the perpetrators . We know it 's these suspects , Deepak and Satish Kalpoe and Joran Van Der Sloot . And you know , we just have to , though , keep going , Nancy , because the only way we will get justice for Natalee is if we do keep going . I mean , if we give up , absolutely nothing will happen . Nothing .
Following the airing of the De Vries program , Beth Holloway , adhering to the position that the tapes represent the way events transpired , told the New York Post that she believes her daughter might still be alive if Van der Sloot had called for help . She contends that Van der Sloot dumped Holloway 's body , possibly alive , into the Caribbean . Holloway also alleges that the individual Joran van der Sloot supposedly called that evening was his father , Paulus , who , according to Holloway , " orchestrated what to do next " . She , and Dave Holloway , alleged that Joran van der Sloot was receiving " special legal favors " . After the court decision not to rearrest Van der Sloot was affirmed , Beth Holloway stated , " I think that what I do take comfort in , his life is a living hell " , later adding , " I 'd be good with a Midnight Express prison anywhere for Joran . "
In response to her daughter 's disappearance , Beth Holloway founded the International Safe Travels Foundation , a non @-@ profit organization designed " to inform and educate the public to help them travel more safely as they travel internationally " . She has marketed herself as a for @-@ fee speaker through the Nashville Speakers Bureau . In April 2010 , Holloway announced plans for a service called " Mayday 360 " , to intervene immediately when young people get into trouble overseas . She stated that if necessary , former federal agents with specific knowledge of a country could be dispatched there . In May 2010 , she announced that the Natalee Holloway Resource Center would open at the National Museum of Crime & Punishment . Located in Washington , D.C. , the center opened on June 8 to aid families of missing persons .
Though Beth Holloway made television appearances as new developments arose in the case , she is under FBI direction not to discuss her daughter 's case or that of Stephany Flores Ramírez .
= = Criticism of the investigation = =
The Twittys and their supporters criticized a perceived lack of progress by Aruban police . The Twittys ' own actions in Aruba were also criticized , and the Twittys were accused of actively stifling any evidence that might impugn Holloway 's character by asking her fellow students to remain silent about the case and using their access to the media to push their own version of events . The Twittys denied this .
While initially the Twittys discouraged a travel boycott of Aruba , this changed by September 2005 . Beth Twitty urged that persons not travel to Aruba and other Dutch territories because of what she stated were tourist safety issues . Alabama Governor Bob Riley , joined by the Twittys , urged Alabamians and others to boycott Aruba on November 8 , 2005 , in a news conference . Riley also wrote to other United States governors seeking their support — the governors of Georgia and Arkansas eventually joined in the call for boycott . The Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , city council voted to ask the governor of Pennsylvania to call for a boycott . The governor did not join in the call for a boycott , and no federal support was given .
The boycott was supported by some of Alabama 's Congressional delegation , including both senators and Congressman Spencer Bachus ( R @-@ AL ) , who represents Mountain Brook . Senator Richard Shelby ( R @-@ AL ) voiced his support for the boycott in a letter to the American Society of Travel Agents . Shelby stated , " For the safety , security and wellbeing of our citizens , I do not believe that we can trust that we will be protected while in Aruba " . Prime Minister Oduber stated that Aruban investigators have done their best to solve the mystery , and responded to the call for boycott , " This is a preposterous and irresponsible act . We are not guerillas . We are not terrorists . We don 't pose a threat to the United States , nor to Alabama " .
Members of the Aruba Hotel and Tourism Association , the Aruba Tourism Authority , the Aruba Hospitality and Security Foundation , the Aruban Chamber of Commerce and government figures , including Public Relations Representative Ruben Trapenberg , formed an " Aruba Strategic Communications Task Force " to respond collectively to what they perceived to be unfounded and / or negative portrayals of the island . The group issued press releases and sent representatives to appear in news media . They joined the Aruban government in opposing the calls for a boycott of the island .
= = = Skeeters tape and Dr. Phil ; lawsuits = = =
On September 15 , 2005 , the Dr. Phil television show showed parts of a hidden @-@ camera interview with Deepak Kalpoe in which Kalpoe seems to answer " She did . You 'd be surprised how easy it was " to a suggestion that Holloway had sex with all three men . The taping had been instigated by Jamie Skeeters , a private investigator . When the tape was broadcast , news reports indicated an expectation of a rearrest , which Dompig termed a " strong possibility " if the tapes were legitimate .
Aruban police subsequently provided a fuller version of the relevant part of the tape in which Kalpoe 's response differed from the Dr. Phil version , apparently due to editing that may have altered the meaning of what was said . An unofficial Aruban @-@ affiliated spokesperson and commentator on the case said videotape showed Kalpoe had shaken his head and said " No , she didn 't . " , thereby denying that Holloway had sex with him and the other two men . According to an MSNBC report , the crucial words are inaudible , and presenter Rita Cosby questioned if it could be substantiated that Kalpoe had ever made the statements attributed to him in the Dr. Phil version 's transcript of the secret recording .
In December 2006 , the Kalpoes filed a slander and libel suit against Dr. Phil and Skeeters ( who died in January 2007 ) in Los Angeles . Beth Twitty and Dave Holloway responded by filing a wrongful death lawsuit against the Kalpoes in the same venue . The wrongful death suit was dismissed for lack of personal jurisdiction on June 1 , 2007 ; the libel and slander case was initially set for trial on October 12 , 2011 but was later set for April 2015 . An earlier lawsuit had been filed in New York City by the parents against Paulus and Joran van der Sloot and served on them on a visit to New York . The case had been dismissed in August 2006 as filed in an inconvenient forum .
On November 10 , 2005 , Paulus van der Sloot won an unjust detention action against the Aruban government , clearing him as a suspect and allowing him to retain his government contract . The elder Van der Sloot then brought a second action , seeking monetary damages for himself and his family because of his false arrest . The action was initially successful , but the award of damages was reversed on appeal .
= = = Amigoe article = = =
The Amigoe reported on interviews with Renfro and Dompig in which they said that Aruban authorities had been systematically obstructed in their investigation by US officials . They also said that within a day of Holloway being declared missing , a medjet , unauthorized by Aruban authorities , had arrived on Aruba and had remained for several days for the purpose of covertly taking Holloway off the island without notifying local authorities . Renfro also said she and Beth Twitty received a phone call from an unknown woman on June 2 , 2005 asking for money in return for her giving Holloway 's location , and asserting that Holloway was unwilling to return to her mother . According to Renfo , she and another American went to a drug house where Holloway supposedly was , bringing money , but found that Jug Twitty had already been to the area , spreading " a lot of uproar and panic in the direct vicinity " , and nothing could be accomplished . The Twittys disputed Renfo 's accounts , Beth describing Renfro as " a witch " .
= = = Film adaptation = = =
On April 19 , 2009 , Lifetime Movie Network aired Natalee Holloway , a television film based on Beth Holloway 's book Loving Natalee . Starring Tracy Pollan as Beth Holloway @-@ Twitty , Grant Show as George " Jug " Twitty , Amy Gumenick as Natalee Holloway and Jacques Strydom as Joran van der Sloot , the film retells events leading up to the night of Holloway 's disappearance in 2005 , and the ensuing investigation in the aftermath . It was shot in South Africa .
The movie does not solve the case , but stages re @-@ creations of various scenarios , based on the testimony of key players and suspects , including Van der Sloot . The broadcast of the film attracted 3 @.@ 2 million viewers , garnering the highest television ratings in the network 's 11 @-@ year history . Although it set ratings records for Lifetime , the movie received mixed reviews from critics . Alec Harvey of The Birmingham News called the movie " sloppy and uneven , a forgettable look at the tragedy that consumed the nation 's attention for months " . However , Jake Meaney of PopMatters found the film to be surprisingly " calm and levelheaded " , and praised Tracy Pollan 's portrayal of Holloway 's mother . A follow up film , Justice for Natalee Holloway , aired in mid @-@ 2011 on the Lifetime Movie Network . This film picks up in 2010 , on the five year anniversary of Natalee 's disappearance . It continues to center on the investigation and what exactly happened to the Alabama teen .
= = Media coverage = =
U.S. television networks devoted much air time to the search for Holloway , the investigation of her disappearance , and rumors surrounding the case . Greta Van Susteren , host of Fox News Channel 's On the Record , and Nancy Grace on her eponymous Headline News program were among the most prominent television personalities to devote time to the incident . Van Susteren 's almost continuous coverage of the story caused On the Record to get its best ratings to date , while Grace 's show became the cornerstone of the new " Headline Prime " block on Headline News , which ran two episodes ( a live show and a repeat ) every night during prime @-@ time . As the case wore on , much of the attention was given to Beth Twitty and her statements . Aruban government spokesman Ruben Trapenberg stated , " The case is under a microscope , and the world is watching . "
The saturation of coverage triggered a backlash among some critics who argued that such extensive media attention validates the " missing white woman syndrome " theory , which argues that missing @-@ person cases involving white women and girls receive disproportionate attention in the media compared with cases involving white males or people of color . CNN ran a segment criticizing the amount of coverage their competitors gave to the story despite what they characterized as a lack of new items to report , with CNN news anchor Anderson Cooper calling the coverage " downright ridiculous " .
Early in the case , political commentator and columnist Arianna Huffington wrote , " If you were to get your news only from television , you 'd think the top issue facing our country right now is an 18 @-@ year @-@ old girl named Natalee who went missing in Aruba . Every time one of these stories comes up , like , say , Michael Jackson , when it 's finally over I think , what a relief , now we can get back to real news . But we never do . "
In March 2008 , El Diario commented , " But if doubts persist about cases involving missing Latinas , there are reasons why . These cases rarely receive the attention and resources we see given to other missing persons . The English @-@ language media , for example , appear to be focused on the stories of missing white women , such as with the disappearance of Natalee Holloway in Aruba . Cases of missing Latina and African American women often remain faceless , when they are even covered . "
CBS senior journalist Danna Walker stated , " There is criticism that it is only a story because she is a pretty blonde — and white — and it is criticism that journalists are taking to heart and looking elsewhere for other stories . But it is a big story because it is an American girl who went off on an adventure , and didn 't come back . It is a huge mystery , it is something people can identify with . "
Good Morning America anchor Chris Cuomo was unapologetic of his program 's extensive coverage of the Holloway case . " I don 't believe it 's my role to judge what people want to watch … If they say , ' I want to know what happened to this girl ' … I want to help them find out . "
Holloway 's family , however , instead criticized the lessening of coverage of the young woman 's disappearance . The saturation coverage of Holloway 's disappearance by the American media was largely eclipsed in late August 2005 by Hurricane Katrina . Beth Twitty and Dave Holloway alleged that Aruba took advantage of the extensive coverage of the hurricane to release the suspects . However , the deadline for judicial review of Joran van der Sloot 's detention was set long before the hurricane .
Lamented Dave Holloway in his book ,
Hurricane Katrina had left the door open for the boys to be sent on their way with little publicity and few restrictions because it took the world 's focus off of Natalee , but only for a brief time . The huge amount of publicity had waned and , during that time of quiet for us , Joran and the Kalpoe brothers were sent home ... All of the news shows that had followed our every move only a day before had now become fixated on the next big ratings grabber : the victims of Hurricane Katrina .
= Finnish Civil War =
The Finnish Civil War ( 27 January – 15 May 1918 ) concerned leadership and control of Finland during the transition from a Grand Duchy of the Russian Empire to an independent state . The conflict formed a part of the national , political , and social turmoil caused by World War I ( Eastern Front ) in Europe . The war was fought between the Reds , led by the Social Democratic Party and the Whites , conducted by the non @-@ socialist , conservative @-@ led Senate . The paramilitary Red Guards , composed of industrial and agrarian workers , controlled the towns and industrial centres of southern Finland . The paramilitary White Guards , composed of peasants and middle- and upper @-@ class factions , controlled rural central and northern Finland .
Finnish society had experienced - by 1917 , under the Russian regime - rapid population growth , industrialisation , preurbanization and the rise of a comprehensive labour movement . The country 's political and governmental systems were in an unstable phase of democratisation and modernization , while the people 's socioeconomic condition and national @-@ cultural status gradually improved . World War I led to the collapse of the Russian Empire and a power struggle , militarization , and escalating crisis between the left @-@ leaning Finnish labor movement and the Finnish conservatives .
The Reds carried out an unsuccessful general offensive in February 1918 , supplied with weapons by Soviet Russia . A counteroffensive by the Whites began in March , reinforced by an Imperial German Army squad in April . The decisive military actions of the war were the Battles of Tampere and Viipuri , won by the Whites , and the Battles of Helsinki and Lahti , won by German troops , leading to overall victory of the Whites and the German forces . Both the Reds and Whites engaged in political terror . A large number of Reds perished due to malnutrition and disease in prison camps . Altogether , around 39 @,@ 000 people died in the war , including 36 @,@ 000 Finns — out of a population of 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
In the aftermath , the Finns passed from Russian rule to the German Empire 's sphere of power . The conservative Finnish Senate attempted to establish a Finnish monarchy , but the plan was aborted by the defeat of Germany in World War I. Finland emerged as an independent , democratic republic . The war divided the nation for many years and remains one of the most emotionally charged events in Finnish history . The society was reunited through social compromises based on a long @-@ term culture of moderate politics and religion , the outcome of World War I , and the postwar economic recovery .
= = Background = =
The main factor behind the Finnish Civil War was World War I ; the Russian Empire collapsed under the pressures of the war , leading to the February and October Revolutions in 1917 . The breakdown caused a large power vacuum and subsequent power struggle in Eastern Europe . The Grand Duchy of Finland , a part of the Russian Empire since 1809 , became embroiled in the struggle for power . Geopolitically less important Finland was a peaceful sidefront until early 1918 , but the war between the German Empire and Russia had indirect effects on the Finns . Since the end of 19th century , the Grand Duchy had become a vital source of raw materials , industrial products , food and labor for the growing Imperial Russian capital Petrograd ( Saint Petersburg ) , and World War I emphasized the role . Strategically , the Finnish territory was the northern section of the Estonian – Finnish gateway and buffer zone to and from Petrograd via the Gulf of Finland , the Narva area and the Karelian Isthmus .
The German Empire saw Eastern Europe — mainly Russia — as a major source of vital products and raw materials , both during World War I and in the future . Her resources overstretched by the two @-@ front war , Germany pursued a policy of breaking up Russia from within by providing financial support to revolutionary groups such as the Bolsheviks , Socialist Revolutionary Party ( SRs ) and separatist factions such as the Finnish Activists leaning toward Germanism . Between 30 and 40 million marks were spent on this endeavor . Controlling the Finnish area would allow the Imperial German Army to penetrate Petrograd and the Kola Peninsula , an area rich in raw materials for the mining industry . Finland possessed large ore reserves and a well @-@ developed forest industry .
From 1809 to 1898 , a period called Pax Russica , the peripheral power of the Finns gradually increased , and the Russian @-@ Finnish relations were exceptionally peaceful compared with other parts of the Russian Empire . Russia 's defeat in the Crimean War in the 1850s led to attempts to speed up the modernization of the country . This caused more than 50 years of economic , industrial , cultural and educational progress in the Grand Duchy of Finland , including improvement in the status of the Finnish language . All this encouraged Finnish nationalism and cultural unity through the birth of the Fennoman movement , which bound the Finns to the domestic governmental system and led to the idea that the Finnish Grand Duchy was an increasingly autonomous state of the Russian Empire .
In 1899 , the Russian Empire initiated a policy of integration through the Russification of Finland . The strengthened , pan @-@ slavist central power tried to unite the " Russian Multinational Dynastic Union " , because the military and strategic situation of Russia became more difficult due of the rise of Germany and Japan . The Finns called the increased military and administrative control " the First Period of Oppression , 1899 – 1905 " , and plans for disengagement from Russia or sovereignty for Finland were drawn up for the first time . In the power struggle , the most radical political group opposing Russia , the Activist movement , included terrorist factions from the working class and the Swedish @-@ speaking intelligentsia . During World War I and the rise of Germanism , the Svecomans began their covert collaboration with Imperial Germany , and from 1915 to 1917 , a Finnish " Jäger " ( Jääkärit ) battalion consisting of 1900 volunteers were trained in Germany .
= = = Politics = = =
The major reasons for rising political tensions among the Finns were the autocratic rule of the Russian Czar and the undemocratic class system of the estates of the realm . The system originated in the Swedish Empire regime , preceding the Russian power , and divided the Finnish people into two groups , separated economically , socially and politically . Finland 's population grew rapidly in the 19th century ( from 860 @,@ 000 in 1810 to 3 @,@ 130 @,@ 000 in 1917 ) , and a class of industrial and agrarian workers and property @-@ less peasants emerged . The Industrial Revolution was rapid in Finland , though it started later than in the rest of Western Europe . Industrialization was financed by the state , and some of the social problems associated with the industrial process were diminished via control of the administration . Among urban workers , socioeconomic problems steepened during periods of industrial depression . The position of rural workers had worsened since the end of the 19th century , as farming became more efficient and market @-@ oriented and the gradually developing industry did not fully utilize the rapid population growth of the countryside .
The difference between Scandinavian @-@ Finnish ( Finno @-@ Ugric peoples ) and Russian @-@ Slavic culture affected the nature of Finnish national integration ; the social upper faction took the lead , though it gained domestic might from the Russian Czar in 1809 . The estates planned to build up an increasingly autonomous Finnish state , led by the elite and intelligentsia . The Fennomans aimed to include the common people in a nonpolitical role in order to reduce unrest due to social problems ; the labor movement , youth associations and temperance movement were initially led " from above . "
Social conditions , the standard of living and the self @-@ confidence of the workers gradually improved due to industrialization between 1870 – 1916 but , while the standard of living rose among the common people , the rift between rich and poor deepened markedly . The common people 's rising awareness of the socioeconomic and political questions interacted with the ideas of socialism , social liberalism and nationalism ( Fennomania ) . The commoners ' responses and the corresponding counteracts of the dominating upper factions steepened the social relations in Finland .
The Finnish labor movement , which emerged at the end of the 19th century from temperance , religious movements and Fennomania , had a Finnish nationalist , working @-@ class character . From 1899 – 1906 the labor movement became conclusively independent , shedding the patriarchal thinking of the Fennoman estates , and it was represented by the Finnish Social Democratic Party , established in 1899 . Workers ' activism directed both toward opposing Russification and in developing a domestic policy that tackled social problems and responded to the demand for democracy . This was a reaction to the domestic dispute , ongoing since the 1880s , between the Finnish nobility @-@ burghers and the labor movement concerning voting rights for the common people .
Besides their obligations as obedient , peaceful and nonpolitical inhabitants of the Grand Duchy , who had a few decades earlier accepted the class system as the natural order of their life , the commoners had begun to ask for and then demand their civil rights and citizenship in Finnish society . The power struggle between the Finnish estates and the Russian administration gave a concrete role model and free space for the labor movement . On the other side , due to at least a century @-@ long tradition and experience of administrative leadership , the Finnish elite saw itself as the inherent natural power in the Grand Duchy .
The political struggle for democracy was solved outside Finland , via international power politics ; the Russian Empire 's failed 1904 – 1905 war against Japan led to the 1905 Revolution in Russia and to a general strike in Finland . In an attempt to quell the general unrest , the system of estates was abolished in the Parliamentary Reform of 1906 , which introduced universal suffrage . The general strike increased support for the Social Democrats substantially , as a proportion of the population , the party was the most powerful socialist movement in the world .
The Reform of 1906 was a giant leap in the political and social liberalization of the common Finnish people ; the Russian royal family was the most autocratic and conservative rulers in Europe . The Finns adopted a unicameral parliamentary system with all political rights for female citizens , increasing the number of voters from 126 @,@ 000 to 1 @,@ 273 @,@ 000 . This produced around 50 % turnouts for the Social Democrats , but the Czar regained his authority after the crisis of 1905 , and during the second period of Russification between 1908 and 1917 neutralized the power of the Parliament . He dissolved it and ordered parliamentary elections almost annually between 1908 – 1916 , and determined the composition of the Finnish Senate , which did not correlate with the assembly of the Parliament , prohibiting true parliamentarism .
The capacity of the Parliament to solve major socioeconomic problems was stymied by confrontations between the representatives of the largely uneducated common man and the representatives of the former estates , accustomed to autocratic rule and attitudes . At the same time , conflict grew between industrial employers and their workers as the industrialists denied collective bargaining and the right of the labour unions to represent working people ; the employers essentially dictated contracts signed on the personal level . Although the parliamentary process disappointed the labour movement , dominance in the Finnish Parliament and in legislation was the workers ' pathway to reach a more balanced society - they identified themselves powerfully to the state . Altogether , these political developments led to conditions that encouraged a struggle for leadership of the Finnish state , during the ten years before the collapse of the Russian Empire .
= = = February Revolution = = =
The more severe programme of Russification , called " the Second Period of Oppression , 1908 – 1917 " by the Finns , was halted on 15 March 1917 by the removal of the Russian Czar Nicholas II . The immediate reason for the collapse of the Russian Empire was crisis caused by military defeats in the war against Imperial Germany and war @-@ weariness among the Russians . The deeper causes lay in the collision between the most conservative and autocratic regime in Europe and the Russian people urging for socioeconomic modernization . The Czar 's power was transferred to the Russian Parliament , Duma and the right @-@ wing Provisional Government , but it was challenged by the Petrograd Soviet , leading to dual power in the country .
Autonomous status was returned to the Finns in March 1917 , and the revolt in Russia handed to the Finnish Parliament true political power for the first time . The political left , consisting mainly of Social Democrats , covered a wide spectrum from moderate to revolutionary socialists . The political right was even more diverse , ranging from social liberals and moderate conservatives to rightist conservative elements . The four main parties were :
the conservative Finnish Party
the Young Finnish Party including both liberals and conservatives , the liberals divided to social liberals and economic liberals
the social reformist , centrist Agrarian League , which drew its support mainly from peasants with small or middle @-@ sized farms
the conservative Swedish People 's Party , which sought to retain the rights of the former nobility and the Swedish @-@ speaking minority of Finland .
The Finns faced a detrimental interaction of power struggle and breakdown of society during 1917 . The collapse of Russia induced a chain reaction of disintegration , starting from the government , military power and economy , and spreading downwards to all fields of the society such as local administration and workplaces , and finally to the level of individual citizens as changes and questions of freedom , responsibility and morality . The Social Democrats aimed at retaining the political rights of the labor movement already achieved , and gaining power over the people and society . The conservatives were fearful of losing their long @-@ held socioeconomic might . Both factions , with groups aiming at major supremacy , collaborated with the corresponding political forces in Russia , deepening the split in the nation .
As a consequence of the unbalanced social development and the labour movement 's continuous position in the political opposition , the Social Democratic Party had gained an absolute majority in the new Parliament of Finland , in the general parliamentary elections of 1916 . The new Senate was formed in March 1917 by Social Democrat and trade union leader Oskari Tokoi . His cabinet did not reflect the assembly of the Finnish parliament , with the socialists ' absolute majority . It comprised six representatives from the Social Democrats and six from non @-@ socialist parties .
In theory , the new Senate consisted of a broad national coalition , but in practice , with the main political groups unwilling to compromise and the most experienced politicians remaining outside it , the cabinet proved unable to solve any major local Finnish problems . After the First Russian Revolution of 1917 in February , real political power shifted to the street level in the form of mass meetings , strike organizations , and the street councils formed by workers and soldiers , and to active organizations of the employers , all of which served to undermine the authority of the state .
The rapid economic growth stimulated by World War I , which had raised the incomes of industrial workers and profits of the employers during 1915 and 1916 , collapsed with the February Revolution . The consequent decrease in production and economy led to unemployment and high inflation . For those who had a job , the February revolution gave freedom to reach for resolving long @-@ term problems of their laborious working life . The workers called for eight @-@ hour @-@ per @-@ day working limits , better working conditions and higher wages . The demands led to demonstrations and large @-@ scale strikes in both industry and agriculture throughout Finland .
The food supply of the country depended on cereals produced in southern Russia , while the Finns had specialized in milk and butter production . The cessation of the cereal imports from disintegrating Russia led to food shortages in Finland . The Senate responded by introducing rationing and price controls . The farmers opposed the state control ; a black market with sharply rising food prices formed and export to free market of the Petrograd area increased . Food supply , prices , and in the end the fear of starvation became emotional political issues between farmers and industrial workers , in particular the unemployed ones . The common people , their fears exploited by the politicians and the political media , took to the streets . Despite the food shortages , no large @-@ scale starvation hit southern Finland before the war . Economic factors remained a supporting factor in the crisis of 1917 , but only a secondary part of the power struggle of the state .
= = = = Battle for leadership = = = =
The passing of the Tokoi Senate bill , called the " Power Act " , in July 1917 became the first one of the three culminations of the power struggle between the Social Democrats and the conservatives during the political crisis from March 1917 to the end of January 1918 . The fall of the Russian emperor opened the question of who would hold the highest political power in the former Grand Duchy . Although the Finns had accepted the liberating manifesto ( from the period of 1908 – 1916 ) of March 1917 issued by the Russian Provisional Government , they planned at least an expansion of the former autonomy .
The February Revolution offered the Finnish Social Democrats momentum : they had the absolute majority in the Parliament and a narrow dominance in the Senate . After the decades of political disappointments , the socialists gained an opportunity to take power . Conservatives were alarmed by the continuous increase of the socialists ' might since 1899 , with the climax in 1917 without the offsetting control of Russian administration ; the Social Democrats had to be halted before they were able to markedly alter the power structure of the country .
The " Power Act " incorporated a plan by the Social Democrats to substantially increase the power of Parliament , as a reaction to the non @-@ parliamentary and conservative leadership of the Finnish Senate between 1906 and 1916 . The bill furthered Finnish autonomy by restricting Russia 's influence on domestic affairs : the Provisional Government would determine the foreign and military policies of Finland . In Parliament , the bill was adopted with the support of the Social Democrats , the Agrarian League , some members of the Young Finnish Party and some Activists eager for Finnish sovereignty . The conservatives opposed the Act and some of the most right @-@ wing representatives resigned from Parliament .
In Petrograd , the Social Democrats ' plan had the backing of Vladimir Lenin and the Bolsheviks , who by July 1917 were plotting a revolt against the Provisional Government . In the end , the Government still had the support of the Russian military ; Lenin was thwarted during the " July Days " and forced to flee to Finland . As the Russians ' war against Germany came increasingly closer to total defeat , the significance of the Finnish area as a buffer zone protecting Petrograd was highlighted , the Provisional Government disapproved the " Power Act " and sent reliable troops to Finland . There , with the demands and co @-@ operation of Finnish conservatives , the Finnish Parliament was dissolved and new elections announced .
In the October 1917 elections , the Social Democrats lost their absolute majority , which radicalized the labor movement and decreased support for relying on parliamentary means of achieving its aims . The events of July 1917 did not
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at the front . The tooth bears three longitudinal rows of cusps . The middle row consists of five cusps , the labial row ( assuming it is a left M1 ; if it is from the right , " lingual " and " labial " should be reversed ) includes two or perhaps three cusps , and the lingual row includes probably four cusps . The lingual and middle rows extend across the entire length of the tooth , but the labial row is shorter , extending across about 70 % of the length . The middle row is oriented obliquely with respect to the length axis of the tooth , so that it converges with the lingual row towards the back of the tooth . The front lingual corner of the tooth is missing , but it appears that the first cusps in the lingual and middle rows are connected by two ridges , one at the front margin of the tooth and one at the back of the cusps . A deep fossa ( basin ) lies between the two cusps and their connecting ridges . Behind these two cusps , a transverse furrow extends across the width of the tooth . The second lingual and middle cusps are also connected by a crest , which is somewhat weaker than those connecting the first cusps . Another transverse furrow extends behind the second cusps and also separates the second middle cusp from the labial row . A third furrow , behind the third lingual and middle cusps , also separates the first from the second labial cusp . Three ridges descend from the fourth lingual cusp : one connects to the fourth middle cusp , one ends blindly between the fourth lingual and middle cusps , and one connects to the fifth middle cusp . The second labial cusp , which is larger than the first one , is superficially divided into two smaller cusps by an indentation on its lingual side . There are vertical grooves at the bases of the cusps .
= = Range and ecology = =
Remains of Ferugliotherium come from two formations in the Late Cretaceous of southern Argentina , the Los Alamitos and La Colonia Formations . These and the Allen Formation ( which has yielded Trapalcotherium ) are all dated to the Campanian ( 84 – 71 million years ago ) and / or Maastrichtian ( 71 – 66 million years ago ) , the penultimate and ultimate stages of the Cretaceous . The La Colonia Formation may be somewhat younger than the other two , while the Los Alamitos Formation has been considered Campanian , and can be dated to the Campanian or Maastrichtian on the basis of palynology . The Allen Formation is likely Maastrichtian , but not latest Maastrichtian .
The Los Alamitos Formation is located in southeastern Río Negro Province , in the vicinity of the town of Cona Niyeu and was probably deposited in a marshy environment . In 1983 , it yielded the first Mesozoic mammal to be found in Argentina , Mesungulatum houssayi , and since then , the mammalian fauna has expanded to 14 species . Most of those belong to the archaic mammalian group Dryolestoidea , but the fauna also includes the gondwanatheres Ferugliotherium and Gondwanatherium . The dryolestoids Mesungulum houssayi and Groebertherium novasi and the two gondwanatheres are the most common mammals . Other fossils found in the Los Alamitos Formation include fish , frogs , turtles , madtsoiid snakes , dinosaurs such as Secernosaurus , gastropods , and other invertebrates .
The La Colonia Formation outcrops in north @-@ central Chubut Province , and the mammalian fossils come from the Mirasol Chico valley . The formation includes fluvial ( river ) , deep @-@ sea , and near @-@ shore deposits , and the mammalian fauna probably comes from an estuary , tidal flat , or coastal plain . The La Colonia Formation also contains dryolestoids , such as Coloniatherium and Reigitherium , as well as a ferugliotheriid and the putative multituberculate Argentodites . In addition , the La Colonia Formation has yielded fossils of a wide array of other animals , including crocodiles , plesiosaurs , lungfish ( Ceratodus ) , and dinosaurs ( including Carnotaurus ) .
The high @-@ crowned sudamericids were probably herbivores , but the lower @-@ crowned Ferugliotherium was more probably an insectivore or omnivore , like similar multituberculates such as Mesodma , which is thought to have eaten insects , other arthropods , seeds , and / or nuts . It may have used its incisors for gnawing or slicing , and the blade @-@ like p4 may also have been used for slicing hard plant parts , such as seeds . The wear patterns on Ferugliotherium teeth independently suggest that the animal may have eaten some plant material .
= Bethlehem =
Bethlehem ( Arabic : بيت لحم Bayt Lahm Arabic pronunciation : [ beːt.laħm ] ; " House of Meat " , Bēt Laḥm ; Hebrew : בֵּית לֶחֶם Bet Lehem , Modern : Bet Lehem [ bet ˈleχem ] , lit . " House of Bread " ; Ancient Greek : Βηθλεέμ [ bɛːtʰle.ém ] ; Latin : Bethleem ) is a Palestinian city located in the central West Bank , Palestine , about 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) south of Jerusalem . Its population is approximately 25 @,@ 000 people . It is the capital of the Bethlehem Governorate . The economy is primarily tourist @-@ driven .
The earliest known mention of the city was in the Amarna correspondence of 1350 – 1330 BCE during its habitation by the Canaanites . The Hebrew Bible , which says that the city of Bethlehem was built up as a fortified city by Rehoboam , identifies it as the city David was from and where he was crowned as the king of Israel . The New Testament identifies Bethlehem as the birthplace of Jesus . Bethlehem was destroyed by the Emperor Hadrian during the second @-@ century Bar Kokhba revolt ; its rebuilding was promoted by Empress Helena , mother of Constantine the Great , who commissioned the building of its great Church of the Nativity in 327 CE . The church was badly damaged by the Samaritans , who sacked it during a revolt in 529 , but was rebuilt a century later by Emperor Justinian I.
Bethlehem became part of Jund Filastin following the Muslim conquest in 637 . Muslim rule continued in Bethlehem until its conquest in 1099 by a crusading army , who replaced the town 's Greek Orthodox clergy with a Latin one . In the mid @-@ 13th century , the Mamluks demolished the city 's walls , which were subsequently rebuilt under the Ottomans in the early 16th century . Control of Bethlehem passed from the Ottomans to the British at the end of World War I. Bethlehem came under Jordanian rule during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War and was later captured by Israel in the 1967 Six @-@ Day War . Since the 1995 Oslo Accords , Bethlehem has been administered by the Palestinian Authority .
Bethlehem now has a Muslim majority , but is still home to a significant Palestinian Christian community . Bethlehem 's chief economic sector is tourism , which peaks during the Christmas season when Christians make pilgrimage to the Church of the Nativity , as they have done for almost 2 @,@ 000 years . Bethlehem has over 30 hotels and 300 handicraft workshops . Rachel 's Tomb , an important Jewish holy site , is located at the northern entrance of Bethlehem .
= = History = =
= = = Canaanite period = = =
The earliest reference to Bethlehem appears in the Amarna correspondence ( c . 1400 BCE ) . In one of his six letters to Pharaoh , Abdi @-@ Heba , Egypt 's governor for Jerusalem , appeals for aid in retaking " Bit @-@ Lahmi " in the wake of disturbances by Apiru mercenaries. employed by his rivals : " now even a town near Jerusalem , Bit @-@ Lahmi by name , a village which once belonged to the king , has fallen to the enemy . . . Let the king hear the words of your servant Abdi @-@ Heba , and send archers to restore the imperial lands of the king ! "
It is thought that the similarity of this name to its modern forms indicates that this was a settlement of Canaanites who shared a Semitic cultural and linguistic heritage with the later arrivals . Lachmo was the Chaldean god of fertility , worshipped by the Canaanites as Lachama . Some time in the 3rd millennium BCE , they erected a temple to worship the god on the hill now known as the Hill of the Nativity . The town was known as Beit Lachama , meaning " House of Lachama . " The Philistines later established a garrison there . William F. Albright notes that the pronunciation of the name remained essentially the same for 3 @,@ 500 years , but has meant different things : " ' Temple of the God Lakhmu ' in Canaanite , ' House of Bread ' in Hebrew and Aramaic , ' House of Meat ' in Arabic . "
A burial ground discovered in spring 2013 , and surveyed in 2015 by a joint Italian @-@ Palestinian team found that the necropolis covered 3 hectares ( more than 7 acres ) and originally contained more than 100 tombs in use between roughly 2200 B.C. and 650 B.C. The archaeologists were able to identify at least 30 tombs .
= = = Israelite and Judean period = = =
Archaeological confirmation of Bethlehem as a city in the Kingdom of Judah was uncovered in 2012 at the archaeological dig at the City of David in the form of a bulla ( seal impression in dried clay ) in ancient Hebrew script that reads " From the town of Bethlehem to the King , " indicating that it was used to seal the string closing a shipment of grain , wine , or other goods sent as a tax payment in the 8th or 7th century BCE .
Biblical scholars believe Bethlehem , located in the " hill country " of Judah , may be the same as the Biblical Ephrath , which means " fertile " , as there is a reference to it in the Book of Micah as Bethlehem Ephratah . The Bible also calls it Beth @-@ Lehem Judah , and the New Testament describes it as the " City of David " . It is first mentioned in the Tanakh and the Bible as the place where the matriarch Rachel died and was buried " by the wayside " ( Gen. 48 : 7 ) . Rachel 's Tomb , the traditional grave site , stands at the entrance to Bethlehem . According to the Book of Ruth , the valley to the east is where Ruth of Moab gleaned the fields and returned to town with Naomi . It was the home of Jesse , father of King David of Israel , and the site of David 's anointment by the prophet Samuel . It was from the well of Bethlehem that three of his warriors brought him water when he was hiding in the cave of Adullam .
Writing in the 4th century , the Pilgrim of Bordeaux reported that the sepulchers of David , Ezekiel , Asaph , Job , Jesse , and Solomon were located near Bethlehem . There has been no corroboration of this .
= = = Classical period = = =
After the Bar Kokhba revolt was crushed , Hadrian converted the Christian site above the Grotto into a shrine dedicated to the Greek god Adonis , to honour his favourite , the Greek youth Antinous . Some scholars hold the view that this site was one that had originally been dedicated to Adonis @-@ Tammuz and Christians had taken it over .
In 326 – 328 , the empress Helena , consort of the emperor Constantius Chlorus , and mother of the emperor Constantine the Great , made a pilgrimage to Syra @-@ Palaestina , in the course of which she visited the ruins of Bethlehem . The empress promoted the rebuilding of the city , and Eusebius of Caesarea writes that she was responsible for the construction of the Church of the Nativity .
During the Samaritan revolt of 529 , Bethlehem was sacked and its walls and the Church of the Nativity destroyed ; they were rebuilt on the orders of the Emperor Justinian I. In 614 , the Persian Sassanid Empire , supported by Jewish rebels , invaded Palestina Prima and captured Bethlehem . A story recounted in later sources holds that they refrained from destroying the church on seeing the magi depicted in Persian clothing in a mosaic .
= = = Middle Ages = = =
In 637 , shortly after Jerusalem was captured by the Muslim armies , ' Umar ibn al @-@ Khattāb , the second Caliph , promised that the Church of the Nativity would be preserved for Christian use . A mosque dedicated to Umar was built upon the place in the city where he prayed , next to the church . Bethlehem then passed through the control of the Islamic caliphates of the Umayyads in the 8th century , then the Abbasids in the 9th century . A Persian geographer recorded in the mid @-@ 9th century that a well preserved and much venerated church existed in the town . In 985 , the Arab geographer al @-@ Muqaddasi visited Bethlehem , and referred to its church as the " Basilica of Constantine , the equal of which does not exist anywhere in the country @-@ round . " In 1009 , during the reign of the sixth Fatimid Caliph , al @-@ Hakim bi @-@ Amr Allah , the Church of the Nativity was ordered to be demolished , but was spared by local Muslims , because they had been permitted to worship in the structure 's southern transept .
In 1099 , Bethlehem was captured by the Crusaders , who fortified it and built a new monastery and cloister on the north side of the Church of the Nativity . The Greek Orthodox clergy were removed from their sees and replaced with Latin clerics . Up until that point the official Christian presence in the region was Greek Orthodox . On Christmas Day 1100 , Baldwin I , first king of the Frankish Kingdom of Jerusalem , was crowned in Bethlehem , and that year a Latin episcopate was also established in the town .
In 1187 , Saladin , the Sultan of Egypt and Syria who led the Muslim Ayyubids , captured Bethlehem from the Crusaders . The Latin clerics were forced to leave , allowing the Greek Orthodox clergy to return . Saladin agreed to the return of two Latin priests and two deacons in 1192 . However , Bethlehem suffered from the loss of the pilgrim trade , as there was a sharp decrease of European pilgrims . William IV , Count of Nevers had promised the Christian bishops of Bethlehem that if Bethlehem should fall under Muslim control , he would welcome them in the small town of Clamecy in present @-@ day Burgundy , France . As a result , the Bishop of Bethlehem duly took up residence in the hospital of Panthenor , Clamecy , in 1223 . Clamecy remained the continuous ' in partibus infidelium ' seat of the Bishopric of Bethlehem for almost 600 years , until the French Revolution in 1789 .
Bethlehem , along with Jerusalem , Nazareth , and Sidon , was briefly ceded to the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem by a treaty between Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II and Ayyubid Sultan al @-@ Kamil in 1229 , in return for a ten @-@ year truce between the Ayyubids and the Crusaders . The treaty expired in 1239 , and Bethlehem was recaptured by the Muslims in 1244 . In 1250 , with the coming to power of the Mamluks under Rukn al @-@ Din Baibars , tolerance of Christianity declined . Members of the clergy left the city , and in 1263 the town walls were demolished . The Latin clergy returned to Bethlehem the following century , establishing themselves in the monastery adjoining the Basilica of the Nativity . The Greek Orthodox were given control of the basilica and shared control of the Milk Grotto with the Latins and the Armenians .
= = = Ottoman era = = =
From 1517 , during the years of Ottoman control , custody of the Basilica was bitterly disputed between the Catholic and Greek Orthodox churches . By the end of the 16th century , Bethlehem had become one of the largest villages in the District of Jerusalem , and was subdivided into seven quarters . The Basbus family served as the heads of Bethlehem among other leaders during this period . The Ottoman tax record and census from 1596 indicates that Bethlehem had a population of 1 @,@ 435 , making it the 13th largest village in Palestine at the time . Its total revenue amounted to 30 @,@ 000 akce .
Bethlehem paid taxes on wheat , barley and grapes . The Muslims and Christians were organized into separate communities , each having its own leader . Five leaders represented the village in the mid @-@ 16th century , three of whom were Muslims . Ottoman tax records suggest that the Christian population was slightly more prosperous or grew more grain than grapes ( the former being a more valuable commodity ) .
From 1831 to 1841 , Palestine was under the rule of the Muhammad Ali Dynasty of Egypt . During this period , the town suffered an earthquake as well as the destruction of the Muslim quarter in 1834 by Egyptian troops , apparently as a reprisal for the murder of a favored loyalist of Ibrahim Pasha . In 1841 , Bethlehem came under Ottoman rule once again and remained so until the end of World War I. Under the Ottomans , Bethlehem 's inhabitants faced unemployment , compulsory military service , and heavy taxes , resulting in mass emigration , particularly to South America . An American missionary in the 1850s reported a population of under 4 @,@ 000 , nearly all of whom belonged to the Greek Church . He also noted that a lack of water crippled the town 's growth .
= = = Modern era = = =
Bethlehem was administered by the British Mandate from 1920 to 1948 . In the United Nations General Assembly 's 1947 resolution to partition Palestine , Bethlehem was included in the special international enclave of Jerusalem to be administered by the United Nations . Jordan captured the city during the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War . Many refugees from areas captured by Israeli forces in 1947 – 48 fled to the Bethlehem area , primarily settling in what became the official refugee camps of ' Azza ( Beit Jibrin ) and ' Aida in the north and Dheisheh in the south . The influx of refugees significantly transformed Bethlehem 's Christian majority into a Muslim one .
Jordan retained control of the city until the Six @-@ Day War in 1967 , when Bethlehem was captured by Israel , along with the rest of the West Bank . Following the Six @-@ Day War , Israel took control of the city . In 1995 , Israel turned it over to the Palestinian National Authority in accordance with the Oslo peace accord .
Today , the city is surrounded by two bypass roads for settlers , leaving the inhabitants squeezed between 37 Jewish enclaves , where a quarter of all West Bank settlers , roughly 170 @,@ 000 , live , and the gap between the two roads closed by the 8 @-@ metre high Israeli West Bank barrier , which cuts Bethlehem off from its sister city Jerusalem .
= = = = Palestinian control = = = =
On December 21 , 1995 , Israeli troops withdrew from Bethlehem , and three days later the city came under the complete administration and military control of the Palestinian National Authority in conformance with the Interim Agreement on the West Bank and the Gaza Strip in 1995 . During the Second Palestinian Intifada in 2000 – 2005 , Bethlehem 's infrastructure and tourism industry were damaged . In 2002 , it was a primary combat zone in Operation Defensive Shield , a major military counteroffensive by the Israeli Defense Forces ( IDF ) . During the counteroffensive , the IDF besieged the Church of the Nativity , where dozens of Palestinian militants had sought refuge . The siege lasted for 39 days . Several militants were killed . It ended with an agreement to exile 13 of the wanted militants to various foreign countries .
= = Geography = =
Bethlehem is located at an elevation of about 775 meters ( 2 @,@ 543 ft ) above sea level , 30 meters ( 98 ft ) higher than nearby Jerusalem . Bethlehem is situated on the southern portion in the Judean Mountains .
The city is located 73 kilometers ( 45 mi ) northeast of Gaza City and the Mediterranean Sea , 75 kilometers ( 47 mi ) west of Amman , Jordan , 59 kilometers ( 37 mi ) southeast of Tel Aviv , Israel and 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) south of Jerusalem . Nearby cities and towns include Beit Safafa and Jerusalem to the north , Beit Jala to the northwest , Husan to the west , al @-@ Khadr and Artas to the southwest , and Beit Sahour to the east . Beit Jala and the latter form an agglomeration with Bethlehem . The Aida and Azza refugee camps are located within the city limits .
In the center of Bethlehem is its old city . The old city consists of eight quarters , laid out in a mosaic style , forming the area around the Manger Square . The quarters include the Christian an @-@ Najajreh , al @-@ Farahiyeh , al @-@ Anatreh , al @-@ Tarajmeh , al @-@ Qawawsa and Hreizat quarters and al @-@ Fawaghreh — the only Muslim quarter . Most of the Christian quarters are named after the Arab Ghassanid clans that settled there . Al @-@ Qawawsa Quarter was formed by Arab Christian emigrants from the nearby town of Tuqu ' in the 18th century . There is also a Syriac quarter outside of the old city , whose inhabitants originate from Midyat and Ma 'asarte in Turkey . The total population of the old city is about 5 @,@ 000 .
= = Climate = =
Bethlehem has a Mediterranean climate , with hot and dry summers and mild , wetter winters . Winter temperatures ( mid @-@ December to mid @-@ March ) can be cool and rainy . January is the coldest month , with temperatures ranging from 1 to 13 degree Celsius ( 33 – 55 ° F ) . From May through September , the weather is warm and sunny . August is the hottest month , with a high of 30 degrees Celsius ( 86 ° F ) . Bethlehem receives an average of 700 millimeters ( 28 in ) of rainfall annually , 70 % between November and January .
Bethlehem 's average annual relative humidity is 60 % and reaches its highest rates between January and February . Humidity levels are at their lowest in May . Night dew may occur in up to 180 days per year . The city is influenced by the Mediterranean Sea breeze that occurs around mid @-@ day . However , Bethlehem is affected also by annual waves of hot , dry , sandy and dust Khamaseen winds from the Arabian Desert , during April , May and mid @-@ June .
= = Demographics = =
= = = Population = = =
According to Ottoman tax records , Christians made up roughly 60 % of the population in the early 16th century , while the Christian and Muslim population became equal by the mid @-@ 16th century . However , there were no Muslim inhabitants counted by the end of the century , with a recorded population of 287 adult male tax @-@ payers . Christians , like all non @-@ Muslims throughout the Ottoman Empire , were required to pay the jizya tax . In 1867 an American visitor describes the town as having a population of 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 ; of whom about 100 were Protestants , 300 were Muslims and " the remainder belonging to the Latin and Greek Churches with a few Armenians . " Another report from the same year puts the Christian population at 3 @,@ 000 , with an additional 50 Muslims . An 1885 source put the population at approximately 6 @,@ 000 of " principally Christians , Latins and Greeks " with no Jewish inhabitants .
In 1948 , the religious makeup of the city was 85 % Christian , mostly of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic denominations , and 13 % Muslim . In the 1967 census taken by Israel authorities , the town of Bethlehem proper numbered 14 @,@ 439 inhabitants , its 7 @,@ 790 Muslim inhabitants represented 53 @.@ 9 % of the population , while the Christians of various denominations numbered 6 @,@ 231 or 46 @.@ 1 % .
In the PCBS 's 1997 census , the city had a population of 21 @,@ 670 , including a total of 6 @,@ 570 refugees , accounting for 30 @.@ 3 % of the city 's population . In 1997 , the age distribution of Bethlehem 's inhabitants was 27 @.@ 4 % under the age of 10 , 20 % from 10 to 19 , 17 @.@ 3 % from 20 – 29 , 17 @.@ 7 % from 30 to 44 , 12 @.@ 1 % from 45 – 64 and 5 @.@ 3 % above the age of 65 . There were 11 @,@ 079 males and 10 @,@ 594 females . In the 2007 PCBS census , Bethlehem had a population of 25 @,@ 266 , of which 12 @,@ 753 were males and 12 @,@ 513 were females . There were 6 @,@ 709 housing units , of which 5 @,@ 211 were households . The average household consisted of 4 @.@ 8 family members .
= = = Christian population = = =
After the Muslim conquest of the Levant in the 630s , the local Christians were Arabized as well even though large numbers were ethnically Arabs of the Ghassanid clans . Bethlehem 's two largest Arab Christian clans trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids , including al @-@ Farahiyyah and an @-@ Najajreh . The former have descended from the Ghassanids who migrated from Yemen and from the Wadi Musa area in present @-@ day Jordan and an @-@ Najajreh descend from Najran . Another Bethlehem clan , al @-@ Anatreh , also trace their ancestry to the Ghassanids .
The percentage of Christians in the town has been steadily declining over the years , primarily due to emigration . The lower birth rate of Christians also accounts for some of the decline . In 1947 , Christians made up 85 % of the population , but by 1998 the figure had declined to 40 % . In 2005 , the mayor of Bethlehem , Victor Batarseh explained that " due to the stress , either physical or psychological , and the bad economic situation , many people are emigrating , either Christians or Muslims , but it is more apparent among Christians , because they already are a minority . " The Palestinian Authority is officially committed to equality for Christians , although there have been incidents of violence against them by the Preventive Security Service and militant factions . The only mosque in the Old City is the Mosque of Omar , located in the Manger Square .
The outbreak of the Second Intifada and the resulting decrease in tourism also affected the Christian minority , since they are the owners of many Bethlehem hotels and services that cater to foreign tourists . A statistical analysis of the Christian exodus cited lack of economic and educational opportunity , especially due to the Christians ' middle @-@ class status and higher education . Since the Second Intifada , 10 % of the Christian population have left the city .
In 2006 , the Palestinian Centre for Research and Cultural Dialogue conducted a poll among the city 's Christians according to which 90 % said they had had Muslim friends , 73 @.@ 3 % agreed that the PNA treated Christian heritage in the city with respect and 78 % attributed the exodus of Christians to the Israeli blockade . However , it is likely that there are many factors , most of which are shared with the Palestinian population as a whole .
= = Economy = =
Shopping is a major attraction , especially during the Christmas season . The city 's main streets and old markets are lined with shops selling Palestinian handicrafts , Middle Eastern spices , jewelry and oriental sweets such as baklawa . Olive wood carvings are the item most purchased by tourists visiting Bethlehem . Religious handicrafts include ornaments handmade from mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , as well as olive wood statues , boxes , and crosses . Other industries include stone and marble @-@ cutting , textiles , furniture and furnishings . Bethlehem factories also produce paints , plastics , synthetic rubber , pharmaceuticals , construction materials and food products , mainly pasta and confectionery .
Cremisan Wine , founded in 1885 , is a winery run by monks in the Monastery of Cremisan . The grapes are grown mainly in the al @-@ Khader district . In 2007 , the monastery 's wine production was around 700 @,@ 000 liters per year .
In 2008 , Bethlehem hosted the largest economic conference to date in the Palestinian territories . It was initiated by Palestinian Prime Minister and former Finance Minister Salam Fayyad to convince more than a thousand businessmen , bankers and government officials from throughout the Middle East to invest in the West Bank and Gaza Strip . A total of 1 @.@ 4 billion US dollars was secured for business investments in the Palestinian territories .
= = = Tourism = = =
Tourism is Bethlehem 's main industry . Unlike other Palestinian localities prior to 2000 , the majority of the employed residents did not have jobs in Israel . More than 20 % of the working population is employed in the industry . Tourism accounts for approximately 65 % of the city 's economy and 11 % of the Palestinian National Authority . The city has more than two million visitors every year .
The Church of the Nativity is one of Bethlehem 's major tourist attractions and a magnet for Christian pilgrims . It stands in the center of the city — a part of the Manger Square — over a grotto or cave called the Holy Crypt , where Jesus is believed to have been born . Nearby is the Milk Grotto where the Holy Family took refuge on their Flight to Egypt and next door is the cave where St. Jerome spent thirty years creating the Vulgate , the dominant Latin version of the Bible until the Reformation .
There are over thirty hotels in Bethlehem . Jacir Palace , built in 1910 near the church , is one of Bethlehem 's most successful hotels and its oldest . It was closed down in 2000 due to the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict , but reopened in 2005 as the Jacir Palace InterContinental at Bethlehem .
= = Religious significance and commemoration = =
= = = Birthplace of Jesus = = =
Early Christian traditions describe Jesus as being born in Bethlehem : in one , a verse in the Book of Micah is interpreted as a prophecy that the Messiah would be born there . The New Testament has two different accounts of the birth . In the Gospel of Luke , Jesus ' parents live in Nazareth and travel for the Census of Quirinius to Bethlehem , where Jesus is born , after which they return home . The Gospel of Matthew mentions Bethlehem but not the census . Told that a ' King of the Jews ' has been born in the town , Herod orders the killing of all the boys aged two and under in the town and surrounding area . Joseph , warned of by an angel of the Lord , flees to Egypt with his family ; the Holy Family later settles in Nazareth .
Many modern scholars question the idea that Jesus was born in Bethlehem , seeing the biblical stories not as historical accounts but as symbolic narratives invented to present the birth as fulfillment of prophecy and imply a connection to the lineage of King David . The Gospel of Mark and the Gospel of John do not include a nativity narrative , but refer to him only as being from Nazareth . In a 2005 article in Archaeology magazine , archaeologist Aviram Oshri points to an absence of evidence for the settlement of Bethlehem near Jerusalem at the time when Jesus was born , and postulates that Jesus was born in Bethlehem of Galilee . In a 2011 article in Biblical Archaeology Review magazine , Jerome Murphy @-@ O 'Connor argues for the traditional position that Jesus was born in Bethlehem near Jerusalem .
The existence of early traditions of Jesus ' birth in Bethlehem is attested by the Christian apologist Justin Martyr , who stated in his Dialogue with Trypho ( c . 155 – 161 ) that the Holy Family had taken refuge in a cave outside of the town . Origen of Alexandria , writing around the year 247 , referred to a cave in the town of Bethlehem which local people believed was the birthplace of Jesus . This cave was possibly one which had previously been a site of the cult of Tammuz .
= = = Christmas celebrations = = =
Christmas rites are held in Bethlehem on three different dates : December 25 is the traditional date by the Roman Catholic and Protestant denominations , but Greek , Coptic and Syrian Orthodox Christians celebrate Christmas on January 6 and Armenian Orthodox Christians on January 19 . Most Christmas processions pass through Manger Square , the plaza outside the Basilica of the Nativity . Roman Catholic services take place in St. Catherine 's Church and Protestants often hold services at Shepherds ' Fields .
= = = Other religious festivals = = =
Bethlehem celebrates festivals related to saints and prophets associated with Palestinian folklore . One such festival is the annual Feast of Saint George ( al @-@ Khadr ) on 5 – 6 May . During the celebrations , Greek Orthodox Christians from the city march in procession to the nearby town of al @-@ Khader to baptize newborns in the waters around the Monastery of St. George and sacrifice a sheep in ritual . The Feast of St. Elijah is commemorated by a procession to Mar Elias , a Greek Orthodox monastery north of Bethlehem .
= = Culture = =
= = = Embroidery = = =
The women embroiderers of Bethlehem were known for their bridalwear . Bethlehem embroidery was renowned for its " strong overall effect of colors and metallic brilliance . " Less formal dresses were made of indigo fabric with a sleeveless coat ( bisht ) from locally woven wool worn over top . Dresses for special occasions were made of striped silk with winged sleeves with a short taqsireh jacket known as the Bethlehem jacket . The taqsireh was made of velvet or broadcloth , usually with heavy embroidery .
Bethlehem work was unique in its use of couched gold or silver cord , or silk cord onto the silk , wool , felt or velvet used for the garment , to create stylized floral patterns with free or rounded lines . This technique was used for " royal " wedding dresses ( thob malak ) , taqsirehs and the shatwehs worn by married women . It has been traced by some to Byzantium , and by others to the formal costumes of the Ottoman Empire 's elite . As a Christian village , local women were also exposed to the detailing on church vestments with their heavy embroidery and silver brocade .
= = = Mother @-@ of @-@ pearl carving = = =
The art of mother @-@ of @-@ pearl carving is said to have been a Bethlehem tradition since the 15th century when it was introduced by Franciscan friars from Italy . A constant stream of pilgrims generated a demand for these items , which also provided jobs for women . The industry was noted by Richard Pococke , who visited Bethlehem in 1727 .
= = = Cultural centers and museums = = =
Bethlehem is home to the Palestinian Heritage Center , established in 1991 . The center aims to preserve and promote Palestinian embroidery , art and folklore . The International Center of Bethlehem is another cultural center that concentrates primarily on the culture of Bethlehem . It provides language and guide training , woman 's studies and arts and crafts displays , and training .
The Bethlehem branch of the Edward Said National Conservatory of Music has about 500 students . Its primary goals are to teach children music , train teachers for other schools , sponsor music research , and the study of Palestinian folklore music .
Bethlehem has four museums : The Crib of the Nativity Theatre and Museum offers visitors 31 3D models depicting the significant stages of the life of Jesus . Its theater presents a 20 @-@ minute animated show . The Badd Giacaman Museum , located in the Old City of Bethlehem , dates back to the 18th century and is primarily dedicated to the history and process of olive oil production . Baituna al @-@ Talhami Museum , established in 1972 , contains displays of Bethlehem culture . The International Museum of Nativity was built by United Nations Educational , Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO ) to exhibit " high artistic quality in an evocative atmosphere " .
= = Local government = =
Bethlehem is the muhfaza ( seat ) or district capital of the Bethlehem Governorate .
Bethlehem held its first municipal elections in 1876 , after the mukhtars ( " heads " ) of the quarters of Bethlehem 's Old City ( excluding the Syriac Quarter ) made the decision to elect a local council of seven members to represent each clan in the town . A Basic Law was established so that if the victor for mayor was a Catholic , his deputy should be of the Greek Orthodox community .
Throughout , Bethlehem 's rule by the British and Jordan , the Syriac Quarter was allowed to participate in the election , as were the Ta 'amrah Bedouins and Palestinian refugees , hence ratifying the number of municipal members in the council to 11 . In 1976 , an amendment was passed to allow women to vote and become council members and later the voting age was increased from 21 to 25 .
Today , the Bethlehem Municipal Council consists of 15 elected members , including the mayor and deputy mayor . A special statute requires that the mayor and a majority of the municipal council be Christian , while the remainder are open seats , not restricted to any religion .
There are several branches of political parties on the council , including Communist , Islamist , and secular . The leftist factions of the Palestine Liberation Organization ( PLO ) such as the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine ( PFLP ) and the Palestinian People 's Party ( PPP ) usually dominate the reserved seats . Hamas gained the majority of the open seats in the 2005 Palestinian municipal elections .
= = = Mayors = = =
The mayor and the deputy mayor of Bethlehem are required by municipal law to be Christian . In the October 2012 municipal elections , Fatah member Vera Baboun won , becoming the first female mayor of Bethlehem .
= = Education = =
According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics ( PCBS ) , in 1997 , approximately 84 % of Bethlehem 's population over the age of 10 was literate . Of the city 's population , 10 @,@ 414 were enrolled in schools ( 4 @,@ 015 in primary school , 3 @,@ 578 in secondary and 2 @,@ 821 in high school ) . About 14 @.@ 1 % of high school students received diplomas . There were 135 schools in the Bethlehem Governorate in 2006 ; 100 run the Education Ministry of the Palestinian National Authority , seven by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency ( UNRWA ) and 28 were private .
Bethlehem is home to Bethlehem University , a Catholic Christian co @-@ educational institution of higher learning founded in 1973 in the Lasallian tradition , open to students of all faiths . Bethlehem University is the first university established in the West Bank , and can trace its roots to 1893 when the De La Salle Christian Brothers opened schools throughout Palestine and Egypt .
= = Transportation = =
Bethlehem has three bus stations owned by private companies which offer service to Jerusalem , Beit Jala , Beit Sahour , Hebron , Nahalin , Battir , al @-@ Khader , al @-@ Ubeidiya and Beit Fajjar . There are two taxi stations that make trips to Beit Sahour , Beit Jala , Jerusalem , Tuqu ' and Herodium . There are also two car rental departments : Murad and ' Orabi . Buses and taxis with West Bank licenses are not allowed to enter Israel , including Jerusalem , without a permit .
The Israeli construction of the West Bank barrier has had an impact on Bethlehem politically , socially , and economically . The barrier is located along the northern side of the town 's built @-@ up area , within meters of houses in ' Aida refugee camp on one side , and the Jerusalem municipality on the other . Most entrances and exits from the Bethlehem agglomeration to the rest of the West Bank are currently subjected to Israeli checkpoints and roadblocks . The level of access varies based on Israeli security directives . Travel for Bethlehem 's Palestinian residents from the West Bank into Jerusalem is regulated by a permit @-@ system . Palestinians require a permit to enter the Jewish holy site of Rachel 's Tomb . Israeli citizens are barred from entering Bethlehem and the nearby biblical Solomon 's Pools .
= = Twin towns and sister cities = =
Bethlehem is twinned with :
= Green Light ( Beyoncé song ) =
" Green Light " is a song recorded by American singer Beyoncé . The song was written by Beyoncé , Sean Garrett , and Pharrell for Beyoncé 's second solo studio album , B 'Day ( 2006 ) . Produced by The Neptunes , it was released as the fifth UK and seventh overall single on July 30 , 2007 through Columbia Records . " Green Light " is an R & B @-@ funk song with lyrics detailing a break @-@ up song in which the female protagonist gives her love interest the permission to move out . The song also finds Beyoncé using fairly aggressive tone . Written in the key of A minor , " Green Light " samples the " uh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh " vocals which music critics noted to have a flagrant resemblance to Beyoncé 's own 2003 hit single , " Crazy in Love " . A remix of the song features American rapper Young Buck .
" Green Light " was generally well received by music critics who universally praised the beat , bass , groove , and angry tone used by Beyoncé in the song . The single performed moderately on charts , peaking at number 12 on the UK Singles Chart and at number 46 in Ireland . The Freemasons remix of the track peaked at number eighteen on the Dutch Top 40 chart . The single 's accompanying music video was directed by Melina Matsoukas and co @-@ directed by Beyoncé . It is inspired by Robert Palmer 's 1985 music video " Addicted to Love " . Beyoncé considered the video , which is her second to feature her all @-@ female tour band called the Suga Mama , her toughest shoot . The song was a part of the set list on her world tour The Beyoncé Experience ( 2007 ) .
= = Background and release = =
After filming Dreamgirls in which Beyoncé landed a major role , she went on a month @-@ long vacation . On the break she went to the studio to start working on her second solo album , B 'Day . She was inspired by her role and she " had so many things bottled up , so many emotions , so many ideas " . Beyoncé contacted American singer @-@ songwriter Sean Garrett , who had worked with her in Destiny 's Child and on her 2006 single " Check on It " . Together with Pharrell , who had also previously collaborated with Beyoncé , Garrett was booked to Sony Music Studios in New York City , each had studio to work in . The track was co @-@ produced by Beyoncé and The Neptunes , along with " Kitty Kat " , and was recorded by Jim Caruana and mixed by Jason Goldstein at the same studio .
In June 2006 , Beyoncé invited Tamara Coniff of Billboard magazine to a New York recording studio . There she premiered several songs from the album including " Ring the Alarm " ( 2006 ) and " Freakum Dress " ( 2006 ) , which both were cited as possible second singles , to be released in the United States only . At the same time , she revealed that " Green Light " and " Get Me Bodied " ( 2007 ) , were planned to be released as the next two international / third US singles from B 'Day , following the release of the lead single " Déjà Vu " ( 2006 ) . However , she ultimately opted for " Ring the Alarm " ( 2006 ) as the second single to be released in the United States only while " Irreplaceable " ( 2006 ) was officially serviced as the album 's second international / third US single . " Green Light " was released later in the United Kingdom on July 30 , 2007 as the seventh overall single , following the international release " Beautiful Liar " ( 2007 ) . Along with the release of the single , a Digital EP featuring remixes from the English production team Freemasons , was made available on July 27 , 2007 as an online digital download .
= = Composition = =
" Green Light " is an R & B @-@ funk song performed with " vivace " tempo . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is written in the key of A minor with a moderate groove of 132 beats per minute . The chord follows the Fm @-@ G ♭ key series with an occasional shift to additional B ♭ m7 . Beyoncé 's vocals range from the note of C ♯ 4 to F5 . The song is built on a ripping bassline and features " a more organic " beat . Green Light " features " uh @-@ huh huh huh " vocals and uses brassy stabs which a reviewer from Guardian Unlimited found to be a " direct echo to ' Crazy in Love ' . " According to The London Paper , the " uh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh " vocals in " Green Light " is an " imitation of Amerie 's performance " in her 2005 single " 1 Thing " . " Green Light " also displays Latin percussion as well as sampled soul horns , and uses a fairly aggressive tone . Conforming to Jon Pareles of The New York Times , " Green Light " is a break @-@ up song in which the female protagonist gives her love interest the permission to move out . This is shown in the lines of the hook : " Go ! Go ! " The lyrics are constructed in the traditional verse @-@ chorus form . The song starts with an intro in which Beyoncé sings , " Give it to mama " . Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music commented that " Green Light " seems to be all " slink and minimalism before a surging come @-@ on of a chorus . " It follows the verse @-@ chorus @-@ verse @-@ verse @-@ chorus pattern giving way to the bridge . Beyoncé repeats the chorus , ending the song .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Green Light " received positive reception from critics . Eb Haynes of AllHipHop referred to " Green Light " as a " classic Pharrell @-@ Neptunes groove " . Andy Kellman of Allmusic described the track as an " ambitious , fleet @-@ footed number that continually switches tempos and sounds " . Spence D. of IGN music stated , " ' Green Light ' brings things back down to pseudo earthiness ; both with the slightly more organic sounding Neptunes beat . " He felt that the " rippling bassline sounds really familiar , like it 's been used in other Neptunes ' produced tracks before " .... Jaime Gill of Yahoo ! Music said that " Green Light " is " the best thing Pharrell and co have done in a long , long while . " Roger Friedman of Fox News Channel considered " Green Light " as his second choice as the song having the greatest potential to become a massive hit after " Irreplaceable " ( 2006 ) . Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine gave a mixed review for the song commenting that it 's one of the " tired random @-@ percussion tracks [ ... ] that goes nowhere . "
= = = Chart performance = = =
With the album version of the song being available digitally as soon as the album was released , " Green Light " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 152 after the video aired in early July 2007 , and then rose to number seventy @-@ eight on July 28 , 2007 . Because of heavy radio airplay of the Freemasons remix , as soon as it was available , the song climbed sixty places from number seventy @-@ seven to number seventeen on August 11 , 2007 , and then to number twelve , giving Beyoncé her eleventh top twenty hit in the United Kingdom . " Green Light " became Beyoncé 's highest charting single on downloads alone on the UK Singles Chart without a prominent featured artist . The UK commercial CD single was cancelled at the last minute , which means it did not receive a physical release . This explains why the single failed to reach a higher position . " Green Light " stayed on the chart for nine weeks . In Ireland , the single debuted at number forty @-@ six on August 23 , 2007 , and dropped off the chart a week later . The Freemasons remix of the track debuted at number thirty on the Dutch Top 40 chart on September 8 , 2007 . It propelled to number nineteen , and peaked at number eighteen on September 29 , 2007 . It remained on the chart for six weeks . On the other hand , the album version of " Green Light " peaked at number twenty on the Dutch Mega Single Top 100 on September 22 , 2007 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Green Light " was directed by Melina Matsoukas and co @-@ directed by Beyoncé . Filmed in early 2007 , it was one of the videos shot in two weeks for the B 'Day Anthology Video Album ( 2007 ) and was one out of eight previously unseen clips . " Green Light " was the third video shot during the sessions . The clip was inspired mainly by Robert Palmer 's 1985 music video " Addicted to Love " with its " stone @-@ faced models pretending to play guitars " . " Green Light " was considered by Beyoncé as a modern version of the video because they used the instruments as props , where she pretended as a rock star .
She also revealed that the scenes reminded her of Vanity 6 . A short " Kitty Kat " clip opens the " Green Light " video . Beyoncé considered " Green Light " the " toughest video " to shoot . Besides from dressing in latex rubber clothing , she and her back @-@ up dancers had to wear ballet @-@ pointe heels . The shoes blistered her feet and gave muscle spasms due to the 18 @-@ hour session . Beyoncé invited her all @-@ female tour band , Suga Mama , to make their second appearance in a video after their debut performance on the music video for " Irreplaceable " ( 2006 ) . The video was posted on the MTV Overdrive on March 28 , 2007 .
= = Live performances = =
On September 6 , 2006 , Beyoncé promoted the album B 'Day with a performance of " Green Light " on Good Morning America . On April 2 , 2007 she also appeared on the Today Show , to promote the deluxe edition of B 'Day , which was released the following day . Beyoncé sang the Spanglish version of " Irreplaceable " and " Green Light " . The song was included as a part of her set list on The Beyoncé Experience . On August 5 , 2007 , Beyoncé performed the song at the Madison Square Garden in Manhattan , wearing a sparkly silver dress with a long train . For the performance , Beyoncé also brought out her squad of six female dancers . According to Shaheem Reid of MTV News , all the women moved with the precision " of a Navy Seal strike force " , slaying the crowd with their synchronized dances . Jon Pareles of The New York Times praised the performance , stating : " Beyoncé needs no distractions from her singing , which can be airy or brassy , tearful or vicious , rapid @-@ fire with staccato syllables or sustained in curlicued melismas . But she was in constant motion , strutting in costumes [ ... ] " . According to Tonya Turner of The Courier @-@ Mail , the performance of " Green Light " , " moved fans to screams of endearment . " In Los Angeles , Beyoncé gave a full @-@ length performance of the song , dressed in a sparkly silver dress with a long train . It was executed with several female backup dancers , and live instrumentation . " Green Light " was included as on her live album The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) .
= = Track listings and formats = =
Digital download
" Green Light " – 3 : 29
" Green Light " ( Freemasons Remix ) – 3 : 19
" Green Light " ( Remix featuring Young Buck ) - 4 : 19
UK Freemasons Digital EP
" Green Light " ( Freemasons Remix ) – 3 : 19
" Beautiful Liar " ( Freemasons Club Remix ) ( featuring Shakira ) – 7 : 31
" Déjà Vu " ( Freemasons Radio Mix ) ( featuring Jay @-@ Z ) – 3 : 15
" Ring the Alarm " ( Freemasons Club Mix Radio Edit ) – 3 : 26
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are taken from B 'Day 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Cincinnati , Lebanon and Northern Railway =
The Cincinnati , Lebanon and Northern Railway ( CL & N ) was a local passenger and freight @-@ carrying railroad in the southwestern part of the U.S. state of Ohio , connecting Cincinnati to Dayton via Lebanon . It was built in the late 19th century to give the town of Lebanon and Warren County better transportation facilities . The railroad was locally known as the " Highland Route " , since it followed the ridge between the Little and Great Miami rivers , and was the only line not affected by floods such as the Great Dayton Flood of 1913 .
The company went through multiple bankruptcies , both before and after its 1881 completion , until the Pennsylvania Railroad gained control in 1896 and leased it in 1921 . Except for several years in the mid @-@ 1880s , when the line was under control of the 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge Toledo , Cincinnati and St. Louis Railroad , it was not a major line , in part due to its steep approach to downtown Cincinnati . For this reason , portions of the line have been abandoned , beginning in 1952 with a segment north of Lebanon .
Passenger service was eliminated entirely in 1934 . Conrail , the Pennsylvania Railroad 's successor , sold the remaining trackage in the 1980s to the Indiana and Ohio Railway , a short line now owned by RailAmerica . That company continues to provide local freight service on the ex @-@ CL & N , and the Lebanon Mason Monroe Railroad operates tourist trains on a portion of the line near Lebanon .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and grading , 1850 – 1876 = = =
The town of Lebanon , Ohio , laid out in 1802 , was bypassed by the Miami and Erie Canal in 1830 ; the branch Warren County Canal to Lebanon was wrecked by flooding in 1848 . The Little Miami Railroad ( 1846 , later a Pennsylvania line ) and Cincinnati , Hamilton and Dayton Railroad ( 1851 , later a B & O line ) followed the valleys of the Little and Great Miami rivers ( the M & E Canal had used the latter ) , also bypassing the highlands on which Lebanon lay . Residents of the town obtained a legislative charter in March 1850 for the Cincinnati , Lebanon and Xenia Railroad ( CL & X ) , which would extend from Cincinnati northeast through Lebanon to Xenia . At the latter town , the incorporators decided the most likely connection would be the New York and Erie Railroad , which was planning on extending into Ohio . Thus the line was planned to use the Erie 's 6 ft ( 1 @,@ 829 mm ) broad gauge .
To enter the city of Cincinnati , the CL & X would join the Dayton and Cincinnati Railroad ( D & C ) , which was planning the 10 @,@ 011 @-@ foot ( 3 @,@ 051 m ) double @-@ track Deer Creek Tunnel through the Walnut Hills , at Sharonville ( then known as Sharon ) . Tunnel construction began in late 1852 , and the CL & X was finally organized under the charter in November . The CL & X located right @-@ of @-@ way , and began construction in about April 1853 , but was forced to stop work by the end of 1855 due to lack of funds . Only grading between Sharon and Lebanon , mostly north of Mason , had been completed . ( The tunnel project also failed , and was eventually acquired by the CL & N. ) In July 1861 , the courts appointed a receiver for the CL & X , who in March 1869 sold the unfinished railroad , which had cost $ 83 @,@ 885 , to 40 area residents for $ 4 @,@ 000 . Five trustees would ensure that the property was not sold without a majority of its owners consenting . Twenty years after its canal connection was destroyed , Lebanon was still without a modern connection to the outside world , and its economy continued to stagnate .
The 1870s fad of the narrow gauge railway , which was cheaper than broader gauges to build and operate ( for low volumes of traffic ) , presented a new possibility . The Dayton and South Eastern Railroad ( D & SE , later a B & O line ) was planning a 3 ft narrow gauge line from the Jackson County mines through Xenia to Dayton , and a branch from Xenia through Lebanon would connect to the markets at Cincinnati . The editors of the local newspaper , The Western Star , encouraged citizens to support the project , but by taking a more active role and organizing a locally owned railroad company to ensure its completion . Editorials likened the situation to Aesop 's fable of Hercules and the Carter , where Hercules tells a stuck carter that he will not assist unless the carter himself is willing to help . In November 1874 , residents of Lebanon and the surrounding area organized the 3 ft narrow gauge Miami Valley Narrow Gauge Railway ( renamed Miami Valley Railway in October 1876 ) , which would complete the unfinished CL & X as a branch of the D & SE .
Slow stock subscriptions delayed surveying until June 1875 , when a line was located between Xenia and the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad ( M & C , later a B & O line ) west of Norwood . Property owners in the villages of Norwood and Pleasant Ridge , wishing to develop their land as suburbs , put forward a proposition to relocate the line to the east through their land in exchange for free right @-@ of @-@ way , and to build a steam dummy line between Norwood and the horse car lines in Walnut Hills , which would provide Miami Valley passengers with a more direct entrance to downtown Cincinnati than the circuitous M & C. However , in August , an even more direct route south of Norwood , through the rugged Deer Creek Valley , was suggested , by which the Miami Valley could obtain its own access to Cincinnati . After imposing heavy restrictions , which would require the construction of several trestles and a tunnel , the Cincinnati City Council granted the right @-@ of @-@ way through the valley , including Eden Park , to the railroad company . The owners of the old CL & X grade sold it in April 1876 for $ 8 @,@ 000 in stock of the new company , and most of the land outside Cincinnati had been bought by that summer . The Miami Valley resolved in May 1876 to build only north to Waynesville , a village southwest of Xenia , where the projected Waynesville , Port William and Jeffersonville Railroad and Jeffersonville , Mt . Sterling and Columbus Railroad would extend to Columbus , crossing the D & SE at Octa . ( The former completed most of its line , but abandoned it in 1887 ; the latter was only able to grade a portion . )
= = = Construction and early operations , 1876 – 1885 = = =
President Seth S. Haines of Waynesville broke ground in Eden Park on September 1 , 1876 , although most early work was done outside Cincinnati . The company continued to be plagued by lack of funds , and , despite completion of the grade between Norwood and Waynesville within a year , work soon slowed and eventually stopped in late 1878 . Contractor John B. Benedict brought a suit in December for breach of contract , alleging that he was not properly paid . During the trial , two embarrassing facts came to light : Haines and Benedict had signed a " secret contract " giving Haines a portion of the bonds paid to Benedict , and the price of the line south of Norwood had been artificially inflated so that the connecting Cincinnati and Eastern Railway ( C & E , later a N & W line ) would have to pay more for trackage rights into Cincinnati . However , it was nonpayment of interest on bonds that forced the Miami Valley into receivership in January and foreclosure in March 1880 . Another decade had passed and Lebanon still lacked a railroad .
The Toledo , Delphos and Burlington Railroad ( TD & B ) , a growing 3 ft narrow gauge system with roots in the town of Delphos , would finally give Lebanon its rail line . Together with a group of suburban Cincinnati investors , the TD & B bought the unfinished grade at the foreclosure sale for $ 61 @,@ 000 and incorporated the 3 ft narrow gauge Cincinnati Northern Railway as its successor on June 8 , 1880 . ( The TD & B would also acquire the Dayton and South Eastern in February 1881 . ) At first the TD & B and Cincinnati @-@ area residents shared stock and management equally , but soon this was changed so that the former party would control all the stock for ease in future consolidation , and the latter would locally manage the road . As the TD & B was in the process of building into Dayton from the north , it was decided that the new company would not use the grade all the way to Waynesville . Instead , the TD & B would construct a connection from the D & SE at a point they called Lebanon Junction , now inside Dayton near the intersection of Woodman and Rainier Drives , to the small village of Dodds . There the Cincinnati Northern would begin , following the Miami Valley 's route through Lebanon to Cincinnati . Construction resumed in late 1880 , and proceeded rapidly thanks to funding from Ohio and Northeastern capitalists . Mixed train operations between Lebanon and Norwood , where connections could be made with the M & C , began on May 30 , 1881 , and on September 5 the line was opened south to a streetcar connection at Oak Street , just north of the tunnel . Service was extended through the tunnel to the Eden Park entrance on January 12 , 1882 , and on February 13 a temporary Cincinnati depot opened just north of Court Street . With the completion of the TD & B 's branch from Lebanon Junction to Dodds in December 1881 , the Cincinnati @-@ Dayton line was finally complete ; Jackson County coal was first shipped over it in February 1882 . Two short branches to the suburbs of Montgomery and Avondale — the latter built separately as the Spring Grove , Avondale and Cincinnati Railway ( SGA & C ) — opened on November 14 , 1881 and July 1 , 1882 , respectively . C & E operations to Court Street began by April 1882 , using the Cincinnati Northern south of a junction at Idlewild , and in October the Cincinnati Northern laid tracks across that street into its permanent depot at the southeast corner of the Broadway Street intersection .
The TD & B absorbed its subsidiary , the Toledo , Cincinnati and St. Louis Railroad ( TC & StL ) , in March 1882 , and took its name as more descriptive of the growing system , which hoped to become part of a nationwide narrow gauge network stretching southwest to Mexico City . One year later , in May 1883 , the Cincinnati Northern and the SGA & C were consolidated into the TC & StL . However , the TC & StL was constructed cheaply , with poor drainage and little ballast . While the Cincinnati Northern had been built to better standards , the connecting line between Lebanon Junction and Dodds was just as bad . The inadequate facilities and equipment , as well as difficulties in interchanging equipment with 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge lines , contributed to its entering receivership in August 1883 . The TC & StL had six divisions at this time . Four of the five TC & StL divisions south of Delphos were sold to their bondholders at auction in June 1884 , and separate companies were soon organized for three of those : the Dayton and Toledo Railroad , Dayton and Ironton Railroad , and Iron Railway ( named Iron Railroad prior to TC & StL receivership ) . The Toledo @-@ St. Louis line was sold in December 1885 and reorganized as the Toledo , St. Louis and Kansas City Railroad , commonly known as the Clover Leaf Route . In July , George Hafer of Avondale replaced William J. Craig of Toledo as receiver of the Cincinnati Northern Division , allowing it to recover from Craig 's deferred maintenance . Hafer obtained a short @-@ term lease from the trustees of the Dodds @-@ Lebanon Junction line ( officially the Cincinnati Division ) , allowing continued access to Dayton . Finally , on June 27 , 1885 , the Cincinnati Northern Division was sold for $ 200 @,@ 000 to its bondholders , who incorporated the Cincinnati , Lebanon and Northern Railway , with Hafer as president , on July 14 and transferred operations on August 1 , 1885 . The narrow gauge movement of the 1870s had failed , and all of the ex @-@ TC & StL lines were converted to standard gauge within the next ten years .
= = = CL & N , 1885 – 1926 = = =
The newly organized CL & N initially operated a main line from Court Street in Cincinnati to Dayton , leasing the track from Dodds to Lebanon Junction from the Cincinnati Division trustees , and trackage rights over the Dayton and Ironton Railroad ( the old 3 ft narrow gauge D & SE line ) into Dayton . But the latter was converted to 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge in April 1887 , and CL & N service was cut back to Dodds , since the operations north of there were unprofitable even when it was able to reach Dayton . ( The line from Lebanon to Dodds was leased in 1892 to the company organized to operate north of Dodds . ) Avondale Branch operations were discontinued in August 1889 , due to competition from the cheaper Mt . Auburn Cable Railway . Under Hafer 's leadership , new passenger and freight depots opened on the north side of Court Street in December 1885 . In preparation for conversion to standard gauge , the CL & N relaid rail and replaced bridges , including a straight trestle in the Deer Creek Valley , completed in January 1889 , in place of a curving old narrow gauge structure . The first standard gauge rails were laid by August 1889 as part of a dual gauge setup south of Idlewild , when the Ohio and North Western Railroad ( O & NW , successor to the C & E ) , which had converted its line to standard gauge , moved its trains from the Little Miami Railroad ( Pennsylvania Railroad system ) back to the CL & N. Several months later , a third rail was laid north to East Norwood , allowing the O & NW to connect with the Baltimore and Ohio Southwestern Railroad ( successor to the M & C ) . After undertaking more improvements to the alignment , the company completed the conversion of the main line to Lebanon to standard gauge on September 16 , 1894 , although , until it acquired a full set of standard gauge equipment , much of the commuter service to Blue Ash continued to use the narrow gauge tracks .
Throughout the CL & N 's independence , various larger companies were looking to acquire it , mainly for the valuable Court Street terminal property . The most persistent rumor was that the Cincinnati , Jackson and Mackinaw Railroad ( CJ & M , later a NYC line ) would buy the CL & N as an entrance to Cincinnati . The CJ & M had built south from Michigan to Carlisle , Ohio in 1887 , and initially acquired trackage rights over the CH & D to reach Cincinnati . Negotiations between the CL & N and CJ & M convinced the CH & D that the latter was capable of becoming a strong competitor , despite its poor financial state , and the CH & D attempted to acquire the CJ & M in 1892 . But the CL & N stopped the consolidation based on Ohio 's laws prohibiting such anti @-@ competitive practices , and the CJ & M continued to look at the CL & N as a possible part of its line . After the CL & N 's conversion to standard gauge was completed in 1894 , the CJ & M secured trackage rights over the CL & N into Court Street , beginning service on January 27 , 1896 via an extension from Carlisle to Franklin , the Cleveland , Cincinnati , Chicago and St. Louis Railway ( Big Four , later a NYC line ) to Middletown , and the recently opened Middletown and Cincinnati Railroad to the CL & N at Hageman . The CJ & M also acquired the long @-@ dormant Deer Creek Tunnel project in an attempt to construct its own route into the city , tired of dealing with Hafer and the CL & N. The Pennsylvania Railroad , owner of the Little Miami Railroad that had been constructed east of Lebanon in the 1840s , entered the negotiations in 1896 to protect its Cincinnati @-@ area interests , and in March it ( through the Pennsylvania Company ) acquired a majority of the CL & N 's stock . Pennsylvania officials took over management in May , and in 1902 the CL & N acquired the tunnel property and some terminal property near Court Street from the Cincinnati Northern Railroad , successor to the CJ & M , which had become part of the Big Four and terminated its use of the CL & N in 1901 .
As a part of the Pennsylvania system , the CL & N continued to operate its own property ( which included the line north of Dodds after 1914 ) until January 1 , 1921 , when it was leased to the Pennsylvania . Starting at the end of 1918 , the Interstate Commerce Commission classified the CL & N as a Class I railroad , meaning that it made at least $ 1 million per year in operating revenue . ( This designation was dropped in 1921 when the CL & N was leased . ) However , net operating income , revenue minus costs , which had steadily climbed from the 1890s , began falling in 1916 , becoming a deficit in 1920 . Subsequently , effective January 1 , 1926 , the Pennsylvania merged the CL & N with several other small companies — the Cleveland , Akron and Cincinnati Railway , Manufacturers Railway , Pennsylvania @-@ Detroit Railroad , and Toledo , Columbus and Ohio River Railroad — to create the Pennsylvania , Ohio and Detroit Railroad , a non @-@ operating subsidiary . That company was merged into the Connecting Railway , previously a short link in Philadelphia , in 1956 , and its lessee merged with the New York Central Railroad in 1968 to form Penn Central Transportation .
= = = Other lines , 1889 – 1915 = = =
The 16 @.@ 96 @-@ mile ( 27 @.@ 29 km ) line north of Dodds , built by the TD & B to connect the Cincinnati Northern to the D & SE at Lebanon Junction , was sold separately at the June 1884 foreclosure sale , to its first @-@ mortgage bondholders for $ 20 @,@ 000 . Initially operated under lease by the CL & N , service was discontinued in April 1887 when the ex @-@ D & SE was converted from 3 ft ( 91
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4 mm ) narrow gauge to 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge . With its northern connection gone , and no on @-@ line sources of revenue , there was no profit in operating the line . However , one such source would soon be created , when local businessman Henry Lewis decided to purchase nearby " Dayton limestone " quarries at Centerville . He bought the abandoned rail line from the bondholders ' trustees for $ 40 @,@ 000 in December 1888 , and in January 1889 organized the Dayton , Lebanon and Cincinnati Railroad ( DL & C ) . Extensions on both ends were planned , north into downtown Dayton and south to a standard gauge connection . Lewis finished converting the 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge line to standard gauge in January 1891 , and initially leased it to the Dayton , Fort Wayne and Chicago Railway , successor to the D & SE . He leased in 1890 and later bought land in Dayton for the proposed terminal , and in early 1892 he acquired the quarries at Centerville , giving the line its source of traffic . The DL & C bought the line from Lewis in March 1892 for $ 189 @,@ 000 in stock , and in June it acquired a lease on the CL & N 's 5 @.@ 52 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 88 km ) line between Dodds and Lebanon . After converting the track to standard gauge , the DL & C began operations into Lebanon in late December 1892 . However , it was unable to negotiate trackage rights with the Cincinnati , Dayton and Ironton Railroad ( the latest name for the ex @-@ D & SE ) , and only operated north to Lebanon Junction , where passengers could transfer to that company 's trains into Dayton . Throughout its life , the DL & C competed with the CL & N wherever possible ; for example , the CL & N advertised ( along with the Middletown and Cincinnati Railroad and Big Four ) a faster route between Lebanon and Dayton via Hageman and Middletown .
Lewis died in 1893 , and in the next decade the DL & C built no new lines . However , a group of investors bought the company , including the Dayton terminal property , in 1901 for $ 250 @,@ 000 from Lewis 's heirs . The first segment of the line into downtown Dayton was completed in late 1902 , branching off the main line at Hempstead and ending at Lambeth , site of the Dayton State Hospital . Unable to obtain a franchise from Dayton , and still unprofitable , the DL & C entered receivership in January 1905 , and was sold at foreclosure in April 1907 and reorganized in May as the Dayton , Lebanon and Cincinnati Railroad and Terminal Company . The bondholders who had organized the new company succeeded in obtaining the franchise , and sold the stock to a new group of investors in January 1909 . Construction was restarted in April , and in November the branch reached the intersection of Brown and Caldwell Streets and the National Cash Register plant . Finally , after completing the cuts and fills required along the east bank of the Great Miami River , the DL & C opened its new main line in 1912 , to a passenger depot on the north side of Washington Street , several blocks south and west of the city 's main Union Station . A freight depot was located just to the north , at Eaker Street , and just beyond was an interchange track ( not part of the original line ) connecting to the Cincinnati , Hamilton and Dayton Railway ( B & O system ) and , via that line , the Pittsburgh , Cincinnati , Chicago and St. Louis Railway ( Panhandle Route , part of the Pennsylvania system ) .
The other line eventually acquired by the CL & N was the Middletown and Cincinnati Railway ( M & C , not to be confused with the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad discussed earlier ) . Paul J. Sorg , owner of a tobacco plant east of Middletown , was unhappy with the service provided by the Cincinnati , Hamilton and Dayton Railroad ( then independent ) and Cincinnati and Springfield Railway ( Big Four system ) , both of which bypassed the center of town . Sorg and associates incorporated the M & C in early 1890 , and surveyed a 14 @.@ 23 miles ( 22 @.@ 90 km ) line from Middletown , which lay in the Great Miami River valley , southeast to a point that would be known as Middletown Junction on the Little Miami Railroad ( Pennsylvania system ) . Construction on the majority of the route , which crossed the CL & N at Hageman , was complete by September 1891 , and a 365 @-@ foot ( 111 m ) truss bridge over the Little Miami River opened in early 1892 , linking the line to the Pennsylvania . Access into central Middletown was delayed until December , when it was finally able to cross the CH & D to its depot . As opposed to the CL & N and DL & C , the M & C was straight and flat , giving a smooth ride , and turned a reasonable profit . The revenue was not enough , however , to pay off the bonds , and the M & C entered receivership in July 1894 . The holders of liens against the property bought the line at foreclosure in October for $ 335 @,@ 000 , incorporated the Middletown and Cincinnati Railroad in December , and elected Sorg president .
Sorg died on May 28 , 1902 , and six days later the CL & N , owned by the Pennsylvania since 1896 , bought its property for $ 400 @,@ 000 and began operating it as a branch . The DL & C would be acquired twelve years later , after the Great Dayton Flood of 1913 . The CL & N and DL & C , built on the highlands between the river valleys , combined to provide the only access into Dayton during the disaster . The Pennsylvania realized that the DL & C would make a good acquisition in the event of future flooding , and had the CL & N buy and begin operating the DL & C for about $ 700 @,@ 000 in December 1914 . ( Through service between Cincinnati and Dayton had begun that summer . ) The DL & C built a short connection from Lebanon Junction to the Panhandle Route at Clement in early 1915 , and on July 1 its property became that of the CL & N.
= = = Abandonments and sales , 1917 – present = = =
Competition from interurbans , specifically the Cincinnati @-@ Lebanon Interurban Railway and Terminal Company , took away passengers from the CL & N beginning in 1903 . But the interurban began to decline , going out of business in 1922 , and it was motor vehicles that would kill the CL & N 's passenger service . The first line to go was the Middletown Branch , discontinued in 1917 ; the short branch to Montgomery became freight @-@ only in 1926 . All service north of Lebanon ended in 1928 , and in 1931 only one mixed train between Court Street and Lebanon was left on the schedule . The less @-@ convenient Cincinnati Union Terminal replaced Court Street in 1933 , as agreed upon by all railroads participating in its construction . CL & N trains reached the station via trackage rights on the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ( ex @-@ M & C ) south of East Norwood . This was never popular among CL & N riders , and the last scheduled passenger train on the former CL & N ran on January 31 , 1934 . With passenger service gone , and several cross @-@ connections to other Pennsylvania lines , the CL & N was no longer needed as a through route . Several years after the Montgomery Branch was fully abandoned in 1933 , the Pennsylvania discontinued freight service between Blue Ash and Mason and between Lebanon and Lytle ; trains continued to reach Lebanon via the Little Miami Railroad and Middletown Branch . Service was resumed on the entire line during World War II , but the Lebanon @-@ Lytle segment was torn up in 1952 . After the Pennsylvania merged into Penn Central in 1968 , a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) piece north from Brecon was again abandoned , as was the short piece of the Middletown Branch east of the main line at Hageman , with Lebanon service now coming from the ex @-@ New York Central at Middletown . The line through the Deer Creek Valley into Court Street was also abandoned , and the old freight depot was torn down in 1975 .
When the Consolidated Rail Corporation ( Conrail ) acquired the assets of the bankrupt Penn Central in 1976 , it was allowed to choose which lines to keep and which to abandon . The line between Avondale and Brecon still saw heavy freight traffic , and there would still be a reasonable amount of traffic to Mason and Hempstead . Thus Conrail bought about half of the ex @-@ CL & N , including the main line from Cincinnati to Brecon ( Blue Ash Secondary Track ) , Mason to Hageman ( Mason Secondary Track ) , Hempstead to Pasadena ( Kettering Running Track ) , and Patterson Road to Dayton ( DP & L Industrial Track ) , as well as Middletown to Hageman ( Middletown Secondary ) and Hempstead to Clement ( Clement Running Track ) . Ownership of the remaining lines — Brecon to Mason , Hageman to Lebanon , Lytle to Hempstead , Pasadena to Patterson Road , and Hageman to Middletown Junction — remained with the Penn Central trustees , although , with local funding , Conrail operated the two segments from Hageman to Lebanon and Centerville to Hempstead as " light density lines " . Tracks between Lytle and Centerville were torn up in 1979 . Since then , several more segments have been abandoned , including Avondale to McCullough and Centerville to Kettering . Short line Indiana and Ohio Railway ( IORY ) acquired most of the remainder in the 1980s , beginning operations from Monroe ( near Middletown ) to Mason and Lebanon in March 1985 , and McCullough to Brecon in December 1986 . The city of Lebanon has bought the Hageman @-@ Lebanon segment , initially owned by the Penn Central trustees , and the Southwest Ohio Regional Transit Authority acquired the property between McCullough and Brecon in 1997 for a proposed public transit line . ( IORY continues to operate freight on both of these segments . ) The IORY began running tourist trains on the Lebanon segment in 1985 . The passenger operations were split in 1996 , going through several renamings to Turtle Creek Valley Railway , Turtle Creek and Lebanon Railway , and finally Lebanon Mason Monroe Railroad . Three short segments of line at Middletown and Dayton remained with Conrail until its 1999 breakup , when the Norfolk Southern Railway acquired Conrail 's assets in southwestern Ohio .
= = Route description = =
Lying on the highlands between the Little and Great Miami Rivers , the CL & N was commonly known as the " Highland Route " . While it normally received only local traffic , its location was a distinct advantage during floods . This was first demonstrated during the Flood of 1884 , when the rising Ohio River cut off all other railroads from downtown Cincinnati . But the load was too much for the 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge TC & StL , and several companies switched to Miami and Erie Canal boats to make the connections until the waters subsided . Similar Cincinnati floods happened in 1883 , 1897 , 1898 , 1907 , and 1937 , but in 1913 the Great Dayton Flood inundated that city , then lying at the north end of the independent DL & C. That company had just completed its line into downtown Dayton , when , less than a year later , the Loramie Reservoir broke through its levees and sent a swell of water through down the Great Miami River and into the city . As with the Cincinnati floods , only the CL & N and DL & C were unaffected , and relief supplies were sent north from Cincinnati via Lebanon to the National Cash Register plant .
The line began on the east side of downtown Cincinnati , at the corner of Eggleston Avenue and Court Street . The site of the brick freight depot , closed in 1969 and demolished in 1975 , is now owned by Greyhound Lines , which uses it as an intercity bus terminal . A track built in 1887 crossed Court Street , connecting with the Little Miami Railroad 's Eggleston Avenue Connection for freight transfer . The line began by climbing the Deer Creek Valley , the only feasible rail entrance to downtown Cincinnati that did not follow a river valley . When the railroad was built in the late 1870s , the valley was used by the city as a dump . An 1852 city ordinance provided for raising the ground level , beginning with the raising of Court Street by as much as 50 feet ( 15 m ) . To follow the eventual surface level and avoid the steep hillsides , the railroad was built on trestles for much of its ascent , with a maximum grade of 3 @.@ 5 % . After leaving the depot , the line traversed an S @-@ shaped trestle to the east side of the valley , before crossing Elsinore Place and Eden Park Drive at grade , with a second trestle between these streets . ( The former was replaced in January 1889 with a straighter single @-@ track trestle . ) A bridge took the line over Florence Avenue , and it then passed through the neighborhood of Mount Auburn before passing under the summit through the cut @-@ and @-@ cover Oak Street Tunnel north of McMillan Street . The line started its gradual descent as it left the tunnel , generally following the existing ground level and crossing streets at grade .
Double tracks initially stretched from Court Street to near Fredonia Avenue , where the 1 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) Avondale Branch split for the Cincinnati Zoo . When the line was converted to 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge in 1894 , the tunnel and McMillan Street underpass were not wide enough for a double @-@ track line , yet two standard gauge tracks were laid side @-@ by @-@ side . After an accident in 1916 , the tracks were relaid as a gauntlet track . The trestles were rebuilt as single @-@ track in 1888 and 1889 , after which double track only extended from Eden Park Drive to Avondale . Due to increased passenger traffic , the line was re @-@ widened not only south to Court Street but also north to Norwood from 1902 to 1904 , once the valley had been filled in . Beyond Avondale , the CL & N descended through Idlewild , where two Norfolk and Western Railway lines diverged — the Cincinnati and Eastern Railway east to Portsmouth and the Cincinnati Connecting Belt Railroad northwest to a junction near Elmwood Place . The railway began to climb again at East Norwood , where it crossed the Marietta and Cincinnati Railroad ( Baltimore and Ohio Railroad ) , reaching the flat highlands at Deer Park . In the late 1880s , the CL & N , with its frequent commuter service , contributed to the development of suburbs along its line including Idlewild , East Norwood , Silverton , Deer Park , and Hazelwood . At Hopkins Avenue in Norwood , commuters unsatisfied with the bare platform built by the railroad company raised $ 1500 to build a station building , which opened on August 1 , 1888 , and was owned by the Hopkins Avenue Depot Company until service ended in the 1930s . It was later used as a gas station , and now houses a chiropractor . As part of its bicentennial celebration , the city of Silverton built a replica of its former CL & N station with a museum inside .
Just beyond East Norwood , the Pennsylvania built McCullough Yard in 1927 , improving switching operations for the growing industrial base in Norwood . A connection was included to the Pennsylvania 's Chicago @-@ bound Richmond Branch , which the CL & N crossed over north of the yard . In Butler County , north of Brecon , the CL & N curved abruptly northeast onto the original line , partially graded in the 1850s between Sharonville and Lebanon . Just beyond , it began to descend slowly through Mason to Hageman , where it crossed the Middletown Branch , and then rose slightly , alongside Turtle Creek , to Lebanon . The Pennsylvania tore down the original Lebanon passenger station in 1960 , replacing it ( for freight purposes ) with a smaller building from Kings Mills on the Little Miami Railroad . The Lebanon Council of Garden Clubs acquired the land in 1972 , tore down the freight depot , and erected a replica of the old passenger depot in its place , with a gift shop inside .
Leaving Lebanon , the line ascended a small gully and then headed north @-@ northeasterly across the highlands to Dodds . The never @-@ used grade from Dodds to Waynesville descended into the Little Miami River valley via Newman Run before turning north and ending at the latter village . Portions of the right @-@ of @-@ way and stone abutments for several never @-@ built bridges remain on what is now farmland . The line as completed turned north at Dodds , and required several cuts and fills to traverse the rolling terrain . At Hempstead , just north of Hempstead Road , the line split . The original route continued north , parallel to Woodman Drive , to the old Dayton and South Eastern Railroad ( now the Iron Horse Trail ) at Lebanon Junction . A 1915 extension was built parallel to the ex @-@ D & SE , and ended at the Panhandle Route ( now the Creekside Trail to the east ) at Clement . Part of this line is still operated by the Norfolk Southern Railway , and to the south the right @-@ of @-@ way is being used for an extension of the Iron Horse Trail . The other branch headed northwesterly into downtown Dayton , steadily descending as it passed south of the University of Dayton and alongside the Great Miami River . The main passenger and freight depots were at Washington Street , which the CL & N passed over on the first such grade separation in Dayton . The first freight depot opened with the line in 1912 , and was replaced in 1930 by a larger structure , itself torn down in 1966 .
= = Presidents = =
J. P. Gilchrist ( 1852 – 1861 )
Seth Silver Haines ( 1874 – 1879 )
Nathan Keever ( receiver , 1879 – 1880 )
John M. Corse of the TD & B ( 1880 – 1882 )
Elijah B. Phillips of the TC & StL ( 1883 )
William J. Craig ( receiver , 1883 – 1884 )
George Hafer ( receiver , 1884 – 1885 ; president , 1885 – 1896 )
Joseph Wood was the first of at least two Pennsylvania Railroad men elected president after that company gained control in 1896 .
= = Equipment = =
When the CL & N converted to 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge in 1894 , it initially mounted its 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge passenger cars on standard gauge trucks . These were replaced with standard gauge cars after the Pennsylvania acquisition in 1896 .
The first locomotive on the line , a Baldwin 4 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 named " Warren County No. 1 " , was bought in 1877 by the Miami Valley Railway . In all , the CL & N and predecessors had nine narrow gauge locomotives , bought from four different manufacturers . Two were disposed of in the 1880s , and , of the seven remaining into the 1890s , six provided main line service and one was used as a switching and helper locomotive .
Standard gauge operations began in 1894 with five locomotives , and the narrow gauge equipment was kept temporarily for commuter runs to Blue Ash . Later acquisitions , as well as consolidations with other companies , raised the number to 23 in 1920 , its final year of independent operation .
= = Station list = =
= Wyoming @-@ class battleship =
The Wyoming class was a pair of dreadnought battleships built for the United States Navy . The two ships , Wyoming and Arkansas , were authorized in early 1909 , and they were built between 1910 and 1912 . They were the fourth dreadnought design of the US Navy , and they marked an incremental improvement over the preceding Florida class . The primary changes being the addition of a sixth twin @-@ gun turret , bringing the number of 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns to twelve , and improved armor protection , including the first use of a torpedo bulkhead in an American battleship design . The Navy had seriously considered a significantly more powerful 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) gun , but it would have entailed major delays and required extensive harbor improvements to accommodate what would have been much larger ships .
The two ships frequently served together , first in the Atlantic Fleet in the 1910s . Both vessels were deployed to British waters after the United States entered World War I in April 1917 to reinforce the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet . They served in the Pacific Fleet in 1919 – 21 , before both returned to the Atlantic Fleet . Much of their time in the Atlantic Fleet was spent conducting peacetime training exercises , along with taking midshipmen from the US Naval Academy on training cruises . Wyoming and Arkansas were heavily modernized in the mid @-@ 1920s , receiving more efficient oil @-@ fired boilers to replace their old coal @-@ fired models , thicker deck armor to protect against plunging fire , anti @-@ torpedo bulges to increase their resistance to underwater damage , and anti @-@ aircraft guns to defend against aerial attacks .
The London Naval Treaty of 1930 mandated that Wyoming be demilitarized ; she accordingly was converted into a training ship , with half of her main battery turrets , belt armor , and anti @-@ torpedo bulges removed . Arkansas was permitted to continue in service with the fleet , however . After the United States entered World War II , Arkansas was used to escort convoys to North Africa . By 1944 , she served as a coastal bombardment vessel ; in this role , she supported Allied landings at Normandy ( Operation Overlord ) and southern France ( Operation Dragoon ) before being transferred to the Pacific , where she provided fire support to Marines fighting on Iwo Jima and at Okinawa in 1945 . Wyoming meanwhile continued as a training ship , being modified further in 1944 to include the various types of anti @-@ aircraft guns that trainees would operate in the fleet . Both ships were decommissioned shortly after the war , with Arkansas being expended as a target ship during the 1946 nuclear tests at Operation Crossroads , and Wyoming being sold for scrap in 1947 .
= = Design = =
On 22 July 1908 , the Newport Conference was held ; this included the General Board , the staff of the Naval War College , President Theodore Roosevelt — who had a keen interest in naval matters — and other officers . This conference examined a series of issues relating to existing battleships and new designs ; the first of these new ships would become the Wyoming class . The Board on Construction received general instructions from the Newport Conference ; those at the conference favored adopting the 14 @-@ inch gun , as the British Royal Navy had already traded their 12 @-@ inch guns for 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) pieces . The Bureau of Ordnance ( BuOrd ) estimated that design work on the new gun , production , and testing would take two years . On 26 August , the Secretary of the Navy , Victor Metcalf , issued a request for eight- and ten @-@ gun battleships armed with the 14 @-@ inch weapons to the Bureau of Construction and Repair ( C & R ) . Speed was to be at least 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , with as much armor as could be accommodated .
BuOrd argued that at likely battle ranges , 8 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 500 yd ( 7 @,@ 300 to 7 @,@ 800 m ) , the 12 @-@ inch gun was powerful enough to penetrate existing armor , and so the 14 @-@ inch gun was unnecessary . C & R produced three designs to meet Metcalf 's request , all based on the preceding Florida design ; the first , referred to as design 404 , was a battleship armed with eight 14 @-@ inch guns . The second , design 502 , had an additional twin turret for a total of ten 14 @-@ inch guns . The third , design 601 , would be fitted with twelve 12 @-@ inch guns . The General Board chose 601 , since the design work for the 14 @-@ inch gun had not begun , and adopting it would have caused the class to be delayed . In addition , the ships ' displacement would have increased more dramatically with the larger gun , requiring extensive improvements to harbor facilities ; design 502 would have only been able to dock in Pearl Harbor and Puget Sound with the existing facilities . The placement of the secondary battery also proved to be problematic . The cruise of the Great White Fleet in 1907 – 09 had demonstrated the problems with casemates on the main deck . They were too easily washed out in even moderate seas , making them unusable . Some officers at the Newport Conference had advocated placing them in the superstructure , but the heavy 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) guns used by the Navy would have added excessive top weight . Another alternative was to place them in the forecastle , but the additional weight forward would have strained the ship where the forecastle stepped down to the main deck . The designers ultimately settled on a full @-@ length forecastle , which allowed the casemates to be moved about 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) higher in the hull .
The ships ' armor protection was improved over earlier designs . The belt and barbette armor was increased by an inch compared to an earlier version of the twelve @-@ gun battleship . A new protection scheme for the funnels was devised , after the Russian experience at the Battle of Tsushima three years before had highlighted the risk of a destroyed exhaust system . The designers also emphasized the need for improved underwater protection . As a result , the Wyomings design incorporated a torpedo bulkhead , the first time the feature was included on an American battleship design . Congress approved two new battleships , BB @-@ 32 and BB @-@ 33 , on 3 March 1909 . Design 502 later proved to be the basis for the subsequent class of battleships , the New Yorks .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The ships of the Wyoming class were 554 ft ( 169 m ) long at the waterline and 562 ft ( 171 m ) long overall . They had a beam of 93 ft 3 in ( 28 @.@ 42 m ) and a draft of 28 ft 7 in ( 9 m ) . The ships displaced 26 @,@ 000 long tons ( 26 @,@ 417 t ) as designed and up to 27 @,@ 243 long tons ( 27 @,@ 680 t ) at full combat load . They had a full length flush deck , which improved sea @-@ keeping and the ability to work the secondary guns in heavier seas . Both ships were fitted with lattice masts . Their transverse metacentric height was 5 @.@ 4 ft ( 2 m ) They had a crew of 58 officers and 1 @,@ 005 enlisted men .
The ships were powered by four @-@ shaft Parsons steam turbines rated at 28 @,@ 000 shp ( 21 @,@ 000 kW ) . Steam was provided by twelve mixed oil and coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , which were trunked into two closely spaced funnels amidships . The engines generated a top speed of 20 @.@ 5 kn ( 38 @.@ 0 km / h ; 23 @.@ 6 mph ) , though on speed trials Arkansas made 21 @.@ 22 knots ( 39 @.@ 30 km / h ; 24 @.@ 42 mph ) from 25 @,@ 546 shp ( 19 @,@ 050 kW ) . Fuel capacity was 1 @,@ 667 long tons ( 1 @,@ 694 t ) of coal and 266 long tons ( 270 t ) of oil . This allowed the ships to cruise for 6 @,@ 700 nmi ( 12 @,@ 400 km ; 7 @,@ 700 mi ) at a speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . At 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the range fell considerably , to 2 @,@ 655 nmi ( 4 @,@ 917 km ; 3 @,@ 055 mi ) . Steering was controlled by a single rudder .
= = = Armament = = =
The ships were armed with a main battery of twelve 12 @-@ inch / 50 caliber Mark 7 Mod 0 guns in six Mark 9 twin @-@ gun turrets all on the centerline , two of which were placed in a superfiring pair forward . The other four turrets were placed aft of the superstructure in two superfiring pairs . These guns fired a 870 lb ( 395 kg ) shell with a 353 lb ( 160 kg ) propellant charge , which produced a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ( 880 m / s ) . Wyoming and Arkansas were the only ships of the US Navy to receive the gun ; earlier dreadnoughts were equipped with the lower @-@ velocity 12 @-@ inch / 45 @-@ caliber Mark 5 gun . The Mark 7 had significantly better armor penetrating capabilities , owing to its higher muzzle velocity ( and thus higher striking velocity ) . At a range of 12 @,@ 000 yd ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) , the gun could penetrate 12 @.@ 3 in ( 310 mm ) of contemporary face @-@ hardened armor , compared to 10 @.@ 8 in ( 270 mm ) for the Mark 5 . The guns were mounted in the Mark IX gun turret , which allowed for elevation to 15 degrees and depression to -5 degrees . Unlike the turrets used on earlier dreadnoughts , the Mark IX turret required the guns to return to 0 degrees to reload .
The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ one 5 @-@ inch / 51 caliber guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull . These guns fired a 50 lb ( 23 kg ) shell with a charge of 24 @.@ 5 lb ( 11 @.@ 1 kg ) , at a muzzle velocity of 3 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 960 m / s ) . As was standard for capital ships of the period , they carried a pair of submerged 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) torpedo tubes in the hull on the broadside . They were equipped with the Mark III Bliss @-@ Leavitt design , which carried a 218 lb ( 99 kg ) warhead and had a range of 4 @,@ 000 yd ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) at a speed of 26 @.@ 5 kn ( 49 @.@ 1 km / h ; 30 @.@ 5 mph ) .
= = = Armor = = =
The main armored belt , which was 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) high , was 11 in ( 280 mm ) thick over the central portion of the ship , where it protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces . The belt reduced to 5 in ( 130 mm ) toward the stern . On the bottom edge it was reduced to 9 in ( 230 mm ) . The forward end of the belt was connected with an 11 in thick transverse bulkhead with the forward @-@ most main battery barbette , while the aft end of the belt was connected with a 9 in bulkhead . The main armored deck was 2 @.@ 5 in ( 64 mm ) of special treatment steel , reduced to 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) in less critical areas . The conning tower had 11 @.@ 5 in ( 292 mm ) thick sides and a 3 in ( 76 mm ) thick roof .
The gun turrets had 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick faces and 3 in thick roofs . Their supporting barbettes had 11 in thick sides where they were exposed ; the portions that were masked by the armored belt were reduced to 4 @.@ 5 in ( 110 mm ) . The lower half of the casemate armor was 11 in thick , and the upper half was reduced to 6 @.@ 5 in ( 170 mm ) . Inboard of the casemate battery were longitudinal armored bulkheads ; these were designed to protect the uptakes to the funnels . These were deemed important because during the Russo @-@ Japanese War , three years before , Russian battleships had had their uptakes damaged , which ducted the boiler smoke into the ship rather than out through the funnels .
= = = Modifications = = =
Both ships were significantly modified throughout their careers . During and shortly after World War I , the horizontal armor of the ships was improved , including the roofs of the conning tower and the gun turrets . Their deck armor was increased to 3 @.@ 5 in ( 89 mm ) , and eight 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber anti @-@ aircraft guns were installed . Following the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty in February 1922 , modernization work was strictly controlled . The treaty governed what modifications could be made to existing ships , and included restrictions on what could be changed or added . Displacement could rise by no more than 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 000 t ) and no alterations of any kind could be made to the main battery guns or mounts . The primary areas that could be improved were those that concerned defense against aerial and underwater attack , along with propulsion systems .
The two Wyomings , along with the Floridas and New Yorks were heavily modernized in the 1920s . All six ships were converted to completely oil @-@ fired boilers with equipment taken from the cancelled South Dakota @-@ class battleships . The boilers were trunked into a single funnel . These boilers were much more efficient than the coal @-@ fired models the ships had been completed with , and they allowed a significantly greater cruising radius of 11 @,@ 000 nmi ( 20 @,@ 000 km ; 13 @,@ 000 mi ) . The ships were also fitted with anti @-@ torpedo bulges , which improved their underwater defense and also provided additional oil storage capacity . Wyoming and Arkansas lost their cage main mast , which was replaced by a short tripod mast that carried searchlights and radio antennas . Some of their secondary battery guns were relocated higher in the ship to improve their workability in heavy seas . A sponson for six guns was built into the hull abreast of the conning tower and the eight 3 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft guns were moved to the top of the sponson . Both ships had their torpedo tubes removed .
Under the terms of the 1930 London Naval Treaty , Wyoming was to be demilitarized and converted into a training ship . During the demilitarization process , her anti @-@ torpedo bulges , side armor , and half of her main battery guns were removed . Wyoming was modernized at Norfolk Navy Yard from 12 January to 3 April 1944 ; the reconstruction removed the last of her three 12 @-@ inch gun turrets , and replaced them with four twin and two single enclosed mounts for 5 @-@ inch / 38 caliber guns . New fire control radars were also installed ; these modifications allowed Wyoming to train anti @-@ aircraft gunners with the most modern equipment they would use while in combat with the fleet . Modifications to Arkansas during World War II were kept to a minimum . In 1942 , Arkansas received a new tripod foremast and bridgework , along with more anti @-@ aircraft guns throughout the war . By 1945 , she carried nine quadruple 40 mm Bofors mounts and twenty @-@ eight 20 mm Oerlikons , and the number of 3 @-@ inch guns had been increased to ten .
= = Construction = =
= = Service history = =
After entering service , both ships were assigned to the Atlantic Fleet . The ships took part in the normal routine of training and fleet maneuvers off the east coast of the United States and in the Caribbean , interspersed with periodic maintenance . Both ships toured the Mediterranean in late 1913 , making stops in Italy and France , among others . In April 1914 , Arkansas was involved in the occupation of Veracruz during the Mexican Revolution , and Wyoming arrived later to support the operation . Two men from Arkansas won the Medal of Honor for their actions during the initial occupation of the city . After the United States declared war on Germany on 6 April 1917 , Wyoming , along with the rest of Battleship Division 9 ( BatDiv 9 ) , steamed to Britain to reinforce the Royal Navy 's Grand Fleet , stationed in Scapa Flow . Arkansas initially remained in the United States , training gun crews for the expanding wartime fleet . In July 1918 , she too was sent to Britain . Neither ship saw action during the war , though they were present when the German High Seas Fleet surrendered in November 1918 .
From mid @-@ 1919 to mid @-@ 1921 , Arkansas and Wyoming served in the Pacific Fleet , with the latter serving as the flagship of BatDiv 6 . During this time , the ships made a tour of Central and South American countries , culminating in a visit to Valparaiso , where they took part in a naval review for the Chilean president . Both battleships returned in service with the Atlantic Fleet in mid @-@ 1921 . They returned to their peacetime routine of training and maneuvers and periodic maintenance . In the summers , the ships would generally take midshipmen from the US Naval Academy on training cruises . In June 1925 , Arkansas assisted relief efforts after the 1925 Santa Barbara earthquake . From late 1925 to late 1926 , Arkansas received her reconstruction , followed by Wyoming in 1927 . In 1929 and 1930 , Arkansas visited European waters on midshipmen cruises ; she made stops in several countries . Wyoming was reduced to a training ship in 1931 in accordance with the London Naval Treaty , and she spent the next decade conducting training cruises for midshipmen and NROTC cadets .
From early 1932 to early 1934 , Arkansas returned for another stint in the Pacific Fleet , followed by another tour of Europe later in the year . After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , she was assigned to the reserve force for the Neutrality Patrols . She supported the occupation of Iceland in July 1941 as an escort for the troopship convoys . In November , as it became increasingly apparent that the United States would become involved in World War II , Wyoming was reassigned as a gunnery training ship , a role she served in for the duration of the war . Arkansas , meanwhile , continued in front @-@ line service during the war , first as an escort to convoys to North Africa , and then as a shore bombardment vessel . She supported the landings at Normandy in June 1944 , shelling German positions at Omaha Beach , before bombarding Cherbourg later in the month . Her next bombardment mission came with Operation Dragoon , the invasion of southern France , in August that year . She was then transferred to the Pacific Theater of Operations for action against the Japanese . She bombarded Japanese positions on Iwo Jima in February 1945 and on Okinawa in April .
With the end of the war in September 1945 , Arkansas was employed with Operation Magic Carpet , repatriating American soldiers in the Pacific . Wyoming remained in service briefly after the war , though she was decommissioned in August 1947 . She was sold for scrap in October and subsequently broken up . Arkansas was instead retained for use as a target ship during the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in mid @-@ 1946 . She survived the first test , an air @-@ burst code @-@ named ABLE , though the second experiment , an underwater detonation code @-@ named BAKER , sank the ship .
= Michael P. Murphy =
Michael Patrick " Murph " Murphy ( May 7 , 1976 – June 28 , 2005 ) was a United States Navy SEAL officer who was awarded the U.S. military 's highest decoration , the Medal of Honor , for his actions during the War in Afghanistan . He was also the first member of the U.S. Navy to receive the award since the Vietnam War . His other posthumous awards include the Silver Star Medal ( which was later upgraded to the Medal of Honor ) and the Purple Heart .
Michael Murphy was born and raised in Suffolk County , New York . He graduated from Pennsylvania State University with honors and dual degrees in political science and psychology . After college he accepted a commission in the United States Navy and became a United States Navy SEAL in July 2002 . After participating in several War on Terrorism missions , he was killed on June 28 , 2005 , after his team was compromised and surrounded by Taliban forces near Asadabad , Afghanistan .
A United States Navy destroyer and several civilian and military buildings have been named in his honor .
= = Early life and education = =
Murphy was born on May 7 , 1976 in Smithtown , New York to Irish American parents Maureen and Daniel Murphy , a former assistant Suffolk County district attorney . He was raised in Patchogue . He attended Saxton Middle School , where he played youth soccer and pee @-@ wee football , with his father as coach . In high school , he continued playing sports , and took a summer job as a lifeguard at the Brookhaven town beach in Lake Ronkonkoma . He returned to the job every summer throughout his college years .
Murphy was known to his friends as " Murph " , and he was known as " The Protector " in his high school years . In 8th grade , he protected a special needs child who was being shoved into a locker by a group of boys , this was the only time the principal of the school had called his parents , they couldn 't have been prouder . He also protected a homeless man , who was being attacked while collecting cans . He chased away the attackers and helped the man pick up his cans .
In 1994 , Murphy graduated from Patchogue @-@ Medford High School and left home to attend The Pennsylvania State University ( Penn State ) . He graduated from Penn State in 1998 , with degrees in both political science and psychology . Murphy was engaged to be married with the ceremony scheduled for November 2005 .
= = Career = =
After graduating from Penn State , Murphy was accepted to several law schools , but decided to attend SEAL mentoring sessions at the United States Merchant Marine Academy . In September 2000 , he accepted an appointment to the U.S. Navy 's Officer Candidate School in Pensacola , Florida . On December 13 of that year , he was commissioned as an Ensign in the Navy and began Basic Underwater Demolition / SEAL ( BUD / S ) training in Coronado , California in January 2001 , eventually graduating with Class 236 .
Upon graduation from BUD / S , he attended the United States Army Airborne School , SEAL Qualification Training and SEAL Delivery Vehicle ( SDV ) school . Murphy earned his SEAL Trident and checked on board SDV Team ONE ( SDVT @-@ 1 ) in Pearl Harbor , Hawaii in July 2002 . In October 2002 , he deployed with Foxtrot Platoon to Jordan as the liaison officer for Exercise Early Victor . Following his tour with SDVT @-@ 1 , Murphy was assigned to Special Operations Command Central ( SOCCENT ) in Florida and deployed to Qatar in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . After returning from Qatar , he was deployed to Djibouti to assist in the operational planning of future SDV missions .
= = = Combat in Afghanistan = = =
Operation Enduring Freedom is the official name used by the United States Government for its War in Afghanistan , together with three smaller military actions under the umbrella of its Global War on Terrorism . The war began on October 7 , 2001 with the response of the United States and United Kingdom to the September 11 attacks in New York City and Arlington , Virginia . In early 2005 , Murphy was assigned to SEAL Delivery Vehicle Team ONE as officer in charge of Alpha Platoon and deployed to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom .
= = = = Operation Red Wings = = = =
Operation Red Wings was a counter @-@ insurgent mission in Kunar province , Afghanistan , involving four members of the United States Navy SEALs . Murphy and two other SEALs , Danny Dietz and Matthew Axelson , were killed in the fighting , in addition to 16 American Special Operations Forces soldiers , who were killed when their helicopter was shot down while attempting to extract the SEAL Team . Prior to a helicopter being shot down in 2011 , it was both the largest loss of life for American forces since the invasion began and the largest loss for the SEALs since the Vietnam War . Marcus Luttrell was the only surviving American sailor from the squad ; he was protected by local villagers , who sent an emissary to the closest military base , allowing a rescue team to locate him .
Murphy led the four @-@ man reconnaissance team on a mission to kill or capture a top Taliban leader , Ahmad Shah ( code name Ben Sharmak ) , who commanded a group of insurgents known as the " Mountain Tigers , " west of Asadabad . The team was dropped off by helicopter in a remote , mountainous area east of Asadabad in Kunar Province , near the Pakistan border . After an initially successful infiltration , local goat herders stumbled upon the SEALs ' hiding place . Unable to verify any hostile intent from the herders , the team cut them loose . Hostile locals , possibly the goat herders they let pass , alerted nearby Taliban forces , who surrounded and attacked the small group . After Murphy called for help , an MH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopter loaded with reinforcements was dispatched to rescue the team , but was shot down with an RPG , killing all 16 personnel aboard ; eight SEALs and eight service members from the 160th SOAR .
Murphy , Dietz , and Axelson were killed in the action . Luttrell was the only American survivor and was eventually rescued , after several days of wandering the mountain and being protected by the people of an Afghan village . All three of Murphy 's men were awarded the Navy 's second @-@ highest honor , the Navy Cross , for their part in the battle making theirs the most decorated Navy SEAL team in history .
= = Death = =
Murphy was killed June 28 , 2005 after exposing himself to enemy fire and knowingly leaving his position of cover to get a clear signal in order to communicate with his headquarters . He provided his unit ’ s location and requested immediate support for his element and then returned to his position to continue fighting until he died from his wounds .
On July 4 , 2005 , Murphy 's remains were found by a group of American soldiers during a combat search and rescue operation and returned to the United States . Nine days later , on July 13 , Murphy was buried with full military honors at Calverton National Cemetery , Calverton , New York , Section 67 , Grave No. 3710 , less than 20 miles from his childhood home .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Murphy 's military awards include :
= = = Medal of Honor = = =
On October 11 , 2007 The White House announced Murphy would be presented the Medal of Honor , awarded posthumously , during a ceremony at the White House on October 22 , 2007 .
The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government and is bestowed on a member of the armed forces who distinguishes himself " ... conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States ... " Due to the nature of the award , it is commonly presented posthumously .
On October 22 , 2007 the Medal of Honor presentation ceremony was held at the White House . President George W. Bush presented Murphy 's Medal of Honor to his parents .
= = = = Citation = = = =
For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life and above and beyond the call of duty as the leader of a special reconnaissance element with Naval Special Warfare task unit Afghanistan on 27 and 28 June 2005 .
While leading a mission to locate a high @-@ level anti @-@ coalition militia leader , Lieutenant Murphy demonstrated extraordinary heroism in the face of grave danger in the vicinity of Asadabad , Kunar Province , Afghanistan . On 28 June 2005 , operating in an extremely rugged enemy @-@ controlled area , Lieutenant Murphy 's team was discovered by anti @-@ coalition militia sympathizers , who revealed their position to Taliban fighters . As a result , between 30 and 40 enemy fighters besieged his four member team . Demonstrating exceptional resolve , Lieutenant Murphy valiantly led his men in engaging the large enemy force . The ensuing fierce firefight resulted in numerous enemy casualties , as well as the wounding of all four members of the team . Ignoring his own wounds and demonstrating exceptional composure , Lieutenant Murphy continued to lead and encourage his men . When the primary communicator fell mortally wounded , Lieutenant Murphy repeatedly attempted to call for assistance for his beleaguered teammates . Realizing the impossibility of communicating in the extreme terrain , and in the face of almost certain death , he fought his way into open terrain to gain a better position to transmit a call . This deliberate , heroic act deprived him of cover , exposing him to direct enemy fire . Finally achieving contact with his headquarters , Lieutenant Murphy maintained his exposed position while he provided his location and requested immediate support for his team . In his final act of bravery , he continued to engage the enemy until he was mortally wounded , gallantly giving his life for his country and for the cause of freedom . By his selfless leadership , Lieutenant Murphy reflected great credit upon himself and upheld the highest traditions of the United States Naval Service .
= = Legacy = =
During his military career , Murphy received 11 different military decorations , including : the Medal of Honor , Purple Heart , Joint Service Commendation Medal , and Navy Commendation Medal . Since his death , a post office in his home town , a park and a guided missile destroyer , the USS Michael Murphy ( DDG @-@ 112 ) , have been named in his honor .
In addition to the Medal of Honor , his military awards and his inscription on the Hall of Heroes in the Pentagon , Murphy has received several other honors .
= = = Michael P. Murphy Memorial = = =
The Penn State class of 2011 's senior gift was a memorial named after LT Michael P. Murphy to commemorate all veterans who served the United States . The wall behind the memorial is inscribed with a Greek phrase meaning " With it [ your shield ] , or on it " referencing the ancient Spartan tradition that a warrior came home from a battle " with his shield " after a victory , or dead being carried home " on his shield " after a defeat .
= = = Michael P. Murphy Memorial Park = = =
On May 7 , 2006 , on what would have been his 30th birthday , Murphy ’ s hometown dedicated the Michael P. Murphy Memorial Park ; formerly Lake Ronkonkoma Park . The park contains a black granite wall dedicated to the men lost in Operation Red Wings , with each member ’ s name inscribed . A black granite stone embedded in the plaza bears the picture of Murphy and his Medal of Honor .
= = = Lieutenant Michael P. Murphy United States Post Office = = =
On May 7 , 2007 , the Lieutenant Michael P. Murphy United States Post Office was dedicated in Patchogue , New York . The request to rename the historic United States Postal Office located at 170 East Main Street in Patchogue , New York , was submitted as bill H.R. 4101 to the 109th Congress . On January 3 , 2006 , the 109th Congress approved the request and on August 1 , 2006 , it was signed by President George W. Bush and became Public Law No : 109 @-@ 256 .
" The facility of the United States Postal Service located at 170 East Main Street in Patchogue , New York , shall be known and designated as the ' Lieutenant Michael P. Murphy Post Office Building ' . "
= = = USS Michael Murphy ( DDG @-@ 112 ) = = =
On May 7 , 2008 , Secretary of the Navy Donald C. Winter announced that DDG @-@ 112 , the last planned U.S. Navy Arleigh Burke @-@ class destroyer at the time , would be named USS Michael Murphy ( DDG @-@ 112 ) in honor of Murphy . On May 7 , 2011 , on what would have been Murphy 's 35th birthday , the USS Michael Murphy was christened by his mother Maureen Murphy , the ship 's sponsor .
= = = Lt. Michael P. Murphy Combat Training Pool = = =
On July 9 , 2009 , the newly constructed Combat Training Pool at the Naval Station Newport , Rhode Island was dedicated in honor of Murphy . The pool is an L @-@ shaped , 8 @-@ lane pool which holds approximately 347 @,@ 000 gallons of chlorinated water . The training pool also has a training platform three meters above the water which is used for military training , abandon ship drills , etc .
= = = Lt. Michael P. Murphy Award in Geospatial Intelligence = = =
The Lt. Michael P. Murphy Award in Geospatial Intelligence recognizes achievement by a Penn State graduate student who is serving or has served in the U.S. Armed Forces or with the U.S. Intelligence Community and demonstrated exceptional contributions to the discipline . The award was made possible by the gracious gifts of GeoEye and the US Geospatial Intelligence Foundation . This award is endowed to be given in Murphy ’ s name in perpetuity .
= = = Lt. Michael P. Murphy / Penn State Veterans Plaza = = =
On November 2 , 2010 , it was announced the senior gift for the Pennsylvania State University ( Murphy 's alma mater ) Class of 2011 will be the Lt. Michael P. Murphy / Penn State Veterans Plaza . The plaza will honor all Penn State veterans and Penn State 's only Medal of Honor recipient , Murphy .
= = = Long Island Medal of Honor Recipients Memorial Plaque = = =
The United States Veterans Hospital at Northport Long Island New York maintains a memorial plaque that names all of the Medal of Honor recipients who have lived in Long Island . Lt. Murphy 's name was placed in honor on this memorial shortly after he was awarded the Medal of Honor . Others honored include President Theodore Roosevelt , General Theodore Roosevelt , Jr . , and Murphy ’ s fellow Eastern Long Island hero Garfield Langhorn . The Memorial , which is at the back end of the hospital lobby , is in close proximity to where his mother works in the hospital .
= = = High school campus = = =
In April 2014 , Patchogue @-@ Medford High School in Medford , New York , named its campus the " Navy ( SEAL ) LT Michael P. Murphy Campus " after its fallen former pupil .
= = = Sea Cadet unit = = =
The Sea Cadet unit from West Sayville , New York is named the " LT Michael P. Murphy Division " and has hosted and sponsored events in honor of Murphy .
= = = Fort Hamilton MEPS Memorial Wall = = =
The Fort Hamilton MEPS main lobby has a memorial wall dedicated to Murphy .
= = = LT Michael P Murphy Distinguished Citizen Award = = =
The Central Pennsylvania council of the Navy League of the United States awards the " LT Michael P Murphy Distinguished Citizen Award " in his name . The award honors living , non @-@ active duty citizens who exemplify his character and commitment to his country and his community .
= = = CrossFit Workout = = =
A workout named in Michael 's honor is performed at CrossFit boxes across the country on Memorial Day . The workout is named " Murph " .
For time : 1 mile Run 100 Pull @-@ ups 200 Push @-@ ups 300 Squats 1 mile Run
Participants may choose to wear a body vest weighing 8 lbs . - 20 lbs . This workout was one of Mike 's favorites and he 'd named it " Body Armor " .
= = In media = =
In the 2013 film Lone Survivor , Murphy is portrayed by actor Taylor Kitsch .
= Theology of Huldrych Zwingli =
The theology of Huldrych Zwingli was based on the Bible , taking scripture as the inspired word of God and placing its authority higher than what he saw as human sources such as the Ecumenical councils and the church fathers . He also recognised the human element within the inspiration noting the differences in the canonical gospels . Zwinglianism is the Reformed confession based on the Second Helvetic Confession promulgated by Zwingli 's successor Heinrich Bullinger in the 1560s .
Zwingli 's views on baptism were largely a response to Anabaptism , a movement which attacked the practice of infant baptism . He defended the baptism of children by describing it as a sign of a Christian 's covenant with God just as God made a covenant with Abraham .
He developed the symbolic view of the Eucharist . He denied the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation and following Cornelius Henrici Hoen , he agreed that the bread and wine of the institution signify and do not literally become the body and blood of Jesus Christ . Zwingli 's differences of opinion on this with Martin Luther resulted in the failure of the Marburg Colloquy to bring unity between the two Protestant leaders .
Zwingli believed that the state governed with divine sanction . He believed that both the church and the state are placed under the sovereign rule of God . Christians were obliged to obey the government , but civil disobedience was allowed if the authorities acted against the will of God . He described a preference for an aristocracy over monarchic or democratic rule .
= = Scripture = =
The Bible
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all appeals were denied , and Williams was executed in 1913 . The case was one of the first investigations in Britain to use the emerging science of ballistics .
= = Background = =
On 9 October 1912 , the driver of a horse @-@ drawn carriage noticed a man crouching near the front door of the house of Countess Flora Sztaray , located on South Cliff Avenue in Eastbourne . Sztaray was known to possess large amounts of valuable jewellery and to be married to a rich Hungarian nobleman . The driver , who was Sztaray 's coachman , informed Sztaray of the man 's presence , whereupon Sztaray telephoned the police . Inspector Arthur Walls was sent to investigate . When Walls arrived on the scene , he observed a man lying on the portico above the front door . Walls called out , " Now then , my man , you just come down . " The man fired two shots , the first of which struck and killed Walls .
The police had only two clues : some footprints in the garden , and a hat that they found in a nearby gutter . The police took moulds of the footprints and endeavored to trace the hat , but with no success . However , during routine questioning of local residents , police learned that earlier in the afternoon of the murder , a man had been seen sitting with a heavily @-@ pregnant young woman on a bench at one end of South Cliff Avenue ; the man had also been seen wandering the street while the young woman sat on the bench alone , leading police to suspect that the man was assessing the lay of the land .
The following day , a former medical student named Edgar Power visited the police , claiming that he knew the identity of the murderer . Power said that the murderer was one George McKay , who was living in Eastbourne under the name " John Williams " with his pregnant girlfriend , Florence Seymour . Power knew Williams through Williams 's brother , who was Power 's best friend . Williams 's brother had received a note that morning from Williams , which he had passed on to Power . Power gave the note to the police . It read :
If you would save my life come here at once to 4 Tideswell Road . Ask for Seymour . Bring some cash with you . Very Urgent .
Power told the police that the letter had been written by Williams and that Williams had tried to burgle Sztaray 's house and killed Inspector Walls . According to Power , Williams met with his girlfriend — Florence Seymour — after the murder , and the two decided to bury the gun on the beach and send a letter to Williams ' brother asking for money to return to London , which was then given to Power . Power 's motive in coming to the police was that he was in love with Seymour .
In order to trap Williams , Power asked Williams to meet him at Moorgate Street Station the following day . Police were lying in wait and arrested both Power and Williams at the Moorgate station . Police covered Williams 's head with an apron to prevent him from being photographed and thus possibly influencing witnesses . However , no one had glimpsed the murderer 's face , and no one selected Williams from an identity parade . Power was immediately released .
Upon his release , Power went to Seymour and told her that the police knew what had happened and that the only way to save Williams was to dig up the gun and move it somewhere safer . Seymour and Power retrieved the gun on 15 October ; several police officers were lying in wait and immediately arrested both Seymour and Power . Power was released a few hours later ; Seymour was retained for questioning . Seymour was pregnant and in poor condition both physically and mentally ; after a few hours of questioning , she wrote and signed a statement which incriminated Williams . In her statement , Seymour stated that Williams
had left her for half an hour near the Countess 's house on the night of the murder , returning without his trilby hat , and afterwards throwing away a burglar 's rope with a hook on the end of it , also with him burying a revolver on the beach he had broken in two .
Despite Seymour 's statement , Williams maintained that he was innocent of the murder and the burglary , saying that " whoever did that did it to get to [ Sztaray 's ] papers for political purposes . No doubt she is mixed up in some foreign political business . I would not commit a crime like that . "
Williams appeared at the Magistrates Court in Eastbourne for an initial hearing . He was not represented by either a solicitor or a barrister , and pleaded not guilty . On his way to and from the court Williams 's head was again covered with an apron to prevent him from being photographed ; the press accordingly dubbed him " the hooded man . " The police decided that Seymour should take the witness stand as soon as possible to avoid her going back on what she had told the police . As such she was called to the witness box by Cecil Whiteley ( who was Treasury Counsel at the time ) to go through her statement line by line . She was physically exhausted and fainted four times in the witness box ; this and other interruptions meant that the initial hearing took four days . Eventually the case was referred to the Assizes for trial .
= = Trial = =
The trial of John Williams for the murder of Inspector Arthur Walls began on 12 December 1912 at the Lewes Assizes , with Arthur Channell sitting as a judge . By this time , Williams had found a solicitor who had arranged for Patrick Hastings and C. F. Baker to represent him in court . The Crown was represented by Sir Frederick Low and Cecil Whiteley . The trial proved a popular one , with crowds of people outside the court house trying to see the defendants or barristers involved . A local newspaper described it as " the most sensational murder trial ... within living history . "
Florence Seymour was the first person called to the witness box . She said that her statement was false , and that she had only made it because Edgar Power had told her that she would be charged with murder if she did not . This immediately disrupted the case for the prosecution ; Frederick Low had made it clear in his opening statement that their case rested primarily on Seymour 's testimony . Low received permission from the judge to treat Seymour as a hostile witness ; despite this , she refused to say anything that would incriminate Williams . Hastings did not cross @-@ examine her , only asking if what she had said in court was true ; she said that it was and then burst into tears .
After calling a number of minor witnesses ( including the cab driver and the owner of the building Williams and Seymour lived in ) , the prosecution called Edgar Power . Power testified that Williams had bragged about shooting Walls in response to Powers ' chaffing him about being a poor shot . According to Power , Williams responded to the chaff by saying , " Well , that was a good shot anyhow , " referring to the shot that had killed Walls . Williams ' barrister Hastings later described Power as " [ the most ] utterly contemptible human being I have ever met , " and during his cross @-@ examination Hastings highlighted Power 's betrayal of his close friends , Williams and Seymour .
The defendant , John Williams , was called next . Williams claimed that the package containing the rope and the gun had been given to him by a fellow thief called " Freddy Mike " , who had asked him to keep the package until Mike came to collect it . After the murder , Williams was scared that he would be suspected , since he had a gun and had been arrested previously for burglary .
Following the testimony of Seymour , Power , and Williams , it became clear the jury could not convict Williams based on witness testimony alone . There was , however , some circumstantial evidence : an empty holster found by the police among Williams ' possessions showed evidence of a revolver recently being inside it . The police enlisted the aid of an expert in the new science of forensic ballistics , Robert Churchill ; it was one of the first times the police made use of ballistics in a case .
Churchill was able to prove , by firing a different gun of the same design , that the bullet that killed the police officer had been fired from a revolver of the same make and calibre as the gun reported to be Williams ' . However , the prosecution needed proof that the bullet had been fired from that particular revolver . At the suggestion of Chief Inspecter Bower , photographers attempted to photograph the inside of the gun barrel in order to prove that the bullet had been fired from that particular revolver ; the attempts were unsuccessful , and Churchill instead made a cast of the inside of the gun from dental wax . The method has been called " far from satisfactory , " but it was sufficient to convict Williams .
In his summing up , Judge Channell commented that the acts of the defendant in hiding the gun and fleeing Eastbourne " were acts which a guilty man would be very likely to do . " He also told the jury that , while there was no direct evidence linking Williams to the murder , many cases had resulted in a conviction with even less evidence . After around fifteen minutes of deliberations , the jury returned a verdict of guilty , and Channell sentenced Williams to death .
= = Court of Criminal Appeal = =
Immediately after the verdict was read , Williams ' solicitor announced that he would appeal the verdict . He asked Hastings again to represent the defendant , this time in the Court of Criminal Appeal . The Court met on 13 January 1913 , and consisted of Lord Alverstone , Mr Justice Phillimore and Mr Justice Ridley . Hastings argued that that Mr Justice Channell had misdirected the jury in the initial case , and that therefore their decision was void . Lord Alverstone dismissed the appeal without hearing the other side of the argument , saying that he could find no evidence of misdirection . Hastings felt that Alverstone had been biased from the start , later writing that " from the outset of the hearing it was apparent that he was satisfied with the prisoner 's guilt , and no legal argument seemed to make the least impression on him . "
= = Further appeals and execution = =
Shortly after the appeal was dismissed , Williams received a letter from " Freddy Mike " , who stated that not only did he know the real murderer , but that the murderer was his twin brother who had killed the police inspector before fleeing to France . Williams immediately showed the letter to his solicitor , who contacted Scotland Yard . Accompanied by Chief Inspector Bower , Williams ' solicitor visited Freddy Mike , who again told the same story . A copy of the letter was sent to the Home Secretary , Reginald McKenna , along with a statement by Florence Seymour in which she claimed that her confession had been given after threats by the police .
When Freddy Mike 's statement became known to the public , various petitions and campaigns to free Williams were organised throughout the country . A petition containing 35 @,@ 000 signatures requesting a reprieve was sent to the Home Secretary . As soon as the House of Commons opened on 23 January 1913 , McKenna was questioned by Labour , Conservative , and Liberal MPs . Robert Munro , MP for Wick Burghs , made a speech asking the Home Secretary to take into account the conflicting accounts , lack of any direct evidence , and the way the judge had directed the jury , and pardon Williams . In this he was supported by Will Crooks , the Marquess of Tullibardine , and Ian Macpherson .
McKenna replied that :
" The house will understand that there is no part of the Home Secretary 's duty which throws greater responsibility upon him or is indeed more painful , then that which has to be exercised in connection with the prerogative of mercy . Of course , any man would be only too glad to find a scintilla of evidence or reason , or I might say to invent a reason , which would enable him to save a human life . But my duty , as I understand it , is to act in accordance with the law and the traditions of my office .
I have investigated [ the story of Freddy Mike ] to its very foundation . I have traced the family history of the man who calls himself Freddy Mike , and I find beyond question , and I may say even on his own admission , that there is not a shred or shadow of foundation for his story from beginning to end . He said that he had a twin brother . He had no twin brother . He said that the twin brother or a friend of the twin brother was in Eastbourne that night . There were no such people , and the whole story is an invention because , having known John Williams in the past , he did not like to think of his being hanged . "
McKenna concluded by saying that the law must take its course , and refused to grant a pardon .
Williams applied to Home Secretary McKenna for permission to marry Florence Seymour ; McKenna denied Williams 's request , and did so again when Williams petitioned a second time . Williams was executed on 30 January 1913 .
= Crescent honeyeater =
The crescent honeyeater ( Phylidonyris pyrrhopterus ) is a passerine bird , of the honeyeater family Meliphagidae , native to south @-@ eastern Australia . A member of the genus Phylidonyris , it is most closely related to the common New Holland honeyeater ( P. novaehollandiae ) and the white @-@ cheeked honeyeater ( P. niger ) . Two subspecies are recognized , with P. p. halmaturinus restricted in range to Kangaroo Island and the Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia .
It is a fairly nondescript bird of dark grey plumage and paler underparts , highlighted by yellow wing patches and a broad , black crescent , outlined in white , down the sides of its breast . The species exhibits slight sexual dimorphism , with the female being duller in colour than the male . Juvenile birds are similar to the female , though the yellow wing patches of male nestlings can be easily distinguished .
The male has a complex and variable song , which is heard throughout the year . It sings from an exposed perch , and during the breeding season performs song flights . The crescent honeyeater is found in areas of dense vegetation including sclerophyll forest and alpine habitats , as well as heathland , and parks and gardens , where its diet is made up of nectar and invertebrates . It forms long @-@ term pairs , and often stays committed to one breeding site for several years . The female builds the nest and does most of the caring for the two to three young , which become independent within 40 days of egg @-@ laying .
The parent birds use a range of anti @-@ predator strategies , but nestlings can be taken by snakes , kookaburras , currawongs , or cats . While the crescent honeyeater faces a number of threats , its population numbers and distribution are sufficient for it to be listed as of Least Concern for conservation .
= = Taxonomy = =
The crescent honeyeater was originally described by ornithologist John Latham in 1801 as Certhia pyrrhoptera , because of an assumed relationship with the treecreepers , Certhia . It was later named Certhia australasiana by George Shaw in 1812 , Melithreptus melanoleucus by Louis Jean Pierre Vieillot in 1817 , and Meliphaga inornata by John Gould in 1838 . The generic term comes from the French phylidonyre , which combines the names for a honeyeater and a sunbird ( previously thought to belong to the same family ) . The specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek stems pyrrhos , meaning " fire " , and pteron , meaning " wing " , in reference to the yellow wing patches . Some guidebooks have the binomial name written as Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera ; however , a review in 2001 ruled that the genus name was masculine , hence pyrrhopterus is the correct specific name . Two subspecies are recognised , the nominate form P. p. pyrrhopterus over most of its range , and P. p. halmaturinus which is restricted to Kangaroo Island and the Mount Lofty Ranges .
A recent molecular study showed its close relatives to be the New Holland honeyeater and the white @-@ cheeked honeyeater , the three forming the now small genus Phylidonyris . DNA analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily .
Other common names for the crescent honeyeater include chinawing , Egypt and horseshoe honeyeater . Gould called it the Tasmanian honeyeater .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
The crescent honeyeater measures 14 – 17 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) , in length , with a wingspan of 16 – 23 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) , and weighs about 16 grams ( 0 @.@ 56 oz ) . It is sexually dimorphic , with the female a paler version of the male . The male is dark grey with clear yellow wing @-@ patches with a broad , black crescent , outlined in white , down the sides of its breast , and a white streak above his eye . The top of the tail is black , with yellow edges to the feathers forming distinctive yellow panels on the sides of the tail . White tips on the undertail are usually only visible in flight . The underparts are pale brownish @-@ grey fading to white . The female is duller , olive brown with faded yellow wing patches with similar , though less clear , crescentic markings . Both sexes have dark grey legs and feet , deep ruby eyes and a long , downcurved black bill . The gape is also black . Young birds are similar to the adults , though not as strongly marked , and have dark grey bills , duller brown eyes and yellow gapes . Male nestlings can be distinguished by their more extensive yellow wing patches from 7 days old . Moulting patterns of the species are poorly known ; crescent honeyeaters appear to replace their primary flight feathers between October and January .
While both subspecies have the same general appearance , the female of halmaturinus has paler plumage than the nominate race , and both male and female have a smaller wing and tail and longer bill . The halmaturinus population on Kangaroo Island has a significantly shorter wing and longer bill than the Mount Lofty population , although this size variation of an insular form is at odds with Allen 's and Bergmann 's rules .
= = = Vocalisation = = =
The crescent honeyeater has a range of musical calls and songs . One study recorded chatter alarm calls similar to the New Holland honeyeater , a number of harsh monosyllabic or tri @-@ syllabic contact calls , and complex and diverse songs . The most common contact call is a loud , carrying " e @-@ gypt " , while the alarm call is a sharp and rapid " chip @-@ chip @-@ chip " . The male also has a melodic song which is heard throughout the year , at any time of the day . The structure of the song is complex and diverse , and includes both a descending whistle and a musical two @-@ note call . The male 's song is performed from an exposed perch or within the tree canopy , and it engages in mating displays ( song flights ) during the breeding season . When the female is on the nest and the male nearby , they utter low soft notes identified as " whisper song " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
There are records of scattered populations of the crescent honeyeater on the Central Tablelands , the Mid North Coast , and in the Hunter Region of New South Wales , and it is widespread in the areas of New South Wales south of Dharug National Park and east of Bathurst . In Victoria it is widespread across an area from the NSW border south west to Wallan with scattered populations recorded further west . It is widespread in Tasmania , except in the north @-@ east part of the state where it is more sparsely distributed . It is restricted to sclerophyll forest in eastern South Australia , where isolated populations have been recorded in the Mount Lofty Ranges and on Kangaroo Island . Local influxes have occurred outside its normal range in response to changes in habitat . Recorded population densities range from 0 @.@ 3 birds per hectare ( 0 @.@ 1 per acre ) near Orbost , to 8 @.@ 7 pairs per hectare ( 3 @.@ 4 per acre ) in Boola Boola State Forest , also in Victoria .
While the crescent honeyeater occupies a wide variety of habitats including coastal heath , rainforest , wet sclerophyll forest , mountain forest , alpine woodland , damp gullies and thick tea @-@ tree scrub , they all demonstrate its preference for dense vegetation . It has been frequently recorded in wet sclerophyll forest dominated by eucalypts and with a thick mid @-@ story and understory of shrubs such as blackwood , silver wattle , Cassinia , Prostanthera , and Correa . At higher altitudes it occurs in alpine heathlands and in woodlands of stunted eucalypt or conifers .
The movements of the crescent honeyeater within its range are incompletely known . There is widespread evidence of seasonal migration to lower altitudes in cooler months , yet a proportion of the population remains sedentary . Autumn and winter migration to the lowland coastal areas is seen in southern Tasmania , where it is not unusual to see it in urban parks and gardens , as well as Gippsland , and the New South Wales Central and South Coast . In the Sydney region , some birds appear to move down from the Blue Mountains to Sydney for the cooler months , yet others remain in either location for the whole year . It is only seen in alpine and subalpine areas of the Snowy Mountains in warmer snow @-@ free months ( mainly October to April ) . Other populations of crescent honeyeaters follow a more nomadic pattern of following food sources ; this has been recorded in the Blue Mountains and parts of Victoria .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Crescent honeyeaters occupy territories during the breeding season of July to March , with pairs often staying on in the territory at the end of the season and committing to one breeding site for several years . Banding studies have recaptured birds within metres of the nest in which they were raised , and one female was re @-@ trapped at the banding place almost ten years later . The pairs nest solitarily , or in loose colonies with nests around 10 metres ( 33 ft ) apart . The male defends the territory , which is used both for foraging and breeding , though during the breeding season he is more active in protecting the area , and therefore much more vocal . During courtship the male performs song flights , soaring with quivering wings and continuously calling with a high piping note .
The female builds the nest close to the boundary of the territory , usually near water , low in the shrubs . It is a deep , cup @-@ shaped , bulky nest of cobweb , bark , grass , twigs , roots and other plant materials , lined with grass , down , moss and fur . The long strips of bark from stringybark or messmate trees are often used . The clutch size is 2 or 3 , occasionally 4 . Measuring 19 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) by 15 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) , the eggs are pale pink , sometimes buff @-@ tinged , with lavender and chestnut splotches . The base colour is darker at the larger end . The female incubates and broods the eggs , but both sexes feed the nestlings and remove fecal sacs , although the female does the majority of caring for the young . The young birds are fed insects , with flies making up much of the regurgitated material according to one study . The incubation period is 13 days , followed by a fledging period of 13 days . The parent birds feed the fledglings for around two weeks after they leave the nest , but the young do not remain long in the parents ' territory . The young are independent within 40 days of egg @-@ laying .
Parent birds have been observed using a range of anti @-@ predator strategies : the female staying on the nest until almost touched ; one or other of the pair performing distraction displays , fluttering wings and moving across the ground ; the female flying rapidly at the intruder ; and both birds giving harsh scolding calls when a kookaburra , tiger snake or currawong approached . The nests of the crescent honeyeater are usually low in the shrubs , which makes the birds and their young vulnerable to predation by birds and snakes ; however , domestic and feral cats are the most likely predators to hunt this species .
Crescent honeyeaters pair in long @-@ term relationships that often last for the whole year ; however , while they are socially monogamous they appear to be sexually promiscuous . One study found that only 42 % of the nestlings were sired by the male partner at the nest despite paternity guards such as pairing and territorial defence . The crescent honeyeaters observed exhibited a number of characteristics consistent with genetic promiscuity : sexual dimorphism , with sex @-@ specific plumages identifiable at nestling stage ; reduced male contribution to feeding and caring for the young ; vigorous defence of the territory by the male ; and frequent intrusions into other territories by females which were tolerated by the males holding those territories .
= = = Feeding = = =
The crescent honeyeater is arboreal , foraging mainly among the foliage and flowers in the understory and tree canopy on nectar , fruits and small insects . It has been recorded eating the honeydew of psyllids , soft scale and felt scale insects . It feeds primarily by probing flowers for nectar , and gleaning foliage and bark and sallying for insects . While regularly observed feeding singly or in pairs , the crescent honeyeater has also been recorded moving in loose feeding flocks , and gathering in large groups at productive food sources . A study in forest near Hobart in Tasmania found that the crescent honeyeater 's diet was wholly composed of insects during the breeding season , but nectar was a significant component during winter . Insects consumed include moths and flies , and the tree trunks were the site of foraging around two thirds of the time , and foliage a third . It fed on nectar as plants came into flower in the autumn and winter , and then foraged in Tasmanian blue gum ( Eucalyptus globulus ) during the breeding season in spring . The flowering of royal grevillea ( Grevillea victoriae ) over summer in subalpine areas in the Snowy Mountains attracted large numbers of crescent honeyeaters . It feeds intensively when sources are plentiful and when feeding on flame heath ( Astroloma conostephioides ) it was recorded visiting an average of 34 flowers per minute . Other plants it has been recorded visiting include a number of Banksia species , waratah ( Telopea ) , tubular flowered genera including Astroloma , Epacris and Correa , mistletoes of the genus Amyema , and eucalypts in the Mount Lofty Ranges in South Australia . In Bondi State Forest it was also recorded feeding at cluster @-@ flower geebung ( Persoonia confertiflora ) , native holly ( Lomatia ilicifolia ) , tall shaggy @-@ pea ( Oxylobium arborescens ) , silver wattle ( Acacia dealbata ) and blackthorn ( Bursaria spinosa ) . Local differences in flower foraging patterns have been observed in South Australia ; populations on Kangaroo Island forage more often at Adenanthos flowers than those in the nearby Fleurieu Peninsula , while the latter forage more often at eucalypt blooms , and at a higher diversity of plants overall .
= = Conservation status = =
While the population numbers and distribution are sufficient for the crescent honeyeater to be listed as of Least Concern for conservation , numbers have fluctuated significantly over the past twenty @-@ five years and currently seem to be in decline . The threats to the crescent honeyeater include habitat destruction , as the alpine forests in which it breeds are being reduced by weed infestations , severe bush fires , drought and land clearing . The crescent honeyeater 's dependence on long @-@ term partnerships and breeding territories means that breeding success is threatened by the death of one partner or the destruction of habitual territory . The influx of birds to urban areas also places them at increased risk of accidents and predation . Cats have been recorded preying on crescent honeyeaters , and at least one guide urges cat owners to keep their cats in enclosures when outside the house or to provide a stimulating indoor environment for them .
= Vernon Sturdee =
Lieutenant General Sir Vernon Ashton Hobart Sturdee , KBE , CB , DSO ( 16 April 1890 – 25 May 1966 ) was an Australian Army commander who served two terms as Chief of the General Staff . A regular officer of the Royal Australian Engineers who joined the Militia in 1908 , he was one of the original Anzacs during the First World War , participating in the landing at Gallipoli on 25 April 1915 . In the campaign that followed , he commanded the 5th Field Company , before going on to lead the 8th Field Company and 4th Pioneer Battalion on the Western Front . In 1918 he was seconded to General Headquarters ( GHQ ) British Expeditionary Force as a staff officer .
Promotion was stagnant between the wars , and Sturdee remained at his wartime rank of lieutenant colonel until 1935 . He served in a series of staff posts , and attended the Staff College at Quetta in British India and the Imperial Defence College in Britain . Like other regular officers , he had little faith in the government 's " Singapore strategy " , and warned that the Army would have to face an effective and well @-@ equipped Japanese opponent .
Ranked colonel at the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , Sturdee was raised to lieutenant general in 1940 and became Chief of the General Staff . He proceeded to conduct a doomed defence of the islands to the north of Australia against the advancing Japanese forces . In 1942 , he successfully advised the government to divert the Second Australian Imperial Force troops returning from the Middle East to Australia . He then became head of the Australian Military Mission to Washington , D.C. , where he represented Australia before the Combined Chiefs of Staff . As commander of the First Army in New Guinea in 1944 – 45 , Sturdee directed the fighting at Aitape , and on New Britain and Bougainville . He was charged with destroying the enemy when opportunity presented itself , but had to do so with limited resources , and without committing his troops to battles that were beyond their strength .
When the war ended , Sturdee took the surrender of Japanese forces in the Rabaul area . As one of the Army 's most senior officers , he succeeded General Sir Thomas Blamey as Commander in Chief of the Australian Military Forces in December 1945 . He became the Chief of the General Staff a second time in 1946 , serving in the post until his retirement in 1950 . During this term , he had to demobilise the wartime Army while fielding and supporting the Australian contingent of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan . He developed a structure for the post @-@ war Army that included regular combat formations . As a result , the Australian Regular Army was formed , laying the foundations for the service as it exists today .
= = Education and early life = =
Vernon Ashton Hobart Sturdee was born in Frankston , Victoria , on 16 April 1890 , the son of Alfred Hobart Sturdee and his wife Laura Isabell , née Merrett . Alfred Sturdee , a medical practitioner from England , came from a prominent naval family and was the brother of Doveton Sturdee , who later became an admiral of the fleet . Alfred emigrated to Australia in the 1880s , travelling as a ship 's doctor . He served in the Boer War , where he was mentioned in despatches after he rode under fire to a donga near the enemy 's position to aid wounded men . Re @-@ enlisting in the Australian Army Medical Corps as a captain in January 1905 , he was promoted to major in August 1908 and lieutenant colonel in December 1912 . He later commanded the 2nd Field Ambulance at Gallipoli and , with the rank of colonel , was Assistant Director of Medical Services of the 1st Division on the Western Front . He received three more mentions in despatches and was appointed a Companion of the Order of St Michael and St George . His Australian @-@ born wife Laura , known as Lil , was the sister of Charles Merrett , a prominent businessman and Militia officer . Her half @-@ brother , Colonel Harry Perrin , was another Militia officer .
Vernon Sturdee was educated at Melbourne Grammar School , before being apprenticed to an engineer at Jaques Brothers , Richmond , Victoria . Commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Corps of Engineers , the Militia 's engineer component , on 19 October 1908 , he was promoted to lieutenant in the Royal Australian Engineers , as the permanent component was then known , on 1 February 1911 . He married Edith Georgina Robins on 4 February 1913 at St Luke 's Church of England , North Fitzroy , Melbourne .
= = First World War = =
= = = Gallipoli = = =
Sturdee joined the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 25 August 1914 with the rank of lieutenant . He was promoted to captain on 18 October , and appointed adjutant of the 1st Division Engineers . He embarked from Melbourne for Egypt on the former P & O ocean liner RMS Orvieto on 21 October 1914 . He participated in the landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915 , disembarking from the transport SS Minnewaska before 9 : 00 . His duties included supervising the engineer stores park on the beach at Anzac Cove , as well as the construction of jam tin grenades . He was evacuated twice for hospital treatment for enteric fever and for serious damage to his stomach lining from internal burns as a result of too much " Condy 's crystals " disinfectant being put into drinking water . As a result , he was to suffer stomach problems for the rest of his life . In July , Sturdee contracted influenza and was evacuated from Anzac Cove .
Sturdee was promoted to major on 28 August 1915 , and in September assumed command of the 5th Field Company , a unit raised in Egypt to support the newly formed 2nd Division . From then until the end of the campaign , he was responsible for all engineering and mining work at Steele 's , Quinn 's and Courtney 's Posts , three of the northernmost and most dangerous and exposed parts of the line . He departed Anzac Cove for the last time on 17 December 1915 , two days before the final evacuation .
= = = Western Front = = =
On returning to Egypt after the evacuation of Anzac , Sturdee assumed responsibility for the provision of hutting at the AIF reinforcement camp at Tel el Kebir . There was already another 5th Field Company in Egypt , which had been raised in Australia . Accordingly , Sturdee 's 5th Field Company was renumbered 8th , and assigned to the 5th Division when it was formed in February 1916 . This move gave the new division an experienced field company , but at the expense of items of the company 's mail going to France for a time and arriving back in Egypt marked " Not Fifth , try Eighth . "
The 5th Division moved to France in June 1916 , where it participated in the disastrous Battle of Fromelles in July . During the action , Sturdee 's 8th Field Company supported the 8th Infantry Brigade . A trench dug by the former facilitated the latter 's withdrawal across no man 's land . For his service at Gallipoli and Fromelles , he was mentioned in despatches , and awarded the Distinguished Service Order . Heavy losses in the fighting at Fromelles prevented the 5th Division from participating in the Battle of the Somme . To free up another division to participate , II ANZAC Corps organised " Franks Force " to take over a divisional frontage in the Houplines sector , and Sturdee became its Commander Royal Engineers ( CRE ) . When the 5th Division finally moved to the Somme sector in November , he became CRE in charge of the road from Albert to Montauban .
On 13 February 1917 , Sturdee was appointed to command the 4th Pioneer Battalion , with the rank of lieutenant colonel . Pioneer battalions were organised as infantry but contained a high percentage of tradesmen and were employed on construction tasks under engineer supervision . Over the next nine months the 4th Pioneer Battalion maintained roads , built camps , laid cables and dug trenches and dugouts . By 1917 , the Australian government was pushing strongly for British Army officers holding Australian commands and staff posts to be replaced by Australians . As part of this " Australianisation " of the Australian Corps , Sturdee became CRE of the 5th Division on 25 November 1917 , replacing a British Army officer . On 27 March 1918 , Sturdee was seconded to General Headquarters ( GHQ ) British Expeditionary Force as a staff officer , remaining there until 22 October 1918 . This provided a rare opportunity , for an Australian officer , of observing the workings of a major headquarters engaged in active operations . For his service on the Western Front , Sturdee was mentioned in despatches a second time , and appointed an Officer of the Order of the British Empire for his work at GHQ .
= = Between the wars = =
Sturdee embarked for Australia on 16 November 1918 , and his AIF appointment was terminated on 14 March 1919 . He was entitled to his AIF rank of lieutenant colonel as an honorary rank , but his substantive rank was still only that of a captain . He was given the brevet rank of lieutenant colonel on 1 January 1920 , but this did not become substantive until 1 April 1932 . Sturdee initially served as Senior Engineer Officer on the staff of the 3rd Military District at Victoria Barracks , Melbourne . In 1921 , he attended the Staff College at Quetta in British India . He was an instructor in military engineering and surveying at the Royal Military College , Duntroon from 16 February to 31 December 1924 , before returning to Melbourne to serve on the staff of the 4th Division until 26 March 1929 . Posted to the United Kingdom , he served at the War Office and attended the Imperial Defence College in 1931 . From 1 January 1931 to 31 December 1932 , he was the military representative at the High Commission of Australia in London .
Sturdee was Director of Military Operations and Intelligence at Army Headquarters in Melbourne from 14 February 1933 to 1 March 1938 , a period " when the Army was at rock bottom " , and then served as Director of Staff Duties until 12 October 1938 . He was given the brevet rank of colonel on 1 July 1935 ; this became temporary on 1 July 1936 and finally substantive on 1 July 1937 , over twenty years after he had become a lieutenant colonel in the AIF . He was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the New Year Honours in 1939 for his services on the Army Headquarters staff .
Like his predecessor as Director of Military Operations and Intelligence , Colonel John Lavarack , and many other officers , Sturdee had little faith in the government 's " Singapore strategy " , which aimed to deter Japanese aggression through the presence of a powerful British fleet based at Singapore . In 1933 , Sturdee told senior officers that the Japanese
would all be regulars , fully trained and equipped for the operations , and fanatics who like dying in battle , whilst our troops would consist mainly of civilians hastily thrown together on mobilisation with very little training , short of artillery and possibly of gun ammunition .
= = Second World War = =
= = = Defence of Australia = = =
In 1939 , the Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Ernest Squires , implemented a reorganisation of the Army in which the old military districts were replaced by larger commands led by lieutenant generals . On 13 October 1939 , Sturdee was promoted from colonel to lieutenant general and assumed control of the new Eastern Command . He had to supervise the raising , training and equipping of the new Second Australian Imperial Force units being formed in New South Wales , as well as the now @-@ conscript Militia .
On 1 July 1940 , Sturdee accepted a demotion to major general in order to become the commander of Second AIF 's newly raised 8th Division , receiving the Second AIF serial number NX35000 . His period in this command was brief . On 13 August 1940 , the Chief of the General Staff , General Sir Brudenell White , was killed in the Canberra air disaster . Sturdee was restored to his rank of lieutenant general and appointed Chief of the General Staff . As such , he was responsible for the training and maintenance of the AIF in the Middle East and the Far East — although not their operational control — and for the administration and training of the Militia .
As the prospect of war with Japan became more likely , so also did the need to make appropriate arrangements for leading the defence of Australia . In 1935 , Lavarack had recommended that in the event of war , the Military Board be abolished and its powers vested in a Commander @-@ in @-@ chief . In April 1941 , the Minister for the Army , Percy Spender , recommended that this now be done , with Sturdee becoming Commander in Chief of the Australian Military Forces . Instead , the government elected to adopt the British system , in which the Military Board ( or Army Council as it was called there ) continued to operate , with a separate GOC Home Forces . On 5 August 1941 , Major General Sir Iven Mackay was appointed to this newly created post . However , the idea of a Commander in Chief did not go away and editorials in the Sunday Telegraph and The Sydney Morning Herald advocated the appointment .
= = = East Indies campaign = = =
Sturdee attempted to defend the islands to the north of Australia as best he could . With only one AIF infantry brigade available , the 23rd , he could only afford to protect the islands most strategically important to the defence of Australia . He sent the 2 / 21st Infantry Battalion to Ambon , the 2 / 22nd to Rabaul , and the 2 / 40th Infantry Battalion and 2 / 2nd Independent Company to Timor . Sturdee knew that their prospects were slim but expected them " to put up the best possible defence " with what resources they had , and hopefully slow the Japanese advance to allow time for reinforcements to arrive in Australia . When there were doubts about the morale of one commander , Sturdee replaced him with a staff officer from Army Headquarters who volunteered for the position despite being well aware of the odds . All the garrisons were overrun after a spirited defence , except for the 2 / 2nd Independent Company , which managed to hold on in East Timor .
In February 1942 , on advice from Lavarack that the Dutch East Indies would soon fall , Sturdee urged the Australian government that the 17 @,@ 800 troops returning from the Middle East , originally bound for Java , be diverted to Australia . Sturdee contended that Java could not be held , and that Allied resources should instead be concentrated in an area from which an offensive could be launched . The best place for this , he argued , was Australia . When Prime Minister John Curtin backed his Chief of the General Staff , it brought him into conflict with British Prime Minister Winston Churchill and United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt , who suggested that the AIF be diverted to Burma . In the end , Curtin won his point , and subsequent events vindicated Sturdee 's appreciation of the situation . Official historian Lionel Wigmore concluded :
It is now evident that the 7th Division would have arrived only in time to help in the extraction from Pegu and to take part in the long retreat to India . In that event it could not have been returned to Australia , rested and sent to New Guinea in time to perform the crucial role it was to carry out in the defeat of the Japanese offensive which would open there in July , 1942 . The Allied cause therefore was well served in sound judgement and solid persistence of General Sturdee who maintained his advice against that of the Chiefs of Staff in London and Washington .
= = = Island campaigns = = =
In March 1942 , the Military Board was abolished and General Sir Thomas Blamey was appointed Commander in Chief . Blamey decided that after the hectic events of the previous months , Sturdee needed a rest and appointed him as Head of the Australian Military Mission to Washington , D.C. , where the war 's strategy was now being decided . Sturdee accepted on condition that after a year 's duty in Washington he would be appointed to an important command . In Washington , Sturdee represented Australia before the Combined Chiefs of Staff and managed to obtain the right of direct access to the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General George Marshall . For his services as Chief of the General Staff , Sturdee was made a Companion of the Order of the Bath on 1 January 1943 .
Sturdee returned to Australia and assumed command of the First Army on 1 March 1944 . His headquarters was initially located in Queensland , but on 2 October 1944 it commenced operations in Lae , and Sturdee assumed command of the troops in New Guinea . These included Lieutenant General Stanley Savige 's II Corps , with its headquarters at Torokina on Bougainville ; Major General Alan Ramsay 's 5th Division on New Britain ; Major General Jack Stevens ' 6th Division at Aitape ; and the 8th Infantry Brigade west of Madang . On 18 October , Blamey issued an operational instruction that defined the role of the First Army : " by offensive action to destroy enemy resistance as opportunity offers without committing major forces . "
Sturdee was concerned by this order 's ambiguity and sought clarification from Blamey . The Commander in Chief responded by stating that " my conception is that action must be of a gradual nature " involving the use of patrols to determine Japanese strengths and positions before large offensives were undertaken . The situation on New Britain was straightforward enough ; the enemy was known to be stronger than the Australian forces there — although it was not realised just how much stronger — and so the best that could be done was to eliminate small numbers of Japanese troops by aggressive patrolling . At Aitape , Stevens was tasked on the one hand with pushing the Japanese back far enough to protect the airfields ; but on the other , with not allowing the 6th Division to become heavily engaged since it might be required for use elsewhere . On Bougainville , Savige had the strength and ability to conduct a major campaign , but Blamey counselled caution .
Juggling a number of contradictory requirements , Sturdee had to conduct three widely separated campaigns , the Aitape – Wewak campaign , the New Britain campaign and the Bougainville Campaign , and do so with limited resources . Shipping , which was controlled by General Douglas MacArthur 's GHQ South West Pacific Area , was a source of " continual anxiety " . On 18 July 1945 , Sturdee wrote to Savige :
We are on rather a hair trigger with operations in Bougainville and in 6 Division area in view of the political hostility of the Opposition and the Press criticism of the policy of operations being followed in these areas . The general policy is out of our hands , but we must conduct our operations in the spirit of the role given us by C. in C. [ Blamey ] , the main essence of which is that we should attain our object with a minimum of Australian casualties . We have in no way been pressed on the time factor and to date have managed to defeat the Japs with very reasonable casualties considering the number of the Japs that have been eliminated .
Sturdee 's operations were effective . On Bougainville , at a cost of 516 Australian dead and 1 @,@ 572 wounded , Savige 's troops had occupied much of the island and killed 8 @,@ 500 Japanese ; another 9 @,@ 800 died from malnutrition and disease . On New Britain , where 74 Australians died and 140 were wounded , the heavily outnumbered 5th Division had overrun central New Britain . Meanwhile , the 6th Division at Aitape and Wewak had lost 442 dead and 1 @,@ 141 wounded while clearing the Japanese from the coast and driving them into the mountains , killing 9 @,@ 000 and taking 269 prisoners .
On 6 September 1945 , Sturdee received the surrender of Japanese forces in the First Army area from General Hitoshi Imamura , the commander of the Japanese Eighth Area Army , and Admiral Jinichi Kusaka , the commander of the South East Area Fleet , in a ceremony held on the deck of the British aircraft carrier HMS Glory at Rabaul . The two Japanese swords handed over in the surrender ceremony , together with the sword worn by Sturdee , which was his father 's , were presented to the Australian War Memorial by Lady Sturdee in 1982 . For his service in the final campaigns , Blamey recommended Sturdee for a knighthood , but this was reduced to a third mention in despatches .
= = Later life = =
In November 1945 , the Minister for the Army , Frank Forde , informed Blamey that the government had decided to re @-@ establish the Military Board and he should therefore vacate his office . Sturdee became acting Commander in Chief on 1 December 1945 . On 1 March 1946 , the post of Commander in Chief was abolished and Sturdee became Chief of the General Staff again . There was much work to be done ; the wartime Army had a strength of 383 @,@ 000 in August 1945 , of whom 177 @,@ 000 were serving outside Australia .
These troops had to be demobilised , but what should replace the wartime Army had not yet been determined . Sturdee and his Vice Chief of the General Staff , Lieutenant General Sydney Rowell , had to develop an appropriate structure . The proposal submitted to Cabinet called for national service , a regular army of 33 @,@ 000 and reserves of 42 @,@ 000 , but the government baulked at the £ 20m per annum price tag . A smaller force of 19 @,@ 000 regulars and 50 @,@ 000 reservists at a cost of £ 12.5m per annum was finally approved in 1947 . Conditions of service were also overhauled .
At the same time , the Army had to handle huge stockpiles of equipment , stores and supplies . Some were far in excess of the Army 's needs and had to be disposed of . Hospitals still had to be run , although some were transferred to the Department of Repatriation . The Army had to maintain its schools and training establishments . Moreover , the Army had to field and maintain part of the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan . Over next fifty years , operations would be conducted by the new Australian Regular Army
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a case of moving to a new technique , but more a case of incorporating new ideas with existing methods . " Evans praises the new puppets , describing them as " perfect in proportion " and commending the fact the electronic circitry was now in the puppets ' bodies .
Summing up Captain Scarlet as " better puppets , bigger action and a huge step backwards in stories " compared to Thunderbirds , Peel disputes the claim that the next generation of puppets mark a failure on the part of the series , arguing that the increased realism could not have deterred an audience familiar with the previous design . Although to his mind the characterisation was less endearing , Peel suggests that it is an over @-@ emphasis on the visual , at the expense of characterisation , that truly accounts for the reduced credibility of Captain Scarlet .
= = = Race , gender and symbolism = = =
During its 1993 UK repeat run , Captain Scarlet attracted attention with regard to the black @-@ and @-@ white dualism debate for its use of the codenames " White " to designate the head of Spectrum , Colonel White , and " Black " for the villainous Captain Black . Defending the series against the accusations of racism and political incorrectness , Anderson pointed out that Lieutenant Green , Melody Angel and Harmony Angel are among the heroes of the series in spite of their African and Asian backgrounds . Green is the only male black character to be given a substantial role in any series produced by Anderson .
In academic works , the diversity of the Spectrum personnel in terms of both race and gender has been viewed highly . Bould praises the series for its " beautiful , multiethnic , female Angel fighter pilots " and " secondary roles played by capable women . " In an interview conducted in 2003 , Anderson confirmed that a conscious effort was made to feature ethnic minorities : " ... I think people who make television programmes have a responsibility , particularly when children are watching avidly and you know their minds can be affected almost irreversibly as they grow up . We were very conscious of introducing different ethnic backgrounds . "
Guyanese actor Cy Grant , who voiced the character of Lieutenant Green and believed that Captain Scarlet had positive multicultural value , discussed the allegorical nature of the series . According to him , Christian symbolism was heavily implied , with Colonel White assuming the role of God , opposed by the Devil in the form of Captain Black and descended by Captain Scarlet , who serves as a Christ allegory ; moreover , Cloudbase represented Heaven and was guarded by its own fleet of Angels . Grant has also lionised Green as an African trickster hero . On dualism , he argued , " the ' darkness ' of the Mysterons is most easily seen as the psychological rift – the struggle of ' good ' and ' evil ' – of the Western world as personified by Colonel White and his team . Dark and light are but aspects of each other . Incidentally , green is the colour of nature that can heal that rift . "
= = Other media = =
Since the 1960s , the TV series has been supplemented by tie @-@ in merchandise , example products ranging from toy dolls to a driving @-@ themed video game , released for the PlayStation 2 platform in 2006 . The ATV game show The Golden Shot , presented by Bob Monkhouse , adopted Captain Scarlet as the theme for its 1967 Christmas special . Broadcast live on 23 December , the programme featured guest appearances from Francis Matthews and " The Spectrum " , who performed their latest single , " Headin ' for a Heatwave " .
= = = Audio episodes = = =
To complement the TV episodes , Century 21 released five further Captain Scarlet stories as vinyl record EPs , each running to approximately 21 minutes , and starring the original voice cast , in 1967 . TV Century 21 script editor Angus P. Allan wrote Introducing Captain Scarlet , Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons and Captain Scarlet of Spectrum , while Captain Scarlet is Indestructible and Captain Scarlet versus Captain Black were scripted by his assistant , Richard O 'Neill .
The first of the audio adventures , Introducing Captain Scarlet , is set during the dénouement to the pilot episode , The Mysterons . The plot mainly focuses on a military conference investigating the events of the episode , with the inclusion of audio flashbacks to provide exposition . At the conclusion to the adventure , it is revealed that the Mysteron duplicate of Captain Scarlet has returned to life and that Scarlet 's loyalty to Spectrum can be restored with the aid of the advanced computer that featured in the Andersons ' pilot script for " The Mysterons " .
= = = Books and comics = = =
In the late 1960s , three tie @-@ in novels were published under the pen name " John Theydon " , a pseudonym for author John William Jennison , titled Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons ( 1967 ) , Captain Scarlet and the Silent Saboteur ( 1967 ) and The Angels and the Creeping Enemy ( 1968 ) . As implied by its title , the third novel places the focus on the Spectrum Angels as the primary protagonists . Later , in 1993 , Young Corgi Books published four novelisations , targeted at children , based upon the original series episodes " The Mysterons " , " Lunarville 7 " , " Noose of Ice " and " The Launching " .
Captain Scarlet also formed the basis of three comic strips drawn for the weekly children 's comic , TV Century 21 . Spanning 17 issues ( numbers 141 – 157 ) from September 1967 to January 1968 , the strip adventures were written by Angus P. Allan with artwork by Ron Embleton , and were titled We Will Destroy Unity City , We Will Destroy the Observatory Network and We Shall Make Earth a Planet of Silence . Following the end of the TV series , the comic continued the story of the Captain Scarlet universe , with later strips revealing that the Mysterons deactivate their Martian complex and relinquish their control over Captain Black , while Scarlet himself leaves Spectrum to make use of his powers in the fight against Earth @-@ bound criminals and threats . The Mysterons ultimately re @-@ awaken , prompting Scarlet and Spectrum to resume their struggle .
A manga adaptation of the series , titled Captain Scarlet , ran in the Japanese Shōnen Book anthology from January to August 1968 . Century 21 published annuals based on the series between 1967 and 1969 , while the original Captain Scarlet comic strips were reprinted in the 1968 and 1969 editions of TV21 Annual . Further annuals , published in 1993 and 1994 by Grandreams , coincided with the BBC2 repeats of the TV episodes . In 2002 , Carlton Books released a new edition to accompany the digitally remastered broadcasts that had started in 2001 .
= = = Home video = = =
In the United Kingdom , Carlton Video commercially released the series , as both eight separate volumes and as a " Complete Series Box Set " , from September 2001 to March 2002 . Presented with the same remastered video and audio quality that was introduced for the BBC Two repeats of 2001 , the box set incorporates a ninth tape including The Indestructible Captain Scarlet , a special programme that describes Spectrum , the Mysterons and the events of the TV series . Earlier releases , marketed by PolyGram and " Channel 5 " , had numbered the episodes in an order different from that of the 1960s broadcasts and , in the case of the first two volumes , had added to them with the insertion of footage specially filmed for the ITC Captain Scarlet compilation films of the 1980s .
Since September 2001 , Captain Scarlet has also been available in five volumes on PAL Region 2 DVD , also marketed by Carlton , with a new Dolby 5 @.@ 1 Surround Sound sound mix to complement the original mono track . Special features for these releases include audio commentaries with Gerry Anderson for the episodes " The Mysterons " and " Attack on Cloudbase " , the five audio episodes from 1967 , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes production photos , information about original ITC advertising and merchandise , and 1960s TV spots . As with the VHS releases , the five DVD volumes have also received a box set edition , which incorporates a bonus sixth disc including Captain Scarlet S.I.G. ( a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary produced and presented by Gerry Anderson ) and five sets of alternative opening credits .
The special features of the four @-@ disc NTSC North American Region 1 edition of the box set , released by A & E Home Video in 2002 , are mostly similar to those of the Region 2 version , with the additions of a text @-@ based " Introduction to Captain Scarlet " and DVD @-@ ROM content . In 2004 , Imavision unveiled a French @-@ language edition of the box set aimed at the Canadian market . The set is also available in Japan on Region 2 ( as six discs ) and Australia on Region 4 ( as five discs ) .
On February 10 , 2015 , Shout ! Factory , through their deal with ITV , re @-@ released the complete series on DVD in America through Timeless Media Group containing the 2 Gerry Anderson commentaries , 3 Spotlight on Captain Scarlet featurettes , and a never @-@ before @-@ seen interview with Gerry Anderson about his early career .
VHS releases ( UK )
DVD releases
Blu @-@ ray release
= = = Video games = = =
= = Later productions = =
Distribution rights to much of the ITC Entertainment catalogue have been transferred since the 1980s , initially to PolyGram Entertainment , ( or " PolyGram Television " ) then Carlton International in the late 1990s after a partial sale to the BBC in 1991 . In 2004 , Carlton International merged into Granada International , the current rights holder , which in 2008 was renamed ITV Global Entertainment , a division of ITV plc . Theatrical release rights are held by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) . In addition to other projects , Gerry Anderson announced plans for a live @-@ action film adaptation of Captain Scarlet in 2000 and again in 2002 during the production of the Thunderbirds film released in 2004 , but the idea has not been developed since .
= = = Compilation films = = =
In 1980 , the New York offices of ITC , under the supervision of Robert Mandell , combined episodes from the original series to make two compilation films for American audiences , with the aim of reviving transatlantic syndication sales . This became common practice for Anderson productions during the 1980s , with made @-@ for @-@ television films comprising episodes of Stingray and Thunderbirds airing to US cable audiences under the generic promotional banner of " Super Space Theater " . On 24 November 1988 , the second Captain Scarlet film , Revenge of the Mysterons from Mars , was broadcast as the second episode of the American television series Mystery Science Theater 3000 , from Minneapolis , on station KTMA .
= = = CGI test film and series = = =
In 1999 , Gerry Anderson supervised the production of a short computer @-@ animated test film , Captain Scarlet and the Return of the Mysterons , to explore the possibility of updating a number of his 1960s Supermarionation series for a 21st @-@ century audience . The working title was Captain Scarlet – The New Millennium . Produced in London by the Moving Picture Company , the film features Francis Matthews and Ed Bishop reprising the roles of Captains Scarlet and Blue . Made using a combination of Maya 3D computer graphics software and motion @-@ capture technology , the plot commences a few years after the Mysterons end their hostilities against Earth , but the reappearance of Captain Black sets the stage for a revival of the war with Mars . Although the film has yet to receive a home video release , it was publicly screened at a Fanderson convention in 2000 and at a science lecture in 2001 .
Plans for a full CGI Captain Scarlet television series to follow the test film finally resulted in Gerry Anderson 's New Captain Scarlet . A reboot of the original series , this was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on the Saturday @-@ morning CITV programme , Ministry of Mayhem , from 12 February 2005 . Produced by " Anderson Entertainment " and the " Indestructible Production Company " , the animation used to create the series is billed in the credits as " Hypermarionation " to acknowledge the 1960s puppet technique , Supermarionation .
= Watsessing Avenue ( NJT station ) =
Watsessing Avenue ( also known as Watsessing ) is a New Jersey Transit rail station in Bloomfield , New Jersey , along the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line . It is located beneath the Bloomfield Police Benevolent Association meeting hall ( which formerly served as the station building ) near the corner of Watsessing Avenue and Orange Street in Bloomfield . It is one of two stations on the line where the boarding platform is below ground level ( the Glen Ridge Station , two stops away from it , is the other ) . The Watsessing station and the Kingsland station in Lyndhurst on the Main Line shared similar designs ( both station platforms are located below street level ) and were built about the same time .
The current Glen Ridge , Bloomfield and Watsessing stations along the Montclair branch were all built in 1912 during a grade separation program by the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad . During New Jersey Transit 's running of the line , two stations between Watsessing and Newark Broad Street were closed due to low ridership — the Roseville Avenue station in Newark , at the junction with the Morristown Line on September 16 , 1984 , and Ampere Station in East Orange on April 7 , 1991 . The word " Watsessing " is a Native American term that translates to " mouth of the creek " .
The station has been on the New Jersey State Historic Preservation Office listings since March 25 , 1998 , the last of the four stations from East Orange to Glen Ridge to receive the listing . On September 14 , 2005 , the entire Montclair Branch was added to the same listings , although Ampere , Bloomfield and Glen Ridge stations have been on the listings since March 17 , 1984 .
= = Station layout and services = =
Watsessing Avenue station is located on the corner of Watsessing Avenue and Orange Street at Westinghouse Plaza in Bloomfield and is just blocks from Bloomfield 's borders with East Orange and Orange . The former depot is currently used by the Bloomfield Police Benevolent Association . There are two below @-@ street @-@ level platforms at the Watsessing station . Ticket vending machines are available at street level on Watsessing Avenue and a $ 5 surcharge applies if riders buy them on the train ; the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line added vending machines to the remaining stations that did not have them in 2011 .
The Watsessing Avenue station is not handicap accessible . The two nearest accessible stations are Newark Broad Street Station , which is located one stop away from Watsessing Avenue , and Bay Street Station , which is located three stops away in Montclair , New Jersey . The station also has two parking lots for use . Maintained by the Bloomfield Parking Authority , the first is on Westinghouse Plaza ( near the former Westinghouse Lamp Plant ) and has fourteen parking spaces . The parking uses daily parking rules , paying six days a week at $ 0 @.@ 25 an hour , except for Sunday , when parking is free . A second lot is available at the intersection of Myrtle Street and Walnut Street . It has forty @-@ five parking spots , two of which are handicap accessible . The lot also contains permit spaces six days a week and free on Sundays , with a cost of $ 20 parking per quarter ( three months ) .
= = History = =
= = = Delaware , Lackawanna and Western ownership ( 1856 – 1976 ) = = =
The history of a station at Watsessing Avenue in the Watsessing district of Bloomfield dates back to the Newark and Bloomfield Railroad , established in 1856 . The station , a houseless station off of Dodd Street , was deemed first as Doddtown by a railroad conductor . This name soon gave way to Watsessing , and in 1865 , the line was bought by the Morris and Essex Railroad , running through trains . The Morris and Essex Railroad was soon bought out by the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad , and a new station was built , deemed Watsessing .
In 1911 , as the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad continued the project of eliminating at @-@ grade crossings between streets and railroads , the Montclair Branch was the next to receive the structural change . Bloomfield criticized the Lackawanna railroad for making a disgrace of the community . The railroad proposed using $ 700 @,@ 000 ( 1911 USD ) of funds to construct a brand new station at Watsessing Avenue along with a new downtown Bloomfield Station . The cost of elevating and depressing the railroad came up to about $ 20 @,@ 000 ( 1911 USD ) for the Lackawanna . This contract by the railroad and township was approved after negotiations dating back to 1908 . The negotiations included a park to be built between both stations on both sides of the railroad . The park land cost the township $ 50 @,@ 000 to buy for the construction , and it was to be turned over to the Essex County Park Commission .
Construction was completed on a 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) long segment of the Montclair Branch from East Orange to Glen Ridge and was opened to rail service on November 15 , 1912 . The project laid 91 pounds ( 41 kg ) of track in addition to steel ties and stone ballast . The station has concrete crossings at Dodd Street , Arlington Avenue and Watsessing Avenue along with a new crossing of the Erie Railroad 's Orange Branch just south of the station . The design of Watsessing Avenue 's new station was difficult due to the limited right @-@ of @-@ way . While making the separation , a new trench had to be dug , which included retaining walls that prevented moving the existing track alignment to delay railroad traffic . When the station was finished , tracks were shifted to make room for a second track . The station depot was built over the railroad tracks with four concrete arches to support the building . A four @-@ inch ( 10 cm ) ceiling was constructed on the arches , and the station was widened to take more volume of train service .
The station served as the third station on the Montclair Branch , which was first electrified by technology created by Thomas Alva Edison in 1930 . The overhead catenary wires were installed , making the line the first electrically run line on the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western alignment . The station remained in service for the Lackawanna Railroad for three more decades , when the railroad merged with the Erie Railroad on October 17 , 1960 . Although the now Erie @-@ Lackawanna Railway continued to run the Montclair Branch , it reduced service , reducing the once two @-@ rail alignment to one lone track , and removed most of the tracks at Lackawanna Terminal in Montclair . On April 1 , 1976 , the station was transferred to the Consolidated Rail Corporation ( Conrail ) as the Erie @-@ Lackawanna Railway was dissolved into the Conrail program .
= = = New Jersey Transit and historical status ( 1979 – present ) = = =
In 1979 , New Jersey Transit was formed to run bus and train service in place of Conrail and the New Jersey Department of Transportation . In 1983 , New Jersey Transit took over rail service from Conrail , and just one year later , the line became a temporary diesel rail line when the overhead catenary wires had to be adjusted for conversion to higher electrical voltage . The station itself was still the third on the Montclair Branch , but the line now ran into a new station at Bay Street in Montclair . On March 17 , 1984 all stations on the Montclair Branch but the Roseville Avenue station in Newark , Bay Street and Watsessing Avenue were added to the State Register of Historic Places . The same would occur on June 22 , 1984 at the national level with Ampere , Glen Ridge and Bloomfield Stations being added to the National Register of Historic Places . On September 16 , 1984 , Roseville Avenue station was closed , and just over six years later , on April 7 , 1991 , Ampere station in East Orange was closed . Since then , Watsessing Avenue has been the first station New Jersey Transit has served on the Montclair Branch , although East Orange has proposed reopening the station at Ampere as part of a redevelopment plan for the Ampere district .
On March 25 , 1998 , the station at Watsessing Avenue was given the State Historical Preservation Organization honor that Ampere , Glen Ridge and Bloomfield stations received just fourteen years prior . The station continued to receive service through the opening of Montclair Connection on September 30 , 2002 , which ended service as the Montclair Branch and began as the Montclair @-@ Boonton Line , still the first station on the line after Newark Broad Street Station . On September 10 , 2007 , New Jersey Transit announced the canopies of the old station , then 95 years old , were to be restored and repaired . The service contracted a $ 1 @.@ 7 million project to Watertrol Incorporated of Cranford . At that time , the station served an average of 200 people daily . Improvements for the station included brand new canopy lighting , repairs to the cantilever canopies , replacement of stairways and fencing , along with changing roof tiles and a new drainage system to replace the 1912 version . When the construction was finished in October 2008 , the station now served nearly 450 people daily on average . A ceremony to mark its completion was held on October 30 , 2008 .
= The Trouble with Tribbles =
" The Trouble with Tribbles " is the 44th episode of the American science fiction television series , Star Trek , the 15th episode of the second season . It was first broadcast in the United States on December 29 , 1967 , on NBC . The episode was the first professional work of writer David Gerrold , and went through a variety of drafts before it reached the screen . Because of an error in the size of typeface , an approved version needed to be reduced by twenty pages before filming . Nichelle Nichols remarked that she had " never seen a script go through so many changes — and stay so much the same " . " The Trouble with Tribbles " was directed by Joseph Pevney , who was one of the most prolific directors of the series .
In this episode , the starship Enterprise arrives at Deep Space Station K7 to guard a consignment of grain bound for Sherman 's Planet . On arrival , a trader named Cyrano Jones ( Stanley Adams ) gives Lt. Uhura ( Nichelle Nichols ) a tribble , with dramatic consequences . Captain James T. Kirk and the crew also have to deal with the arrival of Captain Koloth ( William Campbell ) and his Klingon battlecruiser , but the tribbles unexpectedly reveal a plot to poison the grain .
Around 1 @,@ 500 tribbles were created for the episode , with special tribbles created for certain purposes with beanbags or surgical balloons inserted in them . Three additional sets were created for the episode , although there were problems with finding enough matching chairs for the trading post area . The chairs had to be pulled out of showrooms around Los Angeles County , and Pevney was warned to make sure they weren 't damaged during the episode 's brawl scene . William Campbell had previously appeared as Trelane in " The Squire of Gothos " and was intended to be a recurring villain as Koloth . Because of his other work commitments , these plans were not followed up on until he returned as Koloth in the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Blood Oath " in 1994 . William Schallert appeared as Nilz Baris , and later appeared as a Bajoran in the DS9 episode " Sanctuary " .
While initial fan reaction to the episode was mixed , it was more popular with the general public . Critical response to the episode was positive , and it was nominated for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation which instead went to fellow Star Trek episode " The City on the Edge of Forever " . It has since been included in several " best of " episode lists and features , including as part of the Best of DVD collection alongside three other episodes . It has also been released as part of the season two DVD box set .
" The Trouble with Tribbles " was intended to have a third @-@ season follow @-@ up episode , but it was not completed . The follow @-@ up episode was developed for Star Trek : The Animated Series as " More Tribbles , More Troubles " . Gerrold explained that the episode was almost uncut from the original premise . To celebrate the 30th anniversary of Star Trek in 1996 , the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Trials and Tribble @-@ ations " used digital techniques to insert the Deep Space Nine actors into the events of " The Trouble with Tribbles " . Gerrold appeared on @-@ screen as an extra , and the episode was nominated for three Emmy Awards and also for the Hugo Award for Best Dramatic Presentation .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise is called to Deep Space Station K7 by a distress call . It is near Sherman 's Planet , a world whose ownership is under dispute between the Federation and the Klingon Empire . On arrival , Captain James T. Kirk ( William Shatner ) becomes furious when he finds out the reason for the distress call , which was made by Nilz Baris ( William Schallert ) , the under @-@ secretary of agriculture for the sector : Baris wants someone to guard the shipments of quadrotriticale ( related to triticale ) grain bound for Sherman 's Planet , since quadrotriticale is the only Earth grain that would grow on Sherman 's Planet and thus is required to resolve the ownership issue . Kirk assigns two crewmen to guard the grain , but afterwards he finds out the Starfleet Command share Baris ' concerns . In addition , a Klingon ship commanded by Captain Koloth ( William Campbell ) arrives , who requests permission for his crew to board K7 for shore leave . Kirk agrees , but limits the number of Klingons at any one time and they must travel under Starfleet guard while on the station .
Meanwhile , an independent trader , Cyrano Jones ( Stanley Adams ) , arrives on the station with some tribbles . He gives one to Lt. Uhura ( Nichelle Nichols ) , who brings it on board the Enterprise , where it and its quickly produced offspring are treated as adorable pets . The animals purr a relaxing trill that the crew find soothing . Klingons , however , find tribbles annoying , and the feeling is mutual : tribbles hiss and shriek whenever they are near Klingons .
Doctor Leonard McCoy ( DeForest Kelley ) is concerned that the increasing numbers of tribbles threaten to consume all the onboard supplies . It is discovered that they are entering ship systems , interfering with their functions and consuming any edible contents present . Kirk realizes that if the tribbles are getting into the ship 's stores , then they are a threat to the grain aboard the station . He examines the holds but learns that it is already too late : The tribbles have indeed eaten the quadrotriticale , and Kirk is literally buried in grain @-@ gorged tribbles when he opens a grain hold with an overhead hatch . Spock ( Leonard Nimoy ) and McCoy discover that about half the tribbles in the hold are dead and many of the rest are dying , alerting them that the grain has been poisoned .
Baris stubbornly holds Kirk responsible for this apparent fiasco , and Koloth additionally demands an apology from Kirk after some of the Enterprise crew were provoked into a brawl with the Klingons in the station 's bar . However , the tribbles incidentally give away the identity of a Klingon agent masquerading as a human : Arne Darvin ( Charlie Brill ) , Baris ' own assistant . He had infected the grain with a virus that becomes an inert material in an organism 's bloodstream which eventually prevents the organism from taking in enough nourishment to survive .
After Darvin 's exposure and arrest , Cyrano Jones is ordered to remove the tribbles from the station ( a task that Spock estimates will take 17 @.@ 9 years ) or he will be imprisoned for 20 years for transporting a dangerous life form off its native planet . Just before the Klingons depart , all the tribbles on the Enterprise are transported onto the Klingon vessel by Chief Engineer Montgomery Scott ( James Doohan ) where , in his words , " they 'll be no tribble at all . "
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
Writer David Gerrold had been a fan of science fiction since he was a child . When Star Trek was first broadcast , he was concerned that it might turn into something similar to Lost in Space , which he described as " one full @-@ color hour of trash reaching into millions of homes " . His first story outline was sent into Star Trek after his agent suggested that he waited until the shows started to air under the theory that the show might drop an existing episode in favor of a better script . The story was entitled " Tomorrow is Yesterday " and was about the Enterprise coming across a generation ship which had descended into a two @-@ tier class system . His agent received a rejection letter from producer Gene L. Coon dated October 3 , 1966 . The letter stated that the " outline was by no means inadequate . It is , as a matter of fact , very adequate . " It went on to say that it would require a budget larger than that available to television , but would have made a good film treatment . Coon offered to meet with Gerrold and explain what they were looking for , because they were not purchasing scripts at that time .
Coon suggested that Gerrold should wait until the following February to see if the show was renewed for a second season . They also discussed several story ideas , including some small furry creatures that bred too quickly . Coon thought it was a cute idea but would be too expensive as they 'd have to build each creature . In preparation for the second series submission , by January , Gerrold had put together five premises to pitch . He had his best hopes on two treatments called " Bandi " and " The Protracted Man " , but decided to submit his fifth story despite Coon 's earlier dismissal of the idea . It was called " The Fuzzies " . The idea was based on the introduction of rabbits in Australia in 1859 , who reproduced at a vastly increased rate owing to the lack of predators .
The initial premise placed the story on a space station to avoid the ecological damage that the creatures would have on a planet . However , Gerrold 's agent was concerned that requiring a miniature of the station to be built as well as the additional sets would cause it to be too expensive for a single episode . Because of his agents comments , Gerrold modified the pitch to place the action on a colony planet instead . This pitch included the plot points such as the creatures getting into a poisoned grain storage , but omitted the Klingons and Cyrano Jones was called Cyrano Smith . The five pitches were submitted by Gerrold 's agent in February 1967 , and received a response in June . At the time the show had already purchased too many scripts for the second season but story editor D. C. Fontana suggested that they should purchase the story and assign it to a staff writer as it was better than some of the other stories they already had .
At the time that Coon got in touch , Gerrold had just been employed at CBS as a typist working on scripts such as the pilot of Hawaii Five @-@ O. As soon as he got the response , he quit the job . Gerrold and Coon met once more , and revealed that the network had recently made a request for more episodes based on other planets . Coon told Gerrold to work up a further pitch . This version of the story added the Klingons , and moved the action from planetside to a space station . During a visit to the set , Gerrold had the opportunity to speak to Leonard Nimoy and ask his advice on how to write for Spock and was allowed to watch the dailies from each day 's shoot of the episode " The Doomsday Machine " which was being filmed at the time . This version of the story was entitled " A Fuzzy Thing Happened to Me ... " , which was purchased by Coon as a plot outline . He offered Gerrold a chance to write the script himself , by promising not to hand it to another writer for a month . But he made it clear that he was not offering Gerrold for a script , but giving him the option of submitting a draft .
Gerrold turned around the first draft script in two and a half days . Both Coon and Associate Producer Robert Justman gave feedback on the script , and pointed out a few gaps such as there needing to be some way in the plot for the crew to discover that Darvin was a Klingon agent . The following draft had Cyrano Jones discover that Darvin was an agent , which Coon thought wasn 't " punchy " enough . It was then re @-@ written so that the fuzzies were allergic to Klingons . Both Gerrold and Coon thought the idea was " trite ... shtick ... hokey " and " had been done before " . but Coon agreed that it was the direction the story should go . The re @-@ write of the script took a further week .
On a further visit to the set , Gerrold was called into Coon 's office . He was informed that he needed to change the name of the fuzzies as the legal department was concerned about similarities in the name with H. Beam Piper 's 1962 novel Little Fuzzy . He subsequently came up with a variety of alternative names . Through a process of elimination , he ended up with the name " tribble " . He took the name to Coon , who hated it . But after seeing the alternatives , he agreed to it . Gerrold turned in the script on July 17 , entitled " You Think You 've Got Tribbles ... ? " , which while despite Coon disliking the name , he bought it on behalf of the show . Such was the volume of subsequent edits made to the script by Coon , that Gerrold thought he should have been given a co @-@ credit . The problems were caused by the 12 point Elite typeface ( 12 characters per inch ) that Gerrold 's typewriter had used . Coon had approved only the second re @-@ write of the script after it was purchased , but when it was re @-@ typed in the standard 10 point Pica typeface ( 10 characters per inch ) , it ballooned to eighty pages . This meant that some twenty pages needed to be cut from the script .
Scenes which were cut from the script included the Enterprise chasing after Jones in his vessel , and resulted in the scene where Kirk has tribbles tumbling onto him while in the grain locker . Gerrold later explained that this process " tightened up the story and made for a better series of gags " . Nichelle Nichols said to Gerrold " I 've never seen a script go through so many changes – and stay so much the same " . The proposed title " You Think You 've Got Tribbles ... ? " had to be discarded after a Shulman short story was discovered with the title " You Think You 've Got Troubles ? " ( upon which the third @-@ season The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis episode " Dig , Dig , Dig " was based ) , which could possibly have presented a copyright infringement . The episode was then renamed " The Trouble with Tribbles " . The producers liked the result so much that Gerrold was later tasked with re @-@ writing the script for " I , Mudd " , but didn 't take any credit on the final script as he didn 't want to take the credit from Stephen Kandel , the creator of Harry Mudd .
Gerrold worked on " I , Mudd " before " The Trouble with Tribbles " began to film . He was surprised one morning when he was handed a copy of the tribbles script and told to sign it for Robert A. Heinlein . It turned out that the tribbles in the episode resembled the Martian flat cats in Heinlein 's 1952 novel The Rolling Stones . Gerrold was concerned that he had inadvertently plagiarized the novel which he had read fifteen years before . These concerns were brought up by a research team , who suggested that the rights to the novel should be purchased from Heinlein . One of the producers phoned Heinlein , who only asked for a signed copy of the script and later sent a note to Gerrold after it aired to thank him for the script . The grain mentioned in the script , triticale , was a fairly new invention at the time of the episode . However , the expectations of the show in that it would be revolutionary were not realised and it was eventually used as animal feed only . This changed in 2009 , the Canadian Government invested $ 15 million in research to find out if the grain had potential for use as a biofuel .
= = = Filming = = =
The use of live animals to represent the tribbles was immediately ruled out . The inspiration for the form of the tribble instead came from a fluffy keyring owned by Holly Sherman . Sherman 's Planet in this episode was subsequently named after her . The design came from Wah Chang , but they were individually sewn by Jacqueline Cumeré . She was paid $ 350 to sew five hundred tribbles from synthetic fur and stuff them with foam rubber . Six special tribbles were made which were converted from toy dogs . Unfortunately the toys were quite noisy which required the sound track to be looped in during editing . Other tribbles were created by Jim Rugg out of beanbags for when it was required for one to sit on a person or object , and the breathing tribbles were hollow with surgical balloons inserted . In total , some 1 @,@ 500 tribbles were created for the episode . Some of these tribbles were later displayed at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington D.C. in 1992 . The sale at Christie 's auction house in 2006 included tribbles from this episode as part of a larger Star Trek sale . Because of the synthetic fur technology of the 1960s , relatively few original tribbles exist as of 2010 because the fur fell out over time and they went bald . An original tribble was sold at auction in 2003 for $ 1 @,@ 000 .
Filming began during the second week of August 1967 . Three temporary sets and a portion of corridor were constructed for specific use in this episode , which included the large trading post set . The chairs in that set were a problem , as the set designers wanted 24 matching chairs and decided that folding ones wouldn 't do . John M. Dwyer sourced them from a local company , but the numbers required meant that they had to be pulled out of showrooms from all over the county . When it came to the fight scene in the episode , Dwyer warned director Joseph Pevney not to damage the chairs . That scene was filmed twice after a cameraman with a handheld camera wandered onto the set . The scene where Kirk is covered with tribbles in the grain container needed to be filmed eight times , using all five hundred sewn tribbles . Gerrold had expected that scene to be cut at some point during production , as he thought that William Shatner wouldn 't agree to it . He said that Shatner was the " consummate professional and I believe he was eager to show off his comic abilities " .
Pevney was pleased with the outcome of the shoot , calling the episode " a delightful show from beginning to end " . In addition to directing , Pevney also sourced some of the parts to create the tribbles and was directly responsible for the casting of Stanley Adams . He had pushed for the episode to be made as he recalled that there was some resistance at the time against making a comedy @-@ style episode . These types of episodes were unusual for the series , as only " The Trouble with Tribbles " and " A Piece of the Action " were considered to be comedic episodes from season two . Pevney was one of
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, but " was really excited , too [ because it ] was a different direction for a season premiere [ that he ] felt the fans would probably dig " . In the mental institution , Hurley is seen painting a picture of an Inuit man and an igloo . This was painted by Garcia . When the episode was broadcast , Christian appeared in Jacob 's cabin ; however , the scene was shot with another Hurley inside . Additionally , when Garcia was filming his interrogation scene in an aquarium , he was unaware that Charlie would be swimming outside and breaking the glass in the finished product . Charlie 's swim was filmed weeks after the rest of the episode had been shot , alongside production of " Meet Kevin Johnson " and the Lost : Missing Pieces mobisodes in late November 2007 . The scene was filmed with stunt double Jake Kilfoyle at the Looking Glass set that was previously used for the third season episodes titled " Greatest Hits " and " Through the Looking Glass " .
Most Lost episodes feature crossovers and " Easter eggs " — intentionally hidden clues and references to the show 's mythology — and " The Beginning of the End " is no exception . Despite being dead , Christian appears for a couple of seconds in Jacob 's cabin with no dialogue . Big Mike , who appears in Ana Lucia 's flashbacks in the second season episode " Collision " , returns in Hurley 's flashforward . Randy Nations ( Billy Ray Gallion ) appears in a few seconds with no dialogue , videotaping Hurley 's arrest . When Hurley hallucinates that Charlie is swimming outside the interrogation room , Charlie has " they need you " written on his hand . This is what Charlie tells Hurley later in the episode .
Due to production of the fourth season being put on hold due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , the show runners wanted to hold the eight episodes that had been completed until they were able to make more of the season . ABC decided against this and announced that " The Beginning of the End " would be aired at the end of January 2008 , regardless of when the strike was to end . This was the first Lost episode to be aired on Thursday at 9 : 00 pm ET , a competitive and prestigious timeslot normally occupied by Grey 's Anatomy ; previous episodes had been aired on Wednesdays . Like the previous Lost season premieres , " The Beginning of the End " was scheduled for an outdoor premiere at Sunset on the Beach in Waikiki , Honolulu , where movies are regularly shown on a 30 @-@ foot ( 9 m ) screen free to the public , but it was cancelled due to the writers ' strike . The original television broadcast of the episode was immediately preceded by a clip @-@ show titled " Lost : Past , Present & Future " .
= = Reception = =
Don Williams of BuddyTV dubbed " The Beginning of the End " " the most anticipated season premiere of the year " . It was watched by approximately 16 @.@ 137 million American viewers live or within six hours with a 6 @.@ 7 / 17 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic , bringing in the best Nielsen ratings for Lost in seventeen episodes and ranking Lost eighth in the weekly charts . The episode was watched by a total of 17 @.@ 766 million viewers live or recorded and watched within seven days of broadcast and this number went toward the year @-@ end average . In Canada , " The Beginning of the End " was seen by 1 @.@ 855 million viewers , making Lost the sixth most watched program of the week . It brought in an audience almost double the size of that of the previous episode and greater than any third season episode , with the exception of the season premiere . The fourth season premiere was successful in the United Kingdom with 1 @.@ 1 million viewers . In Australia , Lost was the fifteenth most watched show of the night with 912 000 viewers , which was deemed disappointing by David Dale of The Sun @-@ Herald .
American critics were sent screener DVDs of " The Beginning of the End " and " Confirmed Dead " on January 28 , 2008 . Metacritic gave the episode a Metascore — a weighted average based on the impressions of a select twelve critical reviews — of 87 . Robert Bianco of USA Today wrote that " returning with a heart @-@ stopping , perfectly pitched episode ... Lost is an oasis in a strike @-@ parched TV desert . " Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times described " The Beginning of the End " as an " emotion @-@ churning chemical dump right in the old brain stem — horror , hysteria , regret , adrenaline and what ... will happen next ? " Adam Buckman of the New York Post gave the episode four out of four stars . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune " blissfully enjoyed every minute " and noted that " there aren 't any faults " . Diane Werts of Newsday raved the episode as " superb " and " insanely entertain [ ing ] " and concluded her review with " Lost seems to have found itself " . Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle declared that it and " Confirmed Dead " " are roller coasters of fast action and revelation [ that are ] good to see " . Matthew Gilbert of The Boston Globe pointed out that " Lost can still make the pulse race and the brain tingle ... [ and ] remains TV 's most gripping serial " . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger was unsure " if Lost is ever going to give satisfying answers to its many , many remaining mysteries ... but when it 's as scary and hilarious and moving and exciting as these two episodes , I 'm okay with that . " In less positive reviews , Rodney Ho of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution called it " a satisfactory return episode with a fair share of drama and pathos ... [ that ] provides just enough revelations to keep fans hungry for more " and David Hinckley of the Daily News rated the episode with three stars out of a possible five .
Brian Lowry of Variety said that " Lost 's return goes down like a welcome tonic as scripted TV fades to black ... providing an unusually generous array of juicy moments for the large ( and , at times , neglected ) cast . " Mark Medley of the National Post called it " a brilliant season premiere " with multiple " jaw @-@ dropping moments " . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly felt that the premiere was mind @-@ blowing and featured good acting by Garcia . Frazier Moore of the Associated Press wrote that " Lost is further upping the ante , and heightening the pressure on us as the show 's vast mythology continues to metastasize . " Kristin Dos Santos of E ! called it " so well written , produced , acted and directed it felt like a movie " . Michael Ausiello of TV Guide described it as " easily one of the best hours of TV so far this season . " Bruce Fretts of TV Guide responded well to Reddick 's performance . Chris Carabott of IGN gave the episode 9 @.@ 1 / 10 , stating that it was " a great start to what promises to be an exciting ... season 4 . The momentum and pacing is on par with last season 's finale " . LTG of Television Without Pity graded it as an " A – " . Jon Lachonis of UGO gave the episode an " A + " , calling it " a crushingly emotional , action packed introduction ... [ which proves ] that ... Lost 's groundbreaking protean form still has plenty of blinding ways to dazzle and entertain in a way that is nonetheless unique unto itself . " Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV wrote that " the episode was pretty much a masterpiece " . Daniel of TMZ graded it as an " A " , saying that it was perfect and set up the rest of the season well .
= HMS Indefatigable ( R10 ) =
HMS Indefatigable was an Implacable @-@ class aircraft carrier built for the Royal Navy ( RN ) during World War II . She was completed in 1944 , and her aircraft made several attacks that year against the German battleship Tirpitz , inflicting only light damage ; they also raided targets in Norway . The ship was transferred to the British Pacific Fleet ( BPF ) at the end of the year and attacked Japanese @-@ controlled oil refineries in Sumatra in January 1945 before joining the American forces in March as they prepared to invade the island of Okinawa in Operation Iceberg . Indefatigable and the BPF joined the Americans in attacking the Japanese Home Islands in July and August . Following the end of hostilities she visited ports in Australia , New Zealand and South Africa .
After returning to the UK in early 1946 , Indefatigable was modified for transport duties , and ferried troops and civilians for the rest of the year before she was reduced to reserve . She was recommissioned in 1950 as a training ship for service with the Home Fleet Training Squadron , participating in exercises and making several port visits overseas . The Board of Admiralty decided that she was redundant in early 1954 and decommissioned her later that year . Indefatigable was sold for scrap the following year .
= = Design and description = =
The Implacable class were ordered under the 1938 Naval Programme by the Chamberlain government as part of the general rearmament begun in response to the rise of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy . The design originated as an improved version of the Illustrious @-@ class aircraft carriers and was intended to be 2 knots ( 3 @.@ 7 km / h ; 2 @.@ 3 mph ) faster and carry an additional dozen aircraft over the 30 @-@ knot ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) speed and 36 aircraft of the earlier ships . To remain within the 23 @,@ 000 long tons ( 23 @,@ 000 t ) limit allowed by the Second London Naval Treaty , these improvements could only be made by reducing armour protection . Indefatigable was 766 feet 6 inches ( 233 @.@ 6 m ) long overall and 730 feet ( 222 @.@ 5 m ) at the waterline . Her beam was 95 feet 9 inches ( 29 @.@ 2 m ) at the waterline , and she had a draught of 29 feet 4 inches ( 8 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . The Implacable @-@ class ships were significantly overweight and displaced 32 @,@ 110 long tons ( 32 @,@ 630 t ) at deep load . The ships had metacentric heights of 4 @.@ 06 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) at light load and 6 @.@ 91 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load as completed . Indefatigable 's complement was approximately 2 @,@ 300 officers and enlisted men in 1945 .
The ships had four Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one shaft , using steam supplied by eight Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 148 @,@ 000 shp ( 110 @,@ 000 kW ) , enough to give the Indefatigable @-@ class ships a maximum speed of 32 @.@ 5 knots ( 60 @.@ 2 km / h ; 37 @.@ 4 mph ) . On sea trials , Indefatigable reached speeds of 32 @.@ 06 knots ( 59 @.@ 38 km / h ; 36 @.@ 89 mph ) with 150 @,@ 935 shp ( 112 @,@ 552 kW ) . She carried a maximum of 4 @,@ 810 long tons ( 4 @,@ 890 t ) of fuel oil which gave her a range of 6 @,@ 900 nautical miles ( 12 @,@ 800 km ; 7 @,@ 900 mi ) at 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) .
The 760 @-@ foot ( 231 @.@ 6 m ) armoured flight deck had a maximum width of 102 feet ( 31 @.@ 1 m ) . A single hydraulic aircraft catapult was fitted on the forward part of the flight deck . The Implacable @-@ class carriers were equipped with two lifts on the centreline , the forward of which measured 45 by 33 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 by 10 @.@ 1 m ) and served only the upper hangar , and the aft lift ( 45 by 22 feet ( 13 @.@ 7 by 6 @.@ 7 m ) ) , which served both hangars . The upper hangar was 458 feet ( 139 @.@ 6 m ) long and the lower hangar was 208 feet ( 63 @.@ 4 m ) long ; both had a maximum width of 62 feet ( 18 @.@ 9 m ) . Each hangar had a height of only 14 feet which precluded storage of Lend @-@ Lease Vought F4U Corsair fighters as well as many post @-@ war aircraft and helicopters . Designed to stow 48 aircraft in their hangars , the use of a permanent deck park allowed the Implacable class to accommodate up to 81 aircraft . The additional crewmen , maintenance personnel and facilities needed to support these aircraft were housed in the lower hangar . The ships were provided with 94 @,@ 650 imperial gallons ( 430 @,@ 300 l ; 113 @,@ 670 US gal ) of aviation gasoline .
= = = Armament , electronics and protection = = =
The ship 's main armament consisted of sixteen quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 114 mm ) dual @-@ purpose guns in eight twin @-@ gun turrets , four in sponsons on each side of the hull . Unlike the Illustrious @-@ class ships , the roofs of the gun turrets were flat and flush with the flight deck . The gun had a maximum range of 20 @,@ 760 yards ( 18 @,@ 980 m ) . Indefatigable 's light anti @-@ aircraft defences included five octuple mounts for QF 2 @-@ pounder ( " pom @-@ pom " ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , two on the flight deck forward of the island , one on the aft part of the island , and two in sponsons on the port side of the hull . A single quadruple 2 @-@ pounder mount was also fitted on the port side of the hull . The 2 @-@ pounder gun had a maximum range of 6 @,@ 800 yards ( 6 @,@ 200 m ) . The ship was also fitted with 55 Oerlikon 20 mm autocannon in 17 single and 19 twin @-@ gun mounts . These guns had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 800 yards ( 4 @,@ 400 m ) , but some were replaced by 40 mm Bofors AA guns when the ships were transferred to the Pacific Theatre as the 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) shell was unlikely to destroy a kamikaze before it hit the ship . The Bofors gun had a maximum range of 10 @,@ 750 yards ( 9 @,@ 830 m ) . By August 1945 , Indefatigable had 10 single Bofors guns , plus 14 twin and 12 single Oerlikon mounts . By April 1946 these had been reduced to 11 Bofors guns , 6 twin and 7 single Oerlikon guns .
The specifics of the Implacable @-@ class ships ' radar suite are not readily available . They were fitted with the Type 277 surface @-@ search / height @-@ finding radar on top of the bridge and a Type 293 target indicator radar on the foremast . Victorious , one of the Illustrious @-@ class ships upon which Indefatigable 's design was based , also carried Type 279 and Type 281B early @-@ warning radars . Type 282 and Type 285 gunnery radars were mounted on the fire @-@ control directors .
The Implacable @-@ class ships had a flight deck protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armour . The sides of the hangars were either 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) or 2 inches ( 51 mm ) . The ends of the hangars were protected by 2 @-@ inch bulkheads and the armour of the hangar deck ranged from 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 to 64 mm ) in thickness . The waterline armour belt was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick , but only covered the central portion of the ship . The belt was closed by 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @-@ inch transverse bulkheads fore and aft . The underwater defence system was a layered system of liquid- and air @-@ filled compartments as used in the Illustrious class . The magazines for the 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch guns lay outside the armoured citadel and were protected by 2 to 3 @-@ inch roofs , 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch sides and 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @-@ inch ends .
= = Construction and career = =
Indefatigable was laid down by John Brown & Co. at their shipyard in Clydebank on 3 November 1939 as Yard Number 565 . She was launched on 8 December 1942 by Victoria of Hesse , Dowager Marchioness of Milford Haven . Captain Quentin Graham was appointed to command the ship in August 1943 . While fitting out , in order to confound the enemy , a ruse known as Operation Bijou , initiated by London Controlling Section , was launched whereby it was made known that Indefatigable had already entered service . Ultra decrypts revealed that the Japanese believed the deception , with operatives including Malcolm Muggeridge and Peter Fleming supplying disinformation for more than a year , sufficient to make the enemy believe the vessel had gone to the Far East and returned to the Clyde for a refit , by which time she was actually finished .
The ship was commissioned on 8 December 1943 and began sea trials , which revealed many problems that required rectification and delayed her formal completion until 3 May 1944 . While Indefatigable was still conducting builder 's trials , a de Havilland Mosquito landed aboard on 25 March , piloted by Lieutenant Eric Brown . This was the first landing by a twin @-@ engined aeroplane on a carrier . The ship was assigned to the Home Fleet and was working up over the next several months while the Fairey Fireflies of 1770 Squadron flew aboard on 18 May . The squadron was followed by the Fairey Barracuda torpedo bombers of 826 Squadron in June .
= = = Norwegian operations = = =
Indefatigable 's first mission was a brief sortie on 1 July 1944 to provide air cover for the ocean liner RMS Queen Elizabeth that was ferrying American troops to Britain . Upon her return , Indefatigable embarked the Supermarine Seafire fighters of 887 Squadron and the Barracudas of 820 Squadron , completing No. 9 Naval Torpedo @-@ Bomber Reconnaissance Wing , over the next week . Her first combat mission was an attack on the battleship Tirpitz in Kaafjord on 17 July with two other Home Fleet carriers ( Operation Mascot ) . She contributed 23 Barracudas and 12 Fireflies to the mission ; the former attacked the battleship while the Fireflies strafed the flak positions defending her . A smoke screen prevented most of the Barracudas from seeing their target and they failed to hit Tirpitz . One Barracuda was forced to ditch near the carrier and its crew was rescued by the destroyer Verulam .
894 Squadron , equipped with Seafires , landed aboard after the attack on 24 July to complete No. 24 Naval Fighter Wing . Indefatigable and several escort carriers attacked targets in Norway on 10 August , destroying 6 Messerschmitt Bf 110 fighters and sinking a minesweeper . For Operation Goodwood , a series of attacks on Tirpitz , the Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters of 1840 Squadron replaced the Barracudas of 826 Squadron . The first mission took place on the morning of 22 August when Indefatigable launched 12 Barracudas , 11 Fireflies , 8 Hellcats , and 8 Seafires against the German battleship and nearby targets . A smoke screen again protected Tirpitz and no damage was inflicted ; two Seafires failed to return . Another attack was made later in the day without effect . A further attack could not be mounted until 24 August because of bad weather ; for this mission the carrier contributed 12 Barracudas , 11 Fireflies and 4 Seafires , all of which returned . Tirpitz was lightly damaged by two hits during this attack , one a 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb and the other a 1 @,@ 600 @-@ pound ( 730 kg ) armour @-@ piercing bomb . The latter penetrated the armoured deck but failed to explode and would probably have inflicted serious damage , possibly even sinking the ship , had it done so . A final attack was made five days later , again without effect . 887 Squadron sank seven seaplanes at their moorings at Banak during the operation .
= = = Indian Ocean and Pacific operations = = =
On 19 September 1944 , Indefatigable sortied from Scapa Flow to attack targets near Tromsø , but the operation was cancelled because of bad weather . The ship underwent a brief refit at her builder 's yard between 28 September and 8 November . She became the flagship of the 1st Aircraft Carrier Squadron ( 1st ACS ) when Rear Admiral Sir Philip Vian hoisted his flag on 15 November . The following day , King George VI inspected the ship ; the ground crews later embarked for 820 , 887 , 894 and 1770 Squadrons . Their aircraft , 40 Seafires , 12 Fireflies , and 21 Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers , followed on 19 November , and she sailed for the Far East to join the British Pacific Fleet . Indefatigable arrived at Colombo , Ceylon , on 10 December and Vian transferred his flag to Indomitable .
Together with Victorious and Indomitable , Indefatigable attacked an oil refinery at Pangkalan Brandan , Sumatra on 4 January 1945 ( Operation Lentil ) . She embarked six photoreconnaissance Hellcats of 888 Squadron for the attack ; her only contribution to the attack itself was the Fireflies of 1770 Squadron , which used RP @-@ 3 rocket projectiles on their targets . The squadron claimed to have shot down a Nakajima Ki @-@ 43 " Oscar " , for the loss of a Firefly that ran out of fuel and had to ditch next to the ship . After Indefatigable 's return , Admiral Lord Louis Mountbatten , Supreme Allied Commander South East Asia Command , addressed the crew on 11 January . En route to Sydney to prepare for operations in the Pacific , the BPF 's carriers attacked oil refineries near Palembang , Sumatra , on 24 and 29 January ( Operation Meridian ) . The ship 's Seafires lacked the range to reach the targets so they were retained on combat air patrols ( CAP ) over the fleet for both attacks . She contributed 10 of her Avengers and all of her Fireflies to the first attack , which destroyed most of the oil storage tanks and cut the refinery 's output by half for three months . Five days later , the BPF attacked a different refinery and 820 Squadron again contributed 10 Avengers to the attack while 1770 Squadron added 9 Fireflies . The latter squadron also flew 2 Fireflies on an armed reconnaissance mission over an airfield that lay between the carriers and their target . The attack was very successful at heavy cost , but the losses of Indefatigable 's squadrons are not available . Her Seafires shot down a Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 46 " Dinah " reconnaissance aircraft searching for the fleet and 5 Kawasaki Ki @-@ 48 " Lily " bombers that attacked at low level .
The BPF arrived in Sydney on 10 February ; the crews received leave and the ships got some maintenance before they sailed for the BPF 's advance base at Manus Island , in the Admiralty Islands , on 27 February . They arrived on 7 March and exercised together before sailing for Ulithi on 18 March . The BPF joined the American Fifth Fleet there two days later to participate in the preliminary operations for the invasion of Okinawa . The British role during the operation was to neutralise airfields on the Sakishima Islands , between Okinawa and Formosa , beginning on 26 March . Her Seafires were again retained to defend the fleet and only her Avengers and Fireflies attacked the airfields . Her Seafire squadrons lacked 13 of their authorised strength of 50 pilots and could not sustain the pace of the first day of operations , when they flew 72 sorties . After a break at the end of the month to refuel , Indefatigable became the first British carrier to be hit by a kamikaze the day after flying operations resumed , when one of the Japanese planes evaded the CAP and struck the base of the carrier 's island on 1 April . The bomb it carried did not detonate and this limited casualties to 21 men killed and 27 wounded . Damage to the ship was minimal and the flight deck was back in operation thirty minutes later . On 12 and 13 April , the BPF switched targets to airfields in northern Formosa . On the first day , a pair of Fireflies encountered five Mitsubishi Ki @-@ 51 " Sonia " dive bombers and shot down four of them . A flight of four Seafires on CAP spotted four Japanese fighters , three Mitsubishi A6M Zeroes and a Kawasaki Ki @-@ 61 " Tony " later that morning , and shot down one Zero . The BPF returned to the Sakishima Islands on 17 April before retiring to Leyte Gulf to rest and resupply . Wastage of Seafires to all causes was very heavy during the operation with 25 out of 40 lost or damaged beyond repair and only 5 replacements received . Their short range and lack of endurance was considered by Vian to be a severe handicap for the BPF , which returned to action on 4 May and again attacked targets in the Sakishima Islands . Its aircraft continued to do so until they flew their last missions of Operation Iceberg on 25 May . Statistics complied by the BPF staff showed that 61 Seafires were lost or damaged beyond repair during both phases of the operation due to deck @-@ landing accidents .
The BPF arrived back at Sydney on 5 June and sailed for Manus three weeks later . Indefatigable was forced to remain behind as she required repairs to her machinery . Her air group flew aboard on 7 July ( 1772 Squadron and its Fireflies replacing 1770 Squadron ) when she sailed for Manus . She reached the coast of Japan on 20 July and her aircraft began attacking targets near Osaka and in the Inland Sea four days later . Her Seafire squadrons had adapted larger external fuel tanks for their aircraft and they were no longer limited to CAP duty . The BPF 's aircraft crippled the escort carrier Kaiyo and sank numerous smaller ships on 24 July . After replenishing , airstrikes resumed on 28 and 30 July , the British sinking the escort Okinawa near Maizuru . A combination of bad weather , refuelling requirements and the atomic bombing of Hiroshima delayed the resumption of air operations until 9 August . During the day , Indefatigable 's aircraft attacked targets in northern Honshu and southern Hokkaido . The attacks were repeated the next day , sinking two warships and numerous small merchantmen and destroying numerous railroad locomotives and parked aircraft .
The BPF had been scheduled to withdraw after 10 August to prepare for Operation Olympic , the invasion of Kyushu scheduled for November , and the bulk of the force departed for Manus on 12 August . Indefatigable , however , had been chosen to remain as part of the Allied occupation force . The next day her aircraft attacked targets in the vicinity of Tokyo . Flight operations resumed on the morning of the 15th after an operational pause to refuel . The first airstrike was tasked to attack Kisarazu Air Field with four Fireflies and six Avengers , escorted by eight Seafires , but was forced to divert to its secondary target because of bad weather . En route they were attacked by a dozen Zeros in the last British air combat of the war . The Japanese fighters shot down one Seafire on their first pass and crippled an Avenger . The Seafires claimed four Zeros shot down , four others probably shot down , and another four damaged . An Avenger also claimed one Zero as damaged . A Yokosuka D4Y " Judy " dive bomber attacked the carrier after the ceasefire went into effect , but its two bombs missed . After the ceasefire , Indefatigable 's aircraft continued to fly CAP and flew reconnaissance missions looking for Allied prisoners of war , dropping supplies to them as they were located .
= = = Post @-@ war service = = =
On 17 August 1945 , Admiral Sir Bruce Fraser , commander of the BPF , came aboard and addressed the crew . Indefatigable continued flying operations until she entered Sagami Bay on 5 September . She departed three days later for Manus en route to Sydney . The ship arrived at Sydney on 18 September and began a leisurely refit that lasted until 15 November . On 1 November , Captain Ian MacIntyre relieved Graham as captain of the ship . She became Vian 's flagship on 22 November and sailed to New Zealand to show the flag . She arrived in Wellington on 27 November and was opened for public tours , during which time the Prime Minister , Peter Fraser , also visited . Indefatigable then sailed to Auckland , arriving on 12 December , and was again opened for tours . She returned to Sydney for the holidays and visited Melbourne on 22 January 1946 before departing for home nine days later . Vian transferred his flag to her sister ship Implacable that day and the ship stopped off at Fremantle and Cape Town en route . While Indefatigable was visiting the latter city , she was opened to the public , and the Governor @-@ General of South Africa toured the ship .
The carrier arrived at Portsmouth Dockyard on 16 March 1946 . Her hangars were modified to accommodate over 1 @,@ 900 passengers , including women , and she departed for Australia on 25 April carrying 782 RN personnel and 130 Australian war brides . Most of the RN personnel disembarked at Colombo and most of the war brides did the same at Fremantle . Indefatigable continued on to Sydney , where she embarked a complete naval hospital , with patients , and over 1 @,@ 000 RN officers and ratings . She departed on 9 June and arrived at Plymouth on 7 July . Her next voyage involved transporting a much smaller number of men to Malta and Colombo ; only 47 officers and 67 ratings , most of whom left the ship at Malta . When she arrived at Colombo on 15 August , she loaded a full complement of passengers from all three services to return to the UK . The ship arrived at Portsmouth on 9 September and her next voyage involved over 1 @,@ 200 RN personnel and civilians ferried to Malta , Colombo , and Singapore where almost 1 @,@ 300 personnel embarked . She returned to Portsmouth on 29 November and began a brief refit in preparation for her final trooping voyage . Indefatigable sailed empty for Norfolk , Virginia , where she loaded RN personnel before returning to Portsmouth on 21 November . The next month , she was placed in reserve and Captain MacIntyre retired on 7 January 1947 .
The Admiralty decided to recommission Indefatigable for use as a training ship in mid @-@ 1949 . Captain Henry Fancourt assumed command on 22 August to prepare for sea . The ship arrived at Devonport to begin the necessary modifications on 30 August and the following day Fancourt turned over command to the dockyard . Captain John Grindle was appointed to command on 24 March 1950 and the ship was recommissioned on 28 May . Two days later Captain Robert Sherbrooke , VC , relieved Grindle and Indefatigable began her sea trials on 28 June . She was inspected by Rear Admiral St John Micklethwaithe , Flag Officer Training Squadron , on 3 July and received her first trainees shortly afterwards . She participated in exercises with the Home Fleet and joined it in Gibraltar in September and October . On 12 March 1951 she sortied from Portland , flying Micklethwaite 's flag , to exercise with the Home Fleet before beginning a brief refit at Devonport in May . Captain John Grant relieved Sherbrooke on 6 June and the ship was opened to visitors as part of the Festival of Britain on 17 July . Five days later the visitors were stranded aboard ship overnight when a storm came up and forced Indefatigable to put to sea . The seas moderated the next day and the visitors departed in safety . Rear Admiral Royer Dick hoisted his flag aboard the carrier in September until she began a short refit at Devonport in January 1952 .
Indefatigable joined Implacable for her annual winter visit to Gibraltar after completing her refit in February 1952 . Over the summer she exercised with the Home Fleet and visited the Danish port of Aarhus , where she was visited by Queen Alexandrine of Denmark in July . Captain Ralph Fisher assumed command on 30 January 1953 and took her to sea three weeks later for exercises with the Home Fleet and her annual visit to Gibraltar . She returned to Portland in late March and visited Bournemouth at the end of May . She joined her sister and several other carriers on 9 June to sail for Spithead for the Coronation Fleet Review of Queen Elizabeth II on 15 June as one of a fleet of nine carriers . Indefatigable joined her sister for fleet exercises off the Scilly Isles and in the Bristol Channel in September and October before beginning her annual refit on 6 October . The Admiralty announced on 26 January 1954 that both ships would be replaced as training ships and reduced to reserve . This had no short @-@ term impact on their activities as they sailed for the Western Mediterranean on their annual winter cruise . The ship exercised with the Home Fleet and made a port visit to Casablanca , Morocco , before visiting Gibraltar . Captain Hugh Browne assumed command on 10 May after Fisher had been promoted . The ship welcomed home Queen Elizabeth II and her husband four days later as they returned from their tour of the Commonwealth . The following month , Indefatigable exercised with the Home Fleet in Scottish waters and visited Aarhus again . In August she began transferring her training duties to the carrier Ocean and arrived at Rosyth on 2 September to be paid off , a process that took until the following month to complete . She was towed to Gareloch in June 1955 where she was listed for disposal . Indefatigable was sold for scrap in September 1956 and subsequently broken up at Faslane .
= = Squadrons embarked = =
= Jesper Blomqvist =
Lars Jesper Blomqvist ( born 5 February 1974 ) is a Swedish former footballer who played as a left winger .
Most recently he was the playing assistant manager of Superettan side Hammarby from December 2009 to November 2010 . He played at IFK Göteborg , where he won four straight Allsvenskan league titles between 1993 and 1996 , and Manchester United , where he was part of the team that won the treble in 1999 , consisting of the Premier League , FA Cup and UEFA Champions League . He returned to Swedish football in 2003 with Djurgården , where he won his final Allsvenskan title , before initially retiring in 2005 . An injury crisis prompted a playing return for Enköping in 2008 . Blomqvist has made 30 international appearances for Sweden and helped them to third place at the 1994 FIFA World Cup in the United States .
= = Club career = =
= = = Swedish football = = =
After an early spell at Tavelsjö IK , Blomqvist signed for then recently formed Umeå FC in 1992 . In the spring portion of his first season for the club , he helped them to the Division 2 Norra Norrland title , promoting the club to Division 1 Norra for the autumn . At the time this was the second tier of Swedish football . Subsequently , he signed for IFK Göteborg on 11 September 1993 . Blomqvist played a part in the club 's Allsvenskan win that year . He scored eight goals in 24 league appearances en route to the league title in 1994 . Furthermore , he played a part in Sweden 's advance to the semi finals of the World Cup and scored in the club 's 3 – 1 win over Manchester United in the Champions League , knocking them out of the competition . This performance caught the eye of United manager Alex Ferguson and helped the team qualify for the quarter @-@ finals of the tournament . Another title followed in 1995 , with Blomqvist 's goal against Helsingborgs IF , when he performed a variant of the Pelé runaround move , voted goal of the season . In his last season for Göteborg , he played against former club Umeå , who had reached the Allsvenskan for the first time in their history . In 1996 , Blomqvist was voted Fan 's Player of the Year and Midfielder of the Year . At the end of the 1996 season , he signed for newly crowned Serie A champions Milan .
= = = Serie A = = =
In his first season of Italian football , Milan failed to win a trophy , and Blomqvist often sat on the bench . He nearly decided against going to Old Trafford because he did not want a repeat of this season . The defending champions had an equally disappointing season , finishing 11th in Serie A and failing to qualify for European football . Blomqvist was subsequently sold to Serie A runners up Parma in the summer of 1997 . Blomqvist enjoyed more regular football , although the club finished 6th in the league and missed out on the knockout stages of the Champions League . The Swede 's sole league goal for the club was scored in a 4 – 0 win over Napoli at Stadio San Paolo .
= = = Premier League = = =
Manchester United purchased Blomqvist as a backup to Ryan Giggs in 1998 , for a fee of £ 4 @.@ 4 million . He featured in enough games to win a Premier League winner 's medal in the 1999 season , scoring his only goal for the club in a 4 – 1 away win against Everton . He received an FA Cup winners medal despite being an unused substitute in the final . He did , however , start against Bayern Munich in the Champions League final . He came close to scoring before eventually being replaced by Teddy Sheringham , who later scored , equalising the match after Bayern 's early goal . United went on to win the match 2 – 1 . He lost his Champions League medal in the celebrations but found it again before leaving Barcelona .
Due to a serious knee injury , Blomqvist did not play football in the next two seasons , which resulted in Manchester United deciding not to renew his contract ( During his time out , due to this injury , he did media work for MUTV , United 's in @-@ house television channel , and presented his own cookery show called " Cooking With Jesper " ) . Nonetheless , Ferguson persuaded Everton manager Walter Smith to offer the Swedish international a short term contract at Goodison Park , from November 2001 until the end of the season . Blomqvist played on the wings alongside compatriot Niclas Alexandersson , and scored his first goal for Everton against Sunderland in January 2002 . Injury problems persisted , however , and new manager David Moyes allowed him to leave the club in June 2002 . He had a trial at Middlesbrough , but was unhappy with the club 's handling of the situation , labelling it " a bit unprofessional " . Instead he signed for Alan Curbishley 's Charlton Athletic on a free transfer , for whom he made three league appearances .
= = = Return to Sweden = = =
Again struggling with injury , Blomqvist returned to his native Sweden after only four games with Charlton . He signed on a short term deal with Djurgårdens IF . This proved unpopular among supporters of IFK Göteborg , who labelled him " Judas " . Göteborg fans considered the decision to join Djurgården instead of them a betrayal . Blomqvist played a part as the side became Swedish champions that year . Injury problems , however , restricted him to only nine league appearances . As during the stint with Manchester United , he remained at the club for another two seasons , before finally deciding to retire due to injury in 2005 .
Blomqvist joined Enköpings SK as a coach in 2008 and went on to make a playing return in the Superettan , the second tier of Swedish football . Ironically , a shortage of players at the club due to injury forced Blomqvist 's playing return . The player shortage was highlighted when Blomqvist was sent off in his second game for the club . This resulted in a suspension for Blomqvist , and Enköping only having fifteen players available for the following match . On 15 September 2008 , he scored his first professional goal in five years in a 1 – 0 win against IK Sirius . In total , he made 10 Superettan appearances , but was unable to save Enköping from relegation to Division 1 for the 2009 season . He left Enköping after the season and later signed a contract with newly relegated Hammarby IF as assistant manager to Michael Borgqvist .
In 2010 Blomqvist played again , coming on as a substitute in the 85th minute for Hammarby against Trelleborg FF in the Swedish Cup , being one of very few coaches actually playing a game for their team . After a rough period at the club , he left Hammarby in a mutual consent in November 2010 .
In 2012 , Blomqvist effectively retired as a footballer by focusing on his civilian career .
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il ( seal ) of House Baratheon . A bit farther they find a dead dire wolf and her surviving pups . Noting that the dire wolf is the sigil of the Stark family and there are as many pups as the Stark children ( even an albino runt for Jon ) , they take the pups in as companions .
Back at Winterfell , Catelyn informs her husband of a letter announcing the death of Lord Arryn , Eddard 's old mentor and Catelyn 's brother @-@ in @-@ law . An additional message , brought by a raven , reports that the king himself is coming to Winterfell . Winterfell receives the royal court , including King Robert Baratheon ( Mark Addy ) ; his wife Queen Cersei ; their three children : the heir Prince Joffrey ( Jack Gleeson ) , Princess Myrcella ( Aimee Richardson ) and the youngest Prince Tommen ( Callum Wharry ) ; as well as Cersei 's twin brother , Jaime Lannister , a member of the Kingsguard ; and their younger brother , Tyrion Lannister ( Peter Dinklage ) , a dwarf known as " The Imp . " As Robert pays his respects to Lyanna Stark , his late fiancée and Ned 's sister , Robert confides to his old friend that he doesn 't trust anyone around him . He decides to name Ned as the new Hand of the King , and to solidify the alliance between the two families , he suggests that Ned 's daughter , Sansa , be betrothed to his son , Joffrey .
At night , Catelyn receives a troubling message from her sister , Lord Arryn 's widow . She suspects her husband Jon was murdered by the king 's in @-@ laws , the powerful Lannisters . Ned , who at first was reluctant to accept the position of Hand of the King , does so in order to protect his old friend . Bran , who enjoys climbing the walls of Winterfell , climbs an abandoned tower where he stumbles on Queen Cersei and Jaime having sex . To keep the incestuous relationship a secret , Jaime shoves Bran out of the high window .
= = = In Pentos = = =
Exiled prince Viserys Targaryen ( Harry Lloyd ) plots to overthrow King Robert and reclaim his father 's throne . To this end , he brokers a marriage between his sister Daenerys ( Emilia Clarke ) and a powerful warlord Khal Drogo ( Jason Momoa ) , leader of a nomadic horde of Dothraki .
Daenerys voices her fear of the barbarian lord , but her brother tells her to marry him . During the wedding ceremony , Daenerys is given two wedding gifts . The first is a collection of books from the Seven Kingdoms , given by Ser Jorah Mormont ( Iain Glen ) , an exiled knight loyal to the Targaryens . The second gift is a chest containing three petrified dragon eggs , given by Magister Illyrio Mopatis ( Roger Allam ) , the man who helped arrange the marriage .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception and development = = =
A number of Hollywood studios had contacted George R.R. Martin about possible adaption of his book series A Song of Ice and Fire into a film , however Martin expressed the opinion the books could not be made into a film as too much would have to be cut from the books , but thought it could be made into a television series . In January 2006 , David Benioff spoke to Martin 's literary agent about the books he represented for possible adaption , and the agent sent the first four books of A Song of Fire and Ice to David Benioff . Benioff read a few hundred pages of the first book in the series , A Game of Thrones , called D. B. Weiss and said : " Maybe I ’ m crazy , but I haven ’ t had this much fun reading anything in about 20 years . So take a look because I think it might make a great HBO series . " Weiss , who then read the first book in two days , was very enthusiastic about a possible television project based on the books . They arranged a meeting with George RR Martin , who asked them if they knew who Jon Snow ’ s real mother might be , and was satisfied with their answer .
In March 2006 , a few weeks after meeting Martin , Benioff and Weiss pitched the show to Showtime and Carolyn Strauss of HBO , who accepted their proposal . HBO acquired the rights to the novels to turn them into a television series , with Benioff and Weiss as writers and executive producers of the series . The series went into development in January 2007 . The series would begin with the 1996 first book of A Song of Fire and Ice , " A Game of Thrones " , with the intention that each novel in the series would form the basis for a season 's worth of episodes . However , Benioff and Weiss had to resubmit a proposal after Carolyn Strauss stepped down as president of HBO in 2008 . The first and second drafts of the pilot script , written by Benioff and Weiss , were submitted in August 2007 and June 2008 respectively . While HBO found both drafts to their liking , a pilot was not ordered until November 2008 .
= = = Writing = = =
Scripted by the show creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , the first episode includes the plot of the book 's chapters 1 – 7 , 9 and 12 ( Prologue , Bran I , Catelyn I , Daenerys I , Eddard I , Jon I , Catelyn II , Bran II , Daenerys II ) . Changes in the adaptation include the sequence of events in the prologue ( in the books it is Gared and not Will who survives and is beheaded by Eddard afterwards ) , new scenes showing the Lannister twins ' perspective , and Daenerys ' wedding night showing Drogo not waiting for her to consent to sex .
= = = Filming = = =
Tom McCarthy was chosen to direct the pilot episode , shot between 24 October and 19 November 2009 on location in Northern Ireland , Scotland and Morocco . However , the pilot was deemed unsatisfactory and had to be reshot .
The new pilot episode was filmed in 2010 by new director Tim Van Patten , and several actors appearing in the original pilot did not return for the series . Tamzin Merchant was replaced as Daenerys Targaryen by Emilia Clarke , and Jennifer Ehle was replaced as Catelyn Stark by Michelle Fairley . Additionally , Ian McNeice was replaced as Magister Illyrio by Roger Allam , Richard Ridings as Gared by Dermot Keaney , and Jamie Campbell Bower as Ser Waymar Royce by Rob Ostlere .
Another difference is that the original pilot featured scenes shot in Scotland and scenes in Pentos were shot in Morocco , but in the aired series , Winterfell was filmed in a combination of locations in Northern Ireland , while scenes from Pentos were from Malta . The Doune Castle in Scotland was originally used to recreate Winterfell , and its great hall was used for some interior shots . Some scenes survived , but as it was not practical to return to Scotland for the reshoot , an exact replica of Doune 's Great Hall was recreated in the soundstage in Belfast for the series . Castle Ward in Northern Ireland was used in the reshoot to film King Robert 's entourage entry into Winterfell castle . A car park stood in for the Winterfell castle 's courtyard and a wine cellar for the Stark family crypt . The Tollymore Forest Park was used for the opening scene of the encounter with the White Walkers .
All the scenes shot in Morocco were reshot in Malta . The original pilot reused the sets of Kingdom of Heaven in Morocco to stand in for Pentos and the site of Drogo and Daenerys ' wedding . In Malta , the Verdala Palace , the 16th century summer palace of the president of Malta , was used for the exterior scenes at Illyrio 's mansion . The Azure Window was used as the backdrop for the wedding . Filming at the Azure Window however caused some controversy when a protected ecosystem was damaged by a subcontractor .
In the sex scene , the then @-@ pregnant Lena Headey was substituted by a body double ; the production hid her pregnancy for the rest of the season . In the scene in which the Starks encounter a stag killed by a dire wolf as they return from the execution , an actual animal was used rather than a prop . As the stag had been dead for two days , it stank so much that the actors had to take much care not to let it show on their faces . Some scenes filmed were never aired , for the example a flashback to the death of Eddard Stark 's brother , and the death of Jon Arryn .
= = = The original pilot = = =
The original pilot from 2009 was poorly received in a private viewing with friends , one of whom , Craig Mazin , said to Benioff and Weiss , " You guys have a massive problem " , and said " change everything " when asked for ideas . Weiss said of the viewing : " Watching them watch the pilot was a deeply humiliating , painful experience , because these are very smart individuals , and it just clearly wasn ’ t working for any of them on a very basic level . " For example , it was never established that the two major characters , Jaime and Cersei Lannister were in fact brother and sister , a major plot point .
HBO did not make a decision for four months after the pilot was delivered . In March 2010 , HBO 's decision to greenlight the series including the pilot was announced , with the production of the series scheduled to start June 2010 . HBO however demanded extensive reshoot of the pilot , and wanted all the scenes from Morocco scrapped . A cameo appearance by George RR Martin as a Pentoshi nobleman at Daenerys ' wedding filmed in Morocco was therefore also cut . In all 90 percent of the pilot was re @-@ shot in 2010 , with some cast changes and a different director .
= = = Aired episode = = =
The original pilot remained unaired , although some footage from the original pilot was used in the first aired episode . This includes Sansa 's scenes with Catelyn ( Michelle Fairley 's footage as Catelyn was inserted over Jennifer Ehle 's performance ) , Will 's ride through the woods ( retained though also portrayed by a different actor ) , most of the feast at Winterfell , and Ned and Robert 's scene in the crypt . That scene is one of a few to be filmed on 35 mm film , and consequently slight film grain can be seen in the HD version of the episode .
= = Reception = =
= = = Preview = = =
On April 3 , 2011 , two weeks before the series premiere aired , the first 15 minutes of " Winter Is Coming " were released as a preview on HBO 's website . Wired 's Dave Banks called the preview " much better than anticipated . ( How ’ s that even possible ? ) " Scott Stinson of Toronto 's National Post noted that " you know you aren ’ t watching a network drama when there have been two beheadings in the first 15 minutes . "
= = = Ratings = = =
The first episode of Game of Thrones obtained 2 @.@ 2 million viewers in its premiere airing , with an additional 2 million viewers in the reruns aired during the same night . The day after the premiere HBO aired the episode six additional times , adding another 1 @.@ 2 million to the viewer 's figures . Reruns aired during the following week upped the total viewership to 6 @.@ 8 million .
= = = International = = =
The show premiered on HBO Canada at the same time as its U.S. premiere . On April 18 , 2011 , the show premiered in United Kingdom and Ireland through Sky Atlantic , gathering 750 @,@ 000 viewers , a ratings record for the network . The series was broadcast throughout Latin America beginning on May 8 , 2011 . New Zealand 's Dominion Post noted in an article on copyright laws that the popular series was downloaded via file sharing service regularly before its release to that market . In Australia , the July 17 premiere of the series was largely overshadowed by the release of A Dance with Dragons , but according to The Sydney Morning Herald was successful " especially with women , who aren 't seen as a target market for sword @-@ fighting sagas " .
= = = Critical response = = =
The critical response to the first episode of the series was positive . Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes surveyed 10 reviews of the episode and judged 100 % of them to be positive . The website 's critical consensus reads , " ' Winter is Coming ' is an introduction to a wonderfully bleak journey that honors its source material with stellar execution and an impressive cast . " James Poniewozik from Time considered it an " epic win , " and Jace Lacob from The Daily Beast deemed it " unforgettable . " HitFix 's Alan Sepinwall wrote that while it was too early to say if Game of Thrones belonged to the HBO pantheon with shows like The Sopranos or The Wire , it had many things in common with those shows . IGN 's Matt Fowler wrote that the pilot " effortlessly takes us along , faithfully , through the book , but it also manages to capture the majestically morbid spirit of Martin 's pages and turn them into thrilling television . "
Much praise was given to the production values and the acting : Scott Meslow from The Atlantic states that " the show 's immense cast is almost universally strong , and the fantasy land of Westeros feels lived @-@ in , and looks terrific . " Alan Sepinwall also qualifies the casting as " really exceptional , " and states that the show is " feast for the eyes , " with all the different locations having their own memorable looks . The opening sequence , with an aerial view of the world where the series takes place with the different settings emerging from it , was also acclaimed .
On April 19 , less than two days after the initial airing , HBO announced that the series had been renewed for a second season . In a press teleconference , HBO executives announced their satisfaction with initial ratings , which they compared favorably to True Blood .
= = = Accolades = = =
Tim Van Patten received a 2011 Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series , and the episode was also nominated for Outstanding Makeup for a Single @-@ Camera Series ( Non @-@ Prosthetic ) .
= = = = Awards and nominations = = = =
= Mick Harvey ( umpire ) =
Clarence Edgar ( Mick ) Harvey , ( born 17 March 1921 at Newcastle , New South Wales ) , is a former first @-@ class cricketer and Australian Test cricket umpire . He was the brother of Test batsmen Merv and Neil Harvey .
Harvey made his first @-@ class debut in 1948 – 49 , playing in the first three matches of the season for Victoria as an opening batsman . However , he was unproductive , scoring only 91 runs at a batting average of 15 @.@ 16 , and was dropped . He moved to Queensland the following season in search of more opportunities and was selected in one match .
Harvey had his best first @-@ class season in 1950 – 51 , scoring 490 runs at 37 @.@ 69 , including his maiden first @-@ class century against a full @-@ strength New South Wales team with several Test bowlers . However , he struggled the following season and was dropped , and did not play a single first @-@ class match in 1952 – 53 . Recalled the following season , he overcame a slow start to score two centuries later in the summer to end with 421 runs at 38 @.@ 27 for the summer . After a poor season , Harvey was dropped late in the 1955 – 56 season .
Harvey was dropped after two matches in 1956 – 57 , ending his first @-@ class career . After his playing career was over , Harvey took up umpiring , and made his first @-@ class debut in 1974 – 75 . He became a regular official over the next few seasons and then broke into international umpiring in 1978 – 79 . In that summer , Harvey stood in two One Day Internationals ( ODIs ) and one Test . The following season he made his final appearances at international level , presiding over another Test and four ODIs . His last season of top @-@ level domestic umpiring was in 1981 – 82 during which he officiated in two matches . He finished his career having presided over 31 first @-@ class and 13 List A matches .
= = Early years = =
Mick 's father Horace " Horry " Harvey moved to Broken Hill , New South Wales where he worked for BHP driving horse @-@ drawn trailers . In 1914 , he married Elsie May Bitmead and their first two children , daughter Rita and son Merv , were born in the mining town . The family relocated to Newcastle , a mining town and harbour in New South Wales , where Clarence Edgar Harvey — always known as Mick , as he was born on Saint Patrick ’ s Day — and Harold were born . In 1926 , the Harveys shifted to the inner @-@ Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy , a staunchly working @-@ class , industrial area . During their relocation , Ray was born in Sydney . Horace secured a job at the confectionery company Life Savers ( Australasia ) Ltd , located next door to their house at 198 Argyle Street . The 19th century two @-@ storey house was owned by the firm and was used as lodgings for the workers ’ families . It no longer exists , having been demolished to make way for a textile factory . The two youngest sons Neil and Brian were born in Fitzroy . The Cornish @-@ descended Horry raised his family as strict Methodists , disallowing gambling , alcohol , tobacco and profanity in his household . An ardent cricketer , he encouraged his children to play sport . He himself played for the Rita Social Club after moving to Fitzroy .
As recreational facilities and grass ovals were sparse in densely populated Fitzroy , the boys took to playing cricket in a cobblestone laneway between their terraced house . Here they played cricket with a tennis ball , home made cricket bat and a kerosene tin for a wicket . They were usually joined by other local children , two of whom became elite sportsmen : Allan Ruthven ( an Australian rules footballer ) and Harold Shillinglaw ( both an Australian rules footballer and first @-@ class cricketer ) — the group also played Australian rules football , kicking around rolled up cardboard and newspaper . Much of the batting skill displayed by the Harvey brothers has been attributed to these games played on the unpredictable bounce of the bumpy laneway . The surface also had a V @-@ shaped slope inwards towards the centre of the lane , causing balls to deviate sideways after bouncing . As the laneway meant that the playing area was long and narrow , the young boys also had to learn to play the ball straight in accordance with orthodox cricket technique . The Harveys played another form of cricket in their concreted backyard using a marble instead of a ball that sharpened their reflexes , and a miniature bat . All were right @-@ handed batsmen with the exception of Neil .
All of the children attended the nearby George Street State School and , one by one , the brothers joined the Fitzroy Cricket Club as they reached their early teens . The club had a program whereby they gave a medal for every local school to award to the best cricketer in their ranks in that year . The successful student would then be given access to all of the club 's facilities . All of the Harvey brothers were recipients were of this medal . At Fitzroy , they came under the influence of former Victorian all @-@ rounder Arthur Liddicut and the club ’ s veteran captain Joe Plant . The Harveys had no formal coaching , and their father , although a regular presence at the club , chose to stay in the background as their respective careers developed . Horace did not advise his sons on how to bat , allowing them to formulate their own style and technique . According to the Harvey brothers , it was their mother who was vocal and extroverted , in contrast to their reserved father . The boys who failed to score runs were given kitchen duty , and according to them , their parents never showed favouritism .
During the winter , they played baseball for Fitzroy , often competing in matches played as curtain raisers to the elite Australian rules football competition , the Victorian Football League . Saturday night entertainment for the family typically consisted of dinner after the day ’ s cricket matches for Fitzroy , and Plant , Liddicut and other cricket club personnel were often invited . Under the influence of Plant and Liddicut , the boys were taught to adopt an aggressive approach , using fast feet movement to attack spin bowling in particular .
= = World War II and first @-@ class debut = =
A printer by trade , Harvey first played in the Fitzroy First XI in 1938 – 39 . Mick opened the batting with Merv , and in 1942 – 43 , when Neil broke into the First XI , the family occupied the first four batting positions for the team ; Merv and Mick opened and Ray and Neil came in after them . During World War II , Harvey enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force at Fitzroy on 4 March 1943 and was a member of the 39th Infantry Battalion and went on to serve in Kokoda . He was discharged on 29 March 1946 with the rank of private . He resumed cricket with Fitzroy at the war ’ s end and made enough runs to be selected for Victoria ’ s first three Sheffield Shield matches of the 1948 – 49 season . Playing as an opening batsman , he made 10 and 13 on debut against Queensland , and was trapped leg before wicket ( lbw ) in both innings in an eight @-@ wicket win . In the next match against New South Wales , who boasted Australia ’ s new ball opening bowlers Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller , Harvey made 19 and 33 in a drawn match . In the subsequent match against South Australia , he made 4 and 12 , again being trapped lbw in both innings . The 1948 – 49 season was purely domestic with no touring Test team , so all of Australia ’ s international representatives were available for the whole season . Having scored only 91 runs at a batting average of 15 @.@ 16 , Harvey was dropped from the team . He did not play alongside Ray , who was dropped , and Merv , who had retired . It was Harvey 's last season for Fitzroy , and in 90 first @-@ grade matches , he scored 2 @,@ 601 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 24 .
= = Move to Queensland = =
At the time , Queensland were the least successful team in the Sheffield Shield , and Harvey moved north to Brisbane the following season to try to get more opportunities to play Sheffield Shield cricket . Harvey joined the Toombul grade club , and made his first @-@ class debut for Queensland against Victoria late in the season , although none of his brothers played for Victoria in this match ; Merv had already retired , Neil was representing Australia , and Ray had been dropped . In his only match for the summer , he scored 1 and 13 and took two catches in each innings as an opener . He was dropped after the match .
In 1950 – 51 , his most prolific first @-@ class season , he hit 490 runs at 37 @.@ 69 for Queensland . The season started with consecutive matches against a full @-@ strength New South Wales , who had an attack including Lindwall , Miller , Alan Walker and Alan Davidson . In the first match , in Brisbane , Harvey made 40 and 19 batting at No. 7 before being dismissed by Davidson and Lindwall respectively . The visitors won by an innings .
In the return match at the Sydney Cricket Ground , Harvey was promoted to bat at No. 3 . He made 38 in the first innings before being dismissed by Walker . Harvey broke through for his maiden first @-@ class century in the second innings , scoring an unbeaten 100 . Queensland declared at 4 / 237 as soon as he reached his milestone , only to see the hosts reach the victory target of 225 with all ten wickets intact .
Harvey played against an international outfit for the first time in the following match against the touring England cricket team , but made only three in his solitary innings . However , he continued to score consistently , making a half @-@ century in each of the next three matches . From the third of these matches — against South Australia — onwards , he generally opened the batting for Queensland . On his first innings back as an opener , he narrowly missed a century , being dismissed for 95 by Geff Noblet . However , it was enough for the Queenslanders to take a 162 @-@ run first innings lead in a low @-@ scoring match in which only one team surpassed 240 once , and set up an eight @-@ wicket victory , the only time his state won a match for the season . Harvey ’ s performance tapered away in the last two matches of the season . He made only 0 and 2 in the last match against Victoria , and 48 runs in his last four innings .
Harvey started the 1951 – 52 season poorly , scoring 9 and 5 against a full @-@ strength New South Wales team . In the following match , he made 90 in the first innings as Queensland defeated the touring West Indies by ten wickets . Harvey was sidelined for six weeks before returning in late December against Victoria . He struggled in this match and the next against New South Wales , scoring 9 , 20 , 9 and 3 . In the next match , he made 46 in the first innings before managing only five in the second , against South Australia . Nor did Queensland have success in these three matches . They were one wicket away from victory in the first match when time ran out , and lost the other two . Harvey was dropped for the remainder of the season , ending with 196 runs at 21 @.@ 77 .
Harvey was overlooked for Queensland selection for the whole 1952 – 53 season . He was recalled at the start of the 1953 – 54 campaign and made 26 and 20 in the first match against New South Wales , failing to convert his starts into big scores . He was retained despite making 15 and 0 in the next match against Victoria , but scored only 1 in the first innings of the match against South Australia starting on Christmas Day . Victoria were set 329 for victory , and having made only 62 runs in five innings for the season so far , he was the mainstay of the innings , scoring 102 , but his team were all out for 245 .
The century saw Harvey retained in the side and started a productive second half of the season . He made 2 and 58 in the next match starting on New Year ’ s Day , against New South Wales . Harvey then made 84 in the only innings of a drawn match against Victoria , before scoring 111 in an innings win against Western Australia . It was the first time in over two years that Harvey had played in a victorious Queensland side . He made only 2 in the final match of the season against South Australia to end with 421 runs at 38 @.@ 27 for the summer .
= = Decline = =
Harvey continued his good form at the start of the 1954 – 55 season , scoring 90 and 9 in the opening match against New South Wales . He then made 49 and 9 against the touring England cricket team of Len Hutton . In the Christmas match against South Australia , Harvey failed to capitalise on his starts , making 31 and 35 as Queensland won by 34 runs . The following week , he made only 0 and 3 not out in the New Year ’ s match against New South Wales . He finished the truncated season with only 16 in the following match against Victoria , ending the summer with 242 runs at 30 @.@ 25 .
Harvey had a poor season in 1955 – 56 . He scored only 37 runs in six completed innings in the first three matches . In the next match against Western Australia , he made only 8 in the first innings but scored 70 not out in the second innings as his team ’ s run @-@ chase petered away to a draw , and he retained his position in the team . He then made 17 and 28 in the next match against South Australia , run out in the latter innings after making a start . After making 10 and 20 in the next match against New South Wales , he was dropped for the remainder of the season , having made only 190 runs at 17 @.@ 27 for the season .
Recalled at the start of the 1956 – 57 season , Harvey made 40 and 28 in his first match of the summer against New South Wales , but after scoring only 2 and 2 not out against Western Australia in the next match , he was dropped for the final time .
Noted for his sound defence , he was a patient and dogged batsman , in contrast to the exciting styles of brothers Merv , Ray and Neil . According to Neil , Mick had a weakness against spin bowling . Harvey was a rare bowler during his first @-@ class career . He bowled only five overs in total , delivering one over in five different matches . He never took a wicket . Altogether , he made 1 @,@ 716 first @-@ class runs ( mostly as an opener ) in 37 matches at an average of 27 @.@ 23 . Harvey was also a regular choice for the Queensland baseball team during his career . His daughter Pauline Harvey @-@ Short represented Australia at softball , before becoming a sports administrator . She is a fellow of the Australian Council for Health , Physical Education and Recreation , and was a founding member of Womensport Queensland in 1993 , serving as the chair of the board from 2007 until 2010 . Her daughter Kirby Short plays cricket for the Queensland women 's team .
= = Umpiring career = =
After his retirement as a player , Harvey took up umpiring . His initial first @-@ class match was in 1974 – 75 , when he officiated in Queensland ’ s home match against Victoria late in the season ; at the time the host team provided both umpires . The following year , he was selected for four first @-@ class matches , one of which was against the touring West Indies . He also officiated in his first List A match , presiding over the final of Australia 's domestic limited @-@ overs tournament , which Queensland hosted against Western Australia . The following two seasons were similar ; Harvey stood in four first @-@ class matches including one against a touring international team , and one List A match , both of which were quarter @-@ finals .
In 1978 – 79 , Harvey ’ s appointments increased . Harvey stood in all of Queensland 's five home Shield matches , as well as their match against the touring Englishmen . He stood in one List A match involving Queensland and was then rewarded with his international debut in the second ODI between Australia and England at the SCG , before presiding over the next ODI at the MCG . At the end of the season , Harvey was selected for the first of his two Tests . The first , played by Australia against Pakistan at the MCG in March 1979 was dramatic . During the run @-@ chase , the Australians were stunned by a spell of 7 wickets for 1 run by Sarfraz Nawaz , just when they looked like winning . Sarfraz ended with 9 / 86 — the other wicket was run out — as Australia collapsed from 3 / 305 to 310 all out to lose by 71 runs . Harvey ’ s partner was Robin Bailhache .
Harvey ’ s other Test match was between Australia and the West Indies at the MCG during the Christmas @-@ New Year period of 1979 – 80 . It was won by the visitors by 10 wickets , with a bowling attack of Andy Roberts , Michael Holding , Colin Croft , and Joel Garner proving too powerful for their hosts . Harvey ’ s colleague was Tony Crafter . Harvey also stood in four ODIs played during the inaugural World Series Cup that season , which involved England , Australia and the West Indies . He presided in three of the round @-@ robin matches , the third of which was between the two visiting teams at the Gabba . It was the only time that Harvey umpired a match at his adopted home ground . He later presided over the first match of the finals series , between the West Indies and England at the MCG . This was his sixth and final appointment at ODI level . Harvey also officiated three Shield matches , Queensland ’ s tour match against England and one of their domestic one @-@ dayers during the season .
The following season , Harvey presided over four of the five home Shield matches , a tour match by India , and a domestic one @-@ dayer , but was overlooked for an international fixture . Harvey ’ s final fixtures were during the 1981 – 82 season . He officiated in two matches hosted by Queensland in November , a Shield match and a one @-@ dayer , both against Queensland . Altogether , he umpired 31 first @-@ class and 13 List A matches in his career . He continued to umpire interstate matches at youth level until 1988 and stood in six finals the first grade of Queensland 's local competition .
= Schizophrenia =
Schizophrenia is a mental disorder characterized by abnormal social behavior and failure to understand what is real . Common symptoms include false beliefs , unclear or confused thinking , hearing voices , reduced social engagement and emotional expression , and a lack of motivation . People with schizophrenia often have additional mental health problems such as anxiety disorders , major depressive illness , or substance use disorder . Symptoms typically come on gradually , begin in young adulthood , and last a long time .
The causes of schizophrenia include environmental and genetic factors . Possible environmental factors include being raised in a city , cannabis use , certain infections , parental age , and poor nutrition during pregnancy . Genetic factors include a variety of common and rare genetic variants . Diagnosis is based on observed behavior and the person 's reported experiences . During diagnosis a person 's culture must also be taken into account . As of 2013 there is no objective test . Schizophrenia does not imply a " split personality " or " multiple personality disorder " — a condition with which it has been confused with in public perception .
The mainstay of treatment is antipsychotic medication along with counselling , job training , and social rehabilitation . It is unclear if typical or atypical antipsychotics are better . In those who do not improve with other antipsychotics , clozapine may be used . In more serious cases — where there is risk to self or others — involuntary hospitalization may be necessary , although hospital stays are now shorter and less frequent than they once were .
About 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 7 % of people are affected by schizophrenia during their lifetime . In 2013 there was estimated to be 23 @.@ 6 million cases globally . Males are more often affected than females . About 20 % of people do well and a few recover completely . Social problems , such as long @-@ term unemployment , poverty , and homelessness are common . The average life expectancy of people with the disorder is ten to twenty @-@ five years less than the average . This is the result of increased physical health problems and a higher suicide rate ( about 5 % ) . In 2013 an estimated 16 @,@ 000 people died from behavior related to , or caused by , schizophrenia .
= = Symptoms = =
Individuals with schizophrenia may experience hallucinations ( most reported are hearing voices ) , delusions ( often bizarre or persecutory in nature ) , and disorganized thinking and speech . The last may range from loss of train of thought , to sentences only loosely connected in meaning , to speech that is not understandable known as word salad . Social withdrawal , sloppiness of dress and hygiene , and loss of motivation and judgment are all common in schizophrenia . There is often an observable pattern of emotional difficulty , for example lack of responsiveness . Impairment in social cognition is associated with schizophrenia , as are symptoms of paranoia . Social isolation commonly occurs . Difficulties in working and long @-@ term memory , attention , executive functioning , and speed of processing also commonly occur . In one uncommon subtype , the person may be largely mute , remain motionless in bizarre postures , or exhibit purposeless agitation , all signs of catatonia . About 30 to 50 percent of people with schizophrenia fail to accept that they have an illness or comply with their recommended treatment . Treatment may have some effect on insight . People with schizophrenia often find facial emotion perception to be difficult .
People with schizophrenia may have a high rate of irritable bowel syndrome but they often do not mention it unless specifically asked .
= = = Positive and negative = = =
Schizophrenia is often described in terms of positive and negative ( or deficit ) symptoms . Positive symptoms are those that most individuals do not normally experience , but are present in people with schizophrenia . They can include delusions , disordered thoughts and speech , and tactile , auditory , visual , olfactory and gustatory hallucinations , typically regarded as manifestations of psychosis . Hallucinations are also typically related to the content of the delusional theme . Positive symptoms generally respond well to medication .
Negative symptoms are deficits of normal emotional responses or of other thought processes , and are less responsive to medication . They commonly include flat expressions or little emotion , poverty of speech , inability to experience pleasure , lack of desire to form relationships , and lack of motivation . Negative symptoms appear to contribute more to poor quality of life , functional ability , and the burden on others than do positive symptoms . People with greater negative symptoms often have a history of poor adjustment before the onset of illness , and response to medication is often limited .
= = = Cognitive dysfunction = = =
Deficits in cognitive abilities are widely recognized as a core feature of schizophrenia . The extent of the cognitive deficits an individual experiences is a predictor of how functional an individual will be , the quality of occupational performance , and how successful the individual will be in maintaining treatment . The presence and degree of cognitive dysfunction in individuals with schizophrenia has been reported to be a better indicator of functionality than the presentation of positive or negative symptoms . The deficits impacting the cognitive function are found in a large number of areas : working memory , long @-@ term memory , verbal declarative memory , semantic processing , episodic memory , attention , learning ( particularly verbal learning ) . Deficits in verbal memory are the most pronounced in individuals with schizophrenia , and are not accounted for by deficit in attention . Verbal memory impairment has been linked to a decreased ability in individuals with schizophrenia to semantically encode ( process information relating to meaning ) , which is cited as a cause for another known deficit in long @-@ term memory . When given a list of words , healthy individuals remember positive words more frequently ( known as the Pollyanna principle ) ; however , individuals with schizophrenia tend to remember all words equally regardless of their connotations , suggesting that the experience of anhedonia impairs the semantic encoding of the words . These deficits have been found in individuals before the onset of the illness to some extent . First @-@ degree family members of individuals with schizophrenia and other high @-@ risk individuals also show a degree of deficit in cognitive abilities , and specifically in working memory . A review of the literature on cognitive deficits in individuals with schizophrenia shows that the deficits may be present in early adolescence , or as early as childhood . The deficits which an individual with schizophrenia presents tend to remain the same over time in most patients , or follow an identifiable course based upon environmental variables .
Although the evidence that cognitive deficits remain stable over time is reliable and abundant , much of the research in this domain focuses on methods to improve attention and working memory . Efforts to improve learning ability in individuals with schizophrenia using a high- versus low @-@ reward condition and an instruction @-@ absent or instruction @-@ present condition revealed that increasing reward leads to poorer performance while providing instruction leads to improved performance , highlighting that some treatments may exist to increase cognitive performance . Training individuals with schizophrenia to alter their thinking , attention , and language behaviors by verbalizing tasks , engaging in cognitive rehearsal , giving self @-@ instructions , giving coping statements to the self to handle failure , and providing self @-@ reinforcement for success , significantly improves performance on recall tasks . This type of training , known as self @-@ instructional ( SI ) training , produced benefits such as lower number of nonsense verbalizations and improved recall while distracted .
= = = Onset = = =
Late adolescence and early adulthood are peak periods for the onset of schizophrenia , critical years in a young adult 's social and vocational development . In 40 % of men and 23 % of women diagnosed with schizophrenia , the condition manifested itself before the age of 19 . To minimize the developmental disruption associated with schizophrenia , much work has recently been done to identify and treat the prodromal ( pre @-@ onset ) phase of the illness , which has been detected up to 30 months before the onset of symptoms . Those who go on to develop schizophrenia may experience transient or self @-@ limiting psychotic symptoms and the non @-@ specific symptoms of social withdrawal , irritability , dysphoria , and clumsiness during the prodromal phase .
= = Causes = =
A combination of genetic and environmental factors play a role in the development of schizophrenia . People with a family history of schizophrenia who have a transient psychosis have a 20 – 40 % chance of being diagnosed one year later .
= = = Genetic = = =
Estimates of heritability vary because of the difficulty in separating genetic and environmental influences ; averages of 0 @.@ 80 have been given . The greatest single risk factor for developing schizophrenia is having a first @-@ degree relative with the disease ( risk is 6 @.@ 5 % ) ; more than 40 % of monozygotic twins of those with schizophrenia are also affected . If one parent is affected the risk is about 13 % and if both are affected the risk is nearly 50 % .
Many genes are believed to be involved in schizophrenia , each of small effect and unknown transmission and expression . Many possible candidates have been proposed , including specific copy number variations , NOTCH4 , and histone protein loci . A number of genome @-@ wide associations such as zinc finger protein 804A have also been linked . There appears to be overlap in the genetics of schizophrenia and bipolar disorder . Evidence is emerging that the genetic architecture of schizophrenia involved both common and rare risk variation .
Assuming a hereditary basis , one question from evolutionary psychology is why genes that increase the likelihood of psychosis evolved , assuming the condition would have been maladaptive from an evolutionary point of view . One idea is that genes are involved in the evolution of language and human nature , but to date such ideas remain little more than hypothetical in nature .
= = = Environment = = =
Environmental factors associated with the development of schizophrenia include the living environment , drug use , and prenatal stressors .
Parenting style seems to have no major effect , although people with supportive parents do better than those with critical or hostile parents . Childhood trauma , death of a parent , and being bullied or abused increase the risk of psychosis . Living in an urban environment during childhood or as an adult has consistently been found to increase the risk of schizophrenia by a factor of two , even after taking into account drug use , ethnic group , and size of social group . Other factors that play an important role include social isolation and immigration related to social adversity , racial discrimination , family dysfunction , unemployment , and poor housing conditions .
It has been hypothesised that in some people , development of schizophrenia is related to intestinal tract dysfunction such as seen with non @-@ celiac gluten sensitivity or abnormalities in the intestinal flora . A subgroup of persons with schizophrenia present an immune response to gluten different from that found in people with celiac , with elevated levels of certain serum biomarkers of gluten sensitivity such as anti @-@ gliadin IgG or anti @-@ gliadin IgA antibodies .
= = = = Substance use = = = =
About half of those with schizophrenia use drugs or alcohol excessively . Amphetamine , cocaine , and to a lesser extent alcohol , can result in a transient stimulant psychosis or alcohol @-@ related psychosis that presents very similarly to schizophrenia . Although it is not generally believed to be a cause of the illness , people with schizophrenia use nicotine at much higher rates than the general population .
Alcohol abuse can occasionally cause the development of a chronic , substance @-@ induced psychotic disorder via a kindling mechanism . Alcohol use is not associated with an earlier onset of psychosis .
Cannabis can be a contributory factor in schizophrenia , potentially causing the disease in those who are already at risk . The increased risk may require the presence of certain genes within an individual or may be related to preexisting psychopathology . Early exposure is strongly associated with an increased risk . The size of the increased risk is not clear , but appears to be in the range of two to three times greater for psychosis . Higher dosage and greater frequency of use are indicators of increased risk of chronic psychoses .
Other drugs may be used only as coping mechanisms by individuals who have schizophrenia , to deal with depression , anxiety , boredom , and loneliness .
= = = = Developmental factors = = = =
Factors such as hypoxia and infection , or stress and malnutrition in the mother during fetal development , may result in a slight increase in the risk of schizophrenia later in life . People diagnosed with schizophrenia are more likely to have been born in winter or spring ( at least in the northern hemisphere ) , which may be a result of increased rates of viral exposures in utero . The increased risk is about five to eight percent . Other infections during pregnancy or around the time of birth that may increase the risk include Toxoplasma gondi and Chlamydia .
= = Mechanisms = =
A number of attempts have been made to explain the link between altered brain function and schizophrenia . One of the most common is the dopamine hypothesis , which attributes psychosis to the mind 's faulty interpretation of the misfiring of dopaminergic neurons .
= = = Psychological = = =
Many psychological mechanisms have been implicated in the development and maintenance of schizophrenia . Cognitive biases have been identified in those with the diagnosis or those at risk , especially when under stress or in confusing situations . Some cognitive features may reflect global neurocognitive deficits such as memory loss , while others may be related to particular issues and experiences .
Despite a demonstrated appearance of blunted affect , recent findings indicate that many individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia are emotionally responsive , particularly to stressful or negative stimuli , and that such sensitivity may cause vulnerability to symptoms or to the disorder . Some evidence suggests that the content of delusional beliefs and psychotic experiences can reflect emotional causes of the disorder , and that how a person interprets such experiences can influence symptomatology . The use of " safety behaviors " ( acts such as gestures or the use of words in specific contexts ) to avoid or neutralize imagined threats may actually contribute to the chronicity of delusions . Further evidence for the role of psychological mechanisms comes from the effects of psychotherapies on symptoms of schizophrenia .
= = = Neurological = = =
Schizophrenia is associated with subtle differences in brain structures , found in forty to fifty percent of cases , and in brain chemistry during acute psychotic states . Studies using neuropsychological tests and brain imaging technologies such as fMRI and PET to examine functional differences in brain activity have shown that differences seem to occur most commonly in the frontal lobes , hippocampus and temporal lobes . Reductions in brain volume , smaller than those found in Alzheimer 's disease , have been reported in areas of the frontal cortex and temporal lobes . It is uncertain whether these volumetric changes are progressive or exist prior to the onset of the disease . These differences have been linked to the neurocognitive deficits often associated with schizophrenia . Because neural circuits are altered , it has alternatively been suggested that schizophrenia should be thought of as a collection of neurodevelopmental disorders . There has been debate on whether treatment with antipsychotics can itself cause reduction of brain volume .
Particular attention has been paid to the function of dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway of the brain . This focus largely resulted from the accidental finding that phenothiazine drugs , which block dopamine function , could reduce psychotic symptoms . It is also supported by the fact that amphetamines , which trigger the release of dopamine , may exacerbate the psychotic symptoms in schizophrenia . The influential dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia proposed that excessive activation of D2 receptors was the cause of ( the positive symptoms of ) schizophrenia . Although postulated for about 20 years based on the D2 blockade effect common to all antipsychotics , it was not until the mid @-@ 1990s that PET and SPET imaging studies provided supporting evidence . The dopamine hypothesis is now thought to be simplistic , partly because newer antipsychotic medication ( atypical antipsychotic medication ) can be just as effective as older medication ( typical antipsychotic medication ) , but also affects serotonin function and may have slightly less of a dopamine blocking effect .
Interest has also focused on the neurotransmitter glutamate and the reduced function of the NMDA glutamate receptor in schizophrenia , largely because of the abnormally low levels of glutamate receptors found in the postmortem brains of those diagnosed with schizophrenia , and the discovery that glutamate @-@ blocking drugs such as phencyclidine and ketamine can mimic the symptoms and cognitive problems associated with the condition . Reduced glutamate function is linked to poor performance on tests requiring frontal lobe and hippocampal function , and glutamate can affect dopamine function , both of which have been implicated in schizophrenia ; this has suggested an important mediating ( and possibly causal ) role of glutamate pathways in the condition . But positive symptoms fail to respond to glutamatergic medication .
= = Diagnosis = =
Schizophrenia is diagnosed based on criteria in either the American Psychiatric Association 's fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders ( DSM 5 ) , or the World Health Organization 's International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems ( ICD @-@ 10 ) . These criteria use the self @-@ reported experiences of the person and reported abnormalities in behavior , followed by a clinical assessment by a mental health professional . Symptoms associated with schizophrenia occur along a continuum in the population and must reach a certain severity before a diagnosis is made . As of 2013 there is no objective test .
= = = Criteria = = =
In 2013 , the American Psychiatric Association released the fifth edition of the DSM ( DSM @-@ 5 ) . To be diagnosed with schizophrenia , two diagnostic criteria have to be met over much of the time of a period of at least one month , with a significant impact on social or occupational functioning for at least six months . The person had to be suffering from delusions , hallucinations , or disorganized speech . A second symptom could be negative symptoms , or severely disorganized or catatonic behaviour . The definition of schizophrenia remained essentially the same as that specified by the 2000 version of DSM ( DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR ) , but DSM @-@ 5 makes a number of changes .
Subtype classifications – such as catatonic and paranoid schizophrenia – are removed . These were retained in previous revisions largely for reasons of tradition , but had subsequently proved to be of little worth .
Catatonia is no longer so strongly associated with schizophrenia .
In describing a person 's schizophrenia , it is recommended that a better distinction be made between the current state of the condition and its historical progress , to achieve a clearer overall characterization .
Special treatment of Schneider 's first @-@ rank symptoms is no longer recommended .
Schizoaffective disorder is better defined to demarcate it more cleanly from schizophrenia .
An assessment covering eight domains of psychopathology – such as whether hallucination or mania is experienced – is recommended to help clinical decision @-@ making .
The ICD @-@ 10 criteria are typically used in European countries , while the DSM criteria are used in the United States and to varying degrees around the world , and are prevailing in research studies . The ICD @-@ 10 criteria put more emphasis on Schneiderian first @-@ rank symptoms . In practice , agreement between the two systems is high .
If signs of disturbance are present for more than a month but less than six months , the diagnosis of schizophreniform disorder is applied . Psychotic symptoms lasting less than a month may be diagnosed as brief psychotic disorder , and various conditions may be classed as psychotic disorder not otherwise specified , while schizoaffective disorder is diagnosed if symptoms of mood disorder are substantially present alongside psychotic symptoms . If the psychotic symptoms are the direct physiological result of a general medical condition or a substance , then the diagnosis is one of a psychosis secondary to that condition . Schizophrenia is not diagnosed if symptoms of pervasive developmental disorder are present unless prominent delusions or hallucinations are also present .
= = = Subtypes = = =
With the publication of DSM @-@ 5 , the APA removed all sub @-@ classifications of schizophrenia . The five sub @-@ classifications included in DSM @-@ IV @-@ TR were :
Paranoid type : Delusions or auditory hallucinations are present , but thought disorder , disorganized behavior , or affective flattening are not . Delusions are persecutory and / or grandiose , but in addition to these , other themes such as jealousy , religiosity , or somatization may also be present . ( DSM code 295 @.@ 3 / ICD code F20.0 )
Disorganized type : Named hebephrenic schizophrenia in the ICD . Where thought disorder and flat affect are present together . ( DSM code 295 @.@ 1 / ICD code F20.1 )
Catatonic type : The subject may be almost immobile or exhibit agitated , purposeless movement . Symptoms can include catatonic stupor and waxy flexibility . ( DSM code 295 @.@ 2 / ICD code F20.2 )
Undifferentiated type : Psychotic symptoms are present but the criteria for paranoid , disorganized , or catatonic types have not been met . ( DSM code 295 @.@ 9 / ICD code F20.3 )
Residual type : Where positive symptoms are present at a low intensity only . ( DSM code 295 @.@ 6 / ICD code F20.5 )
The ICD @-@ 10 defines two additional subtypes :
Post @-@ schizophrenic depression : A depressive episode arising in the aftermath of a schizophrenic illness where some low @-@ level schizophrenic symptoms may still be present . ( ICD code F20.4 )
Simple schizophrenia : Insidious and progressive development of prominent negative symptoms with no history of psychotic episodes . ( ICD code F20.6 )
Sluggish schizophrenia is in the Russian version of the ICD @-@ 10 . " Sluggish schizophrenia " is in the category of " schizotypal " disorder in section F21 of chapter V.
= = = Differential diagnosis = = =
Psychotic symptoms may be present in several other mental disorders , including bipolar disorder , borderline personality disorder , drug intoxication and drug @-@ induced psychosis . Delusions ( " non @-@ bizarre " ) are also present in delusional disorder , and social withdrawal in social anxiety disorder , avoidant personality disorder and schizotypal personality disorder . Schizotypal personality disorder has symptoms that are similar but less severe than those of schizophrenia . Schizophrenia occurs along with obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder ( OCD ) considerably more often than could be explained by chance , although it can be difficult to distinguish obsessions that occur in OCD from the delusions of schizophrenia . A few people withdrawing from benzodiazepines experience a severe withdrawal syndrome which may last a long time . It can resemble schizophrenia and be misdiagnosed as such .
A more general medical and neurological examination may be needed to rule out medical illnesses which may rarely produce psychotic schizophrenia @-@ like symptoms , such as metabolic disturbance , systemic infection , syphilis , HIV infection , epilepsy , limbic encephalitis , and brain lesions . Stroke , multiple sclerosis , hyperthyroidism , hypothyroidism and dementias such as Alzheimer 's disease , Huntington 's disease , frontotemporal dementia and Lewy Body dementia may also be associated with schizophrenia @-@ like psychotic symptoms . It may be necessary to rule out a delirium , which can be distinguished by visual hallucinations , acute onset and fluctuating level of consciousness , and indicates an underlying medical illness . Investigations are not generally repeated for relapse unless there is a specific medical indication or possible adverse effects from antipsychotic medication . In children hallucinations must be separated from typical childhood fantasies .
= = Prevention = =
Prevention of schizophrenia is difficult as there are no reliable markers for the later development of the disorder . There is tentative evidence for the effectiveness of early interventions to prevent schizophrenia . While there is some evidence that early intervention in those with a psychotic episode may improve short @-@ term outcomes , there is little benefit from these measures after five years . Attempting to prevent schizophrenia in the prodrome phase is of uncertain benefit and therefore as of 2009 is not recommended . Cognitive behavioral therapy may reduce the risk of psychosis in those at high risk after a year and is recommended in this group , by the National Institute for Health and Care Excellence ( NICE ) . Another preventative measure is to avoid drugs that have been associated with development of the disorder , including cannabis , cocaine , and amphetamines .
= = Management = =
The primary treatment of schizophrenia is antipsychotic medications , often in combination with psychological and social supports . Hospitalization may occur for severe episodes either voluntarily or ( if mental health legislation allows it ) involuntarily . Long @-@ term hospitalization is uncommon since deinstitutionalization beginning in the 1950s , although it still occurs . Community support services including drop @-@ in centers , visits by members of a community mental health team , supported employment and support groups are common . Some evidence indicates that regular exercise has a positive effect on the physical and mental health of those with schizophrenia .
= = = Medication = = =
The first @-@ line psychiatric treatment for schizophrenia is antipsychotic medication , which can reduce the positive symptoms of psychosis in about 7 to 14 days . Antipsychotics , however , fail to significantly improve the negative symptoms and cognitive dysfunction . In those on antipsychotics , continued use decreases the risk of relapse . There is little evidence regarding effects from their use beyond two or three years .
The choice of which antipsychotic to use is based on benefits , risks , and costs . It is debatable whether , as a class , typical or atypical antipsychotics are better . Amisulpride , olanzapine , risperidone and clozapine may be more effective but are associated with greater side effects . Typical antipsychotics have equal drop @-@ out and symptom relapse rates to atypicals when used at low to moderate dosages . There is a good response in 40 – 50 % , a partial response in 30 – 40 % , and treatment resistance ( failure of symptoms to respond satisfactorily after six weeks to two or three different antipsychotics ) in 20 % of people . Clozapine is an effective treatment for those who respond poorly to other drugs ( " treatment @-@ resistant " or " refractory " schizophrenia ) , but it has the potentially serious side effect of agranulocytosis ( lowered white blood cell count ) in less than 4 % of people .
Most people on antipsychotics have side effects . People on typical antipsychotics tend to have a higher rate of extrapyramidal side effects while some atypicals are associated with considerable weight gain , diabetes and risk of metabolic syndrome ; this is most pronounced with olanzapine , while risperidone and quetiapine are also associated with weight gain . Risperidone has a similar rate of extrapyramidal symptoms to haloperidol . It remains unclear whether the newer antipsychotics reduce the chances of developing neuroleptic malignant syndrome or tardive dyskinesia , a rare but serious neurological disorder .
For people who are unwilling or unable to take medication regularly , long @-@ acting depot preparations of antipsychotics may be used to achieve control . They reduce the risk of relapse to a greater degree than oral medications . When used in combination with psychosocial interventions they may improve long @-@ term adherence to treatment . The American Psychiatric Association suggests considering stopping antipsychotics in some people if there are no symptoms for more than a year .
= = = Psychosocial = = =
A number of psychosocial interventions may be useful in the treatment of schizophrenia including : family therapy , assertive community treatment , supported employment , cognitive remediation , skills training , token economic interventions , and psychosocial interventions for substance use and weight management . Family therapy or education , which addresses the whole family system of an individual , may reduce relapses and hospitalizations . Evidence for the effectiveness of cognitive @-@ behavioral therapy ( CBT ) in either reducing symptoms or preventing relapse is minimal . Art or drama therapy have not been well @-@ researched . Music therapy has been shown to improve mental state and social functioning when paired with regular care .
= = Prognosis = =
Schizophrenia has great human and economic costs . It results in a decreased life expectancy by 10 – 25 years . This is primarily because of its association with obesity , poor diet , sedentary lifestyles , and smoking , with an increased rate of suicide playing a lesser role . Antipsychotic medications may also increase the risk . These differences in life expectancy increased between the 1970s and 1990s .
Schizophrenia is a major cause of disability , with active psychosis ranked as the third @-@ most @-@ disabling condition after quadriplegia and dementia and ahead of paraplegia and blindness . Approximately three @-@ fourths of people with schizophrenia have ongoing disability with relapses and 16 @.@ 7 million people globally are deemed to have moderate or severe disability from the condition . Some people do recover completely and others function well in society . Most people with schizophrenia live independently with community support . About 85 % are unemployed . In people with a first episode of psychosis a good long @-@ term outcome occurs in 42 % , an intermediate outcome in 35 % and a poor outcome in 27 % . Outcomes for schizophrenia appear better in the developing than the developed world . These conclusions , however , have been questioned .
There is a higher than average suicide rate associated with schizophrenia . This has been cited at 10 % , but a more recent analysis revises the estimate to 4 @.@ 9 % , most often occurring in the period following onset or first hospital admission . Several times more ( 20 to 40 % ) attempt suicide at least once . There are a variety of risk factors , including male gender , depression , and a high intelligence quotient .
Schizophrenia and smoking have shown a strong association in studies world @-@ wide . Use of cigarettes is especially high in individuals diagnosed with schizophrenia , with estimates ranging from 80 to 90 % being regular smokers , as compared to 20 % of the general population . Those who smoke tend to smoke heavily , and additionally smoke cigarettes with high nicotine content . Some evidence suggests that paranoid schizophrenia may have a better prospect than other types of schizophrenia for independent living and occupational functioning . Among people with schizophrenia use of cannabis is also common .
= = Epidemiology = =
Schizophrenia affects around 0 @.@ 3 – 0 @.@ 7 % of people at some point in their life , or 24 million people worldwide as of 2011 . It occurs 1 @.@ 4 times more frequently in males than females and typically appears earlier in men — the peak ages of onset are 25 years for males and 27 years for females . Onset in childhood is much rarer , as is onset in middle or old age .
Despite the prior belief that schizophrenia occurs at similar rates worldwide , its frequency varies across the world , within countries , and at the local and neighborhood level . This variation has been estimated to be fivefold . It causes approximately one percent of worldwide disability adjusted life years and resulted in 20 @,@ 000 deaths in 2010 . The rate of schizophrenia varies up to threefold depending on how it is defined .
In 2000 , the World Health Organization found the percentage of people affected and the number of new cases that develop each year is roughly similar around the world , with age @-@ standardized prevalence per 100 @,@ 000 ranging from 343 in Africa to 544 in Japan and Oceania for men , and from 378 in Africa to 527 in Southeastern Europe for women . About 1 @.@ 1 % of adults have schizophrenia in the United States .
= = History = =
In the early 20th century , the psychiatrist Kurt Schneider listed the forms of psychotic symptoms that he thought distinguished schizophrenia from other psychotic disorders . These are called first @-@ rank symptoms or Schneider 's first @-@ rank symptoms . They include delusions of being controlled by an external force , the belief that thoughts are being inserted into or withdrawn from one 's conscious mind , the belief that one 's thoughts are being broadcast to other people , and hearing hallucinatory voices that comment on one 's thoughts or actions or that have a conversation with other hallucinated voices . Although they have significantly contributed to the current diagnostic criteria , the specificity of first @-@ rank symptoms has been questioned . A review of the diagnostic studies conducted between 1970 and 2005 found that they allow neither a reconfirmation nor a rejection of Schneider 's claims , and suggested that first @-@ rank symptoms should be de @-@ emphasized in future revisions of diagnostic systems .
The history of schizophrenia is complex and does not lend itself easily to a linear narrative . Accounts of a schizophrenia @-@ like syndrome are thought to be rare in historical records before the 19th century , although reports of irrational , unintelligible , or uncontrolled behavior were common . A detailed case report in 1797 concerning James Tilly Matthews , and accounts by Philippe Pinel published in 1809 , are often regarded as the earliest cases of the illness in the medical and psychiatric literature . The Latinized term dementia praecox was first used by German alienist Heinrich Schule in 1886 and then in 1891 by Arnold Pick in a case report of a psychotic disorder ( hebephrenia ) . In 1893 Emil Kraepelin borrowed the term from Schule and Pick and in 1899 introduced a broad new distinction in the classification of mental disorders between dementia praecox and mood disorder ( termed manic depression and including both unipolar and bipolar depression ) . Kraepelin believed that dementia praecox was probably caused by a long @-@ term , smouldering systemic or " whole body " disease process that affected many organs and peripheral nerves in the body but which affected the brain after puberty in a final decisive cascade . His use of the term " praecox " distinguished it from other forms of dementia such as Alzheimer 's disease which typically occur later in life . It is sometimes argued that the use of the term démence précoce in 1852 by the French physician Bénédict Morel constitutes the medical discovery of schizophrenia . However , this account ignores the fact that there is little to connect Morel 's descriptive use of the term and the independent development of the dementia praecox disease concept at the end of the nineteenth century .
The word schizophrenia — which translates roughly as " splitting of the mind " and comes from the Greek roots schizein ( σχίζειν , " to split " ) and phrēn , phren- ( φρήν , φρεν- , " mind " ) — was coined by Eugen Bleuler in 1908 and was intended to describe the separation of function between personality , thinking , memory , and perception . American and British interpretations of Bleuler led to the claim that he described its main symptoms as four A 's : flattened affect , autism , impaired association of ideas , and ambivalence . Bleuler realized that the illness was not a dementia , as some of his patients improved rather than deteriorated , and thus proposed the term schizophrenia instead . Treatment was revolutionized in the mid @-@ 1950s with the development and introduction of chlorpromazine .
In the early 1970s , the diagnostic criteria for schizophrenia were the subject of a number of controversies which eventually led to the operational criteria used today . It became clear after the 1971 US – UK Diagnostic Study that schizophrenia was diagnosed to a far greater extent in America than in Europe . This was partly due to looser diagnostic criteria in the US , which used the DSM @-@ II manual , contrasting with Europe and its ICD @-@ 9 . David Rosenhan 's 1972 study , published in the journal Science under the title " On being sane in insane places " , concluded that the diagnosis of schizophrenia in the US was often subjective and unreliable . These were some of the factors leading to the revision not only of the diagnosis of schizophrenia , but the revision of the whole DSM manual , resulting in the publication of the DSM @-@ III in 1980 .
The term schizophrenia is commonly misunderstood to mean that affected persons have a " split personality " . Although some people diagnosed with schizophrenia may hear voices and may experience the voices as distinct
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remained in Luang Prabang , which added greater impetus to French efforts . The terrain of northern Laos , and the local climate , isolated many of the outposts with a night @-@ time fog known as crachin , thick jungle , a lack of roads , and steep terrain . Each outpost was given a certain number of days to withstand Việt Minh forces , including Muong Khoua which was issued orders on April 13 to hold for fourteen days — until April 27 .
Muong Khoua , together with its satellite outpost Sop @-@ Nao , was under the command of Captain Teullier , with the satellite outpost being overseen by Lieutenant Grézy . Muong Khoua was situated at the confluence of the rivers Nam Pak and Nam Hou , 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Điện Biên Phủ , and approximately 100 miles ( 160 km ) to the south @-@ west of the Black River in Vietnam . The outpost itself consisted of three separate strongholds , referred to as the Mousetrap , Pi and Alpha , situated on three hills to the west , south @-@ south @-@ east , and south @-@ south @-@ west of the confluence of the Nam Hou and Nam Pak . Each was roughly 220 yards ( 200 m ) from the other , forming a triangle . The village of Muong Khoua itself lay at the western foot of the Mousetrap , protected from the river by a large sandbank , and straddling the road to Phong Saly , another French outpost 50 miles ( 80 km ) to the north .
= = = Sop @-@ Nao = = =
Sop @-@ Nao lay 30 miles ( 48 km ) to the east of Muong Khoua , along the path of the Việt Minh advance , roughly 20 miles ( 32 km ) south @-@ west of Điện Biên Phủ and only a few miles from the Vietnam @-@ Laos border , 75 miles ( 121 km ) south of the T 'ai Highlands . Grézy , in command of the Sop @-@ Nao garrison , led a reinforced platoon . On the evening of April 3 , a Viet Minh battalion entered Laos near Điện Biên Phủ and Na San and reached Sap @-@ Nao .
Finding themselves surrounded by the Viet Minh , the French at Sop @-@ Nao stood for six days while in radio contact with Teullier at the main strong point . The survivors , following authorisation from the French captain , retreated during the night of April 9 / 10 along a round @-@ about route following the assumption by Grézy that the Viet Minh had laid ambushes along the most direct path . The French hacked a new path through the jungle until they reached Laotian tribesmen on April 11 , who warned them of Viet Minh units following them . The French attempted to turn for Phong @-@ Saly to the north and met an allied convoy travelling down the Nam Hou in canoes . The two forces combined and sailed down the river towards Muong Khoua .
On April 12 , the convoy ran into a Viet Minh ambush 600 yards ( 550 m ) from the Muong Khoua strong point . Using a barrier of floating tree trunks , the Viet Minh attacked the convoy with machine guns and mortars , destroying the first canoe . The remaining French and Laotian troops returned fire and , with the assistance of forces from Muong Khoua who had heard the firing , routed the Viet Minh troops , who left behind 13 dead and four wounded . The French themselves suffered seven missing , one dead , and one wounded . The remainder joined the French at Muong Khoua , with the canoes and the convoy ’ s equipment incorporated into the defence . Meanwhile , the Viet Minh ’ s 910th Battalion of the 148th Regional Regiment of the 312th Division and a heavy mortar company from the 316th Division drew near .
= = Battle = =
= = = Siege = = =
While the French troops from Sop @-@ Nao were making their way via canoe to the mother strong point , Teullier and his forces were feeling what one chronicler referred to as l 'asphyxie par le vide ( “ choking @-@ off by creating a void ” ) , the result of a Viet Minh presence in the area . The local villagers no longer spoke to the French , when they had previously been communicative , and the population began leaving ; both the farms and the markets were deserted . The French viewed this as an indicator of imminent enemy attack . Furthermore , the thick jungle and steep slopes isolated the French strong points from all but river and airborne supply . The Viet Minh , on the other hand , were adequately supplied by over 200 @,@ 000 porters , or coolies . Referred to officially as a " relatively small " force , the 300 Chasseurs Laotiens and " handful " of French NCOs and two officers were equipped with three 81 @-@ mm and two 60 @-@ mm mortars and two machine guns . They were ordered on April 13 to hold for fourteen days by Colonel Boucher de Crévecoeur , who promised air support .
At 23 : 00 hours that evening , April 13 , mortar shells began landing on the slopes of position Alpha . These bombardments would take place every night , and the Viet Minh launched their first direct assault , which failed and left Viet Minh 22 dead . This defeat prompted a reversion to previous tactics of slowly " gnawing away " at the French outpost , and Giap ordered the 312th to leave some forces behind to continue a siege while the remainder of the division moved on . Meanwhile , overhead , French B @-@ 26s bombed Viet Minh positions , and cargo planes dropped supplies , Luciole ( firefly ) flares , and ammunition on the French positions . This " air bridge " enabled the garrison to survive , and fourteen days later on April 27 it was still intact ; the French High Command dropped a Legion of Honor for Teullier and several Croix de Guerres for his men . Teullier and a small group left the Mousetrap to deliver the relevant decorations to Pi and Alpha , although movement between the positions was extremely difficult .
What was possible , however , was a small patrol through the village of Muong Khoua , which had been by now deserted . These French patrols served as an early warning system and an ambush for Viet Minh assaults during the crachin @-@ dominated night . This pattern continued into May . Meanwhile , other French forces had liberated Xieng Khouang and reached a position 40 miles ( 64 km ) from Muong Khoua . On May 17 , the French patrol deployed to the Muong Khoua village overheard barking dogs — one of which yelped — alerting the French to an impending Viet Minh attack . By 23 : 00 , the Viet Minh were visible in the fog , and the patrol returned to the Mousetrap . Teullier issued an alert via radio .
A bombardment from Soviet Russian 120 @-@ mm mortars , 57 @-@ mm recoilless rifles , and phosphorus grenades began at 00 : 30 on May 18 . Teullier instructed his radio operator , Sergeant René Novak , to request air @-@ dropped flares and air support , while mortar fire landed on Alpha and the Mousetrap , but not Pi , where Grézy was in command . Pi continued to support the other two areas of the outpost with its own mortar fire .
By 01 : 10 hours , the western flank of the Mousetrap had fallen to Viet Minh bombardment . By 01 : 30 , the garrison was informed that weather conditions prevented air support , and by 02 : 30 the Viet Minh forces launched successive assault waves which overran Teullier and his men , including attacks which flanked the position using the nearby sandbanks . At the same time , Alpha was overrun by Viet Minh forces , and by 03 : 50 no more firing was heard from the Mousetrap . Alpha survived the remainder of the night and was seen fighting by French aircraft at 09 : 00 that morning . C @-@ 47 transport aircraft returned to resume supply drops , however by 12 : 00 the Tricolor and the Laotian flag had been removed from Pi ’ s command bunker .
= = = Survivors = = =
On May 22 , four days after the fall of the Muong Khoua garrison , three of its soldiers — the garrison radio operator Novak and two Laotians — reached the only remaining French outpost in northern Laos , Phong Saly . Bernard Fall recorded in Street Without Joy : " he was only twenty @-@ five years old , but he looked fifty ; he kept on walking like an automaton to the centre of the post before he was stopped by some of the men staring at him as at a ghost . " Novak and the two other soldiers had spent the four days moving through the jungle of Laos following the defeat of their unit . Two days later , Sergeant Pierre Blondeau also arrived at the outpost . His account detailed 57 hours spent hiding from the Viet Minh before a three @-@ day march without food or navigational aids and then encountering native tribesmen who provided food and a pony , with which he reached the French forces .
= = Aftermath = =
The Vietnamese and French media had awarded considerable attention to the conflict , and newspapers worldwide had covered the battle . Bernard Fall made note of the significance of the battle as " epic " in both his 1961 Street Without Joy and 1967 Hell in a Very Small Place . The British newspaper The Times began covering the conflict on April 23 , reporting the retreat from Sop Nao to Muong Khoua . However , despite correctly identifying half of the Viet Minh attacking force , it rated the garrison at the mother strong point as numbering 1 @,@ 000 . The battle received scant attention before the garrison fell , however after that garrison was defeated the coverage remained positive at the thought of French survivors and speculative on the future of the French military presence and new commander , Henri Navarre . The French High Command released an assessment of the defeat at Muong Khoua in Communique No. 14 , stating " During the night of May 17 to 18 , the post of Muong Khoua , which had victoriously resisted since the beginning of the Viet Minh offensive , succumbed under the overwhelming mass of assailants . "
In January 1954 , Muong Khoua was re @-@ occupied by Laotian forces , which were subsequently overrun once more by the 316th Division of the Viet Minh . The Laotian commander , who lived in the village itself with his wife , was killed in his home before the attack . Battalions of the French Foreign Legion and Laotian forces suffered losses covering the retreat of garrison survivors . The area of Muong Khoua later became a critical supply route across Dien Bien Phu for the Viet Minh and by 1963 was the site of a construction project for the proposed Route 19 .
The French would use the lessons learned at Muong Khoua and those of the 1952 Battle of Na San in their defence plans at Điện Biên Phủ , while the Viet Minh in turn would employ similar tactics of encirclement and strangulation there . The importance of an air bridge to maintain supply lines , strong artillery support to stave off human @-@ wave Viet Minh attacks , and the need for isolated emplacements to mutually support each other , were also important tactics taken on board by the French from both conflicts . The disappearance of local civiliain populations previously friendly towards the French , which served as a precursor to Viet Minh attack , was also remembered by the Điện Biên Phủ troops . For the Viet Minh , their abilities to isolated and smother individual strongpoints while maintaining hidden artillery and support weapon emplacements out of the reach of French airstrikes and artillery were honed at both battles , as were their practicies of using human @-@ wave attacks .
= On Your Mark =
Ghibli Experimental Theater On Your Mark ( ジブリ実験劇場 On Your Mark , Jiburi Jikkengekijō On Yua Māku ) is an animated music video created by Studio Ghibli for the song " On Your Mark " by the Japanese rock duo Chage & Aska . The song was released in 1994 as part of the single " Heart " . In 1995 , Hayao Miyazaki wrote and directed the short film for the song as a side @-@ project after having writer 's block with Princess Mononoke . The anime music video is non @-@ linear , providing multiple reiterations and alternate scenes to depict the events . The music video added sound effects to the audio track , but contains no dialogue . Miyazaki purposely misinterpreted the lyrics to present his vision of a world where the surface becomes inhospitable and humans live in an underground city . He made the video cryptic to evoke creative interpretations among viewers .
The music video follows two policemen who raid a religious cult and find an angelic being only to have her taken away and confined to a laboratory . Haunted by the fate of the " angel " , the two men formulate a plan and break into the laboratory . Fleeing in an armored truck the three plummet into an abyss after trying to force past a police aircraft along a narrow suspended roadway . After a montage of the previous scenes , the armored truck suddenly rockets into an apartment complex , allowing their escape . The three escape to the surface , ignoring the radiation and danger signs , emerging near an encased nuclear reactor . The two men set the " angel " free and she flies off into the sky .
The music video was well @-@ received and praised for its animation and attention to detail . It premiered as a short before Studio Ghibli 's Whisper of the Heart and has since been released on Laserdisc and DVD as part of All Things Ghibli Special Short Short . It has not been released outside Japan .
= = Synopsis = =
The video begins with shots of a vacant village , overgrown with weeds , and the concrete sarcophagus of a covered @-@ over nuclear reactor in the background . As the music begins , the scene changes to a sci @-@ fi @-@ style nighttime military @-@ style police raid on a cult . Futuristic flying troop transports crash through the windows of a tower topped by gigantic neon @-@ lit eyes and occupied by armed defenders . The policemen exchange gunfire and grenades with cultists whose hoods depict an enormous eye . The victorious police begin to sort through the bodies of the cultists , two policemen find what appears to be a girl , lying unconscious , with large feathered wings on her back .
The scene changes again , now to bright daylight and blue sky . Two men are driving an old Alfa Romeo Giulietta Spider passo corto down an empty road . As one of the men helps the girl up , she spreads her wings and he holds her hands while she gains confidence . With a nudge she is airborne , but she seems hesitant and afraid as he lets go .
The scene changes back to the discovery of the girl in the tower and the identity of the two men are revealed to be the same from the previous sequence . The two men carefully carry her out and offer her something to drink , and are encouraged when she sips . A team of scientists wearing radiation suits arrive and quickly take the girl away after placing her into a container .
The two men are haunted by the fate the girl will suffer and formulate a plan to rescue her . They break into the laboratory and free her from confinement , but the lab 's alarms are triggered . The three escape in an armored truck and drive along a narrow suspended roadway over what appears to be a domed city built in a crater . Police hovercrafts are in pursuit , and one of them comes very low to the roadway to block the fugitives ' truck . The roadway collapses when the protagonists try to force their way through , sending the truck plummeting . The winged girl refuses to let go of the hands of her rescuers , and the three of them fall into the abyss .
A brief montage of previous shots follows : the discovery of the girl , the girl flying through a blue sky , the two men rescuing the girl from the laboratory and stealing the truck , the truck plummeting amidst the wreckage of the roadway . But this time , inexplicably , the truck fires stabilizing thrusters and makes a short flight into the side of an apartment building . After their escape , the three are seen in an old Alfa Romeo Giulietta Spider passo corto racing through a dark tunnel underneath signs which bear radiation symbols and read ( in kanji ) " Beware Of Sunlight " and " Survival Not Guaranteed " , then finally they emerge into daylight . They drive past nuclear cooling towers and a sign which reads " Extreme Danger " and continue down the road .
One of the men helps the girl up , she spreads her wings and gives them a grateful smile ; he kisses her hand , and the other winks in farewell . Soon , she is gone drifting upward into the sky . Briefly , a major urban cityscape is seen beyond the trees . From a bird 's @-@ eye view , we see the shape of the car veering off the road and slowing to a stop in the grass .
= = Production = =
The production of the music video began because Miyazaki was suffering from writer 's block on Princess Mononoke and needed another project to distract him . Miyazaki wrote and directed the music video for " On Your Mark " , although the song was previously released in 1994 as part of the single " Heart " . Despite the popularity of the work , Toshio Suzuki told Helen McCarthy , the British author of numerous anime reference books , that Studio Ghibli had not given " 100 percent " focus to the music video .
In the production of the music video , Miyazaki experimented with using computer animation to supplement traditional hand drawn cell @-@ animation . At the time Studio Ghibli did not have its own computer department and the work was outsourced to CG Production Company Links , under supervision of Hideki Nakano . Techniques learned in the experimentation for On Your Mark were later adopted for the creation of Princess Mononoke . Animation director was Masashi Andō . Long time Miyazaki collaborator Michiyo Yasuda was in charge of colour selection . Backgrounds were created by Kazuo Oga . Yōji Takeshige made his debut as Art Director . There is no dialogue in the music video and the two policemen are loosely modeled after Chage and Aska .
= = Analysis = =
The deliberately non @-@ linear , enigmatic and cryptic style of the music video was intended to stimulate the imaginations of its viewers and their interpretations of the music video . " Miyazaki offered an interpretation of the angel as " Hope " and to protect hope could paradoxically mean " to let it go where no @-@ one can touch it " . Dani Cavallaro , an author of books related to anime , reflected on this by proposing that hope retains its purity and authenticity when it is ephemeral , evanescent and elusive . Hope may cause exertion and possibly pain , but denying hope is to deny the feasibility or and vision it provides . Miyazaki said that in the music video 's setting , humans live in an underground city after the surface of the Earth has been contaminated with radiation , creating a sanctuary for nature . Miyazaki did not find this believable , though , as humanity would suffer on the surface instead . Miyazaki intentionally misinterpreted the lyrics to reflect upon the vision of a world filled with disease and radiation and people 's reactions to that world . Cryptically , he implied the two policemen might not be able to return to their old life , but offered no reason as to why .
Cavallaro noted that the lyrics of the song include " ryuukou no kaze " , which translates to " flu " and is also an idiom for " the flu of fashion . " The author further interpreted it as " I always feel the urge to make a fresh start " suggesting this could be the " bleak acceptance of the ideological and economic codes that mold our lives in accordance with the imperative of planned obsolescence , or as a hopeful embracing of the genuine prospects of renewal and change . " Cavallaro suggested that despite the feminine appearance of the " angel " , it could be of a " preternatural order " , making gender or sex distinctions irrelevant . Miyazaki referred to the angelic creature as " tori no hito " or " a bird 's person " which is the nickname of Nausicaä from his Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind manga and film . Cavallaro noted another visual correspondence to Only Yesterday with the oppressive urban environment and the freedom of open spaces .
During their April 1999 lecture series on manga , anime and the works of Miyazaki at the University of Dallas , Pamela Gossin , Professor of Arts and Humanities , and guest instructor Marc Hairston , research scientist in the William B. Hanson Center for Space Sciences , discussed On Your Mark in their lecture , " In the Coda On Your Mark and Nausicaa , and drew parallels to the Nausicaä story , its titular character and its conclusion . Gossin and Hairston interpreted the release of the winged girl at the end of the video as Miyazaki setting free his character in a manner reminiscent of William Shakespeare 's symbolic liberation of his characters , through Prospero 's release of his servant Ariel in his play The Tempest . The final volume of the Nausicaä manga was released in January 1995 . Miyazaki started creating On Your Mark that same month .
McCarthy highlighted similarities to different works and real life found throughout the film , remarking that the opening city sequence could be an homage to Akira or Blade Runner and the attack on the religious cult could be a reflection of the Aum Shinrikyo movement . Nausicaa.net stated the production occurred prior to the police raid following the Sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway in March 1995 . McCarthy also noted that the film 's scientists ' decontamination gear look like the hero of Porco Rosso and the rescue scene is reminiscent of Princess Leia in Star Wars . The encased or " box " structure in the film is an homage to the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant which was entombed in concrete following the Chernobyl disaster .
Miyazaki scholar Seiji Kanō observed that the urban settings have a China Town style and resemble the cityscapes of Mamoru Oshii 's Ghost in the Shell animated film adaptation , in production at the time . While Miyazaki has been non @-@ committal about the nature of his winged entity in On your Mark , Kanō noted that the manga Seraphim : 266 @,@ 613 @,@ 336 Wings , an unfinished collaborative effort by Oshii and Satoshi Kon , with its Angel Disease theme , was still serialized in Animage at the time Miyazaki was creating On Your Mark in 1995 .
= = Reception = =
The music video was well received . Dr. Patrick Collins , a science writer called it , " the most perfect short science fantasy film I 've ever seen . " McCarter of EX Magazine praised the film 's attention to detail that brought the world to life . THEM anime praised the music video and went so far as to justify the purchase of Ghibli ga Ippai Special Short Short for this music video .
= = Releases = =
The music video was released theatrically with Whisper of the Heart on July 15 , 1995 . Chage & Aska also used the film in concerts . The first official screening took place at their fan club concert , held at the Makuhari Messe in Chiba , on June 29 , 1995 . Beginning July 5 , 1995 , the video was shown for the performance of the song during the Super Best 3 Mission Impossible tour . Featuring the same melody but different lyrics than On Your Mark , Castles in the Air was included on the English @-@ language album One Voice : The Songs of Chage & Aska . Because of popular demand , On Your Mark was re @-@ released separately in Japan on VHS and Laserdisc , on July 25 , 1997 . On November 15 , 2005 , the film was released on the All Things Ghibli Special Short Short DVD with the video set to play the original " On Your Mark " or " Castles in the Air " songs . After Aska ( Shigeaki Miyazaki ) of the musical duo Chage and Aska was arrested for drug possession , Walt Disney Studios Japan removed On Your Mark from the upcoming DVD / Blu @-@ ray box set containing Hayao Miyazaki 's works and ceased shipments of All Things Ghibli Special Short Short . On October 27 , 2014 , Studio Ghibli 's Toshio Suzuki announced on the company 's web page that they had re @-@ considered the situation and would be sending out Blu @-@ ray discs to purchasers of the Hayao Miyazaki box set , as long as they could provide proof of purchase .
= Amanita nothofagi =
Amanita nothofagi is a species of fungus in the Amanitaceae family . Endemic to New Zealand , the species was first described by mycologist Greta Stevenson in 1962 . The fruit bodies have dark brown caps that are up to 13 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 in ) in diameter and covered with patches of soft greyish @-@ brown scales or warts . The gills underneath the cap are crowded together , free from attachment to the stem , and white , becoming tinged with yellow in age . The stem of the mushroom is 4 – 14 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) long by 0 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and has a ring . The spore print is white , and individual spores are spherical to ellipsoid , measuring 7 @.@ 5 – 9 by 7 @.@ 5 – 9 micrometres . The mushroom may be confused with another New Zealand species , A. australis , but can be distinguished by certain characteristics . Amanita nothofagi is a mycorrhizal species , and grows in association with native New Zealand trees such as Southern Beech .
= = Taxonomy and classification = =
The species was first described as new to science by New Zealand mycologist Greta Stevenson who collected specimens in the mid @-@ 1950s , in Nelson and Cape Farewell . She published a description of the mushroom in the Royal Botanic Garden 's journal Kew Bulletin in 1962 , the second part of a five @-@ part series of articles describing the mushroom flora of the country . The specific epithet nothofagi refers to Nothofagus , the genus of Southern beeches with which the species is often associated . Amanita authority Rodham Tulloss uses the common name " southern beech Amanita " , while Geoff Ridley suggests " charcoal flycap " .
Stevenson classified Amanita nothofagi in the section Phalloideae of the genus Amanita , but Ridley considered it better placed in section Validae because of its " subglobose basidiospores , a clavate or occasionally abruptly bulbous stipe base , with sparse bands or a rim of volva material . "
= = Description = =
The cap of A. nothofagi is initially convex , later becoming flattened with a central depression , with radial grooves on the margin , reaching diameters of 30 – 130 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 5 @.@ 1 in ) . The colour is variable , ranging from buff to dark grey to greyish @-@ sepia , with radial streaks of dusky brownish grey . The cap surface is sticky when young or wet , but dries out with age . The remnants of the volva form small to large , irregularly shaped , felted patches , that are dull greyish @-@ sepia to sepia , and sometimes scab @-@ like . The gills are crowded closely together , and free from attachment to the stem . They are white to cream @-@ coloured , 6 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) wide . The lamellulae ( short gills that do not extend fully from the cap edge to the stem ) have somewhat truncated ends .
The stem is 40 – 140 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 5 @.@ 5 in ) high , 5 – 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , and tapers slightly at the top . It is hollow and has a bulbous base measuring 10 – 30 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) in diameter . The stem surface above the level of the ring is white , sparsely covered with woolly or fuzzy tufts , occasionally breaking into transverse bands ; below the ring the stem surface is smooth or occasionally breaks into bands or fibrillose scales . It is whitish , buff or greyish @-@ sepia streaked with grey . The stem base may or may not have a band or rim of buff to greyish @-@ sepia volval remnants . The ring is membranous , grooved , whitish , buff , and greyish @-@ sepia or lavender @-@ grey . It first hangs freely before later sticking to the stem , often tearing and adhering to the edge of the cap . The flesh of the cap is white or stained mouse @-@ grey under the central part , occasionally with a grey line above the gills ; the stem flesh is white to pale buff .
The spore print is white . The spores are typically 7 @.@ 5 – 9 by 7 @.@ 5 – 9 µm , spherical to broadly ellipsoid to ellipsoid , and thin @-@ walled . Under a microscope , the spores appear hyaline ( translucent ) , and are amyloid — meaning they will turn bluish @-@ black to black when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia are 30 @.@ 5 – 57 by 8 – 16 µm , four @-@ spored , and not clamped at the base . The margin cells of the gills are plentiful , spherical , club @-@ shaped or swollen spherically at the tip , hyaline , and measure 13 – 58 by 8 – 33 µm . The cap cuticle consists of a 130 – 220 µm wide , strongly gelatinised suprapellis ( upper layer ) and a dense , non @-@ gelatinised subpellis ( lower layer ) . The volval remnants on the cap are made of abundant spherical , elliptic and club @-@ shaped cells that are 21 – 119 by 14 @.@ 5 – 115 µm , intermixed with hyphae 4 – 9 µm wide and pale umber in colour , and either arranged irregularly , or with a vertical orientation .
= = = Similar species = = =
Amanita nothofagi mushrooms can be confused with A. australis if the warts have been washed off and the colour has been bleached . A reliable method to distinguish the two is to check for the presence of clamp connections at the bases of the basidia , which are present in A. australis and absent from A. nothofagi . Ridley notes that the type collection was made with a dark grey specimen , and later collectors who found browner specimens have had difficulty in correctly identifying the species . Paler specimens resemble A. excelsa , which led some to incorrectly believe that the species occurs in New Zealand . Amanita luteofusca is also similar in appearance , spore size , amyloid reaction , and lack of clamp connections in the basidia . It is distinguished from A. nothofagi largely on the basis of colour — it is a greyish @-@ brown to yellowish @-@ grey brown that fades to pinkish @-@ buff as it gets older . Tulloss suggests that the resemblance of a number of species from Australasia and Chile which lack brightly coloured fruit bodies and share similar greyish to brownish rings and volvas may indicate that they share Gondwanan ancestors .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of Amanita nothofagi grow solitarily or in scattered groups . Like all Amanita mushrooms , it is mycorrhizal , and grows in close association with Southern Beech ( genus Nothofagus ) ( including New Zealand Red Beech , Silver beech , New Zealand Black Beech , and Hard Beech ) , Manuka , and Kānuka . Found on both the North and South islands of New Zealand , it is the most common of the country 's endemic Amanita species .
= Tasselled wobbegong =
The tasselled wobbegong ( Eucrossorhinus dasypogon ) is a species of carpet shark in the family Orectolobidae and the only member of its genus . It inhabits shallow coral reefs off northern Australia , New Guinea , and adjacent islands . Reaching 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in length , this species has a broad and flattened body and head . Its most distinctive trait is a fringe of branching dermal flaps around its head , which extends onto its chin . The fringe , along with its complex color pattern of small blotches and reticulations , enable it to camouflage itself against the reef environment .
During the day , the solitary tasselled wobbegong can generally be found lying inside caves or under ledges with its tail curled . Individual sharks tend to remain within a local area and have favored resting spots . While resting , it opportunistically ambushes nearby fishes and invertebrates , and also lures in prey by waving its tail to mimic the appearance of a small fish . At night , it emerges and actively forages for food . This species is aplacental viviparous , though little is known of its life history . The tasselled wobbegong has been reported to bite humans unprovoked ; attacks may result from people accidentally disturbing the shark or being misperceived as prey . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species as Near Threatened , as outside of Australia it is threatened by fisheries and habitat degradation .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
Dutch ichthyologist Pieter Bleeker originally described the tasselled wobbegong in an 1867 volume of Archives Néerlandaises des Sciences Exactes et Naturelles . His account was based on two Indonesian specimens , one caught off Waigeo and the other off Aru . He gave it the name dasypogon , from the Greek dasys ( " hairy " ) and pogon ( " beard " ) , and assigned it to the genus Crossorhinus ( a synonym of Orectolobus ) . In 1908 , Charles Tate Regan created the new genus Eucrossorhinus for this species , derived from the Greek eu ( " good " ) , krossoi ( " tassel " ) and rhinos ( " nose " ) . Regan subsequently reconsidered the main trait he used to separate Eucrossorhinus ( the spacing of the fourth and fifth gill slits ) and synonymized it with Orectolobus . Later authors have placed the tasselled wobbegong either in its own genus or in Orectolobus . Other common names for this species are bearded wobbegong and Ogilby 's wobbegong .
Morphological studies have been inconclusive about the evolutionary relationships of the tasselled wobbegong , but overall have gauged it to be among the more derived wobbegong ( Orectolobidae ) species . A 2009 phylogenetic analysis based on mitochondrial and nuclear DNA found otherwise , that this species was in fact basal to all other wobbegongs except the northern wobbegong ( O. wardi ) . This result supports the synonymization of Eucrossorhinus with Orectolobus . Molecular clock estimation placed the speciation of the tasselled wobbegong at 11 – 6 Ma , coinciding with a period of significant geological rearrangement and the formation of coral reef habitats in the region .
= = Description = =
The tasselled wobbegong is a very broad , moderately flattened shark . The head is wider than long , with a distinctive fringe of branching dermal lobes running almost continuously from the snout tip to the origins of the pectoral fins , including a " beard " on the chin . The nostrils bear long , branching barbels , and have grooves surrounding them and connecting them to the mouth . There are tubercles above the eyes but not elsewhere , and behind the eyes are larger spiracles . The large mouth is positioned ahead of the eyes , almost at the end of the head . There are furrows on the lower jaw extending from the mouth corners and along the jaw median . There are 23 – 26 upper and 19 lower tooth rows ; each tooth has a single slender , pointed cusp . The three upper and two lower rows of symphysial ( central ) teeth are especially long and fang @-@ like . The five pairs of gill slits are short .
The pectoral and pelvic fins are large and rounded . The dorsal fins are short @-@ based and fairly tall ; the first is slightly larger than the second and originates over the latter quarter of the pelvic fin bases . Behind the pelvic fins , the body rapidly tapers to the short caudal peduncle . The anal fin originates behind the midpoint of the second dorsal fin and is no more than half its size . The caudal fin is short , with no lower lobe and an upper lobe bearing a strong ventral notch near the tip . This species has a mosaic @-@ like dorsal color pattern consisting of numerous small , dark blotches and lines on a gray- or yellow @-@ brown background ; there may also be darker bands . The pattern extends to the underside of the tail and the ventral pectoral and pelvic fin margins . The ventral surface is otherwise white . The tasselled wobbegong is reliably known to reach a length of 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) . Most authors consider an older record of a 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) long individual to be erroneous .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the tasselled wobbegong encompasses the continental shelf of northern Australia from Ningaloo Reef in the west to Bundaberg in the east , as well as New Guinea , Waigeo , and the Aru Islands . Additional records from Malaysia are unconfirmed . This common bottom @-@ dweller inhabits coral reefs , perhaps exclusively , in both inshore and offshore waters from the intertidal zone to around 50 m ( 160 ft ) deep . It is most often encountered in reef channels and faces , or atop coral heads .
= = Biology and ecology = =
Considered the most specialized member of its family , the tasselled wobbegong 's ornate coloration and complex dermal fringe grants it excellent camouflage , while it is probably a slower swimmer than related species . It is solitary and spends most of the day lying motionless inside caves or under ledges with its tail curled up . Individual sharks have a small home range , containing several preferred resting spots that are used repeatedly . This species becomes more active at night , swimming onto the reef to hunt .
The tasselled wobbegong feeds on bony and cartilaginous fishes , crustaceans , and cephalopods . Its capacious mouth allows sizeable prey to be swallowed , with one documented case of a 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) long individual consuming a 1 @.@ 0 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long brownbanded bamboo shark ( Chiloscyllium punctatum ) . During daytime , this species is an opportunistic ambush predator . It preys upon schooling nocturnal fishes such as squirrelfishes , soldierfishes , and sweepers that often shelter in the same cave . Tiny fishes and crustaceans have been seen settling atop the resting wobbegong 's head , attracting larger fishes that are in turn attacked by the wobbegong . Observations in captivity have further revealed that this species seems to engage in active luring behavior . When it perceives food nearby , it begins to slowly wave its tail back and forth ; its caudal fin resembles a small fish , complete with a dark eyespot at the base . The shark typically rests with its head elevated , which places it within striking distance of any prey drawn by its tail .
The tapeworm Parachristianella monomegacantha is a known parasite of the tasselled wobbegong . This species has been observed being attended by cleaner shrimp ( Leander urocaridella , Stenopus hispidus ) and bluestreak cleaner wrasse ( Labroides dimidiatus ) . Reproduction is presumably aplacental viviparous like other wobbegongs , with the developing embryos sustained by yolk . There is a report of mating being observed inside a cave at night . Newborns measure approximately 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) long . Size at sexual maturity is uncertain ; one recorded male was found to be adult at 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) long .
= = Human interactions = =
With several records of apparently unprovoked attacks on people , the tasselled wobbegong has a reputation beyond other wobbegongs for aggressive behavior . Gilbert Whitley even wrote in 1940 that it " attacks and generally kills the natives " of Papua New Guinea . Though Whitley 's claim is questionable , this species is certainly capable of inflicting severe wounds . Conversely , the tasselled wobbegong is also an ecotourism attraction and many divers have approached it without incident . Given this shark 's cryptic appearance and poor vision , humans should exercise caution to avoid accidentally harassing it or causing it to mistake a hand or foot for prey . This species adapts well to captivity and is occasionally found in the home aquarium trade .
The tasselled wobbegong has little economic value , though its attractive skin is occasionally used for leather . In Australian waters , it is not fished and faces minimal threats . However , elsewhere in its range it may be negatively affected by extensive fishery activity and habitat degradation from pollution , blast fishing , and coral removal . Because of these concerns , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as Near Threatened .
= Sad Wings of Destiny =
Sad Wings of Destiny is the second album by the English heavy metal group Judas Priest , released in 1976 . It is considered the album on which Judas Priest consolidated their sound and image , and songs from it such as " Victim of Changes " and " The Ripper " have since become live standards . It is the only album to feature drummer Alan Moore .
Noted for its riff @-@ driven heavy metal sound and the wide range of Rob Halford 's vocals , the album displays a wide variety of styles , moods , and textures , inspired by an array of groups such as Queen , Deep Purple , and Black Sabbath . The centrepiece " Victim of Changes " is an eight @-@ minute track featuring heavy riffing trading off with high @-@ pitched vocals , extended guitar leads , and a slow , moody breakdown toward the end . " Tyrant " and " The Ripper " are short , dense , high @-@ powered rockers with many parts and changes . Riffs and solos dominate " Genocide " , " Island of Domination " , and " Deceiver " , and the band finds more laid @-@ back moments in the crooning piano @-@ backed " Epitaph " and the moody " Dreamer Deceiver " .
Sad Wings of Destiny had a positive reception but weak sales as it was released just as punk rock was dominating the spotlight in the UK . The band recorded their first two albums with the independent Gull label under tight budgets ; after living off a single meal per day while working side jobs to support themselves , the group grew frustrated with the financial situation and signed with CBS Records for their next album , Sin After Sin ( 1977 ) . Breaking their contract resulted in the rights to Sad Wings of Destiny and its demo recordings falling into Gull 's hands .
= = Background = =
Judas Priest formed in 1969 in industrial West Bromwich , Birmingham . Co @-@ founder Al Atkins chose the band 's name , wanting one similar to Black Sabbath 's . The bands were contemporaries and were both from Birmingham , though Judas Priest failed to find significant audience until Black Sabbath began to fade from the spotlight . The band 's guitarists Glenn Tipton and K. K. Downing have said the heavy riffing and complexity of the song arrangements were inspired by the factories of Birmingham .
By the time Judas Priest 's first album , Rocka Rolla , was released in 1974 , there had been so many lineup changes that no original member remained . The first album displayed a mix of styles from a wide variety of influences ; the band found the performance and production disappointing . The band gigged occasionally through 1975 , at times sharing the stage with bands such as Pink Fairies and UFO . Drummer John Hinch left the band for reasons that are disputed and was replaced with Alan Moore in October 1975 , who had drummed in an early incarnation of the band .
The band performed the " Dreamer Deceiver " – " Deceiver " pair on BBC Two 's The Old Grey Whistle Test the year before the songs appeared on Sad Wings of Destiny . The band had yet to develop the studs @-@ and @-@ leather image that was to become their trademark ; instead , they wore contemporary mid @-@ 1970s fashions , including high @-@ heeled boots and frilled shirts , and a long @-@ haired Halford donned a pink satin top which he later said he borrowed from his sister . By 1976 , the band 's singer Rob Halford joked that fans should burn their copies of Rocka Rolla .
Finances were tight : the record label Gull provided a recording budget of £ 2000 for each of the band 's first two albums . During the recording of Sad Wings of Destiny , band members restricted themselves to one meal a day , and several took on part @-@ time work : Tipton as a gardener , Downing in a factory , and Hill driving a delivery van . The group went into the studio with the intention of making an album that mixed straight @-@ ahead rock with a progressive edge .
= = Production = =
Recording took place over two weeks in November and December 1975 at Rockfield Studios in Wales with producers Jeffrey Calvert and Gereint " Max West " Hughes , and Chris Tsangarides as co @-@ engineer . Calvert and Hughes were the main members of the pop group Typically Tropical who topped the UK charts in 1975 with " Barbados " , Gull 's first hit . The band stayed sober during the recording sessions , which lasted from 3 : 00 pm until 3 : 00 am . Mixing took a week at Morgan Studios in London .
David Howells of Gull records commissioned Patrick Woodroffe to provide the cover art , a piece called Fallen Angel depicting a struggling , grounded angel surrounded by flames and wearing a devil 's three @-@ pronged cross , which was the band 's symbol . Halford posed Christ @-@ like on the reverse , and Gothic fonts adorned the front and back .
= = Songs = =
" Victim of Changes "
The nearly eight @-@ minute " Victim of Changes " displays a wide dynamic range in rhythm , texture , and mood , with heavy riffing , a melodic ballad section , and extended guitar leads . An almost classical @-@ sounding twin @-@ guitar introduction leads to the violent main riff . The lyrics tell of a woman whose hard @-@ drinking results in losing her man to another woman . Inspired by Led Zeppelin 's " Black Dog " , the heavy riff alternates with a cappella passages , Halford breaking into screaming falsettos during the slow break and dramatic conclusion of the song .
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track began as two songs : " Whiskey Woman " was an early Priest song by Downing and Atkins that the band chose not to include on the first album , though it had long been a crowd @-@ pleasing opener at live shows and featured on early demo recordings . To this the band wove in the slow " Red Light Lady " , a song Halford brought with him from his previous band , Hiroshima .
" The Ripper "
A busy , chugging , riff @-@ heavy rocker , " The Ripper " features arrangements inspired by Queen – particularly in the high @-@ pitched layered opening vocals and classical @-@ tinged twin guitars . The lyrics of the Tipton @-@ penned track are from the point of view of Victorian serial killer Jack the Ripper .
" Dreamer Deceiver "
A slow ballad with crooning vocals and screaming lead soloing , the song serves as introduction to the heavy " Deceiver " which follows it . Atkins originally received partial credit for both tracks , but disclaimed involvement in them ; later releases removed his credit .
" Deceiver "
A heavy song with a chugging riff presaging the technical style of speed metal , " Deceiver " features energetic soloing and a heavy , Black Sabbath @-@ like break with soaring , high @-@ pitched vocals , climaxing in a repetitive acoustic closing .
" Prelude "
" Prelude " is short baroque instrumental primarily in the E ♭ Aeolian mode , alternating between the tonic and dominant , and is arranged for keyboards , guitars , and tom @-@ tom drums . Despite the title , " Prelude " is musically unrelated to the following track , " Tyrant " .
" Tyrant "
A short track full of many parts and tempo changes , Halford has said " Tyrant " expresses his " aversion towards any form of control " .
" Genocide "
A forward @-@ looking , riff @-@ heavy rocker , bearing the influence of heavy rockers such as the Deep Purple tracks " Woman from Tokyo " and " Burn " . Halford expressed hope that the song 's " strong and graphic " lyrics would " be provocative and somewhat controversial and to stimulate people " . The phrase " sin after sin " from the lyrics to " Genocide " provided the title to the band 's next album .
" Epitaph "
A quiet track with piano backing and Queen @-@ like layered vocals , Halford said the lyrics to " Epitaph " express frustration at a lack of place for the young or old in modern cities .
" Island of Domination "
The side @-@ closing " Island of Domination " is a heavy rocker with a complex riff in a style reminiscent of Black Sabbath . Downing described the lyrics as personal to Halford , joking of their having " probably a few innuendoes " .
= = Release , reception and legacy = =
Sad Wings of Destiny was released 23 March 1976 , and the same month " The Ripper " appeared as a single backed with " Island of Domination " . The album was initially published and distributed by Janus Records in the United States .
The album had little commercial success at first and had difficulty getting noticed due to critical competition from the rise of punk rock . The band supported the album with a headlining tour of the UK from 6 April to 20 June 1976 . The album peaked at 48 in the UK , and was awarded a gold record in 1989 . In Rolling Stone Kris Nicholson gave the album a positive review , comparing it favourably to Deep Purple 's Machine Head of 1972 . Sad Wings of Destiny arrived as heavy metal began to reinvigorate itself — the same year saw the release of Rising from Ritchie Blackmore 's Rainbow and Virgin Killer from Scorpions .
The band had grown dissatisfied with Gull ; the tight finances led Moore to leave the band a second time — this time permanently . The album caught the attention of CBS Records , and with the help of new manager David Hemmings , the band signed with CBS and received a £ 60 @,@ 000 budget for their next record , Sin After Sin ( 1977 ) . Downing described the disappointed feelings the group had over Gull 's management influenced the dark themes that appeared on Sad Wings of Destiny . The signing required breaking their contract with Gull , resulting in the rights to the first two albums and all related recordings — including demos — becoming property of Gull . Gull periodically repackaged and re @-@ released the material from these albums , such as on the 1981 double album Hero , Hero . For the most part , the band was to abandon the progressive rock elements of their first two albums for a more straight @-@ ahead heavy rock sound ; the band revisited these prog elements in 2008 on the album Nostradamus .
Fans , critics , and the band have come to see Sad Wings of Destiny as the album on which Judas Priest consolidated their sound and image . Martin Popoff cites the album 's " reinvention " of the heavy metal genre . The technical dexterity and operatic vocals pointed toward trends in heavy metal that later in the decade New Wave of British Heavy Metal bands such as Iron Maiden were to follow , and the album 's dark themes reappeared in the 1980s American thrash metal , such as in the music of Slayer and Metallica . An early sign of the band 's influence was that Van Halen included " Victim of Changes " in their sets before achieving fame . Dave Mustaine of Megadeth relates that a brother @-@ in @-@ law punched him in the face for listening to Sad Wings of Destiny ; Mustaine called this a turning point , where he chose heavy metal as a career as " revenge " .
" Victim of Changes " , " The Ripper " , " Tyrant " , and " Genocide " — with an extended introduction — appear on the band 's first live album , Unleashed in the East ( 1979 ) . During the Sad Wings sessions , Howells encouraged the band to work on a heavy metal cover of " Diamonds & Rust " by folk singer Joan Baez , but it did not appear on the album . The band had a hit in the UK with a re @-@ recording of the cover version the following year , after they had moved to CBS Records . Gull released the version from the Sad Wings sessions in 1978 on the compilation album The Best of Judas Priest .
Judas Priest 's 1990 album Painkiller features a winged figure Halford has described as a futuristic version of the Fallen Angel from the Sad Wings of Destiny cover . The band 's 2005 album Angel of Retribution — with Halford again in the band — revives the Fallen Angel again : the cover concept has the angel rise and seek retribution , and the song " Judas Rising " has him cast off his gloom and rise in optimism .
After Halford left the group in the 1990s , Tim Owens was hired to replace him after auditioning " Victim of Changes " and " The Ripper " . Downing and Tipton thereafter nicknamed Owens " The Ripper " . Judas Priest 's original singer Al Atkins recorded a version of " Victim of Changes " for his album Victim of Changes of 1998 . Judas Priest frequently performed the song " Mother Sun " during the Sad Wings era , but never recorded it . The ballad , with its Queen @-@ like vocals , has survived only in poor @-@ quality bootleg recordings . In 2014 Swedish metal band Portrait released a cover version on a 2014 CD single .
= = Track listing = =
The Sad Wings of Destiny disc of the seventeen @-@ disc Complete Albums Collection in 2012 puts the Side B tracks before those from " Side A " . " Prelude " did not appear on some pressings .
= = Personnel = =
= = = Band = = =
The band and production staff of Sad Wings of Destiny were :
Rob Halford – vocals
K. K. Downing – guitar
Glenn Tipton – guitar , piano
Ian Hill – bass guitar
Alan Moore – drums
= = = Production = = =
Produced by Jeffrey Calvert , Max West , and Judas Priest
Engineered by Jeffrey Calvert , Max West , and Chris Tsangarides
Cover concept by Neil French ; painting by Patrick Woodroffe
Art direction by John Pasche
Band photographs by Lorentz Gullachsen and Alan Johnson
= Garland Rivers =
Garland A. Rivers ( born November 3 , 1964 ) is a former professional American football defensive back who was drafted in the 1987 NFL Draft by the Detroit Lions of the National Football League ( NFL ) . He played briefly for the Chicago Bears in the 1987 NFL season after having starred as an All @-@ American for the Michigan Wolverines football team for whom he set the single @-@ game tackles record as a sophomore . This record still stands . After returning to the University of Michigan to complete his bachelor 's degree , he returned to professional football for several seasons in the Arena Football League . However , before returning to professional football he became embroiled in a scandal involving sports agents engaging amateur athletes .
= = College career = =
After attending Canton McKinley High School , where they won the 1981 Ohio High School Athletic Association football championships , he went to the University of Michigan where he became the only freshman varsity letter winner on the football team in 1983 . Rivers , who wore # 13 as a Wolverine , started 32 consecutive games until a shoulder injury caused him to end the streak . He posted six interceptions in his Michigan career , including one for a touchdown . Another one during the same season was a game saving interception in the 1986 Fiesta Bowl in a 27 – 23 victory over the Nebraska Cornhuskers football team . Rivers started 12 of the 13 games his senior season for the Big Ten Conference champions and was one of three All @-@ Americans ( along with Jumbo Elliott & Jim Harbaugh ) that season as the team went 11 – 2 and was invited to the Rose Bowl . Rivers once had 17 tackles and an assist as a sophomore defensive back in a game against the 1984 National Champion Brigham Young Cougars football team in the 1984 Holiday Bowl . 17 tackles continues to stand alone as a school single game record .
His college athletic career was not without controversy . He was named by Michigan Football coach and Michigan Wolverines athletic director Bo Schembechler as one of two players ( the other being Robert Perryman ) who had transgressed National Collegiate Athletic Association rules in violation of their amateur status . According to Schembechler , both players had signed contracts and accepted loans from agents before their college eligibility expired . Schembechler testified in a Federal District Court case involving charges of mail fraud and racketeering against Norby Walters and Lloyd Bloom . According to Schembechler , Rivers had denied having entered into an agreement before the team 's 1986 NCAA Division I @-@ A football season had ended in a meeting with him , but confessed in a Federal Bureau of Investigation meeting . Because the investigation occurred late in the Spring academic term at Michigan , River 's athletic scholarship in the form tuition and room and board had already been fully paid by the University . However , when Rivers returned to Michigan in 1988 to complete his degree , the university did not provide a scholarship for which he would have otherwise been eligible .
= = Professional career = =
Rivers was drafted by the Detroit Lions of the National Football League with the eighth pick of the fourth round ( 92nd overall ) of the 1987 NFL Draft . He played briefly for the Chicago Bears under Mike Ditka in 1987 . The Bears went 11 – 4 that season and qualified for the 1987 @-@ 88 NFL playoffs that season .
Garland Rivers played for several years in the Arena Football League as a wide receiver and linebacker . He mostly played on defense . He played for the Albany Firebirds for 1990 and 1991 . The Firebirds qualified for the 4 @-@ team 1991 AFL playoffs as the # 4 seed and lost to the # 1 seed Detroit Drive in the first round . Then , he played for the Arizona Rattlers in 1992 and 1993 . The Rattlers qualified for 8 @-@ team the 1993 AFL playoffs as the # 4 seed and advanced to the second round before losing to the # 1 seed Detroit Drive .
Rivers has coached at Timken , McKinley and GlenOak . As of 2012 , he worked for Indian River School .
= = Family = =
Rivers was inducted into the Stark High School Hall of Fame in 2012 . His son Jewone Snow , by Linda Snow , is a form McKinley Bulldogs ( class of 2010 ) football standout . Snow is the sister of Percy Snow and Eric Snow , who were also standout athletes for McKinley . Jewone went to college at West Virginia where he joined the football team . Rivers is the father of three sons and two daughters .
= TAM Airlines Flight 3054 =
TAM Airlines Flight 3054 ( JJ3054 / TAM3054 ) was an Airbus A320 @-@ 233 , registration PR @-@ MBK , on a scheduled domestic passenger flight from Porto Alegre to São Paulo , Brazil . On July 17 , 2007 , the Airbus A320 , overran runway 35L at São Paulo during heavy rain and crashed into a nearby TAM Express warehouse adjacent to a Shell filling station . All 187 passengers and crew aboard Airbus A320 died , along with 12 people on the ground . It surpassed Gol Transportes Aéreos Flight 1907 as the deadliest air disaster in Brazilian territory , and remains the deadliest aviation accident involving an Airbus A320 proper worldwide . It was also the deadliest accident involving an aircraft of the A320 family at the time , which was later surpassed by the bombing of Metrojet Flight 9268 , an A321 @-@ 231 , which crashed in Egypt in October 2015 with 224 fatalities .
The accident was investigated by the Brazilian Air Force 's Aeronautical Accidents Investigation and Prevention Center ( Portuguese : Centro de Investigação e Prevenção de Acidentes Aeronáuticos ( CENIPA ) ) , with a final report issued in September 2009 . CENIPA concluded that the accident was caused by errors committed by the pilots on the flight to São Paulo .
= = Aircraft and crew = =
The aircraft serving Flight 3054 was an Airbus A320 @-@ 233 , serial number 789 , registration PR @-@ MBK , powered by two IAE V2500 @-@ 533 engines . It was built in February 1998 and first entered service in March flying for TACA Peru as N454TA , later serving in the fleet of Pacific Airlines as VN @-@ A168 . The aircraft was owned by Pegasus Aviation before entering service with TAM in January 2007 . As of April 20 , 2007 , the aircraft had flown almost 21 @,@ 000 hours over 10 @,@ 000 cycles .
The aircraft was dispatched with the thrust reverser ( a mechanical device to help slow the airplane down on landing ) on the number 2 ( right @-@ side ) engine deactivated , as it had jammed . TAM said in a statement that a fault in a reverser " does not jeopardize landings " , and that no mechanical problem had been recorded on July 16 , the day before the accident . It was reported that the aircraft had no difficulty braking on the same runway a day before the fatal accident . The deactivated thrust reverser on the number 2 engine was confirmed by Airbus on July 25 .
The flight was under the command of an experienced cockpit crew , consisting of Captain Henrique Stefanini Di Sacco ( 53 ) and Co @-@ Pilot Kleyber Lima ( 54 ) . Both pilots had been flying for over 30 years . The captain had accrued nearly 13 @,@ 700 flight hours throughout his career and the co @-@ pilot had almost 14 @,@ 800 hours of flying experience .
= = Flight chronology = =
The plane departed from Salgado Filho International Airport in Porto Alegre at 17 : 16 local time ( 20 : 16 UTC ) . At 18 : 50 local time ( 21 : 50 UTC ) , the flight made its landing at Congonhas @-@ São Paulo Airport .
= = Crash = =
Flight 3054 was cleared to land at Congonhas ' 35L runway . Reviews by government officials of the surveillance videos showed that despite the aircraft touching down at the normal touch @-@ down point on the runway , it did not slow down normally , crossing the far end of the runway at around 90 knots ( 170 km / h ) . The aircraft , bearing to the left , continued off the end of the runway . The runway is elevated above the surrounding area , and the aircraft 's momentum carried it over the traffic on the adjacent Avenida Washington Luís , a major thoroughfare . After clearing the road , the aircraft exploded on impact with a four @-@ story TAM Express facility , resulting in a large fire , and killing everybody on board instantly . The TAM Express building contained offices and a warehouse , and was located adjacent to a Shell gas station .
The runway had recently been resurfaced , but it did not yet have water @-@ channeling grooves cut into it to reduce the danger of hydroplaning .
Flight Data Recorder ( FDR ) information recovered after the crash and released by Brazilian authorities showed that immediately prior to touchdown , both thrust levers were in CL ( or " climb " ) position , with engine power being governed by the flight computer 's autothrottle system . Two seconds prior to touchdown , an aural warning , " retard , retard , " was issued by the flight 's computer system , advising the pilots to " retard " the thrust lever to the recommended idle or reverse thrust lever position . This would disengage the aircraft 's autothrottle system , with engine power then being governed directly by the thrust lever 's position .
At the moment of touchdown , the spoiler lever was in the " ARMED " position . According to the system logic of the A320 's flight controls , in order for the spoilers to automatically deploy upon touchdown not only must the spoiler lever be in the " ARMED " position , but both thrust levers must be at or close to the " idle " position . The FDR transcript shows that immediately after the warning , the flight computer recorded the left thrust lever being retarded to the rear @-@ most position , activating the thrust reverser on the left engine , while the right thrust lever ( controlling the engine with the disabled thrust reverser ) remained in the CL position . One theory put forth by CENIPA is that the pilots may not have noticed that the right engine remained at CL because the Airbus autothrottle system , unlike other aircraft manufacturers , does not automatically move the levers when the autothrust controller changes engine settings . Therefore , the pilots may have thought that the right engine was at idle power without realizing that Airbus autothrust logic dictates that , when one or more of the thrust levers is pulled to the idle position , the autothrust is automatically disengaged . Thus , when the pilot pulled the left engine thrust lever to idle , it disconnected the autothrust system and the computer did not retard the right engine power to idle . Since the right engine thrust lever was still in the " climb " detent at that time , the right engine accelerated to climb power while the left engine deployed its thrust reverser . The resulting asymmetric thrust condition resulted in a loss of control and a crash ensued . The A320 's spoilers did not deploy during the landing run , as the right thrust lever was above the " idle " setting required for automatic spoiler deployment .
= = Congonhas = =
Aviation safety in Brazil had been under increased scrutiny following the mid @-@ air collision in September 2006 over the Amazon of Gol Transportes Aéreos Flight 1907 and an Embraer Legacy 600 ( see Brazil 's 2006 @-@ 2007 aviation crisis ) . Congonhas was singled out for having safety issues relating to operations in wet weather due to its location and runway characteristics for the traffic it serves .
The 35L runway at Congonhas is 1 @,@ 940 metres ( 6 @,@ 360 ft ) long . Congonhas ' counterpart in Rio de Janeiro , the Santos Dumont Airport , has an even shorter runway , at 1 @,@ 323 m ( 4 @,@ 341 ft ) . Both airports receive the same type of traffic — ranging from small private planes to Boeing 737s and A320s . Many variables affect the landing distance of an aircraft , such as approach speed , weight and the presence of either a tailwind or a headwind . For an Airbus A320 , a speed of just 20 knots ( 37 km / h ) higher than normal can result in as much as a 25 % increase in the runway length needed to stop an aircraft . Wet weather can also significantly reduce the braking performance of aircraft , leading to an increase in the minimum runway length requirement .
Pilots have called Congonhas airport the " aircraft carrier , " because of the runway 's short length and because pilots are told to go @-@ around if they overshoot the first 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) of runway .
In February 2007 , a Brazilian judge briefly banned flights using Fokker 100 , Boeing 737 @-@ 700 and Boeing 737 @-@ 800 aircraft in and out of the airport . The Airbus A320 was not among the aircraft banned , due to its manufacturer @-@ stated braking distance being shorter than those of the banned aircraft . Pilots had complained that water had been accumulating on the runway , reducing aircraft braking performance and occasionally causing planes to hydroplane . The judge claimed the runway needed to be 388 metres ( 1 @,@ 273 ft ) longer for these aircraft to operate safely . At the time , a spokeswoman from Brazil 's National Civil Aviation Agency claimed " The safety conditions of the runway and the airport as a whole are adequate . " TAM also objected to the decision , with a spokesman stating " If the injunction stands , it will cause total chaos , " claiming over 10 @,@ 000 passengers per day would be inconvenienced . The airport authorities appealed the decision , resulting in it being overturned the following day . An appeals court overruled the ban on the three types of planes , saying it was too harsh as it would have severe economic ramifications and that there were not enough safety concerns to prevent the planes from landing and taking off from the airport . " The runway was reopened because of popular pressure , " Gianfranco Beting , an aviation consultant , said in a TV interview .
= = = Aftermath = = =
The airport reopened on July 19 , 2007 using an alternative runway .
Many flights , including all OceanAir and BRA Transportes Aéreos , were transferred to Guarulhos International Airport , the major airport in São Paulo , due to the closure of the main runway at Congonhas and the ongoing investigation of the accident .
On July 20 , Presidency Chief of Staff Dilma Rousseff announced plans to significantly reduce the number of flights operating at Congonhas . The plan included banning , within 60 days , all connection , stopover , charter , and international flights and the reduction in the number of private jets . The airport would only operate direct flights to certain cities in Brazil . The plan also called for a study of the expansion of São Paulo 's two current airports and the construction of a third airport in the metropolitan area .
State crime scene investigators terminated the search for remains on July 28 , 2007 ; as of that date , 114 bodies recovered from the site had been identified by the São Paulo Medical Examiner 's Office as those of passengers .
= = Investigation = =
The investigation was carried out by Brazil 's Aeronautical Accidents Investigation and Prevention Center ( Centro de Investigação e Prevenção de Acidentes Aeronáuticos , CENIPA ) . Data from the flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder ( CVR ) were downloaded by the National Transportation Safety Board in the United States commencing July 20 and 23 respectively . Based on preliminary data from the FDR , on July 25 Airbus cautioned A320 operators to ensure that both thrust levers are set to idle during flare . The transcript of the CVR was released on August 1 . It shows that the pilots were aware of the wet runway conditions and the deactivated thrust reverser . The pilots ' comments suggest that the spoilers did not deploy and that they were unable to slow the aircraft . Crew error has not been ruled out .
An investigation by the Brazilian Public Safety Ministry released in November 2008 concluded that the pilots mistakenly retarded only the left engine to idle , because the right one had no thrust reverser working when in fact it was necessary to retard both engines in order for the spoilers to work . They also said that the National Civil Aviation Agency should have closed the airport on the night the plane landed because of heavy rains ; that Congonhas airport authorities shared the blame because its runway had not been properly constructed with grooves to drain away excess rainwater , contributing to the crash ; that the plane 's manufacturer , Airbus , should have provided alarms warning the pilots that the braking system was failing ; and that TAM failed to properly train its pilots , who did not act correctly in the emergency .
= = = Final report = = =
In September 2009 , more than two years after the accident , CENIPA announced the results of official investigations . The report shows that one of the thrust levers , which control engines , was in position to accelerate when it should be in idle , but it was not proved if there was mechanical or human failure as the cause of the accident .
The report suggests two hypotheses for the accident . In the first , there was a flaw in the power control of the plane 's engines , which would have kept one of the thrust levers into acceleration , regardless of their actual position . In such circumstances , there was mechanical failure of the aircraft . In the second hypothesis , the pilot has performed a procedure different from that provided in the manual , and put the thrust lever in an irregular position , a configuration of human error for the accident .
In addition to the positions of the thrust levers , the report points to several factors that may have contributed to the accident , such as a high volume of rain on the day , with the formation of puddles on the runway , as well as the absence of grooving . The report does not blame the length of the runway for the accident .
= = Response = =
After the crash , President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva ordered three days of national mourning .
During the 2007 Pan American Games in Rio de Janeiro , the Brazilian athletes wore a black armband in remembrance of the victims . The flags of all participating countries were flown at half mast on July 18 . Matches involving a Brazilian athlete or team started with a minute of silence .
All matches of the Campeonato Brasileiro 2007 started with a minute of silence , while all players wore black armbands . Brazilian Formula One driver Felipe Massa had a black stripe on top of his helmet during the 2007 European Grand Prix , to commemorate the victims . Rubens Barrichello also had stripes on his helmet , and the two Red Bull Racing drivers David Coulthard and Mark Webber had small Brazilian flags on their helmets referring to the accident .
More than 5 @,@ 000 Brazilians marched to the crash site on July 29 , 2007 , blaming their government 's failure to invest in airport infrastructure for the crash . Many of the protesters also demanded the ousting of President Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva .
= = Legal action = =
On November 19 , 2008 , the police investigation was completed using 13 @,@ 600 pages , which took 16 months of research to be produced , during which 336 people were heard . For federal prosecutors , the former director of ANAC Denise Abreu and then flight safety officer of the company , Marco Aurelio dos Santos de Miranda , should be convicted of attempt on air transport security in willful mode . In March 2006 , Denise Abreu took over the management of air services of the newly established National Civil Aviation Agency ( ANAC ) . The investigation of the accident with the Airbus TAM , which killed 199 people in Congonhas , revealed that in February 2007 , the São Paulo federal judge Cecilia Marcondes , who saw action restricting the landing planes in Congonhas on rainy days , received Denise Abreu one of ANAC document like a standard , but it was only a technical study . According to the complaint , the study presented as standard guarantee , in theory , security in landing operations at Congonhas airport in São Paulo . The study indicated that takeoffs and landings were forbidden in Congonhas case the track was with a water depth greater than 3 mm . After the accident with the plane of TAM in July 2007 it revealed that the study was not a standard and thus there was no obligation to follow it . According to the testimony of federal judge Cecilia Marcondes to the Federal Public Ministry , the document was fundamental to the Federal Court to release the runway for takeoffs and landings of all equipment .
In 2011 , the Brazilian Federal Public Ministry ( Ministério Público Federal — MPF ) laid criminal charges against Denise Abreu , the director of the Brazilian National Civil Aviation Agency ( ANAC ) at the time of the disaster , as well as two former TAM directors — Marco Aurélio dos Santos de Miranda , director of flight safety , and Alberto Fajerman , vice president of operations . They were accused of neglecting air transport safety by allowing the aircraft to land in heavy rain on the notoriously short recently resurfaced runway before cutting of grooves to channel away excess rainwater . The trial began in São Paulo in 2013 . In 2014 , MPF withdrew the charges against Fajerman , for lack of evidence . A second charge against Abreu of " documentary falsehood " was dismissed in November , 2014 . As of March 2015 , no judgement had been handed down on the other charges .
In 2014 , TAM 's insurer Itaú Seguros , the company responsible for paying compensation for the tragedy , launched a lawsuit in Brazil against Airbus for R $ 350 million ( US $ 156 @.@ 2 million ) , according to Folha de S. Paulo . Attorneys representing Airbus responded in a Brazilian court filing that Airbus accepts no responsibility , laying the blame for the disaster with the cockpit crew , the airline and the poor state of the runway .
= = Notable passengers = =
Among the passengers were :
Júlio Redecker ( aged 51 ) , a Brazilian Social Democracy Party federal politician , member and leader of the opposition in the Chamber of Deputies of Brazil .
Paulo Rogério Amoretty Souza ( aged 61 ) , former chairman of the football team Sport Club Internacional and attorney for Sport Club Corinthians Paulista .
= = Dramatization = =
Mayday ( Also known as Air Crash Investigation in the UK , Australia , New Zealand and Asia and Air Emergency or Air Disasters in the United States ) produced a one @-@ hour docudrama about the crash . The episode was entitled " Deadly Reputation " due to the poor reputation the airport ( and specifically the runway ) has among pilots .
= = Gallery = =
= Ian Johnson with the Australian cricket team in England in 1948 =
Ian Johnson was a member of Donald Bradman 's famous Australian cricket team , which toured England in 1948 . Bradman ’ s men went undefeated in their 34 matches ; this unprecedented feat by a Test side touring England earned them the sobriquet The Invincibles .
An off spinner , Johnson was a member of Bradman ’ s first @-@ choice team , playing in four of the five Tests before being dropped for the final match . However , he was not prominent in the Tests , taking seven wickets at a bowling average of 61 @.@ 00 . Among the frontline bowlers who played in four or more Tests , Johnson had the worst average by a factor of almost two and took the least number of wickets . Johnson had little impact with the bat , scoring 51 runs at a batting average of 10 @.@ 20 , but took five catches in the slips .
Johnson had more success in the tour matches , taking 85 wickets at 18 @.@ 37 in all first @-@ class fixtures . This ranked him third among the Australians in the wicket @-@ taking and fifth in the averages . He bowled more overs than everyone but Bill Johnston , allowing Bradman to ease the workload on pace spearheads Ray Lindwall and Keith Miller , and conserve their energy for the Tests . Johnson 's most successful match with the ball was against Gloucestershire , in which he took match figures of 11 / 100 . He was also more prolific with the bat outside the Tests , scoring 543 runs at 30 @.@ 16 , with a top @-@ score of 113 not out against Somerset . He also made 80 against a Marylebone Cricket Club team that consisted almost entirely of Test players . Johnson was prominent in the field , taking 23 catches , the most by a non @-@ wicket @-@ keeper on tour .
= = Early tour = =
Australia traditionally fielded its first @-@ choice team in the opening match of the tour , which was usually against Worcestershire . Johnson had been a regular member of the Australian Test team since World War II , and was selected in Bradman 's full @-@ strength team .
Worcestershire elected to bat first , and Johnson took 3 / 52 from 23 overs , the most bowled by any Australian , cleaning up the lower order as Australia removed the hosts for 233 . When Australia batted , Johnson came in at No. 10 and made an unbeaten 12 as Australia declared their innings closed at 8 / 462 . Australia dismissed the hosts for 212 to complete victory by an innings and 17 runs . Johnson took the last three wickets to end with 3 / 75 from 13 @.@ 3 overs ; he was the most uneconomical bowler among those who sent down more than 18 deliveries .
Johnson played a major role in the next match against Leicestershire . He made six at No. 8 as Australia batted first and scored 448 . Johnson came on with the hosts at 3 / 74 and took two quick wickets in the space of five runs , beginning a collapse that led to Leicestershire being all out for 130 . He ended with 2 / 50 from 23 overs . Australia enforced the follow on , and Johnson broke through their top and middle order . The hosts reached 0 / 45 before Johnson took the first five wickets to reduce them to 5 / 88 . Leicestershire progressed to 5 / 113 before Johnson took two more wickets in the space of four balls . He ended with 7 / 42 from 21 overs , his best first @-@ class innings figures , as the home team were dismissed for 147 , handing Australia victory by an innings and 171 runs .
The Australians proceeded to play Yorkshire , on a damp pitch conducive to slower bowling . Johnson was rested as Australia came closest to losing a match for the whole tour . Australia were 6 / 31 in pursuit of 60 for victory , before scraping home by four wickets .
Johnson returned in the next match against Surrey at The Oval in London , where Australia won the toss and batted first . Batting at No. 6 , Johnson came in at 4 / 444 and put on 99 runs with vice @-@ captain and fellow South Melbournian Lindsay Hassett , before falling for 46 ; Australia were eventually bowled out for 632 . Johnson then took five wickets to help cut down Surrey 's first innings . The hosts reached 2 / 40 before Johnson claimed three middle order wickets to reduce them to 6 / 66 . He later removed the final batsmen to end with 5 / 53 from 18 @.@ 2 overs . Surrey were bowled out for 141 and forced to follow on and Johnson took 3 / 40 in the second innings as the home team made 195 to cede victory to Australia by an innings . Johnson removed captain Errol Holmes and Stuart Surridge in both innings .
Johnson was rested for the next match against Cambridge University , which Australia won by an innings . In the following match against Essex , Johnson returned as Australia won the toss and batted first and went on to score 721 , a world record for the most number of first @-@ class runs in one day ’ s play . He came in at 6 / 664 and was unable to join in the high scoring , making only nine as the lower order folded quickly , none of the four bowlers reaching double figures . Australia subsequently proceeded to victory by an innings and 451 runs , their biggest winning margin for the tour . Johnson was not required to bowl in the first innings as the pacemen dismissed the hosts for 83 in 36 @.@ 5 overs . In the second innings , Johnson was given an opportunity and took four of the first six wickets to fall , reducing Essex to 6 / 46 . The home side added 131 for the next wicket before Johnson removed their captain and top @-@ scorer Tom Pearce for 71 ; he added another wicket as Essex were out for 187 . Johnson finished with 6 / 37 from 21 overs . Johnson was rested for the next match against Oxford University , which resulted in another innings victory .
The eighth match of the season was against the Marylebone Cricket Club at Lord 's . The MCC fielded seven players who would represent England in the Tests , and were basically a full strength Test team , while Australia fielded their first @-@ choice team . Having been a regular member of the Test team since the end of World War II , and having taken 29 wickets at 12 @.@ 03 in his four games on tour , Johnson was selected along with fellow spinner Colin McCool , a leg spinner . This meant that Australia 's first @-@ choice team was the same as in the opening match against Worcestershire . Barring one change in the bowling department , the same team lined up for Australia in the First Test , with the top six batsmen in the same position . It was a chance for both sides to gain a psychological advantage over the players who would oppose them in the Tests . Australia won the toss and batted first and Johnson came in at 5 / 343 to join former South Melbourne and Victorian team @-@ mate and fellow Royal Australian Air Force fighter pilot Keith Miller . The pair put on 165 before Miller fell on the second morning , quickly followed by Johnson at 8 / 512 , trapped leg before wicket by off spinner Jim Laker for 80 , but not before Johnson had hit him for three sixes . Bradman 's men went on to amass 552 . Johnson was the least successful and most uneconomical Australian in the first innings , taking 0 / 43 from 12 overs as the hosts made 189 . Bradman enforced the follow on and Johnson had a better return on the second attempt . The hosts reached 3 / 128 when Johnson caused a middle @-@ order collapse . He had New Zealand Test batsman Martin Donnelly stumped by Don Tallon , before trapping English Test batsman Len Hutton leg before wicket five runs later . He then removed Ken Cranston to leave the MCC at 6 / 159 . Johnson ended with 3 / 37 and caught Denis Compton from the pace bowling of Ray Lindwall as Australia bowled out the home side for 205 to win by an innings , .
The MCC match was followed by Australia 's first non @-@ victory of the tour , which against Lancashire . Johnson had little to do in the match . After the first day was washed out , he was promoted to No. 4 and made only five in the first innings . He took 0 / 16 from eight overs in the first innings and neither batted nor bowled in
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I was . Had he said I was crazy , I don 't know what I would have done .
In addition Kaufman stated , " I really thought I was ending my career by turning that in ! "
Adaptation went on fast track in April 2000 , with Kaufman making some revisions . Scott Brake of IGN gave the script a positive review in June 2000 , as did Drew " Moriarty " McWeeny of Ain 't It Cool News in October . Columbia Pictures committed to North America distribution only after Intermedia came aboard to finance the film in exchange for international distribution rights . Filming started in late March 2001 in Los Angeles , and finished by June . The " evolution " fantasy sequence was created by Digital Domain , while Skywalker Sound was responsible for the audio mixing of Adaptation . The makeup effects ( the Nicolas Cage double , Chris Cooper 's teeth , and the alligator attack ) were the handiwork of Makeup Effects Designer Tony Gardner ( designer ) , and his effects company Alterian , Inc .
= = Release = =
Columbia Pictures had at one point announced a late 2001 theatrical release date . Adaptation opened on December 6 , 2002 in the United States for a limited release . The film was released nationwide on February 14 , 2003 , earning $ 1 @,@ 130 @,@ 480 in its opening weekend in 672 theaters . Adaptation. went on to gross $ 22 @.@ 5 million in North America and $ 10 @.@ 3 million in foreign countries , coming at a total of $ 32 @.@ 8 million .
= = = Home media = = =
Adaptation was released on DVD by Umbrella Entertainment in September 2012 . The DVD is compatible with region code 4 and includes special features such as the behind the scenes featurette titled How To Shoot In A Swamp and talent profiles .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
On Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds a 91 % " Certified Fresh " rating , based on 198 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's critical consensus reads : " Dizzyingly original , the loopy , multi @-@ layered Adaptation is both funny and thought @-@ provoking . " On Metacritic , the film holds a score of 83 out of 100 , based on 40 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim . "
Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times gave the film a perfect four star rating , believing that the film " leaves you breathless with curiosity , as it teases itself with the directions it might take . To watch the film is to be actively involved in the challenge of its creation . " He later added the film to his " Great Movies " collection . At the end of 2009 , Ebert named the film one of the best of the decade . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone also gave the film a four star rating , and praised Kaufman 's writing , stating " Screenwriting this smart , inventive , passionate and rip @-@ roaringly funny is a rare species . So all praise to Charlie Kaufman , working with director Spike Jonze to create the most original and outrageous film comedy since the two first teamed on Being John Malkovich , in 1999 . " Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe wrote , " This is epic , funny , tragic , demanding , strange , original , boldly sincere filmmaking . And the climax , the portion that either sinks the entire movie or self @-@ critically explains how so many others derail , is bananas . " David Ansen of Newsweek felt Meryl Streep had not " been this much fun to watch in years " , while Mike Clark of USA Today gave a largely negative review , mainly criticizing the ending : " Too smart to ignore but a little too smugly superior to like , this could be a movie that ends up slapping its target audience in the face by shooting itself in the foot . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Chris Cooper won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor , while Nicolas Cage ( Actor in a Leading Role ) and Streep ( Supporting Actress ) were nominated . Charlie and Donald Kaufman were nominated for Best Adapted Screenplay . Cooper and Streep won their respective categories at the 60th Golden Globe Awards . Spike Jonze , Cage and Kaufman were nominated for awards while Adaptation was nominated for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy . Cage , Cooper and Streep received nominations at the 56th British Academy Film Awards , with Kaufman winning Best Adapted Screenplay . The film was also nominated for the prestigious Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics .
In a 2005 survey , the Writers Guild of America named Kaufman 's screenplay for Adaptation the 77th best movie screenplay ever written .
= Wilhelmina FitzClarence , Countess of Munster =
Wilhelmina FitzClarence , Countess of Munster ( née Kennedy @-@ Erskine ; 27 June 1830 – 9 October 1906 ) was a British peeress and novelist . Her mother , Lady Augusta FitzClarence , was an illegitimate daughter of William IV of the United Kingdom ; Wilhelmina , also known as Mina , was born the day after William 's succession as monarch . She travelled as a young girl throughout Europe , visiting the courts of France and Hanover . In 1855 , Mina married her first cousin William FitzClarence , 2nd Earl of Munster ; they would have nine children , including the 3rd and 4th Earls of Munster .
The Earl and Countess of Munster lived at Palmeira Square in Brighton . Later in life , Lady Munster became a novelist and short story writer . In 1889 , she released her first novel , Dorinda ; a second , A Scotch Earl , followed two years later . The year 1896 saw the publication of Ghostly Tales , a collection of tales on the supernatural which have largely been forgotten today . Lady Munster also produced an autobiography entitled My Memories and Miscellanies , which was released in 1904 . She died two years later .
= = Family and early life = =
Wilhelmina " Mina " Kennedy @-@ Erskine was born on 27 June 1830 in Dun House , Montrose , Scotland . She was the second child of the Hon. John Kennedy @-@ Erskine and his wife Lady Augusta FitzClarence , an illegitimate daughter of William IV ( who became monarch the day before Mina 's birth ) . Her father , the second son of the 13th Earl of Cassilis , was a captain with the 16th Lancers and an equerry to King William before dying in 1831 at the age of 28 . Her paternal grandmother , Anne Watts , was a descendant of the Schuyler family , the Van Cortlandt family ( including Stephanus Van Cortlandt ) , and the Delancey family of British North America .
Mina lived with her widowed mother and two siblings in a " charming brick house " on the River Thames called Railshead , which was next door to a house owned by her paternal grandparents . King William visited the family often and was quite fond of Mina ; on one occasion , he visited to comfort his daughter when three- or four @-@ year @-@ old Mina nearly died of a " very dangerous brain fever " . The Kennedy @-@ Erskines also often visited Windsor Castle during the king 's reign .
Five years after Kennedy @-@ Erskine 's death , Lady Augusta married Lord Frederick Gordon @-@ Hallyburton , a decision that displeased her first husband 's parents . The decision led to Lady Augusta 's departure from Railshead . In 1837 she became State Housekeeper at Kensington Palace after the death of her sister , Lady De L 'Isle . Mina lived there until she married . She and her sister Millicent enjoyed music and had a particular love for the Italian soprano Marietta Alboni . The sisters ' Italian singing @-@ master secretly arranged for a meeting with Alboni , but the encounter did not go well ; the singer discovered that they were the daughters of the " housekeeper " , and , assuming that they were not ladies , departed soon after .
In the late 1840s , Mina travelled through Europe with her family so that they might " learn languages and finish [ their ] education " . The trip started in 1847 , when Mina journeyed to Dresden due to her mother 's desire for her daughters to learn German . From 1847 to 1849 , she and her family lived in Paris near the Arc de Triomphe , and were kindly received by the French Royal Family headed by Louis Philippe I and Queen Marie Amalie . They left soon after the king and queen 's fall from power , as the city had suddenly become unsafe for those of their rank . In 1850 , they visited the court of Hanover and were received by Ernest Augustus I of Hanover and his family ; later that year , they returned to Kensington Palace and Mina and Millicent came out in society .
= = Marriage = =
Mina married her full first cousin William FitzClarence , 2nd Earl of Munster at Wemyss Castle on 17 April 1855 in a double wedding in which her sister Millicent married James Hay Erskine Wemyss . Like Mina , FitzClarence was a grandchild of William IV ; at a young age , he had succeeded his father the 1st Earl , who served as a governor of Windsor Castle and constable of the Round Tower until his suicide in 1842 . The FitzClarences travelled to Hamburg immediately after the wedding , visiting local schlosses and the family of Prince Christian of Schleswig @-@ Holstein ( who later married The Princess Helena ) . Their first child , Edward , was born within a year . The couple would have nine children , four of whom outlived their mother :
Edward , Viscount FitzClarence ( 29 March 1856 – 1870 )
Hon. Lionel Frederick Archibald ( 24 July 1857 – 24 March 1863 )
Geoffrey FitzClarence , 3rd Earl of Munster ( 18 July 1859 – 2 February 1902 ) ; died without issue
Hon. Arthur Falkland Manners ( 18 October 1860 – 1861 )
Aubrey FitzClarence , 4th Earl of Munster ( 7 June 1862 – 1 January 1928 ) ; died without issue
Hon. William George ( 17 September 1864 – 4 October 1899 ) ; married Charlotte Elizabeth Williams
Hon. Harold Edward ( 15 November 1870 – 28 August 1926 ) ; married Frances Isabel Eleanor Keppel ; their son was the 5th Earl of Munster
Lady Lillian Adelaide Katherine Mary ( 10 December 1873 – 15 July 1948 ) ; married Captain William Arthur Boyd
Lady Dorothea Augusta ( 5 May 1876 – 1942 ) ; married Major Chandos Brydges Lee @-@ Warner
The Earl and Countess of Munster lived at Palmeira Square in Brighton . According to an article in contemporary women 's magazine The Lady 's Realm , the Countess lived a very quiet life . In 1897 , the magazine reported that she had lived in retirement in Brighton for the past thirty @-@ five years . Her attachment to the city , the article suggested , was due to childhood memories of visiting there with King William . The article also stated that because Lord Munster 's health was failing , the Countess was living in " comparative seclusion " , though her lifestyle was also attributed to a love of a " quiet , literary , and artistic life " . She died on 9 October 1906 , having been widowed five years .
= = Literary career = =
Later in life , Lady Munster became a novelist and short story writer , writing under the title the Countess of Munster . At the age of nearly sixty , she published two novels ; her first , Dorinda , in 1889 , and her second , A Scotch Earl , in 1891 . The plot of Dorinda centred on a young woman who eventually kills herself after stealing works of art from her friends . Oscar Wilde noted Munster 's skill in writing Dorinda ; he compared the " exceedingly clever " novel 's eponymous heroine to " a sort of well @-@ born " Becky Sharp , and praised the author 's ability " to draw ... in a few sentences the most lifelike portraits of social types and social exceptions " . In 1888 , an article by Munster about ballad singing appeared in The Woman 's World , a Victorian women 's magazine edited by Wilde . A Scotch Earl , which centred on a vulgar Scottish nobleman named Lord Invergordon , was less well received by contemporaries . The Spectator published a critical review soon after its publication which suggested that the novel 's showering of " contempt upon the society of wealth and rank " was close to Republicanism or Socialism . The review criticised A Scotch Earl for lacking " any merits of construction or style " , and added that Lady Munster was " not and never will be a capable novelist " .
In 1896 , Munster released Ghostly Tales , a collection of stories " written in a manner similar to accounts of true hauntings " . Lady 's Realm considered her stories to be based on fact . A positive review of Ghostly Tales was published in the Saturday Review in 1897 , in which the stories were described as " entertaining and dramatic " , but it was noted that not all were based on supernatural events . Hugh Lamb included the Countess 's " surprisingly grim " story " The Tyburn Ghost " in his 1979 edited volume Tales from a Gas @-@ Lit Graveyard . He wrote at the time that Lady Munster 's works had been " completely overlooked by bibliophiles and anthologists since her death " . Lamb deemed this regrettable , as he considered Ghostly Tales " possibly her best work " and one of the " truly representative collections of Victorian ghost stories " . Lamb also included another of her stories , " The Page @-@ Boy 's Ghost " , in a 1988 anthology . However , modern author and editor Douglas A. Anderson has called the Countess 's stories " standard , melodramatic fare " , which are " perfectly forgettable " .
In 1904 , Lady Munster produced an autobiography entitled My Memories and Miscellanies . In its foreword , she explained that " some valued friends " convinced her to write it , despite her reluctance , because her " long life " had witnessed " not a few interesting events " . The book was called her " chief work " in The Manchester Guardian at the time of her death in 1906 . The Countess wrote the entire book by memory , and expressed regret that she had given up her journal writing as a young girl after someone else improperly read it . The autobiography included several recounted sightings of the female ghost " Green Jean " at Wemyss Castle ; Lady Munster claimed that several members of her family , including Millicent , saw the ghost while staying there .
= = Ancestry = =
= Asexuality =
Asexuality is the lack of sexual attraction to anyone , or low or absent interest in or desire for sexual activity . It may be considered the lack of a sexual orientation , or one of the variations thereof , alongside heterosexuality , homosexuality and bisexuality . It may also be an umbrella term used to categorize a broader spectrum of various asexual sub @-@ identities . A study in 2004 placed the prevalence of asexuality at 1 % in the British population .
Asexuality is distinct from abstention from sexual activity and from celibacy , which are behavioral and generally motivated by factors such as an individual 's personal or religious beliefs . Sexual orientation , unlike sexual behavior , is believed to be " enduring " . Some asexual people engage in sexual activity despite lacking sexual attraction or a desire for sex , due to a variety of reasons , such as a desire to pleasure themselves or romantic partners , or a desire to have children .
Acceptance of asexuality as a sexual orientation and field of scientific research is still relatively new , as a growing body of research from both sociological and psychological perspectives has begun to develop . While some researchers assert that asexuality is a sexual orientation , other researchers disagree .
Various asexual communities have started to form since the advent of the World Wide Web and social media . The most prolific and well @-@ known of these communities is the Asexual Visibility and Education Network ( AVEN ) , which was founded in 2001 by David Jay .
= = Definition , identity and relationships = =
Asexuality is sometimes referred to as " ace " or " the ace community " by researchers or asexual and LGBT people . Because there is significant variation among people who identify as asexual , asexuality can encompass broad definitions . Researchers generally define asexuality as the lack of sexual attraction or the lack of sexual interest , but their definitions vary ; they may use the term " to refer to individuals with low or absent sexual desire or attractions , low or absent sexual behaviors , exclusively romantic non @-@ sexual partnerships , or a combination of both absent sexual desires and behaviors . "
The Asexual Visibility and Education Network ( AVEN ) defines an asexual as " someone who does not experience sexual attraction " and stated , " [ a ] nother small minority will think of themselves as asexual for a brief period of time while exploring and questioning their own sexuality " and that " [ t ] here is no litmus test to determine if someone is asexual . Asexuality is like any other identity – at its core , it 's just a word that people use to help figure themselves out . If at any point someone finds the word asexual useful to describe themselves , we encourage them to use it for as long as it makes sense to do so . "
Asexual people , though lacking sexual attraction to any gender , might engage in purely romantic relationships , while others might not . There are asexual @-@ identified individuals who report that they feel sexual attraction but not the inclination to act on it because they have no true desire or need to engage in sexual or non @-@ sexual activity ( cuddling , hand @-@ holding , etc . ) , while other asexuals engage in cuddling or other non @-@ sexual physical activity . Some asexuals participate in sexual activity out of curiosity . Some may masturbate as a solitary form of release , while others do not feel a need to do so .
With regard to sexual activity in particular , the need or desire for masturbation is commonly referred to as sex drive by asexuals and they disassociate it from sexual attraction and being sexual ; asexuals who masturbate generally consider it to be a normal product of the human body and not a sign of latent sexuality , and may not even find it pleasurable . Some asexual men are unable to get an erection and sexual activity by attempting penetration is impossible for them . Asexuals also differ in their feelings toward performing sex acts : some are indifferent and may have sex for the benefit of a romantic partner ; others are more strongly averse to the idea , though they do not typically dislike people for having sex .
Concerning romantic or emotional aspects of sexual orientation or sexual identity , asexuals may identify as heterosexual , lesbian , gay , bisexual , queer , or by the following terms to indicate that they associate with the romantic , rather than sexual , aspects of sexual orientation :
aromantic ; lack of romantic attraction towards anyone
biromantic ; as opposed to bisexual
heteroromantic ; as opposed to heterosexual
homoromantic ; as opposed to homosexual
panromantic ; as opposed to pansexual
People may also identify as a gray @-@ A ( such as a gray @-@ romantic , demiromantic , demisexual or semisexual ) because they feel that they are between being aromantic and non @-@ aromantic , or between asexuality and sexual attraction . While the term gray @-@ A may cover anyone who occasionally feels romantic or sexual attraction , demisexuals or semisexuals experience sexual attraction only as a secondary component , feeling sexual attraction once a reasonably stable or large emotional connection has been created .
= = Research = =
= = = Prevalence = = =
Asexuality is not a new aspect of human sexuality , but it is relatively new to public discourse . SE Smith of The Guardian is not sure asexuality has actually increased , rather leaning towards the belief that it is simply more visible . In the mid @-@ twentieth century , Alfred Kinsey rated individuals from 0 to 6 according to their sexual orientation from heterosexual to homosexual , known as the Kinsey scale . He also included a category he called " X " for individuals with " no socio @-@ sexual contacts or reactions " ; in modern times , this is categorized as representing asexuality . Kinsey labeled 1 @.@ 5 % of the adult male population as X. In his second book , Sexual Behavior in the Human Female , he reported this breakdown of individuals who are X : unmarried females
= 14 – 19 % , married females =
1 – 3 % , previously married females
= 5 – 8 % , unmarried males =
3 – 4 % , married males
= 0 % , and previously married males =
1 – 2 % .
Further empirical data about an asexual demographic appeared in 1994 , when a research team in the United Kingdom carried out a comprehensive survey of 18 @,@ 876 British residents , spurred by the need for sexual information in the wake of the AIDS pandemic . The survey included a question on sexual attraction , to which 1 @.@ 05 % of the respondents replied that they had " never felt sexually attracted to anyone at all " . The study of this phenomenon was continued by the Canadian sexuality researcher Anthony Bogaert in 2004 , who explored the asexual demographic in a series of studies . Bogaert believed that the 1 % figure was not an accurate reflection of the likely much larger percentage of the population that could be identified as asexual , noting that 30 % of people contacted for the initial survey chose not to participate in the survey . Since less sexually experienced people are more likely to refuse to participate in studies about sexuality , and asexuals tend to be less sexually experienced than sexuals , it is likely that asexuals were under @-@ represented in the responding participants . The same study found the number of homosexuals and bisexuals combined to be about 1 @.@ 1 % of the population , which is much smaller than other studies indicate .
In contrast to Bogaert 's suggestion in 2004 of a higher percentage , a study by Aicken et al . , published in 2013 , suggests that , based on Natsal @-@ 2 data from 2000 @-@ 2001 , the prevalence of asexuality in Britain is only 0 @.@ 4 % for people between the ages of 16 @-@ 44 . This percentage indicates a decrease from the 0 @.@ 9 % figure determined from the Natsal @-@ 1 data collected on the same age @-@ range a decade earlier . Bogaert also found a similar decline between the Natsal @-@ 1 and Natsal @-@ 2 data . Aicken , Mercer , and Cassell also found some evidence of ethnic differences among respondents who had not experienced sexual attraction ; both men and women of Indian and Pakistani origin had a higher likelihood of reporting a lack of sexual attraction . Muslims were also more likely to report this lack of attraction than respondents from Christian religions .
= = = Sexual orientation , mental health and etiology = = =
There is significant debate over whether or not asexuality is a sexual orientation . It has been compared and equated with hypoactive sexual desire disorder ( HSDD ) , in that both imply a general lack of sexual attraction to anyone ; HSDD has been used to medicalize asexuality , but asexuality is generally not considered a disorder or a sexual dysfunction ( such as anorgasmia , anhedonia , etc . ) , because it does not necessarily define someone as having a medical problem or problems relating to others socially . Unlike people with HSDD , asexual people normally do not experience " marked distress " and " interpersonal difficulty " concerning feelings about their sexuality , or generally a lack of sexual arousal ; asexuality is considered the lack or absence of sexual attraction as a life @-@ enduring characteristic . One study found that , compared to HSDD subjects , asexuals reported lower levels of sexual desire , sexual experience , sex @-@ related distress and depressive symptoms . Researchers Richards and Barker report that asexuals do not have disproportionate rates of alexithymia , depression , or personality disorders . Some people , however , may identify as asexual even if their non @-@ sexual state is explained by one or more of the aforementioned disorders .
The first study that gave empirical data about asexuals was published in 1983 by Paula Nurius , concerning the relationship between sexual orientation and mental health . 689 subjects — most of whom were students at various universities in the United States taking psychology or sociology classes — were given several surveys , including four clinical well @-@ being scales . Results showed that asexuals were more likely to have low self @-@ esteem and more likely to be depressed than members of other sexual orientations ; 25 @.@ 88 % of heterosexuals , 26 @.@ 54 % bisexuals ( called " ambisexuals " ) , 29 @.@ 88 % of homosexuals , and 33 @.@ 57 % of asexuals were reported to have problems with self @-@ esteem . A similar trend existed for depression . Nurius did not believe that firm conclusions can be drawn from this for a variety of reasons .
In a 2013 study , Yule et al. looked into mental health variances between Caucasian heterosexuals , homosexuals , bisexuals , and asexuals . The results of 203 male and 603 female participants were included in the findings . Yule et al. found that asexual male participants were more likely to report having a mood disorder than other males , particularly in comparison to the heterosexual participants . The same was found for female asexual participants over their heterosexual counterparts ; however , non @-@ asexual , non @-@ heterosexual females had the highest rates . Asexual participants of both sexes were more likely to have anxiety disorders than heterosexual and non @-@ heterosexual participants , as were they more likely than heterosexual participants to report having had recent suicidal feelings . Yule et al. hypothesised that some of these differences may be due to discrimination and other societal factors .
With regard to sexual orientation categories , asexuality may be argued as not being a meaningful category to add to the continuum , and instead argued as the lack of a sexual orientation or sexuality . Other arguments propose that asexuality is the denial of one 's natural sexuality , and that it is a disorder caused by shame of sexuality , anxiety or sexual abuse , sometimes basing this belief on asexuals who masturbate or occasionally engage in sexual activity simply to please a romantic partner . Within the context of sexual orientation identity politics , asexuality may pragmatically fulfill the political function of a sexual orientation identity category .
The suggestion that asexuality is a sexual dysfunction is controversial among the asexual community . Those who identify as asexual usually prefer it to be recognized as a sexual orientation . Various scholars state that asexuality is a sexual orientation , as some asexuals are unable to masturbate even though they reportedly have a normal sex drive , and that there are variations of sexual preferences , arguing that asexuality ought to be included as well . They state that asexuals do not choose to have no sexual desire , and generally start to find out their differences in sexual behaviors around adolescence . Because of these facts coming to light , it is argued that asexuality is much more than a behavioral choice , and is not something that can be cured like a disorder .
Etiology in this context is without implication of disease , disorder , or abnormality . Research on the etiology of sexual orientation when applied to asexuality has the definitional problem of sexual orientation not consistently being defined by researchers as including asexuality . Sexual orientation is defined as " enduring " and resistant to change , proving to be generally impervious to interventions intended to change it . While heterosexuality , homosexuality and bisexuality are usually , but not always , determined during the early years of preadolescent life , it is not known when asexuality is determined . " It is unclear whether these characteristics [ viz . , " lacking interest in or desire for sex " ] are thought to be lifelong , or if they may be acquired . " Some studies have suggested that asexuality is linked to biological factors that are determined prenatally or in early childhood . These studies report that asexuals are shorter on average , more likely to be non @-@ right @-@ handed , and have more older brothers ( known as the fraternal birth order effect ) . Correlations with handedness and birth order have also been reported for male homosexuality , possibly indicating that it has a similar origin .
Non @-@ measurement in some areas of sexual orientation is accepted by the American Psychological Association , the American Psychiatric Association , and the National Association of Social Workers : " [ S ] imply to document that a phenomenon occurs , case studies and non @-@ probability samples are often adequate ... Some groups are sufficiently few in number – relative to the entire population – that locating them with probability sampling is extremely expensive or practically impossible . In the latter cases , the use of non @-@ probability samples is often appropriate . " In determining etiologies , when asexuals are a small percentage of a large society , asexuals with a given etiology will compose an even smaller percentage , so that etiological information is available only from some individuals , generally not randomly selected .
= = = Sexual activity and sexuality = = =
While some asexuals masturbate as a solitary form of release or have sex for the benefit of a romantic partner , others do not ( see above ) . The Kinsey Institute sponsored another small survey on the topic in 2007 , which found that self @-@ identified asexuals " reported significantly less desire for sex with a partner , lower sexual arousability , and lower sexual excitation but did not differ consistently from non @-@ asexuals in their sexual inhibition scores or their desire to masturbate " .
A 1977 paper titled Asexual and Autoerotic Women : Two Invisible Groups , by Myra T. Johnson , may be the first paper explicitly devoted to asexuality in humans . Johnson defines asexuals as those men and women " who , regardless of physical or emotional condition , actual sexual history , and marital status or ideological orientation , seem to prefer not to engage in sexual activity . " She contrasts autoerotic women with asexual women : " The asexual woman ... has no sexual desires at all [ but ] the autoerotic woman ... recognizes such desires but prefers to satisfy them alone . " Johnson 's evidence is mostly letters to the editor found in women 's magazines written by asexual / autoerotic women . She portrays them as invisible , " oppressed by a consensus that they are nonexistent , " and left behind by both the sexual revolution and the feminist movement . Society either ignores or denies their existence or insists they must be ascetic for religious reasons , neurotic , or asexual for political reasons .
In a study published in 1979 in Advances in the Study of Affect , vol . 5 , and in another article using the same data and published in 1980 in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology , Michael D. Storms of the University of Kansas outlined his own reimagining of the Kinsey scale . Whereas Kinsey measured sexual orientation based on a combination of actual sexual behavior and fantasizing and eroticism , Storms only used fantasizing and eroticism . Storms , however , placed hetero @-@ eroticism and homo @-@ eroticism on separate axes rather than at two ends of a single scale ; this allows for a distinction between bisexuality ( exhibiting both hetero- and homo @-@ eroticism in degrees comparable to hetero- or homosexuals , respectively ) and asexuality ( exhibiting a level of homo @-@ eroticism comparable to a heterosexual and a level of hetero @-@ eroticism comparable to a homosexual , namely , little to none ) . Storms conjectured that many researchers following Kinsey 's model could be mis @-@ categorizing asexual subjects as bisexual , because both were simply defined by a lack of preference for gender in sexual partners .
In a 1983 study by Paula Nurius , which included 689 subjects ( most of whom were students at various universities in the United States taking psychology or sociology classes ) , the two @-@ dimensional fantasizing and eroticism scale was used to measure sexual orientation . Based on the results , respondents were given a score ranging from 0 to 100 for hetero @-@ eroticism and from 0 to 100 for homo @-@ eroticism . Respondents who scored lower than 10 on both were labeled " asexual . " This consisted of 5 % of the males and 10 % of the females . Results showed that asexuals reported much lower frequency and desired frequency of a variety of sexual activities including having multiple partners , anal sexual activities , having sexual encounters in a variety of locations , and autoerotic activities .
In some other sexually reproducing species , a portion of animals exhibit no sexual interest in either sex , and could be considered asexual . Rodent studies use the label duds for rodents which express no sexual interest . A series of studies on ram mating preferences found that 12 @.@ 5 % showed no interest in mating with either sex ; the researchers termed these animals asexual . The asexual rams did not differ from sexual rams in measured hormone levels .
= = = Feminist research = = =
A 2010 paper written by Karli June Cerankowski and Megan Milks , titled New Orientations : Asexuality and Its Implications for Theory and Practice , suggests that asexuality may be somewhat of a question in itself for the studies of gender and sexuality . Cerankowski and Milks have suggested that asexuality raises many more questions than it resolves , such as how a person could abstain from having sex , which is generally accepted by society to be the most basic of instincts . The article also states that society has deemed " [ LGBT and ] female sexuality as empowered or repressed . The asexual movement challenges that assumption by challenging many of the basic tenets of pro @-@ sex feminism [ in which it is ] already defined as repressive or anti @-@ sex sexualities . " In addition to accepting self @-@ identification as asexual , the Asexual Visibility and Education Network has formulated asexuality as a biologically @-@ determined orientation . This formula , if dissected scientifically and proven , would support researcher Simon LeVay 's blind study of the hypothalamus in gay men , women , and straight men , which indicates that there is a biological difference between straight men and gay men .
In 2014 , Cerankowski and Milks edited and published Asexualities : Feminist and Queer Perspectives , a collection of essays intended to explore the politics of asexuality from a feminist and queer perspective . It is broken into the introduction and then six parts : Theorizing Asexuality : New Orientations ; The Politics of Asexuality ; Visualizing Asexuality in Media Culture ; Asexuality and Masculinity ; Health , Disability , and Medicalization ; and Reading Asexually : Asexual Literary Theory . Each part contains two to three papers on a given aspect of asexuality research . One such paper is written by Ela Przybylo , another name that is becoming common in asexual scholarly literature . Her article , with regard to the Cerankowski and Milks anthology , focuses on accounts by self @-@ identified male asexuals , with a particular focus on the pressures men experience towards having sex in dominant Western discourse and media . Three men living in Southern Ontario , Canada , were interviewed in 2011 , and Przybylo admits that the small sample @-@ size means that her findings cannot be generalized to a greater population in terms of representation , and that they are " exploratory and provisional , " especially in a field that is still lacking in theorizations . All three interviewees addressed being affected by the stereotype that men have to enjoy and want sex in order to be " real men . "
Another of Przybylo 's articles , Asexuality and the feminist politics of ' not doing it ' , was published in 2011 , and takes a feminist lens to scientific writings on asexuality . She argues that asexuality is made possible only through the Western context of " sexual , coital , and heterosexual imperatives " . She addresses earlier works by Dana Densmore , Valerie Solanas , and Breanne Fahs , who argued for " asexuality and celibacy " as radical feminist political strategies against patriarchy . While Przybylo does make some distinctions between asexuality and celibacy , she considers blurring the lines between the two to be productive for a feminist understanding of the topic . In 2013 , " Producing Facts : Empirical Asexuality and the Scientific Study of Sex . " was published in Feminism & Psychology . In it , Przybylo distinguishes between two different stages of asexual research - that of the late 1970s to the early 1990s , which often included a very limited understanding of asexuality , and the more recent revisiting of the subject which she says began with Bogaert 's 2004 study ( see above ) and has popularized the subject and made it more " culturally visible " . In this article , Przybylo once again asserts the understanding of asexuality as a cultural phenomenon , and continues to be critical of its scientific study .
CJ DeLuzio Chasin states in Reconsidering Asexuality and Its Radical Potential that academic research on asexuality " has positioned asexuality in line with essentialist discourses of sexual orientation " which is troublesome as it creates a binary between asexuals and persons who have been subjected to psychiatric intervention for disorders such as Hypoactive Sexual Desire Disorder . Chasin says that this binary implies that all asexuals experience a lifelong ( hence , enduring ) lack of sexual attraction , that all non @-@ asexuals who experience a lack of sexual desire experience distress over it , and that it pathologizes asexuals who do experience such distress . As Chasin says such diagnoses as HSDD act to medicalize and govern women 's sexuality , the article aims to " unpack " problematic definitions of asexuality that are harmful to both asexuals and women alike . Chasin states that asexuality has the power to challenge commonplace discourse of the naturalness of sexuality , but that the unquestioned acceptance of its current definition does not allow for this . Chasin also argues there and elsewhere in Making Sense in and of the Asexual Community : Navigating Relationships and Identities in a Context of Resistance that is important to interrogate why someone might be distressed about low sexual desire . Chasin further argues that clinicians have an ethical obligation to avoid treating low sexual desire per se as pathological , and to discuss asexuality as a viable possibility ( where relevant ) with clients presenting clinically with low sexual desire .
= = = Bogaert 's psychological work and theories = = =
In a 2015 volume of The Journal of Sex Research , Bogaert argued that understanding asexuality is of key importance to understanding sexuality in general . For his work , Bogaert defines asexuality as " a lack of lustful inclinations / feelings directed toward others , " a definition that he argues is relatively new in light of recent theory and empirical work on sexual orientation . This definition of asexuality also makes clear this distinction between behavior and desire , for both asexuality and celibacy , although Bogaert also notes that there is some evidence of reduced sexual activity for those who fit this definition . He further distinguishes between desire for others and desire for sexual stimulation , the latter of which is not always absent for those who identify as asexual , although he acknowledges that other theorists define asexuality differently and that further research needs to be done on the " complex relationship between attraction and desire " . Another distinction is made between romantic and sexual attraction , and he draws on work from developmental psychology , which suggests that romantic systems derive from attachment theory while sexual systems " primarily reside in different brain structures " .
Concurrent with Bogaert 's suggestion that understanding asexuality will lead to a better understanding of sexuality overall , he discusses the topic of asexual masturbation to theorize on asexuals and " ' target @-@ oriented ' paraphilia , in which there is an inversion , reversal , or disconnection between the self and the typical target / object of sexual interest / attraction " ( such as attraction to oneself , labelled " automonosexualism " ) .
In an earlier 2006 article , Bogaert acknowledges that a distinction between behavior and attraction has been accepted into recent conceptualizations of sexual orientation , which aids in positioning asexuality as such . He adds that , by this framework , " ( subjective ) sexual attraction is the psychological core of sexual orientation " , and also addresses that there may be " some skepticism in [ both ] the academic and clinical communities " about classifying asexuality as a sexual orientation , and that it raises two objections to such a classification : First , he suggests that there could be an issue with self @-@ reporting ( i.e. , " a ' perceived ' or ' reported ' lack of attraction , " particularly for definitions of sexual orientation that consider physical arousal over subjective attraction ) , and , second , he raises the issue of overlap between absent and very low sexual desire , as those with an extremely low desire may still have an " underlying sexual orientation " despite potentially identifying as asexual .
= = Community = =
A community of self @-@ identified asexuals coalesced in the early 21st century , aided by the popularity of online communities . Elizabeth Abbott , author of A History of Celibacy , acknowledges a difference between asexuality and celibacy , and posits that there has always been an asexual element in the population but that asexual people kept a low profile . While the failure to consummate marriage was seen as " an insult to the sacrament of marriage " in medieval Europe , and has sometimes been used as grounds for divorce or to rule a marriage void , asexuality , unlike homosexuality , has never been illegal , and asexual people have usually been able to " fly under the radar " . However , in the 21st century , the anonymity of online communication and general popularity of social networking online has facilitated the formation of a community built around a common asexual identity .
The Asexual Visibility and Education Network ( AVEN ) is an organization founded by American asexuality activist David Jay in 2001 that focuses on asexuality issues . Its stated goals are " creating public acceptance and discussion of asexuality and facilitating the growth of an asexual community " . Communities such as AVEN can be beneficial to those in search of answers to solve a crisis of identity with regard to their possible asexuality . Individuals go through a series of emotional processes that end with their identifying with the asexual community . They first realize that their sexual attractions differ from those of most of society . This difference leads to questioning whether the way they feel is acceptable , and possible reasons for why they feel this way . Pathological beliefs tend to follow , in which , in some cases , they may seek medical help because they feel they have a disease . Self @-@ understanding is usually reached when they find a definition that matches their feelings . Asexuality communities provide support and information that allows newly identified asexual
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-@ 94 record . He retired prior to the 1934 season , stating " the manager wasn 't giving me enough work " . Rixey completed his career with 266 wins , 251 losses , and a 3 @.@ 15 ERA . He appeared in 692 games and completed 290 , and had 20 wins and 14 saves as a relief pitcher .
Bubbles Hargrave , former Cincinnati catcher , gave this testimonial : " Eppa was just great . He was great as a pitcher , fielder and competitor . I look on him as the most outstanding player I came in contact with in my entire career . "
Rixey 's approach to the game is exemplified by the following quote : " " How dumb can the hitters in this league get ? I 've been doing this for fifteen years . When they 're batting with the count two balls and no strikes , or three and one , they 're always looking for the fastball and they never get it . " – Eppa Rixey ( 1927 )
= = Legacy = =
Originally Rixey had trouble controlling his speed , but eventually became one of the most feared pitchers in baseball according to reporters . Rixey was considered a pitcher with an " peculiar motion " , who rarely walked a batter . Throughout his long career , the 210 @-@ pound Rixey charmed teammates and fans with his dry wit and big Southern drawl . His nonsensical nickname " Jephtha " seemed to capture his roots and amiable personality . Some writers thought " Jephtha " was a part of Rixey 's real name , but it was likely invented by a Philadelphia sportswriter . Rob Neyer called Rixey the fourth best pitcher in Reds history behind Bucky Walters , Paul Derringer and teammate Dolf Luque .
His 266 career victories was the record for most wins by a left @-@ handed pitcher in the National League until Warren Spahn broke it in 1959 , however his 251 losses are an all @-@ time record for left @-@ handed pitchers . He also held the longevity record for most seasons pitched by a National League left @-@ hander until Steve Carlton broke it in 1986 . As time passed , support for Rixey to be inducted to the Baseball Hall of Fame grew . He was also inducted into the Cincinnati Reds Hall of Fame in 1958 . In 1960 , Rixey finished third in the balloting behind former teammate Edd Roush and Sam Rice ( who was later inducted the same year as Rixey ) . Upon his election to the Hall of Fame on January 27 , 1963 , he was quoted as saying " They 're really scraping the bottom of the barrel , aren 't they ? "
In 1969 , he was named by Reds fans as the greatest left @-@ handed pitcher in Reds history . The Reds Hall of Fame summed up his career : " He was the best left @-@ hander ever to pitch for the Reds with a 179 – 148 record , 180 complete games , 23 shutouts and a 3 @.@ 33 ERA in his 13 seasons . "
In 1972 he was inducted into the first class of the Virginia Sports Hall of Fame and Museum .
Rixey 's childhood home in Culpeper still stands ; it suffered some damage in the 2011 Virginia earthquake .
= = Personal life = =
He was married to Dorothy Meyers of Cincinnati and had two children , Eppa Rixey III and Ann Rixey Sikes and five grandchildren , James Rixey , Eppa Rixey IV , Steve Sikes , Paige Sikes , and David Sikes . After his retirement from baseball , worked for his father @-@ in @-@ law 's successful insurance company in Cincinnati , eventually becoming president of the company . He died of a heart attack on February 28 , 1963 , one month after his election to the Hall of Fame , becoming the first player to die between election and induction to the Hall of Fame . He is interred at Greenlawn Cemetery in Milford , Ohio .
When Rixey started playing , he was considered an " anomaly " . He came from a well @-@ off family and was college @-@ educated , something that was rare during his era . He wrote poetry , and took graduate school classes in chemistry , mathematics and Latin . During the off @-@ season , he was a Latin teacher at Episcopal High School in Alexandria , Virginia . He was also considered among the best golfers among athletes during the time period . He was the subject of hazing in his first few years in the Majors . Eventually he teamed up with other college graduates , Joe Oeschger and Stan Baumgartner and the hazing lessened to a degree .
= Willow ptarmigan =
The willow ptarmigan ( / ˈtɑːr mᵻ ɡən / ) ( Lagopus lagopus ) is a bird in the grouse subfamily Tetraoninae of the pheasant family Phasianidae . It is also known as the willow grouse and in Ireland and Britain , where it was previously believed to be a separate species , as the red grouse . It is a sedentary species , breeding in birch and other forests and moorlands in northern Europe , the tundra of Scandinavia , Siberia , Alaska and northern Canada , in particular in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador . It is the state bird of Alaska . In the summer the birds are largely brown , with dappled plumage , but in the winter they are white with some black feathers in their tails ( British populations do not adopt a winter plumage ) . The species has remained little changed from the bird that roamed the tundra during the Pleistocene . Nesting takes place in the spring when clutches of four to ten eggs are laid in a scrape on the ground . The chicks are precocial and soon leave the nest and while they are young , both parents play a part in caring for them . The chicks eat insects and young plant growth while the adults are completely herbivorous , eating leaves , flowers , buds , seeds and berries during the summer and largely subsisting on the buds and twigs of willow and other dwarf shrubs and trees during the winter .
= = Description = =
The willow ptarmigan is a medium to large ground @-@ dwelling bird and is the most numerous of the three species of ptarmigan . Males and females are about the same size , the adult length varying between 35 and 44 centimetres ( 14 and 17 in ) with a wingspan ranging from 60 and 65 centimetres ( 24 and 26 in ) . The weight is 430 to 810 grams ( 15 to 29 oz ) . It is deep @-@ chested and has a fairly long neck , a broad bill , short feathered legs and a moderately short rounded tail . In the summer , the male 's plumage is marbled brown , with a reddish hue to the neck and breast , a black tail and white wings and underparts . It has two inconspicuous wattles above the eyes , which become red and prominent in the breeding season . The female is similar in appearance but lacks the wattles and has brown feathers scattered among the white feathers on the belly . During winter , the plumage of both sexes becomes completely white , except for some black feathers in the tail . Immature birds resemble the adults .
The willow ptarmigan can be distinguished from the closely related rock ptarmigan ( Lagopus muta ) by its larger size and thicker bill and by the fact that it is not generally found above the tree line while the rock ptarmigan prefers more elevated , barren habitat . The summer plumage is browner and in the winter , the male willow ptarmigan lacks the rock ptarmigan 's black stripe between the eyes and bill . The white @-@ tailed ptarmigan ( Lagopus leucura ) in North America is smaller , has a white tail and finely @-@ barred greyer plumage and lives permanently above the tree line . The distinctive British Isles subspecies L. l. scoticus ( red grouse ) was once considered a separate true British species but is now classified as a sub @-@ species . This moorland bird is reddish brown all over , except for its white feet .
The voice is low @-@ pitched and guttural and includes chuckles , repeated clucking sounds , expostulations . When displaying , the male makes rattles and barking noises .
= = Taxonomy and systematics = =
The willow ptarmigan 's scientific name , Lagopus lagopus is derived from Ancient Greek lagos ( λαγως ) " hare " + pous ( πους ) " foot " , in reference to the bird 's feathered feet which allow it to negotiate frozen ground .
= = = Subspecies = = =
Nineteen subspecies have been recognised though some are believed not to be valid . Most differ little in appearance , though the red grouse ( L. l. scoticus ) is rather distinct . The taxonomy is confused , partly because of the complicated changes in plumage several times a year and the differing colour and pattern of the summer plumage :
hibernicus ( Latham , 1787 ) - Ireland
scoticus ( Latham , 1787 ) - Britain
variegatus Salomonsen , 1936 - Trondheim , Norway
lagopus ( Linnaeus , 1758 ) - Scandinavia , Finland and North European Russia
rossicus Serebrovsky , 1926 - Baltic countries and Central Russia
birulai Serebrovsky , 1926 - New Siberia
koreni Thayer & Bangs , 1914 - Siberia
maior Lorenz , 1904 - Southeast Russia , North Kazakhstan and Southwest Siberia
brevirostris Hesse , 1912 - Altai Mountains and Sayan Mountains
kozlowae Portenko , 1931 - West Mongolia
sserebrowsky Domaniewski , 1933 - East Siberia
kamtschatkensis Momiyama , 1928 - Kamchatka and Kuril Islands
okadai Momiyama , 1928 - Sakhalin Island
muriei Gabrielson & Lincoln , 1959 - Aleutian Islands and Kodiak Island
alexandrae Grinnell , 1909 - Alaska and British Columbia
alascensis Swarth , 1926 - Alaska
leucopterus Taverner , 1932 - Arctic islands of North Canada
albus ( Gmelin , 1789 ) - North Canada
ungavus Riley , 1911 - North Quebec and North Labrador
alleni Stejneger , 1884 - Newfoundland
The willow ptarmigan often hybridises with the black grouse ( Tetrao tetrix ) and the hazel grouse ( Tetrastes bonasia ) and occasionally with the western capercaillie ( Tetrao urogallus ) , the spruce grouse ( Falcipennis canadensis ) and the rock ptarmigan ( Lagopus muta ) .
During the Pleistocene , the willow ptarmigan widely occurred in continental Europe . Authors who recognize paleosubspecies have named the Pleistocene willow ptarmigan L. l. noaillensis ( though the older name medius might be the correct one ) . These marginally different birds are said to have gradually changed from the earlier ( Pliocene ) Lagopus atavus into the present @-@ day species L. lagopus . Pleistocene willow ptarmigan are recorded from diverse sites until the end of the Vistulian glaciation about 10 @,@ 000 years ago , when the species , by then all but identical with the living birds , retreated northwards with its tundra habitat .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The willow ptarmigan has a circum @-@ boreal distribution . It is native to Canada and the United States , China , Mongolia , the Russian Federation , Kazakhstan , the Czech Republic , Finland , Norway , Sweden , Estonia , Latvia , Lithuania , Germany , the United Kingdom , Ireland and Spain . It primarily occupies subalpine and subarctic habitats such as sparse pine and birch forests , thickets with willow and alder trees , heather moors , tundra and mountain slopes . In the winter , females and sub @-@ adults may move to lower altitudes and seek shelter in valleys or in more densely vegetated areas , but adult males usually remain in the subalpine region . The red grouse is common on heather @-@ clad moorland across the north and west of Great Britain and in localised areas of Ireland .
= = Diet = =
The willow ptarmigan has a varied and seasonal diet . The bird is herbivorous for most of its life and subsists on various plant materials . As juveniles , they may feed on insects due to an inability to digest plant material caused by underdeveloped cecums . In the summer , their diet is highly varied and may consist of berries , flowers , leaves , twigs and seeds .
In Alaska , the main dietary item of the adults at all times of year is willows such as the Alaska willow Salix alaxensis , with leaves being eaten in summer and buds , twigs and catkins supplying the birds ' main nutritional needs in winter and early spring . In the early twenty @-@ first century , there has been an increase in shrub expansion in arctic Alaska that is thought to be greatly affecting the willow ptarmigan ’ s winter diet . Because of the way they browse , Ptarmigan help shape the landscape of the area . After heavy snowfalls , the birds cannot access the shorter shrubs as they are blanketed with snow , so they will eat the taller species that poke through . In one study it was found that 90 % of the buds of the Alaska willow within their reach had been browsed . This will stunt the willows and create a feedback cycle extending through the entire ecosystem . However , in winters with below average snowfall , the browsing of Ptarmigans will not have such a drastic effect as their feeding will be spread out across a range of lower plant species . It is also believed that the greening of parts of the Arctic is affecting Willow Ptarmigan populations by altering the shape and size of the shrubs they are able to feed on .
= = Behaviour = =
Male willow ptarmigans are territorial birds . Males arrive in the breeding areas and set up territories in April and May , aggressively defending them against male interlopers . When the females arrive a few weeks later , the male performs courtship displays such as aerial manoeuvres , strutting and tail @-@ fanning . When she has chosen a mate and a nesting site , the female lays a clutch of six to ten eggs in a shallow depression on the ground . The nest site is usually in a hidden location at the edge of a clearing .
A small minority of male willow ptarmigan are polygynous but most are monogamous . They are assiduous at guarding both nest and mate , particularly early in the incubation period and when the eggs are nearly ready to hatch . During this time , the greatest danger may be from conspecifics . Although adult willow ptarmigans are herbivores , the newly hatched young also feed on insects . In most other species of grouse , only the female takes care of the young , but the male willow ptarmigan also helps with feeding the brood and protecting them . He may take over completely if the female dies . In particular , the male defends the young from predators and both he and his mate can dive @-@ bomb intruders or lure attackers away by pretending to have a broken wing . Nevertheless , the chicks face many dangers which range from attacks by foxes or birds of prey , getting separated from the rest of the brood , bad weather and coccidiosis . Fewer than 35 % of chicks survive to eleven months and only a minority of these reach maturity . Despite this , in favourable seasons , many juveniles may survive and the population of willow ptarmigan is prone to wide fluctuations in size . By September , families begin to form flocks . The females and young migrate to lower altitudes and may overwinter 100 miles ( 160 km ) from their breeding grounds in wooded valleys and hilly country . The males also congregate in small groups but do not usually travel as far as the females .
= = State bird = =
The willow ptarmigan is the state bird of Alaska .
= = Status = =
Widespread and not uncommon in its remote habitat , the willow ptarmigan is classified as a species of " Least Concern " by the IUCN . This is because , even if , as is suspected , numbers are declining slightly , it has a very wide range with a total population estimated at forty million individuals .
= Spanish coup of July 1936 =
The Spanish coup of July 1936 fractured the Spanish Republican Armed Forces and marked the beginning of the Spanish Civil War . Following a period of troubles in the Second Spanish Republic , a group of officers attempted to overthrow the left @-@ wing Popular Front government , elected five months previously , in a military coup . Planning started in early 1936 , and the coup was launched on 17 and 18 July . The coup failed to take complete control of the country and civil war ensued .
The rising was intended to be swift , but the government retained control of most of the country including Málaga , Jaén and Almería . Cadiz was taken for the rebels and General Queipo de Llano managed to secure Seville . In Madrid , the rebels were hemmed into the Montaña barracks , which fell with much bloodshed . On 19 July the cabinet headed by the newly appointed prime minister José Giral ordered the distribution of weapons to the unions , helping to defeat the rebels in Madrid , Barcelona , and Valencia , which led to anarchists taking control of large parts of Aragon and Catalonia . Rebel General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death . The rebels had secured the support of around half of Spain 's Peninsular army , which allowing for large numbers on extended leave totaled about 66 @,@ 000 men , and all of the 30 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Army of Africa . The Army of Africa was Spain 's most professional and effective military force . The government retained less than half the supply of rifles , heavy and light machine guns and artillery pieces . Both sides had few tanks and outdated aircraft , and naval capacity was fairly even . Officers ' defections weakened Republican units of all types .
= = Background = =
Following the elections of November 1933 , Spain entered a period called the " black two years " ( Spanish : bienio negro ) . Both Carlists and Alfonsist monarchists continued to prepare , receiving the backing of Italian Prime Minister Benito Mussolini . José @-@ María Gil @-@ Robles struggled to control the CEDA 's youth wing , which copied Germany 's and Italy 's youth movements . Monarchists , however , turned their attention to the Fascist Falange Española , under the leadership of José Antonio Primo de Rivera . Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities . Gil @-@ Robles ' CEDA continued to mimic the German Nazi Party , staging a rally in March 1934 . Gil Robles used an anti @-@ strike law to successfully provoke and break up unions one at a time . Efforts to remove local councils from socialist control prompted a general strike , which was brutally put down , with the arrest of four deputies and other significant breaches of articles 55 and 56 of the constitution .
On 26 September , the CEDA announced it would no longer support the Radical Republican Party 's minority government ; it was replaced by an RRP cabinet that included three members of the CEDA . A UGT general strike was unsuccessful in most of Spain . General Francisco Franco was put in informal command of the military effort against the Asturian miners ' revolt of 1934 , the only place it had succeeded . Around 30 @,@ 000 workers had been called to arms in ten days . Franco 's men , some brought in from Spain 's Army of Africa , acted horrifically , killing men , women and children , and carrying out summary executions when the main cities of Asturias had been retaken . About 1 @,@ 000 workers were killed , and about 250 government soldiers . This marked the effective end of the republic . Months of retaliation and repression by both sides followed ; torture was used on political prisoners . Bombings , shootings , political and religious killings were usual on the streets . Political parties created their own armed militias . Gil @-@ Robles once again prompted a cabinet collapse , and five members of Lerroux 's new government were conceded to CEDA . The military was purged of Republicanist members and reformed ; those loyal to Gil @-@ Robles were promoted – Franco was made Chief of Staff .
Elections in 1936 were won by a grouping of left @-@ wing parties united as the Popular Front . The right began to conspire as to how to best overthrow the republic , rather than taking control of it . The government was weak , and Azaña led a minority government . Pacification and reconciliation would have been a huge task . Acts of violence and reprisals spiralled . In April , parliament replaced Zamora with Azaña as president . However , Azaña was increasingly isolated from everyday politics ; his replacement , Casares Quiroga , was weak . This was a watershed event which inspired conservatives to give up on parliamentary politics . CEDA turned its campaign chest over to army plotter Emilio Mola . Monarchist José Calvo Sotelo replaced CEDA 's Gil @-@ Robles as the right 's leading spokesman in Parliament . Prieto did his best to avoid revolution , promoting a series of public works and civil order reforms , including parts of the military and civil guard . Communists quickly took over the ranks of socialist organisations , scaring the middle classes . Several generals decided that the government had to be replaced if the dissolution of Spain was to be prevented . They held a contempt for professional politicians .
= = Preparations = =
The republican government had been attempting to remove suspect generals from their posts , and so Franco was relieved as chief of staff and transferred to command of the Canary islands . Goded was replaced as Inspector General and made general of the Balearic islands ; Emilio Mola was moved from head of the Army of Africa to be military commander of Pamplona in Navarre . However , this allowed Mola to direct the mainland uprising , although the relationship between him and Carlist leaders was problematic . General José Sanjurjo became the figurehead of the operation , and helped to come to an agreement with the Carlists . Mola was chief planner and second in command . José Antonio Primo de Rivera was put in prison in mid @-@ March in order to restrict the Falange . However , government actions were not as thorough as they might have been : warnings by the Director of Security and other figures were not acted upon .
On 12 June , Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yagüe , who was rightly accused of masterminding the growing conspiracy in North Africa , but Yagüe managed to convince Casares of his loyalty to the republic . Mola held a meeting between garrison commanders in the north of Spain on 15 June , and local authorities , on hearing of the meeting , surrounded it with Civil Guards . However , Casares ordered their removal , saying he trusted Mola . Mola began serious planning in the spring , but General Francisco Franco hesitated until early July , inspiring other plotters to refer to him as " Miss Canary Islands 1936 " . Franco was a key player because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and as the man who suppressed the Socialist uprising of 1934 . He was well respected in the Spanish Moroccan Army , Spain 's strongest military force . He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June , suggesting that the military was disloyal , but could be restrained if he were put in charge . Casares did nothing , failing to arrest or buy off Franco , even if placing him in overall command was impossible . Franco was to be assigned control of Morocco in the new regime , and largely sidelined . On July 5 , an aircraft was chartered to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco . It arrived on July 14 .
= = Murder of Calvo Sotelo = =
On 12 July 1936 , in Madrid , a member of the Falange named Jorge Bardina murdered Lieutenant José Castillo of the Assault Guards police force . Castillo was a member of the Socialist party . The next day , members of the Assault Guards arrested José Calvo Sotelo , a leading Spanish monarchist and a prominent parliamentary conservative ; the original target was Gil Robles but he could not be found . Calvo Sotelo had protested against agricultural reforms , expropriations , and restrictions on the authority of the Catholic Church , which he considered Bolshevist and anarchist . He instead advocated the creation of a corporative state . Calvo Sotelo was shot by the Guards without trial .
The killing of Sotelo , a prominent member of Parliament , with involvement of the police , aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government 's opponents on the right . Massive reprisals followed . Although the conservative Nationalist generals were already in advanced stages of a planned uprising , the event provided a catalyst and convenient public justification for their coup , and in particular that Spain would have to be saved from anarchy by military rather than democratic means . The Socialists and Communists ( led by Prieto ) demanded that arms be distributed to the people before the military took over . The Prime Minister was hesitant .
Franco 's plane landed in Gran Canaria on July 14 , but , based in Tenerife , he would have been unable to make the plane without the death of General Amado Balmes , military commander in Gran Canaria , who was killed in a shooting accident on July 16 . Whether his death was an accident , suicide , or murder is unknown .
= = Beginning of the coup = =
The uprising 's timing was fixed at 17 July , at 5 : 00 p.m. ; this was agreed to by the leader of the Carlists , Manuel Fal Condé . However , the timing was changed : the men in Spanish Morocco were to rise up at 5 : 00 a.m. and those in Spain itself starting exactly a day later , so control of Spanish Morocco could be achieved and forces sent to Iberia from Morocco to coincide with the risings there . The rising was intended to be a swift coup d 'état , but the government retained control of most of the country .
Rebel control in Spanish Morocco was all but certain . The 30 @,@ 000 strong Army of Africa comprised the professional elite of the Spanish Army . Many of the soldiers acted as mercenaries and the vast majority of officers backed the rebel cause . The regulares ( troops recruited from the local populace ) were predominantly Muslim and were told that the Republic wished to abolish Allah . The plan was discovered in Morocco during 17 July , which prompted it to be enacted immediately . By the scheduled time , Spanish Morocco had already been secured as legionnaires moved into working @-@ class areas and shot unionists . The army commander in eastern Morocco , General Manuel Romerales , and other senior officers loyal to the Republic were executed . Little resistance was encountered ; in total , 189 people were shot by the rebels . Goded and Franco immediately took control of the islands to which they were assigned . Warned that a coup was imminent , leftists barricaded the roads on 17 July , but Franco avoided capture by taking a tugboat to the airport .
On 18 July , Casares Quiroga refused an offer of help from the CNT and UGT , proclaiming that nowhere outside Spanish Morocco had joined the rebels and that the populace should trust legal methods to deal with the uprising . Handing out weapons would be illegal . The CNT and UGT proclaimed a general strike , in effect mobilising . They opened weapons caches , some buried since the 1934 risings . The paramilitary forces , better trained than the army , often waited to see the outcome of militia action before either joining or suppressing the rebellion . Quick action by either the rebels or anarchist militias was often enough to decide the fate of a town . General Queipo de Llano managed to secure Seville for the rebels , arresting a number of other officers .
= = Outcome = =
Despite the ruthlessness and determination of the supporters of the coup , the rebels failed to take any major cities with the critical exception of Seville which provided a landing point for Franco ’ s African troops . The primarily conservative and Catholic areas of Old Castile and León fell quickly , and in Pamplona they celebrated the uprising as if it were a festival . The government retained control of Málaga , Jaén and Almería . Cadiz was taken for the rebels with the help of the first troops from the Army of Africa . In Madrid they were hemmed into the Montaña barracks . The barracks fell the next day , with much bloodshed . Republican leader Santiago Casares Quiroga was replaced by José Giral who ordered the distribution of weapons among the civilian population . This facilitated the defeat of the army insurrection in the main industrial centres , including Madrid , Barcelona , Valencia and other main cities in the Mediterranean area , but it allowed the anarchists to arm themselves and take control of Barcelona and large swathes of Aragon and Catalonia . In Barcelona , the official government lost control of security , essential services and welfare . However , the anarchists held back from demanding too much political power , which could have had even more serious consequences . General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death , despite broadcasting a message explaining his captivity over the radio at the request of the authorities .
Meanwhile , the Army of Africa crossed the Gibraltar Strait , using Junkers Ju 52 transport planes provided by Nazi Germany , without any loyalist Air Force interference owing to the confusion and lack of decision of the Spanish Republican side . The massive airlift of troops from Spanish Morocco was the world 's first long @-@ range combat airlift and it allowed Franco 's troops to join General Queipo de Llano 's forces in Seville . Their quick movement allowed them to meet General Mola 's Northern Army and secure most of northern and northwestern Spain , as well as central and western Andalusia . The Republican Government ended up with controlling almost all of the Eastern Spanish coast and central area around Madrid , as well as Asturias , Cantabria and part of the Basque Country in the north . Mola was keen to create a sense of fear within Nationalist @-@ controlled areas . There was a massive purge of freemasons , and a wide part of the left , including some moderate socialists .
The result of the coup was a polarization of Spain . Following General Mola 's orders of instilling fear in potential pro @-@ republican ranks by means of systematic executions in captured cities , a spontaneous revenge in the form of random murders of perceived fascists , conservatives and coup @-@ sympathizers by exalted mobs flared up in loyalist areas .
The Nationalist area of control contained roughly 11 million of Spain 's population of 25 million . The rebels also had secured the support of around half of Spain 's territorial army , some 60 @,@ 000 men . In Republican units , however , as much as 90 % of officers either rebelled , defected or merely disappeared and their loyalty to the republic was put in doubt , therefore some would later turn up in Nationalist ranks . This considerably reduced the units ' effectiveness as a new command structure had to be fashioned . No such problem occurred in Nationalist units . The Army of Africa , however , was entirely under Nationalist control , and numbered 30 @,@ 000 men considered Spain 's top fighting force . The rebels were also joined by 30 @,@ 000 members of Spain 's militarized police forces , the Assault Guards , the Civil Guards , and the Carabineers . 50 @,@ 000 members of the latter stayed loyal to the government . Of 500 @,@ 000 rifles , around 200 @,@ 000 were retained by the government . 65 @,@ 000 were issued to the Madrid populace in the days following the uprising – of these , only 7 @,@ 000 were usable . 70 @,@ 000 or so were lost following early Nationalist advances in the war . Republicans controlled about a third of both heavy and light machine guns ; of 1 @,@ 007 artillery pieces , 387 were in Republican hands . The Spanish Army had , before the coup , just 18 tanks of a sufficiently modern design , and the Republicans retained 10 . In terms of numbers , the Nationalists had seized control of 17 warships , leaving the Republicans with 27 . However , the two most modern ( both cruisers of the Canarias class ) were in Nationalist hands ; although not ready for service when the war broke out , when launched they compensated for the lack in numbers . The Spanish Republican Navy suffered from the same problems as the army : many officers had defected or had been killed after trying to do so . Due to the concerns of a Republican officer that such a coup was imminent , two @-@ thirds of air capability were retained by the government – however , the whole of the air service was very outdated and vulnerable both during flight and to mechanical problems .
= U.S. Route 67 in Iowa =
U.S. Highway 67 ( US 67 ) is a U.S. Highway in extreme eastern Iowa . The route begins in Davenport at the Rock Island Centennial Bridge where it crosses the Mississippi River and ends at an intersection with US 52 and Iowa Highway 64 ( Iowa 64 ) west of Sabula . It passes through Bettendorf , Le Claire , and Clinton . Except for Folletts , every community which US 67 enters sits along the Mississippi River . As such , the entire route is part of the Great River Road , an All @-@ American Road .
US 67 was created in late 1934 , when it replaced US 55 from Davenport to Dubuque . The route ended then at the foot of the Julien Dubuque Bridge , which carries US 20 . The northern half of the route , from Sabula to Dubuque , was overlapped by US 52 until 1967 . Most of the state highways that intersect US 67 do so within sight of their Mississippi River bridge crossing .
= = Route description = =
US 67 crosses the Mississippi River into Davenport on the Rock Island Centennial Bridge . Adjacent to the bridge is Modern Woodmen Park , home of the Midwest League 's Quad City River Bandits . Vehicles can continue to the north on Gaines Street , but US 67 traffic is forced to make a U @-@ turn to the south to connect to River Drive . Prior to 2010 , River Drive carried U.S. Route 61 ( US 61 ) , but the street now carries its business route . River Drive is prone to seasonal flooding from the Mississippi , as was the case in 1993 , 1997 , 2001 , 2008 , and 2011 .
In downtown Davenport , US 61 Bus. intersects US 67 at two one @-@ way streets , Harrison Street southbound and Brady Street northbound . Continuing east along the river , River Drive passes under the Government Bridge . It enters Bettendorf and becomes two one @-@ way streets , Grant Street southbound and State Street northbound . The two streets intersect Interstate 74 ( I @-@ 74 ) and US 6 at the foot of the I @-@ 74 Bridges near downtown Bettendorf .
Through Bettendorf and Riverdale , where the route turns to the northeast , US 67 is separated from the Mississippi riverfront by industry . Alcoa , which employs over 2000 workers at its Davenport works , is the largest plant along US 67 .
Just south of Le Claire is the I @-@ 80 interchange , where US 67 passes underneath the Fred Schwengel Memorial Bridge . In Le Claire the Mississippi River bends sharply and the highway follows . It heads through the picturesque downtown area , where many shops and even the street on which US 67 uses , Cody Road , pay homage to the Le Claire area 's most famous son , Buffalo Bill Cody .
Between Le Claire and Princeton , US 67 continues to closely parallel the river . This stretch of the road allows for good opportunities for bird watching . Where there are open views of the river , you can see water fowl on the water amongst lily pads . This area is near the southern end of the Upper Mississippi River National Wildlife and Fish Refuge .
North of Princeton , US 67 turns inland to cross the Wapsipinicon River into Clinton County . At Folletts , the road takes a 90 @-@ degree turn back to the east towards Camanche . It then runs parallel to the river , which is obscured by trees surrounding its backwaters . At Camanche , it passes around the city to the west and north . At Washington Boulevard , which is the former alignment of the route through Camanche , it turns to the north onto a four @-@ lane , undivided highway , which passes an industrial area and over Union Pacific 's Overland Route . As it enters Clinton , it joins with US 30 .
US 30 / US 67 head east along Lincoln Way through an industrial and retail area . As they continue east , the two routes split into one @-@ way streets , northbound Liberty Avenue and southbound Camanche Avenue . The one @-@ way street alignment ends at 11th Avenue South , but quickly begins again as US 30 / US 67 turn to the north onto northbound S. Third Street and southbound South 4th Street . At 8th Avenue South , US 30 splits away from US 67 and onto the Gateway Bridge and crosses into Illinois .
A block north , the one @-@ way couplets rejoin and head a block east to South 2nd Street . US 67 stays on 2nd Street for the next 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . It passes through the heart of downtown Clinton , past the historic Van Allen Building designed by Louis Sullivan , Ashford University Field , home of the Clinton LumberKings , also of the Midwest League , and passes the location of the failed Flav 's Fried Chicken restaurant . On the north end of Clinton , US 67 intercepts Iowa 136 at the foot of the Mark Morris Memorial Bridge to Fulton , Illinois . The two routes are overlapped for 3 ⁄ 4 mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) on 2nd Street and on Main Avenue . US 67 turns off of Main Avenue , away from Iowa 136 onto North 3rd Street and continues north out of town .
North of Clinton , US 67 travels through rural areas for the remainder of its route . Surrounded by acres ( hectares ) of farmland , houses occasionally dot the route . Near the Clinton – Jackson county line , the terrain begins to get hillier . The highway is entering the extreme southern end of the Driftless Area , a region of the Midwest that avoided glaciation during the last Ice Age . West of Sabula , US 67 meets Iowa 64 . The US Highway merges onto the state highway , and the two routes head east together for 2 ⁄ 5 mile ( 0 @.@ 64 km ) until they meet US 52 . Iowa 64 continues eastward with US 52 , but US 67 ends its journey from Texas here .
= = History = =
U.S. Highway 67 was extended into Iowa in late 1934 , when it replaced the southernmost portion of US 55 . It crossed the Mississippi River over the Government Bridge with US 32 ( now US 6 ) . The highway followed roughly the same route it does today through the then @-@ Tri Cities , along the river to Clinton to its present end near Sabula . Instead of ending at US 52 , the two routes continued north together along the river through Bellevue . Near Dubuque , the two highways converged with two others : US 61 and US 151 . Closer to downtown Dubuque , US 67 ended where US 61 and US 151 diverged from US 52 .
In 1940 , US 67 's entrance into Iowa was moved onto the new Rock Island Centennial Bridge . The Centennial Bridge was a toll bridge from its opening on July 12 , 1940 , until May 3 , 2003 . Tolls were originally 10 cents ( equivalent to $ 1 @.@ 69 in 2016 ) for drivers and 5 cents ( $ 0 @.@ 84 ) for pedestrians . The pedestrian toll was ended in 1960 . Tolls were 50 cents ( $ 0 @.@ 64 ) when they were removed in 2003 .
When the Julien Dubuque Bridge was completed in 1943 , US 67 's northern end was moved to the intersection of Dodge Street , which carried US 20 , and Locust Street , which carried US 67 , US 52 , US 61 , and US 151 . Iowa 3 's eastern end was moved to the same intersection , but on the opposite side of the street from US 67 's end . The intersection of Dodge and Locust was located at the foot of the Julien Dubuque Bridge .
When it was designated US 67 , only the first 45 miles ( 72 km ) , from Davenport to Almont , a ghost town in eastern Clinton County , were paved . Within ten years , paving had extended north to Iowa 64 . In addition , a short section north of Bellevue had been paved . By 1955 , all 95 miles ( 153 km ) were paved . In 1967 , US 67 was truncated at the intersection of US 52 and Iowa 64 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Senghenydd colliery disaster =
The Senghenydd colliery disaster , also known as the Senghenydd explosion ( Welsh : Tanchwa Senghennydd ) , occurred at the Universal Colliery in Senghenydd , near Caerphilly , Glamorgan , Wales , on 14 October 1913 . The explosion , which killed 439 miners and a rescuer , is still the worst mining accident in the United Kingdom . Universal Colliery , located on the South Wales Coalfield , produced steam coal which was much in demand . Some of the region 's coal seams contained high quantities of firedamp , a highly explosive gas consisting of methane and hydrogen , and were prone to explosions .
In an earlier disaster in May 1901 , three underground explosions at the colliery killed 81 miners . The inquest established that the colliery had high levels of airborne coal dust , which would have exacerbated the explosion and carried it further into the mine workings . The cause of the 1913 explosion is unknown , but the subsequent inquiry thought the most likely cause was a spark from underground signalling equipment that could have ignited any firedamp present . The miners in the east side of the workings were evacuated , but the men in the western section bore the brunt of the explosion , fire and afterdamp — a poisonous mixture of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen left after an explosion .
Fires in the workings hampered rescue efforts , and it took several days before they were under control . It took six weeks for most of the bodies to be recovered and the fire to be extinguished . The subsequent enquiry pointed to errors made by the company and its management leading to charges of negligence against Edward Shaw , the colliery manager , and the owners . Shaw was fined £ 24 while the company was fined £ 10 ; newspapers calculated the cost of each miner lost was just 51 ⁄ 2 pence .
In 1981 a memorial to the men who died in the disaster was unveiled by the National Coal Board , followed by a second in 2006 , to honour the dead of both the 1901 and 1913 explosions . In October 2013 , on the centenary of the tragedy , a Welsh national memorial to those killed in all Wales 's mining disasters was unveiled at the former pithead , depicting a rescue worker coming to the aid of one of the survivors of the explosion .
= = Background = =
= = = Welsh coal industry = = =
The Welsh coal industry employed 1 @,@ 500 workers in 1800 ; and as the industry expanded , the workforce rose to 30 @,@ 000 by 1864 , and to 250 @,@ 000 by 1913 . As employment became available , many people moved to the area of the South Wales Coalfield ; between 1851 and 1911 the population increased by 320 @,@ 000 . By 1913 the Welsh collieries were extracting 56 @.@ 8 million long tons of coal ( 63 @.@ 6 million short tons ) a year , up from 8 @.@ 5 million long tons ( 9 @.@ 5 million short tons ) in 1854 ; collieries in the region mined a fifth of all coal produced in the UK , and employed a fifth of its miners in the mid @-@ nineteenth century . In 1913 Britain was responsible for 25 per cent of world coal production and 55 percent of all world coal exports .
The South Wales Coalfield produced the sought @-@ after anthracite , bituminous and steam coals — the latter a grade between the two comprising a hard coal without the coking elements . Some of the region 's coal seams contained high quantities of firedamp , a highly explosive gas consisting of methane and hydrogen , and were therefore prone to explosions ; firedamp rises into the higher points of workings , including cavities or , as at Senghenydd , when the seams were being mined in an upward gradient . An additional danger of firedamp is afterdamp , a poisonous mixture of gases left after an explosion , primarily constituted of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen . They combine with haemoglobin in the bloodstream to stop cells carrying oxygen , which can result in suffocation by lack of oxygen or anoxia . If survivors from an explosion are not rescued quickly , they face the possibility of being killed by the gas . The presence of firedamp contributed to a higher @-@ than @-@ average proportion of accidents : between 1880 and 1900 South Wales accounted for 18 % of Britain 's miners , but 48 per cent of all UK mining deaths occurred in the region . As coal output from British collieries reached its peak in 1913 there was a correspondingly large number of accidents around this time .
= = = Senghenydd and the Universal Colliery = = =
Senghenydd — Senghennydd in Welsh — is situated at the northern end of the Aber Valley , approximately four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ west of Caerphilly and eleven miles ( 18 km ) north @-@ west of Cardiff . When geological surveys for coal began in 1890 it was a farming hamlet of around 100 people . Coal was found , and sinking of the first mineshaft for Universal Colliery — which was owned and developed by William Lewis — began in 1891 ; the first coal was extracted in 1896 . The colliery 's two shafts were both 1 @,@ 950 feet ( 590 m ) deep , the downcast Lancaster and the upcast York . Development of the pit coincided with the Boer War , and sectors of the underground workings were named after key places in the war , such as Pretoria , or the lifting of the sieges at Ladysmith , Mafeking and Kimberley .
South Wales miners , including those at Universal , were paid on a rate determined by the Sliding Scale Committee , which fixed wages on the price coal fetched at market . When the price of coal slumped in the late 1890s , low wages led to industrial unrest and , in 1898 , a strike that the men at Universal joined at the end of April . The Monmouthshire and South Wales Coal Owners ' Association refused to replace the scale , and the strike ended on 1 September with some small concessions granted by the owners . The colliery resumed production and in 1899 was producing 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 400 short tons ) of coal a week .
The industrial historians Helen and Baron Duckham consider Universal Colliery to have been " an unlucky mine " . At approximately 5 : 00 am on 24 May 1901 three underground explosions occurred as the night shift was exiting the pit . Because the explosion damaged the pit winding gear , it took time to clear the debris from the pithead to allow rescuers to begin work . They descended at 11 : 00 am and rescued one man , an ostler , found alongside the corpse of the horse he was tending . There were no other survivors and 81 men died . Although the funerals for the victims started four days later , the rescue and recovery operations lasted for six weeks .
The Mines Inspectorate began an enquiry , chaired by the mining engineer Professor William Galloway . The report was published on 15 July . It stated that the mine was hot with high levels of coal dust present . The method used to load coal onto underground trucks created quantities of dust , which had aggravated a small explosion and created a chain reaction of related explosions throughout the workings . An inquest held in the October concluded that various safety precautions had not been followed , and that the mine had been insufficiently watered — which would have reduced the coal dust held in the air . The colliery had further problems in October 1910 when a heavy roof fall in the Mafeking return released trapped firedamp , which caused the mine to be temporarily evacuated .
In 1906 a major explosion at a colliery in Courrières , northern France , caused the deaths of more than 1 @,@ 000 miners . The subsequent report blamed the accidental ignition of firedamp , exacerbated by coal dust in the air . Concerned that a similar disaster might happen in British collieries , the Royal Commission was formed , reporting back in 1907 , 1909 and 1911 . The reports led to the Coal Mines Act 1911 , which came force into December that year . Among other changes to the health and safety culture , the Act required that ventilation fans in all collieries be capable of reversing the air current underground ; this measure was to be implemented by 1 January 1913 .
In 1913 the colliery was producing 1 @,@ 800 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 short tons ) of coal a day , and Senghenydd 's population had grown to just under 6 @,@ 000 . No work was undertaken at Senghenydd to implement the requirement , and the Mines Inspectorate gave the management an extended deadline of September 1913 to complete the work , but this was missed .
= = 14 October 1913 = =
At 3 : 00 am on 14 October 1913 , the day firemen descended the pit to conduct the daily checks for gas ; they had three hours to complete their investigations . The firemen for the Mafeking return had to travel more than two miles from the shaft bottom to the workface . It left insufficient time in which to make a thorough check of the workings — which involved placing a naked flame into cavities to see if the flame lengthened — although the historian Michael Lieven states that " the company considered any other form of inspection to be too time @-@ consuming " . Between 5 : 10 and 6 : 00 am 950 men descended the shaft for a shift that was due to last until 2 : 00 pm .
Just after 8 : 00 am an explosion occurred in the west side of the underground workings . It is possible there were two explosions as survivors stated a smaller explosion preceded the main
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. and III . Gruppe of StG 2 " Immelmann " had been placed under the control of VIII . Fliegerkorps ( 8th Air Corps ) , led by General der Flieger ( General of the Aviators ) Wolfram Freiherr von Richthofen , subordinated to Luftflotte 2 ( 2nd Air Fleet ) under the command of Generalfeldmarschall ( Field Marshal ) Albert Kesselring , and supported the northern or left flank of Army Group Center . The main objective of this army group , under the command of Feldmarschall Fedor von Bock , was to capture the capital of the Soviet Union , Moscow .
Rudel , who had been ordered to shuttle a Ju 87 to the production facility at Cottbus for a maintenance overhaul of the aircraft , heard over the radio news of the invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 . That day , he flew another aircraft to Insterburg , present @-@ day Tschernjachowsk , and then southeast to Raczki . There , he was assigned to 1 . Staffel commanded by Oberleutnant Ewald Janssen . As Janssen 's wingman , Rudel flew his first four combat missions as a dive bomber pilot against Soviet tank and troop deployments in the vicinity of Grodno and Vawkavysk on 23 June 1941 . During the first two weeks of the campaign , StG 2 " Immelmann " flew ground support missions for armored units of Panzergruppe 3 ( 3rd Panzer Group ) advancing towards Smolensk . He was then transferred to the III . Gruppe of StG 2 " Immelmann " , under command of Hauptmann Heinrich Brücker , and appointed Technischer Offizier ( TO — Technical Officer ) , a role in which he was responsible for the supervision of all technical aspects , such as routine maintenance , servicing , and modifications of the Gruppe . On 18 July 1941 , he was awarded the Iron Cross 1st Class ( Eisernes Kreuz erster Klasse ) and the Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Ground Attack Fighters in Gold ( Frontflugspange für Schlachtflieger in Gold ) .
By August 1941 , Adolf Hitler had shifted VIII . Fliegerkorps northwards in support of Army Group North , under command of Feldmarschall Wilhelm Ritter von Leeb , in its attempt to capture Leningrad , present @-@ day Saint Petersburg . As a consequence of this decision , on 29 August 1941 , III . Gruppe was ordered to an airfield south of Luga . There , Rudel flew numerous combat missions in support of the 16th Army and 18th Army advancing northwards . The Soviet Navy Baltic Fleet , with its capital ships Marat and Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya , supported by the heavy cruisers Kirov and Maxim Gorky , bombarded German forces on their advance towards Leningrad . Subsequently , Richthofen ordered StG 2 " Immelmann " to attack this Soviet naval task force . On 21 September 1941 , Rudel flew his first mission against this task force , claiming a hit on the Marat with a 500 kg ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bomb . On 23 September , StG 2 " Immelmann " , now armed with 1 @,@ 000 kg ( 2 @,@ 200 lb ) armor @-@ piercing bombs , again attacked the Soviet ships based at Kronstadt harbor . Oberleutnant Lothar Lau scored a hit on Marat , causing a fire . Rudel also hit Marat , causing an enormous explosion that put her out of action for several months . That day , III . Gruppe flew a second mission against the Soviet fleet at Kronstadt . Rudel did not participate in this mission . An accident while taxiing had rendered the aircraft of III . Gruppe commander , Hauptmann Ernst @-@ Siegfried Steen , unserviceable , and Steen ordered Rudel to hand over his Ju 87 to him . Steen , with Unteroffizier Alfred Scharnowski , Rudel 's regular air gunner , led the Gruppe in this attack . Flying into intense anti @-@ aircraft fire over Kronstadt , Steen and Scharnowski took a direct hit while attacking Kirov , and both were killed in action . In October 1941 , Erwin Hentschel joined Rudel as his new radio operator and air gunner .
Army Group Center opened Operation Taifun , the Battle of Moscow , on 30 September 1941 and VIII . Fliegerkorps was again placed under the command of Luftflotte 2 . On 20 October 1941 , Rudel was awarded the Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) , and on 2 December 1941 , the German Cross in Gold ( Deutsches Kreuz in Gold ) , the first pilot of III . Gruppe to receive this distinction . By the end of December , he had flown his 400th mission , and on 6 January 1942 received the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes ) . The presentation was made by Richthofen on 15 January . Rudel had been nominated for the Knight 's Cross for severely damaging the battleships Marat and Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya , sinking one heavy cruiser , and rendering another one unserviceable . In actions against land targets , he was credited with damaging or destroying 15 bridges , 23 artillery positions , 4 armored trains , and 17 tanks or assault guns . In the winter of 1941 – 42 , Rudel fought in the combat zones of the Volga – Daugave – Dnieper rivers near the Valdai Hills , in the vicinity of the Kholm and Demyansk Pockets , both pockets resulting from the German retreat following their defeat during the Battle of Moscow , in the area west of Rzhev , and over the railway line at Sychyovka .
In early 1942 , Rudel was granted home leave . During his vacation , he stayed with his parents in Alt @-@ Kohlfurt , present @-@ day Stary Węgliniec , and got married . He and his wife then took a skiing vacation in Tirol , Austria . From March to August 1942 , Rudel was appointed leader of the Ergänzungsstaffel at Graz @-@ Thalerhof , and transferred with this Staffel to Sarabus , present @-@ day Hwardijske , located 10 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 2 miles ) north of Simferopol on the Crimean peninsula . Beginning on 15 August 1942 , flying with the Stuka @-@ Ergänzungsstaffel and as Staffelkapitän ( squadron leader ) of 9 . Staffel ( 9th squadron ) of StG 2 " Immelmann " , Rudel flew missions in the Caucasus and over the Black Sea . On 23 September 1942 , he damaged a 4 @,@ 000 gross register tons ( GRT ) merchant ship in the harbor of Tuapse , and flew his 500th combat mission the following day . In early November 1942 , Rudel was briefly hospitalized in Rostov @-@ on @-@ Don and treated for hepatitis . On 17 November 1942 , Rudel was appointed Staffelkapitän of the 1 . Staffel ( 1st squadron ) of StG 2 " Immelmann " , and flew with this unit in the Battle of Stalingrad . Besides StG 2 " Immelmann " , Richthofen had ordered the Stukas of II . Gruppe of Sturzkampfgeschwader 1 ( StG 1 — 1st Dive Bomber Wing ) and elements of Sturzkampfgeschwader 77 ( StG 77 — 77th Dive Bomber Wing ) to break Soviet opposition from the air . On 25 November 1942 , I. Gruppe of StG 2 " Immelmann " defended an airfield occupied by StG 1 at Oblivskaya against attacks from an Soviet cavalry division . That day , Rudel flew 17 combat missions in its defense . Following his 750th combat mission , he was nominated for — but not awarded — the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub ) on 14 December 1942 .
= = = Anti @-@ tank operations = = =
On 10 February 1943 , Rudel flew his 1,000th combat mission from Gorlovka against forces of the 57th Army in the vicinity of Izium . He was then sent on fourteen days home leave , which he spent at St. Anton , skiing on the Arlberg .
Following this vacation , he was ordered to the Luftwaffe main testing ground at Rechlin . There , under the command of Hauptmann Hans @-@ Karl Stepp , the Luftwaffe was experimenting with using the Ju 87 G in the anti @-@ tank role , armed with two 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ) Bordkanone BK 3 @,@ 7 under @-@ wing autocannons . On 1 April 1943 , he was promoted to Hauptmann with a rank age backdated to 1 April 1942 . The anti @-@ tank unit Versuchskommando zur Panzerbekämpfung was later located at Bryansk @-@ Desna , and then at an airfield at Kerch on the Kerch Peninsula . The airfield was also used by StG 2 " Immelmann " , which at the time was flying missions against the Kuban bridgehead near Krymsk . There , flying along with StG 2 " Immelmann " , Rudel was credited with the destruction of 70 Soviet landing crafts , flying the cannon equipped Ju 87 . Some of these attacks were filmed by an onboard gun camera and shown in Die Deutsche Wochenschau , a newsreel released in German cinemas , its production supervised and censored by the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda under Joseph Goebbels . Der Adler , a biweekly Nazi propaganda magazine published by the Luftwaffe , also reported his actions in volume 12 of 1943 . On 14 April 1943 , Rudel was awarded the Oak Leaves to his Knight 's Cross for his achievements in over 1 @,@ 000 combat missions . He was the 229th member of the German armed forces to be so honored . Rudel received the Oak Leaves from Hitler personally at his office in the New Reich Chancellery in Berlin .
On 5 July 1943 , the first day of the Battle of Kursk , Rudel flew his first combat missions with the cannon equipped Ju 87 G against Soviet tanks in the area of Belgorod , destroying four T @-@ 34s on the first mission . In total , he was credited with twelve tanks destroyed that day . The same day , Rudel and his squadron flew in support of 2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich and its advance towards Teterevino . At 10 : 30 , a group of about 30 T @-@ 34s from the 5th Guards Tank Corps , possibly belonging to the 22nd Guards Tank Brigade , attacked SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Hans Albin Freiherr von Reitzenstein 's Panzers . In two days , 5th Guards Tank Corps lost approximately 100 of its 200 tanks to Rudel 's Stukas and SS Panzers . On 17 July 1943 , Hauptmann Walter Krauß , Gruppenkommandeur of III . Gruppe , was killed in action near Oryol . Two days later , Rudel was appointed leader of III . Gruppe . On the morning of 12 August 1943 , Rudel and Hentschel respectively completed their 1,300th and 1,000th combat mission . Hentschel was the first air gunner to achieve this mark .
On the morning of 9 October 1943 , Rudel and Hentschel respectively completed their 1,500th and 1,200th combat mission . Rudel was the first pilot to achieve this mark . The event was celebrated at an airfield at Kostromka , south of Kryvyi Rih , and was attended by General der Flieger Kurt Pflugbeil , commanding general of the IV . Fliegerkorps ( 4th Air Corps ) . StG 2 " Immelmann " was redesignated to Schlachtgeschwader 2 " Immelmann " ( SG 2 — 2nd Ground Support Wing ) on 18 October 1943 . On 30 October 1943 , Rudel , flying the Ju 87 G near Kirovohrad , was credited with the destruction of his 100th tank . He flew his 1,600th mission in November 1943 , and was credited with seven tanks destroyed on 23 November 1943 . For this achievement , on 25 November , he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub und Schwertern ) , the 42nd member of the German armed forces to be so honored . On that day , Hentschel was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross . The presentation to Rudel and Hentschel was made by Hitler at the Führer Headquarter Wolfsschanze ( Wolf 's Lair ) in Rastenburg , now Kętrzyn in Poland . At Rastenburg that day , Oberstleutnant ( Lieutenant Colonel ) Dietrich Hrabak , Geschwaderkommodore of Jagdgeschwader 52 ( JG 52 — 52nd Fighter Wing ) , was also present at the award ceremony , and received the Oak Leaves to his Knight 's Cross .
= = = Defeat on the Eastern Front = = =
In January 1944 , Rudel led III . Gruppe in defensive support of the 8th Army . During the Kirovohrad Offensive ( 1 – 16 January 1944 ) , the 2nd Ukrainian Front , under command of Ivan Konev , attacked the German 8th Army . The Soviet operation was successful and led to German forces being encircled in the Battle of the Korsun – Cherkassy Pocket ( 24 January – 16 February 1944 ) . From 7 to 10 January 1944 , Rudel was credited with the destruction of 17 Soviet tanks in these battles ; he claimed his 150th tank victory on 11 January 1944 , and flew his 1 @,@ 700 mission on 16 January 1944 . He was officially appointed Gruppenkommandeur of III . Gruppe on 22 February 1944 , and promoted to Major on 1 March 1944 , with his seniority back dated to 1 October 1942 . On 20 March , Rudel landed behind Soviet lines to save a downed crew from captivity . This was his eighth mission of the day ; the target area had been a bridge spanning the Dniester near Yampil . Unable to take off as the wheels of his aircraft had sunk into the soft ground , the four headed back to German held territory on foot . Pursued by Soviet troops , the men attempted to swim across the Dniester River . Rudel and two of the others made it across , while the fourth , Hentschel , drowned in the attempt . Soon afterwards , the three were captured . Rudel was wounded by small arms fire in the shoulder as he made his escape and returned to German held territory the following day . Upon his return , Ernst Gadermann , previously the troop doctor of III . Gruppe , joined Rudel as his new radio operator and air gunner .
Rudel completed his 1 @,@ 800 combat mission on 25 March 1944 . The next day he flew several more sorties during the prelude of the First Jassy – Kishinev Offensive ( 8 April – 6 June 1944 ) , and was credited with the destruction of 17 tanks at Fălești , 40 kilometers ( 25 mi ) north of Iași . This achievement was mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht , a propaganda radio report , the first of five such mentions , on 27 March 1944 . The next day , Rudel was again mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht , which reported his 202nd tank kill . For this he was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Oak Leaves , Swords and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) on 29 March 1944 . Rudel was the tenth member of the Wehrmacht , and the seventh pilot , who had received this award . The presentation was made at the Berghof , Hitler 's home in the Obersalzberg of the Bavarian Alps near Berchtesgaden . Following the presentation , Rudel went on vacation , and stayed with his wife and son at Alt @-@ Kohlfurt . He then returned to the Eastern Front , flying to join his Gruppe , which was based at Huși , southeast of Iași . Rudel flew his 2,000th combat mission on 1 June 1944 , destroying his 301st tank that day , 78 of which had been destroyed with bombs and 223 with the 37 mm cannon . This event earned him his third mention in the Wehrmachtbericht , which was broadcast on 3 June 1944 . The Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Luftwaffe , Reichsmarschall ( Marshal of the Reich ) Hermann Göring , presented Rudel with the Combined Pilots @-@ Observation Badge in Gold with Diamonds ( Flugzeugführer- und Beobachterabzeichen in Gold mit Brillanten ) , and the Golden Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe for Ground Attack Fighters with Pennant " 2 @,@ 000 " ( Frontflugspange für Schlachtflieger in Gold mit Anhänger " 2 @,@ 000 " ) .
On 13 July 1944 , III . Gruppe was transferred from Huși , Romania to the central sector of the Eastern Front , where the Red Army was attacking towards the Vistula in Operation Bagration . Flying from an airfield at Chełm , the Gruppe targeted Rava @-@ Ruska and other targets in the Ukraine and Belarus area . On 22 July , the Gruppe moved to Mielec in the Vistula @-@ San triangle ; from Mielec missions against armored columns at Jarosław , Rzeszów , and the Wisłok were flown . On 5 August 1944 , Rudel claimed 11 tanks destroyed , earning him his fourth mention in the Wehrmachtbericht . Rudel 's number of tank kills had now reached 378 , including 300 destroyed with the 37 mm cannon . Fighting on the Courland front , he was credited with 8 tank kills on 14 August 1944 , taking the total to 320 tank kills with the 37 mm cannon . On 19 August , Rudel 's aircraft was hit by anti @-@ aircraft fire in the vicinity of Ērgļi , Latvia . In the resulting forced landing , both he and Gadermann were injured , Rudel in the leg , and Gadermann suffering several broken ribs . Rudel 's unit was then ordered to transfer back to Romania , and then to Hungary . From 28 August onwards , Rudel operated from airfields at Buzău , 70 kilometers ( 43 mi ) northeast of the vital oil refineries at Ploiești , namely Tășnad near Tokaj , Miskolc , Sajókaza northeast of Lake Balaton , Farmos near Szolnok , Vecsés near Budapest , and Börgönd near Székesfehérvár .
= = = Wing Commander = = =
Rudel was promoted to Oberstleutnant on 1 September 1944 , and appointed leader of SG 2 " Immelmann " , replacing Stepp , on 1 October 1944 . He handed over command of his III . Gruppe to Hauptmann Kurt Lau . On 17 November 1944 , he was wounded in the thigh , and had to make an emergency landing at a fighter airfield near Budapest . Following his release from the hospital , he flew subsequent missions with his leg in a plaster cast .
On 22 December 1944 , Rudel completed his 2,400th combat mission , and the next day , he reported his 463rd tank destroyed . On 29 December 1944 , Rudel was promoted to Oberst ( colonel ) , and was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Golden Oak Leaves , Swords , and Diamonds ( Ritterkreuz des Eisernen Kreuzes mit Goldenem Eichenlaub , Schwertern und Brillanten ) , the first and only person to receive this distinction . This award was presented to him by Hitler at the Adlerhorst , Hitler 's headquarters in the Taunus mountains during the Battle of the Bulge , on 1 January 1945 . On 14 January 1945 , Rudel received the Hungarian Golden Medal for Bravery ( Vitézségi Érem Arany ) , which was presented to him by Hungary 's Head of State Ferenc Szálasi at Sopron , Hungary .
On 8 February 1945 , Rudel was credited with the destruction of 13 tanks near Lebus on the Oder River , earning him his fifth mention in the Wehrmachtbericht on 10 February 1945 . During the attack on the 13th tank , a 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) shell hit his aircraft . He was badly wounded in the right foot , and crash landed inside German lines . His observer / gunner Gadermann stemmed the bleeding . Rudel was taken to a field hospital of the Waffen @-@ SS at Seelow , where his leg had to be amputated below the knee . He was then hospitalized in the Zoo flak tower in Berlin , and was flying operationally again with a modified rudder pedal on 25 March 1945 . He claimed 26 more tanks destroyed by the end of the war . On 19 April 1945 , the day before Hitler 's final birthday , Rudel spent the evening talking to Hitler in the Führerbunker , an air @-@ raid shelter located near the Reich Chancellery in Berlin . According to John Toland , author of the book Adolf Hitler , who based his statement on Rudel 's book Stuka Pilot and personal interviews with Rudel , Hitler had ordered him to take charge of all jet fighter aircraft . Rudel refused , as he preferred flying to a desk job . By the time Rudel left , it was after midnight .
On 8 May 1945 , determined not to fall into Soviet hands , he left his ground personnel behind and led three Ju 87s and four Fw 190s westward from an airfield at Klecany , north of Prague , landing at Kitzingen airfield , which was held by the United States Army Air Forces 405th Fighter Group . Rudel had his men lock the brakes and collapse the landing gear to render the aircraft useless ; all but one obeyed his order and wiped off their undercarriage . There he surrendered to US forces , and was taken prisoner of war . Over the next eleven months , he was held captive in Erlangen and Wiesbaden , then in prison camps in England and France , before he was taken to Fürth in Bavaria .
= = Later life = =
In April 1946 , Rudel was released from captivity at Fürth . While Rudel was interned , his family fleeing from the advancing Red Army had found refuge with Gadermann 's parents in Wuppertal . There , Gadermann helped Rudel look for work . He was offered an office job , but he did not accept the position . He then owned and operated a haulage company in Coesfeld . In 1948 , he emigrated to Argentina via the ratlines , travelling via the Austrian Zillertal to Italy . In Rome , with the help of South Tyrolean smugglers , and aided by the Austrian titular bishop Alois Hudal , he bought himself a fake Red Cross passport with the cover name " Emilio Meier " , and took a flight from Rome to Buenos Aires , where he arrived on 8 June 1948 .
= = = In South America = = =
After Rudel moved to Argentina , he became a close friend and confidant of the President of Argentina Juan Perón , and Paraguay 's dictator and Nazi Germany admirer Alfredo Stroessner . In Argentina , he founded the " Kameradenwerk " ( lit . " comrades work " or " comrades act " ) , a relief organization for Nazi war criminals . Prominent members of the " Kameradenwerk " included SS officer Ludwig Lienhardt , whose extradition from Sweden had been demanded by the Soviet Union on war crime charges , Kurt Christmann , a member of the Gestapo sentenced to 10 years for war crimes committed at Krasnodar , Austrian war criminal Fridolin Guth , and the German spy in Chile , August Siebrecht . The group maintained close contact with other internationally wanted fascists , such as Ante Pavelić , Carlo Scorza , Vittorio Mussolini , the son of Benito Mussolini , and Konstantin von Neurath . In addition to these war criminals that fled to Argentina , the " Kameradenwerk " also assisted Nazi criminals imprisoned in Europe , including Rudolf Hess and Karl Dönitz , with food parcels from Argentina and sometimes by paying their legal fees . In Argentina , Rudel became acquainted with notorious Nazi concentration camp doctor and war criminal Josef Mengele . Rudel , together with Willem Sassen , a former member of the Waffen @-@ SS and a Wehrmacht propaganda and war correspondent unit , who initially worked as Rudel 's driver and later for the Dürer @-@ Verlag , helped to relocate Mengele to Brazil by introducing him to Nazi supporter Wolfgang Gerhard . In 1957 , Rudel and Mengele together travelled to Chile to meet with Walter Rauff , the inventor of the mobile gas chamber .
In Argentina , Rudel lived in Villa Carlos Paz , roughly 36 kilometers ( 22 mi ) from the populous Córdoba City , where he rented a house and operated a brickworks . There , Rudel wrote his wartime memoirs Trotzdem ( [ Nevertheless ] or [ In Spite of Everything ] ) . The book was published in November 1949 by the Dürer @-@ Verlag in Buenos Aires . Discussion ensued in Germany on Rudel being allowed to publish the book , because he was a known Nazi . In the book , he supported Nazi policies . This book was later re @-@ edited and published in the United States , as the Cold War intensified , under the title , Stuka Pilot , which supported the German invasion of the Soviet Union . Pierre Clostermann , a French fighter pilot , had befriended Rudel and wrote the foreword to the French edition of his book Stuka Pilot . In 1951 , he published a pamphlet Dolchstoß oder Legende ? ( [ Backstab or Legend ? ] or [ Daggerthrust or Legend ? ] ) , in which he claimed that " Germany 's war against Bolshevism was a defensive war " , moreover , " a crusade for the whole world " . In the 1950s , Rudel became friends with Savitri Devi , a writer and proponent of Hinduism and Nazism and introduced her to a number of Nazi fugitives in Spain and the Middle East .
With the help of Perón , Rudel secured financially lucrative governmental military contracts . He was also active as a military adviser and arms dealer for the regime and " Cocaine Generals " in Bolivia , for Augusto Pinochet in Chile and Stroessner in Paraguay . In addition , he was in contact with Werner Naumann , formerly a State Secretary in Goebbels ' Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda in Nazi Germany . Following the Revolución Libertadora in 1955 , a military and civilian uprising that ended the second presidential term of Perón , Rudel was forced to leave Argentina and move to Paraguay . During the following years in South America , Rudel frequently acted as a foreign representative for several German companies , including Salzgitter AG , Dornier Flugzeugwerke , Focke @-@ Wulf , Messerschmitt , Siemens and Lahmeyer International , a German consulting engineering firm . Rudel 's input was used during the development of the A @-@ 10 Thunderbolt II , a United States Air Force aircraft designed solely for close air support , including attacking tanks , armored vehicles and other ground targets .
According to the historian Peter Hammerschmidt , based on files of the German Bundesnachrichtendienst ( BND — Federal Intelligence Service ) and the US Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , his research revealed that the BND , via the cover @-@ up company " Merex " , was in close contact with former members of the SS and the Nazi Party . In 1966 , Merex , represented by Walter Drück , formerly a Generalmajor in the Wehrmacht and then an agent of the BND and under observation of the CIA , via contacts established by Rudel and Sassen , sold discarded equipment of the Bundeswehr ( Federal Defence ) to various dictators in Latin America . According to Hammerschmidt , Rudel assisted in establishing contact between Merex and Friedrich Schwend , a former member of the Reichssicherheitshauptamt ( Reich Main Security Office ) and involved in Operation Bernhard . Schwend , according to Hammerschmidt , had close links with the military services of Peru and Bolivia . In the early sixties , Rudel , Schwend and Klaus Barbie , founded a company called " La Estrella " , the star . This company employed a number of former SS officers , who , after the war , had found refuge in Latin America . Rudel , through his involvement in La Estrella , was also in contact with Otto Skorzeny , who had his own network of former SS and Wehrmacht officers .
= = = Sport and political ambitions = = =
Although missing one leg , he remained an active sportsman , playing tennis , skiing , and mountain climbing . In 1949 , he competed in an international skiing competition held at Bariloche . In this competition , Rudel took fourth place in the men 's slalom , first place went to Stein Eriksen . In 1951 , he climbed the highest peak in the Americas , Aconcagua , at 6 @,@ 960 @.@ 8 meters ( 22 @,@ 837 ft ) , and by extension the highest point in both the Western Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere . Due to deteriorating weather conditions , Rudel had to turn back short of the summit on 31 December 1951 . In 1953 , Rudel ascended the Llullay @-@ Yacu in the Argentine Andes , at 6 @,@ 739 meters ( 22 @,@ 110 feet ) the fifth highest volcano , three times . On his second expedition , the team photographer Erwin Neubart was killed in a fall . His body was recovered and buried on the third expedition . Rudel suffered a stroke on 26 April 1970 .
Rudel returned to West Germany in 1953 and became a leading member of the Neo @-@ Nazi nationalist political party , the German Reich Party ( DRP — Deutsche Reichspartei ) . In the West German federal election of 1953 , Rudel was the top candidate for the DRP , but was not elected to the Bundestag . According to Josef Müller @-@ Marein , journalist and editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Die Zeit , Rudel had an egocentric character . In his political speeches , Rudel made generalizing statements , claiming that he was speaking on behalf of most , if not all , former German soldiers of World War II . Rudel heavily criticized the Western Allies during World War II for not having supported Germany in its war against the Soviet Union . Rudel 's political demeanor subsequently alienated him from his formers comrades , foremost Gadermann . Müller @-@ Marein concluded his article with the statement : " Rudel no longer has a Geschwader ! " In 1977 , he became a spokesman for the Deutsche Volksunion ( German People 's Union ) , a nationalist political party founded by Gerhard Frey . In 2004 , Frey and Hajo Herrmann published an abstract of Rudel 's biography in the book Helden der Wehrmacht – Unsterbliche deutsche Soldaten [ Heroes of the Wehrmacht – Immortal German soldiers ] . This publication was classified as a far @-@ right wing publication by the German scholars Claudia Fröhlich and Horst @-@ Alfred Heinrich .
= = = Public scandals = = =
In October 1976 , Rudel inadvertently triggered a chain of events , which were later dubbed the Rudel @-@ Affäre ( Rudel Scandal ) . Aufklärungsgeschwader 51 ( 51st Reconnaissance Wing ) the latest unit to hold the name " Immelmann " , held a reunion for members of the unit including those from World War II . The Secretary of State in the Federal Ministry of Defence , Hermann Schmidt authorized the event . Fearing that Rudel would spread Nazi propaganda on the German Air Force airbase in Bremgarten near Freiburg , Schmidt ordered that the meeting could not be held at the airbase . News of this decision reached Generalleutnant Walter Krupinski , at the time commanding general of NATO 's Second Allied Tactical Air Force , and a former World War II fighter pilot . Krupinski reached out to Gerhard Limberg , Inspector of the Air Force , requesting that the meeting be allowed to be held at the airbase . Limberg later confirmed Krupinski 's request , and the meeting was held on Bundeswehr premises , a decision which Schmidt still did not agree to . Rudel attended the meeting , where besides signing his book and a few autographs , he refrained from making any political statements .
During a routine press event , journalists , who had been briefed by Schmidt , questioned Krupinski and his deputy Karl Heinz Franke about Rudel . In this interview , the generals compared Rudel 's past as a Nazi and Neo @-@ Nazi supporter to the career of prominent Social Democrat leader Herbert Wehner , who had been a member of the German Communist Party in the 1930s , and who had lived in Moscow during World War II , where he was allegedly involved in NKVD operations . Calling Wehner an extremist , they described Rudel as an honorable man , who " hadn 't stolen the family silver or anything else " . When these remarks became public , the Federal Minister of Defense Georg Leber , complying with § 50 of the Soldatengesetz ( military law ) , ordered the generals into early retirement as of 1 November 1976 . Leber , however , a member of the Social Democratic Party of Germany ( SPD ) , was heavily criticized for his actions by the Christian Democratic Union ( CDU ) opposition , and the scandal contributed to the minister 's retirement in early 1978 . On 3 February 1977 , the German Bundestag debated the scandal and its consequences . The Rudel Scandal subsequently triggered a military @-@ tradition discussion , which the Federal Minister of Defense Hans Apel ended with the introduction of " Guidelines for Understanding and Cultivating Tradition " on 20 September 1982 .
During the 1978 FIFA World Cup , held in Argentina , Rudel visited the German national football team in their training camp in Ascochinga . The German media criticized the German Football Association ( DFB — Deutscher Fußball @-@ Bund ) , and viewed Rudel 's visit as being sympathetic to the military dictatorship that ruled Argentina following the 1976 Argentine coup d 'état . The president of the DFB , Hermann Neuberger , justified the visit , and stated that criticizing Rudel 's visit was " an insult to all German soldiers " ( " käme einer Beleidigung aller deutschen Soldaten gleich " ) . The German team captain , Berti Vogts , further fostered the criticism by stating after the World Cup : " Argentina is a country governed by law and order . I have not seen a single political prisoner . " ( " Land , in dem Ordnung herrscht . Ich habe keinen einzigen politischen Gefangenen gesehen " ) Rudel had already visited a German team at a World Cup before . He was a spectator of the 1954 FIFA World Cup Final in Switzerland , and during the 1958 FIFA World Cup in Sweden , he visited the German team at Malmö following its 3 : 1 victory over Argentina on 8 June 1958 . There he was welcomed by team manager Sepp Herberger .
= = = Personal life = = =
Rudel was married three times . His 1942 marriage to Ursula , nicknamed " Hanne " , produced two sons , Hans @-@ Ulrich and Siegfried . They divorced in 1950 . According to the news magazine Der Spiegel , one reason for the divorce was that his wife had sold some of his decorations , including the Oak Leaves with Diamonds , to an American collector , but she also refused to move to Argentina . On 27 March 1951 , Der Spiegel published Ursula Rudel 's denial of selling his decorations , and further stated she had no intention of doing so . Rudel married his second wife , Ursula née Daemisch in 1965 . The marriage produced his third son , Christoph , born in 1969 . Following his divorce in 1977 , he married Ursula née Bassfeld .
= = = Death and funeral = = =
Rudel died after suffering another stroke in Rosenheim on 18 December 1982 , and was buried in Dornhausen on 22 December 1982 . During Rudel 's burial ceremony , two Bundeswehr F @-@ 4 Phantoms appeared to make a low altitude flypast over his grave . Although Dornhausen was situated in the middle of a flightpath regularly flown by military aircraft , Bundeswehr officers denied deliberately flying aircraft over the funeral . Four mourners were photographed giving Nazi salutes at the funeral , and were investigated under a law banning the display of Nazi symbols . The Federal Minister of Defense Manfred Wörner declared that the flight of the aircraft had been a normal training exercise .
= = Summary of military career = =
Rudel flew 2 @,@ 530 combat missions on the Eastern Front of World War II . The majority of these were undertaken while flying the Junkers Ju 87 , although 430 were flown in the ground @-@ attack variant of the Focke @-@ Wulf Fw 190 . He was credited with the destruction of 519 tanks , severely damaging the battleship Marat , as well as sinking a cruiser , a destroyer and 70 landing craft . Rudel also claimed to have destroyed more than 800 vehicles of all types , over 150 artillery , anti @-@ tank or anti @-@ aircraft positions , 4 armored trains , as well as numerous bridges and supply lines . Rudel was also credited with 9 aerial victories , 7 of which were fighter aircraft and 2 Ilyushin Il @-@ 2s . He was shot down or forced to land 30 times due to anti @-@ aircraft artillery , was wounded five times and rescued six stranded aircrew from enemy held territory .
= = = Awards = = =
Honor Goblet of the Luftwaffe ( Ehrenpokal der Luftwaffe ) as Oberleutnant in a Sturzkampfgeschwader ( 20 October 1941 )
Wound Badge in Gold
Pilot / Observer Badge in Gold with Diamonds
German Cross in Gold on 2 December 1941 as Oberleutnant in the III . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2
Iron Cross ( 1939 )
2nd Class ( 10 November 1939 )
1st Class ( 18 July 1941 )
Front Flying Clasp of the Luftwaffe in Gold and Diamonds with Pennant " 2000 "
in Gold ( 18 July 1941 )
in Gold and Diamonds with Pennant " 2000 "
Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross with Golden Oak Leaves , Swords , and Diamonds
Knight 's Cross on 6 January 1942 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 9 . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 " Immelmann "
229th Oak Leaves on 14 April 1943 as Oberleutnant and Staffelkapitän of the 1 . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 " Immelmann "
42nd Swords on 25 November 1943 as Hauptmann and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 " Immelmann "
10th Diamonds on 29 March 1944 as Major and Gruppenkommandeur of the III . / Schlachtgeschwader 2 " Immelmann "
1st Golden Oak Leaves on 29 December 1944 as Oberstleutnant and Geschwaderkommodore of Schlachtgeschwader 2 " Immelmann "
8th ( 1st and only foreign ) Hungarian Gold Medal of Bravery ( 14 January 1945 )
Italian Silver Medal of Military Valor
Mentioned five times in the Wehrmachtbericht ( 27 March 1944 , 28 March 1944 , 3 June 1944 , 6 August 1944 , 10 February 1945 )
= = = Wehrmachtbericht references = = =
= = = Promotions = = =
= = Publications = =
= Paul Shuey =
Paul Kenneth Shuey ( born September 16 , 1970 ) is an American former professional baseball player . Primarily a relief pitcher , Shuey pitched in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Cleveland Indians ( 1994 – 2002 ) , Los Angeles Dodgers ( 2002 – 2003 ) and Baltimore Orioles ( 2007 ) .
Shuey was honored as an All @-@ American as a college baseball pitcher for the North Carolina Tar Heels baseball team . The Indians selected Shuey with the second overall selection of the 1992 MLB draft . Envisioned as a comparable pitcher to Cincinnati Reds closer Rob Dibble , Shuey had more success as a setup reliever than closer .
Injuries sidelined Shuey throughout his career , preventing him from becoming a closer . When healthy , he enjoyed success with the Indians as a setup pitcher . He was traded to the Dodgers in 2002 to be their set up man while contending for a playoff spot . He pitched well until a hip injury initially suffered in 1999 forced Shuey to retire in 2004 . After an experimental medical procedure , Shuey returned to baseball briefly in 2007 with the Orioles . He retired after that season , and took up a professional career in bass fishing , competing in what he considers " Double @-@ A " -level tournaments .
= = Early life = =
A native of Lima , Ohio , Shuey 's family moved to North Carolina when he was ten years old . Shuey 's father taught him how to pitch . He played American Legion and Babe Ruth League baseball with Everett Lindsay .
Shuey attended Millbrook High School in Raleigh , North Carolina . With Millbrook , Shuey was a starting pitcher and right fielder . While pitching for the baseball team at Millbrook , Shuey threw a no @-@ hitter against Garner High School . He was named to North Carolina 's All @-@ Triangle and All @-@ State teams .
= = College career = =
Shuey enrolled at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill ( UNC ) , where he played college baseball for the North Carolina Tar Heels baseball team in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) of NCAA Division I. He served as the team 's closer . At UNC , Shuey was named a freshman All @-@ American and All @-@ ACC pitcher for the Tar Heels in 1990 , as he had an 8 @-@ 1 win – loss record and eight saves . He led the team with 31 appearances , and the Tar Heels were the ACC regular season and tournament championships .
Though he suffered a patellar tendon rupture in 1991 , Shuey led the Tar Heels with a 1 @.@ 70 earned run average ( ERA ) that season . That summer , Shuey pitched for the United States national baseball team in the Pan American Games . He led the team with a 3 @.@ 13 ERA and 87 strikeouts in the 1992 season , in 69 innings pitched . Shuey and Chad Holbrook won the team 's S.H. Basnight Award as the team 's most valuable players . Through 2001 , Shuey 's career winning percentage ( .818 ) ranked fourth all time in UNC history . He was a letterman in all three seasons at UNC .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Cleveland Indians = = =
The Indians selected Shuey with their first round draft pick , the second overall selection , in the 1992 Major League Baseball draft . The Indians envisioned that Shuey could develop into a closer similar to Rob Dibble of the Cincinnati Reds . Shuey made his professional debut with the Columbus Red Stixx of the Class @-@ A South Atlantic League in 1992 .
Heading into the 1993 season , Baseball America ranked Shuey as the 81st best prospect in baseball . He pitched for the Kinston Indians of the Class @-@ A Carolina League in 1993 , going 1 – 0 with a 4 @.@ 84 ERA in 15 appearances , and was promoted to the Canton – Akron Indians of the Class @-@ AA Eastern League that season . He opened the 1994 season with Kinston , where he went 1 – 0 with a 3 @.@ 75 ERA and eight saves in 13 appearances .
The deaths of Indians ' relief pitchers Steve Olin and Tim Crews in a boating accident heightened the Indians ' need to develop Shuey . Shuey was promoted from Kinston to the major leagues during the 1994 season , becoming the first player promoted from Class @-@ A to the majors since Greg Swindell during the 1986 season . He made his MLB debut on May 8 , 1994 . On May 14 , Shuey became the tenth American League pitcher to strike out four batters in an inning . He also pitched for the Charlotte Knights of the Class @-@ AAA International League that season . Baseball America ranked Shuey as the 67th best prospect in baseball heading into the 1995 season .
Shuey struggled with the Indians , with an 0 – 3 win – loss record , five saves , and 7 @.@ 00 ERA in 21 appearances in 1994 and 1995 . He also pitched for the Buffalo Bisons of the International League in 1995 , and spent time on the disabled list with an injured hamstring . He also pitched for the Senadores de San Juan of the Puerto Rico Baseball League that winter to gain more experience .
After starting the 1996 season with Buffalo , Shuey was promoted to the Indians , where he pitched to a 5 – 2 record with a 2 @.@ 85 ERA . He pitched in the postseason for the Indians , appearing in three games in the 1996 American League Division Series , which the Indians lost to the Baltimore Orioles . Shuey received a three @-@ year contract from the Indians at the start of the 1997 season , worth $ 3 @,@ 203 @,@ 000 guaranteed . An option year and performance bonuses made the maximum value of the contract $ 11 @,@ 603 @,@ 000 over four seasons .
With José Mesa and Mike Jackson serving as closers for the Indians , Shuey pitched in middle relief . He spent time on the disabled list in the 1997 season on three separate occasions . In 1998 , he led all American League relief pitchers with a .132 ( 7 – for – 53 )
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batting average against when the opposition had baserunners in scoring position . His strong performances while healthy gave the Indians hope that Shuey could become their closer in due time . Shuey appeared in four postseasons for the Indians , including in 1998 , when he pitched 6 1 ⁄ 3 scoreless innings for the Indians in the 1998 American League Championship Series .
In 1999 , while pitching on a wet mound in Cleveland , Shuey injured his right hip . Over the next several seasons , he had multiple surgeries on his hip , including repairing a torn labrum and removing bone spurs . He finished the 1999 season with an 8 – 5 record , a 3 @.@ 53 ERA , and six saves . His eight wins tied for the most among Cleveland 's relief pitchers . In 2000 , new Indians ' manager Charlie Manuel indicated the Indians would attempt to shift Shuey into the closer role . When Shuey spent time on the disabled list , Steve Karsay served as the Indians ' closer . He again spent time on the disabled list in 2001 with a strained elbow ligament .
= = = Los Angeles Dodgers = = =
As the 2002 trade deadline approached , teams interested in acquiring Shuey began to inquire on his availability . On July 28 , 2002 , before the trade deadline , Shuey was traded to the Los Angeles Dodgers for Terry Mulholland and minor leaguers Ricardo Rodríguez and Francisco Cruceta . With the Dodgers in the playoff chase that season , they hoped to pair him with closer Éric Gagné to form a strong bullpen for the later portions of games .
Though Shuey struggled upon joining the Dodgers , recording a 9 @.@ 35 ERA in his first eleven appearances after the trade , he altered his approach and began to obtain better results , allowing no runs in his next five appearances . Shuey played for the Dodgers through the end of the 2003 season . During spring training prior to the 2004 season , he tore a ligament in his thumb and reinjured his hip while fielding a bunt during his rehabilitation . Shuey spent the entire season on the disabled list . The Dodgers sued the Hartford Life Insurance Company , who insured Shuey 's contract , over Shuey 's $ 3 @.@ 25 million salary for the 2004 season , saying the insurance company did not honor their claim .
= = = Later career = = =
A free agent after the 2004 season , Shuey signed a minor league contract with the Indians to attempt a comeback in the 2005 season . After pitching two innings for the Class @-@ AA Akron Aeros , he retired due to pain in his right hip .
Shuey sat out the whole 2006 season , as he received a hip replacement . The procedure , which involved installing a metal hip , was performed in Montreal , as it was not approved in the United States . On February 2 , 2007 , he signed a minor league contract with the Orioles that included an invitation to spring training . He suffered an injury and did not make the cut , and was sent to the minor leagues . He made one appearance for the Class @-@ AA Bowie Baysox , and then joined the Norfolk Tides , the Orioles ' Class @-@ AAA affiliate . His contract was then purchased on June 19 , 2007 , and he appeared in that night 's game against the San Diego Padres .
Though his fastball was able to reach 95 miles per hour ( 153 km / h ) earlier in his career , Shuey 's fastball had difficulty reaching 90 miles per hour ( 140 km / h ) due to his metal hip . On July 1 , 2007 , he recorded his first save since 2002 , in a game against the Los Angeles Angels of Anaheim . He finished the 2002 season with a 9 @.@ 82 ERA in 22 games . In his penultimate appearance , in the first game of an August 22 doubleheader , he surrendered the last nine runs in a 30 – 3 defeat to the Texas Rangers , an American League record for most runs scored by a single team . As his fastball increased in velocity , Shuey injured his back . The Orioles gave Shuey his outright release on September 5 .
= = Personal = =
Shuey was inducted into the Kinston Professional Baseball Hall of Fame in 2011 and the Millbrook High School Hall of Fame in 2012 .
Shuey lives with his family , including his wife Julie and three daughters ; Morgan ( born 1997 ) , Casey ( born 1998 ) , and Kate ( born 2006 ) . in Wake Forest , North Carolina . He spends his time as a father , pitching coach , and bass fishing . He overcame posttraumatic stress disorder , which resulted from a car accident in 1996 .
Shuey competes in local bass fishing tournaments . He is hoping to compete in the Bassmaster Elite Series of the Bass Anglers Sportsman Society . Now Shuey is a successful coach of Barton College 's women soccer team alongside Head Coach Chris Shaw .
= First Macedonian War =
The First Macedonian War ( 214 – 205 BC ) was fought by Rome , allied ( after 211 BC ) with the Aetolian League and Attalus I of Pergamon , against Philip V of Macedon , contemporaneously with the Second Punic War ( 218 – 201 BC ) against Carthage . There were no decisive engagements , and the war ended in a stalemate .
During the war , Macedon attempted to gain control over parts of Illyria and Greece , but without success . It is commonly thought that these skirmishes in the east prevented Macedon from aiding the Carthaginian general Hannibal in the war with Rome . The " Peace of Phoenice " , a treaty drawn up at Phoenice , in 205 BC , formally ended the war .
= = Demetrius urges war against Rome = =
Rome 's preoccupation with its war against Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of Macedon to attempt to extend his power westward . According to the ancient Greek historian Polybius , an important factor in Philip 's decision to take advantage of this opportunity was the influence of Demetrius of Pharos .
Demetrius had been , after the First Illyrian War in 229 BC , ruler of most of coastal Illyria . However , in 219 BC , during the Second Illyrian War he was defeated by the Romans and fled to the court of Philip .
Involved in a war with the Aetolians , Philip learned by messenger of the victory of Hannibal over the Romans , at Lake Trasimene in June 217 BC . Philip at first showed the letter only to Demetrius . Perhaps seeing a chance to recover his kingdom , Demetrius immediately advised the young king to make peace with the Aetolians , and turn his attentions toward Illyria and Italy . Polybius quotes Demetrius as saying :
For Greece is already entirely obedient to you , and will remain so : the Achaeans from genuine affection ; the Aetolians from the terror which their disasters in the present war have inspired them . Italy , and your crossing into it , is the first step in the acquirement of universal empire , to which no one has a better claim than yourself . And now is the moment to act when the Romans have suffered a reverse .
Philip was easily persuaded .
= = Philip makes peace with Aetolia = =
Philip , at once began negotiations with the Aetolians . At a conference on the coast near Naupactus , Philip met the Aetolian leaders , and a peace treaty was concluded . Polybius quotes the Aetolian Agelaus of Naupactus as having given the following speech in favor of peace :
The best thing of all is that the Greeks should not go to war with each other at all , but give the gods hearty thanks if by all speaking with one voice , and joining hands like people crossing a stream , they may be able to repel the attacks of barbarians and save themselves and their cities . But if this is altogether impossible , in the present juncture at least we ought to be unanimous and on our guard , when we see the bloated armaments and the vast proportions assumed by the war in the west . For even now it is evident to any one who pays even a moderate attention to public affairs , that whether the Carthaginians conquer the Romans , or the Romans the Carthaginians , it is in every way improbable that the victors will remain contented with the empire of Sicily and Italy . They will move forward : and will extend their forces and their designs farther than we could wish . Wherefore , I beseech you all to be on your guard against the danger of the crisis , and above all you , O King . You will do this , if you abandon the policy of weakening the Greeks , and thus rendering them an easy prey to the invader ; and consult on the contrary for their good as you would for your own person , and have a care for all parts of Greece alike , as part and parcel of your own domains . If you act in this spirit , the Greeks will be your warm friends and faithful coadjutors in all your undertakings ; while foreigners will be less ready to form designs against you , seeing with dismay the firm loyalty of the Greeks . If you are eager for action , turn your eyes to the west , and let your thoughts dwell upon the wars in Italy . Wait with coolness the turn of events there , and seize the opportunity to strike for universal dominion . Nor is the present crisis unfavourable for such a hope . But I intreat of you to postpone your controversies and wars with the Greeks to a time of greater tranquillity ; and make it your supreme aim to retain the power of making peace or war with them at your own will . For if once you allow the clouds now gathering in the west to settle upon Greece , I fear exceedingly that the power of making peace or war , and in a word all these games which we are now playing against each other , will be so completely knocked out of the hands of us all , that we shall be praying heaven to grant us only this power of making war or peace with each other at our own will and pleasure , and of settling our own disputes .
= = Philip builds a fleet = =
Philip spent the winter of 217 – 216 BC building a fleet of 100 warships and training men to row them , and according to Polybius , it was a practice that " hardly any Macedonian king had ever done before " . Macedon probably lacked the resources to build and maintain the kind of fleet necessary to match the Romans . Polybius says that Philip had no " hope of fighting the Romans at sea " , perhaps referring to a lack of experience and training .
At any rate , Philip chose to build lembi . These were the small fast galleys used by the Illyrians . They had a single bank of oars and were able to carry 50 soldiers in addition to the rowers . With these , Philip could hope to avoid or evade the Roman fleet , preoccupied as he hoped it would be with Hannibal , and based , as it was , at Lilybaeum in western Sicily .
Philip had in the meantime expanded his territories west along the Apsus and Genusus river valleys , right up to the borders of Illyria . Philip 's plan was it seems , to first take the Illyrian coasts , conquer the area between the coasts and Macedon , and use the new land link to provide a rapid route for reinforcements across the narrow straits to Italy .
At the beginning of summer , Philip and his fleet left Macedon , sailed through the Euripus Strait , between the island of Euboea and Boeotia on the Greek mainland , and then rounded Cape Malea , before dropping anchor off the Islands of Cephalenia and Leucas , to await word of the location of the Roman fleet . Informed that it was still at Lilybaeum , he sailed north to Apollonia in Illyria .
However , as the Macedonian fleet neared the island of Sazan , Philip heard a report that some Roman quinqueremes had been seen headed for Apollonia . Convinced that the entire Roman fleet was sailing to apprehend him , Philip ordered an immediate return to Cephalenia . Polybius speaks of " panic " and " disorder " to describe the fleet 's hasty retreat , and says that in fact the Romans had sent only a squadron of ten ships , and that because of " inconsiderate alarm " , Philip had missed his best chance to achieve his aims in Illyria , returning to Macedon , " without loss indeed , but with considerable dishonour " .
= = Philip allies with Carthage = =
After hearing of Rome 's disastrous defeat at the hands of Hannibal at Cannae in 216 BC , Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal 's camp in Italy to negotiate an alliance . There they concluded in the summer of 215 BC a treaty , the text of which is given by Polybius . In it they pledge in general terms , mutual support and defense and to be enemies to each other 's enemies ( excepting current allies ) . Specifically they promise support against Rome , and that Hannibal shall have the right to make peace with Rome , but that any peace would include Philip and that Rome would be forced to give up control of Corcyra , Apollonia , Epidamnus , Pharos , Dimale , Parthini , and Atintania and " to restore to Demetrius of Pharos all those of his friends now in the dominion of Rome . "
The treaty as set down by Polybius , makes no mention of an invasion of Italy by Philip , the débâcle at Sazan perhaps having soured Philip on such a venture — something which in any case Hannibal may not have desired .
On their way back to Macedon , Philip 's emissaries along with emissaries from Hannibal were captured by Publius Valerius Flaccus , commander of the Roman fleet patrolling the southern Apulian coast . A letter from Hannibal to Philip , and the terms of their agreement were discovered .
Philip 's alliance with Carthage caused immediate dismay in Rome , hard @-@ pressed as they already were . An additional twenty @-@ five warships were at once outfitted and sent to join Flaccus ' fleet of twenty @-@ five warships already at Tarentum , with orders to guard the Italian Adriatic coast , and to try to determine Philip 's intent and if necessary cross over to Macedonia , keeping Philip confined there .
= = War breaks out in Illyria = =
In the late summer of 214 BC , Philip again attempted an Illyrian invasion by sea , with a fleet of 120 lembi . He captured Oricum which was lightly defended , and sailing up the Aous ( modern Vjosë ) river he besieged Apollonia .
Meanwhile , the Romans had moved the fleet from Tarentum to Brundisium to continue the watch on the movements of Philip and a legion had been sent in support , all under the command of the Roman propraetor Marcus Valerius Laevinus . Upon receiving word from Oricum of events in Illyria , Laevinus crossed over with his fleet and army . Landing at Oricum , Laevinus was able to retake the town with little fighting .
In the account given by Livy , Laevinus , hearing that Apollonia was under siege , sent 2000 men under the command of Quintus Naevius Crista , to the mouth of the river . Avoiding Philip 's army , Crista was able to enter the city by night unobserved . The following night , catching Philip 's forces by surprise , he attacked and routed their camp . Philip , escaping to his ships in the river , made his way over the mountains and back to Macedonia , having burned his fleet and left many thousands of his men that had died or been taken prisoner , along with all of his armies ' possessions , behind . Laevinus and his fleet wintered at Oricum .
Twice thwarted in attempts at invasion of Illyria by sea , and now constrained by Laevinus ' fleet in the Adriatic , Philip spent the next two years 213 – 212 BC making advances in Illyria by land . Keeping clear of the coast , he took the inland towns of Atintania , and Dimale , and subdued the Greek tribe of the Dassaretae and the Illyrian Parthini and at least the southern Ardiaei .
He was finally able to gain access to the Adriatic by capturing Lissus and its seemingly impregnable citadel , after which the surrounding territories surrendered . Perhaps the capture of Lissus rekindled in Philip hopes of an Italian invasion . However the loss of his fleet meant that Philip would be dependent on Carthage for passage to and from Italy , making the prospect of invasion considerably less appealing .
= = Rome seeks allies in Greece = =
Desiring to prevent Philip from aiding Carthage in Italy and elsewhere , Rome sought out land allies in Greece .
Laevinus had begun exploring the possibility of an alliance with the Aetolian League , as early as 212 BC . The Aetolians , war weary , had made peace with Philip at Naupactus in 217 BC . However five years later the pendulum had swung in the other direction , the war faction was on the ascendency , and the Aetolians were once again ready to consider taking up arms against their traditional enemy of Macedon .
In 211 BC an Aetolian assembly was convened for discussions with Rome . Laevinus pointed out the recent capture of Syracuse and Capua in the war against Carthage as evidence of Rome 's rising fortunes , and offered to ally with them against the Macedonians . A treaty was signed . The Aetolians would conduct operations on land , the Romans at sea . Rome would keep any slaves and other booty taken and Aetolia would receive control of any territory acquired . Another provision of the treaty allowed for the inclusion of certain allies of the League : Elis , Sparta , Messenia and Attalus I of Pergamon , as well as two Roman clients , the Illyrians Pleuratus and Scerdilaidas .
= = Campaign in Greece = =
Later that summer Laevinus seized the main town of Zacynthus , except for its citadel , and the Acarnanian town of Oeniadae and the island of Nasos which he handed over to the Aetolians . He then withdrew his fleet to Corcyra for the winter .
Upon hearing of the Roman alliance with Aetolia , Philip 's first action was to secure his northern borders . He conducted raids in Illyria at Oricum and Apollonia and seized the frontier town of Sintia in Dardania or perhaps Paionia . He marched rapidly south through Pelagonia , Lyncestis and Bottiaea and on to Tempe which he garrisoned with 4000 men . He turned north again into Thrace , attacking the Maedi and their chief city Iamphorynna before returning to Macedon .
No sooner had Philip arrived there , when he received an urgent plea for help from his ally the Acarnanians . Scopas the Aetolian strategos ( general ) , had mobilized the Aetolian army and was preparing to invade Acarnania . Desperate and overmatched , but determined to resist , the Acarnanians sent their women , children and old men to seek refuge in Epirus , and the rest marched to the frontier , having sworn an oath to fight to the death , " invoking a terrible curse " upon any who were forsworn . Hearing of the Acarnanians ' grim determination , the Aetolians hesitated . Then learning of Philip 's approach they finally abandoned their invasion . After which Philip retired to Pella for the winter .
In the spring of 210 BC , Laevinus again sailed from Corcyra with his fleet , and with the Aetolians , captured Phocian Anticyra . Rome enslaved the inhabitants and Aetolia took possession of the town .
Although there was some fear of Rome and concern with her methods , the coalition arrayed against Philip continued to grow . As allowed for by the treaty , Pergamon , Elis and Messenia , followed by Sparta , all agreed to join the alliance against Macedon . The Roman fleet together with the Pergamon fleet controlled the sea , and Macedon and her allies were threatened on land by the rest of the coalition . The Roman strategy of encumbering Philip with a war among Greeks in Greece was succeeding , so much so that when Laevinus went to Rome to take up his consulship , he was able to report that the legion deployed against Philip could be safely withdrawn .
However the Eleans , Messenians and Spartans remained passive throughout 210 BC , and Philip continued to make advances . He invested and took Echinus , using extensive siegeworks , having beaten back an attempt to relieve the town by the Aetolian strategos Dorimachus and the Roman fleet , now commanded by the proconsul Publius Sulpicius Galba . Moving west Philip probably also took Phalara the port city of Lamia , in the Maliac Gulf . Sulpicius and Dorimachus took Aegina , an island in the Saronic Gulf , which the Aetolians sold to Attalus , the Pergamene king , for thirty talents , and which he was to use as his base of operations against Macedon in the Aegean Sea .
In the spring of 209 BC , Philip received requests for help from his ally the Achaean League in the Peloponnesus who were being attacked by Sparta and the Aetolians . He also heard that Attalus had been elected one of the two supreme commanders of the Aetolian League , and rumors that he intended to crossover the Aegean from Asia Minor . Philip marched south into Greece . At Lamia he was met by an Aetolian force , supported by Roman and Pergamene auxiliaries , under the command of Attalus ' colleague as strategos , the Aetolian Pyrrhias . Philip won two battles at Lamia , inflicting heavy casualties on Pyrrhias ' troops . The Aetolians and their allies were forced to retreat inside the city walls , where they remained , unwilling to give battle .
= = Attempt at peace fails = =
From Lamia , Philip went to Phalara . There he met representatives from the neutral states of Egypt , Rhodes , Athens and Chios who were trying to end the war — they were trading states and the war was probably hurting trade . Livy says that they were concerned " not so much for the Aetolians , who were more warlike than the rest of the Greeks , as for the liberty of Greece , which would be seriously endangered if Philip and his kingdom took an active part in Greek politics . " With them was Amynandor of Athamania , representing the Aetolians . A truce of thirty days and a peace conference at Achaea were arranged .
Philip marched to Chalcis in Euboea , which he garrisoned to block Attalus ' landing there , then continued on to Aegium for the conference . The conference was interrupted by a report that Attalus had arrived at Aegina , and the Roman fleet was at Naupactus . The Aetolian representatives , emboldened by these events , at once demanded that Philip return Pylos to the Messenians , Atintania to Rome and the Ardiaei to Scerdilaidas and Pleuratus . " Indignant " , Philip quit the negotiations telling the assembly that they " might bear him witness that whilst he was seeking a basis for peace , the other side were determined to find a pretext for war " .
= = Hostilities resume = =
From Naupactus , Sulpicius sailed east to Corinth and Sicyon , conducting raids there . Philip , with his cavalry caught the Romans ashore and was able to drive them back to their ships , with the Romans returning to Naupactus .
Philip then joined Cycliadas the Achaean general , near Dyme for a joint attack on the city of Elis , the main Aetolian base of operations against Achaea . However , Sulpicius had sailed into Cyllene and reinforced Elis with 4000 Romans . Leading a charge , Philip was thrown from his horse . Fighting on foot Philip became the object of a fierce battle , finally escaping on another horse . The next day Philip captured the stronghold of Phyricus , taking 4000 prisoners and 20 @,@ 000 animals . Hearing news of Illyrian incursions in the north Philip abandoned Aetolia and returned to Demetrias in Thessaly .
Meanwhile , Sulpicius sailed round into the Aegean and joined Attalus on Aegina for the winter . In 208 BC the combined fleet of thirty @-@ five Pergamene and twenty @-@ five Roman ships failed to take Lemnos , but occupied and plundered the countryside of the island of Peparethos ( Skopelos ) , both Macedonian possessions .
Attalus and Sulpicius then attended a meeting in Heraclea Trachinia of the Council of the Aetolians which included representatives from Egypt and Rhodes , who were continuing to try to arrange a peace . Learning of the conference and the presence of Attalus , Philip marched rapidly south in an attempt to break up the conference and catch the enemy leaders , but arrived too late .
Surrounded by foes , Philip was forced to adopt a defensive policy . He distributed his commanders and forces and set up a system of beacon fires at various high places to communicate instantly any enemy movements .
After leaving Heraclea , Attalus and Sulpicius sacked both Oreus , on the northern coast of Euboea and Opus , the chief city of eastern Locris . The spoils from Oreus had been reserved for Sulpicius , who returned there , while Attalus stayed to collect the spoils from Opus . However , with their forces divided , Philip , alerted by signal fire , attacked and took Opus . Attalus caught by surprise was barely able to escape to his ships .
= = The war ends = =
Although Philip considered Attalus ' escape a bitter defeat , it proved to be the turning @-@ point of the war . Attalus was forced to return to Pergamon , when he learned at Opus that , perhaps at the urging of Philip , Prusias I , king of Bithynia and related to Philip by marriage , was moving against Pergamon . Sulpicius returned to Aegina . Free from the pressure of the combined Roman and Pergamon fleets , Philip was able to resume the offensive against the Aetolians . He captured Thronium , followed by the towns Tithronium and Drymaea north of the Cephisus , controlling all of Epicnemidian Locris , and took back control of Oreus .
The neutral trading powers were still trying to arrange a peace . At Elateia , Philip had met with the same would be peacemakers from Egypt and Rhodes , who had been at the meeting in Heraclea , and again in the spring of 207 BC , but to no avail . Representatives of Egypt , Rhodes , Byzantium , Chios , Mytilene and perhaps Athens also met again with the Aetolians that spring . The war was going Philip 's way , but the Aetolians , although now abandoned by both Pergamon and Rome , were not yet ready to make peace on Philip 's terms . However , after another season 's fighting , they finally relented . In 206 BC , the Aetolians , without Rome 's consent , sued for a separate peace on conditions imposed by Philip .
The following spring the Romans sent the censor Publius Sempronius Tuditanus with 35 ships and 11 @,@ 000 men to Dyrrachium in Illiria , where he incited the Parthini to revolt and laid siege to Dimale . However , when Philip arrived Sempronius broke off the siege and withdrew inside the walls of Apollonia . Sempronius tried unsuccessfully to entice the Aetolians to break their peace with Philip . With no more allies in Greece , but having achieved their objective of preventing Philip from aiding Hannibal , the Romans were ready to make peace . A treaty was drawn up at Phoenice in 205 BC , the so @-@ called " Peace of Phoenice " formally ended the First Macedonian War .
= Ronnie O 'Sullivan =
Ronald Antonio O 'Sullivan , OBE ( born 5 December 1975 ) is an English professional snooker and pool player . He is widely regarded as the greatest player in the sport 's modern era . He is noted for his rapid playing style , mercurial temperament and his ambivalent relationship with the sport , from which he has taken prolonged sabbaticals and repeatedly threatened to retire .
A childhood snooker prodigy , O 'Sullivan made his first century break at age 10 and his first maximum break at age 15 . He turned professional in 1992 , at the age of 16 , and soon earned the nickname " The Rocket " because of his rapid playing style . He achieved his first major professional success when he won the 1993 UK Championship at the age of 17 years and 358 days , making him the youngest player ever to win a ranking title , a record he still holds . He is also the youngest player to have won the Masters , having captured his first title in 1995 at the age of 19 years and 69 days .
His record in Triple Crown events now stands at five World Championship , six Masters , and five UK Championship titles . His career total of 28 ranking titles puts him in joint second place ( with Steve Davis and John Higgins ) behind Stephen Hendry , who has 36 , and his career earnings of over £ 8 million put him on second place after Hendry on snooker 's all @-@ time prize @-@ money list . O 'Sullivan has held the world number one ranking on multiple occasions , most recently during the 2009 / 2010 season . His other achievements include ten Premier League titles and winning the Nations Cup with England in 2000 .
Known as a prolific break @-@ builder , O 'Sullivan holds the record for the most competitive century breaks , with 824 . He also holds the record for the most ratified maximum breaks in professional competition ( 13 ) and for the three fastest competitive maximum breaks , the quickest in 5 minutes and 20 seconds .
= = Career = =
= = = Early career = = =
O 'Sullivan 's achievements in snooker began at an early age . He made his first century break ( 117 ) at the age of 10 , completed his first total clearance ( 142 ) at age 12 , and became British Under @-@ 16 Champion at age 13 . He made his television debut in The Thames Snooker Classic when he was 14 , with Steve Davis commentating on the match . He compiled his first maximum break in the final of the 1991 British Amateur Championships at age 15 , and won the IBSF World Under @-@ 21 Championship in the same year . He turned professional in 1992 , aged 16 .
O 'Sullivan began the 1992 / 1993 season by winning 74 of his first 76 professional matches , including a winning streak of 38 successive victories , a record that still stands . At the qualifying stage of the Grand Prix he defeated Jason Curtis 5 – 0 in a time of 43 minutes 36 seconds , setting the current record for the fastest best @-@ of @-@ 9 @-@ frame match . After this Alan Hughes gave him the nickname " The Rocket " . In September 1992 , at the age of 16 , he became the youngest player ever to qualify for the World Championship . He made his Crucible debut on 18 April 1993 at the age of 17 years and 134 days , and he is still the third @-@ youngest player ever to compete at the venue behind Luca Brecel and Stephen Hendry . He lost 7 – 10 to Alan McManus in the first round . O 'Sullivan was named the WPBSA 's Young Player of the Year for 1993 .
In the 1993 / 1994 season O 'Sullivan defeated Hendry 10 – 6 in the final of the UK Championship to win his first ranking title . At the age of 17 years and 358 days he became the youngest ever winner of a professional ranking tournament . He faced Hendry again in the final of the European Open , but lost 5 – 9 . He won his second ranking title at the British Open by defeating James Wattana 9 – 4 in the final . He reached the second round of the World Championship but lost 3 – 13 against John Parrott . Having started the season ranked number 57 in the world , he ended it ranked number 9 , and was named the WPBSA 's Player of the Year for 1994 .
= = = 1994 / 1995 – 1997 / 1998 = = =
O 'Sullivan did not win any ranking titles during the 1994 / 1995 season , but turned in consistently strong performances , reaching the quarter @-@ finals of the Grand Prix , the UK Championship , and the Welsh Open ; the semi @-@ finals of the Dubai Classic , and the European Open ; and the finals of the Thailand Open , and the British Open . He captured his first Masters title by defeating John Higgins 9 – 3 in the final , becoming the youngest player ever to win the tournament at the age of 19 years and 69 days . He also reached his first World Championship quarter @-@ final , but lost 8 – 13 to Hendry . By the end of his third season as a professional O 'Sullivan was ranked number 3 in the world behind Hendry and Davis .
In the 1995 / 1996 season O 'Sullivan reached the quarter @-@ finals of the UK Championship but lost 7 – 9 to Andy Hicks . He reached the final of the Masters but lost 5 – 10 to Hendry . He reached his first World Championship semi @-@ final but lost 14 – 16 to Peter Ebdon . Snooker 's governing body found O 'Sullivan guilty of physically assaulting Mike Ganley , a media official , during the event . For this he received a two @-@ year suspended ban , a £ 20 @,@ 000 fine , and was advised to donate £ 10 @,@ 000 to charity .
In the 1996 / 1997 season O 'Sullivan won two ranking titles , the Asian Classic by defeating Brian Morgan 9 – 8 in the final , and the German Open by defeating Alain Robidoux 9 – 7 in the final . In February 1997 , he reached his third consecutive Masters final , where he faced Davis . After O 'Sullivan took the first two frames with back @-@ to @-@ back century breaks of 116 and 113 , the third frame was disrupted by snooker 's first ever streaker , Lianne Crofts . Davis later stated that the streaking incident affected O 'Sullivan 's concentration and momentum , allowing him back into the match . The afternoon session ended all @-@ square at 4 – 4 . O 'Sullivan began the evening session by winning four frames in 49 minutes to take an 8 – 4 lead , but Davis fought back to win the next six frames and clinch the title with a 10 – 8 victory . On 21 April 1997 , while playing Mick Price in the first round of the World Championship , O 'Sullivan made the fastest ever competitive maximum break in 5 minutes and 20 seconds , an average of one shot every 8 @.@ 8 seconds . This was also O 'Sullivan 's first maximum break in professional competition . He exited the World Championship in the second round , losing 12 – 13 against Darren Morgan .
In the 1997 / 1998 season O 'Sullivan won his second UK Championship title by defeating Hendry 10 – 6 in the final . In February he reached the quarter @-@ final of the Masters , but lost 3 – 6 to Davis . Later that month he won the Scottish Open by defeating John Higgins 9 – 5 in the final . The following month he defeated Ken Doherty in the final of the Irish Masters , but was disqualified after a post @-@ match drug test found cannabis in his system . The title was subsequently awarded to Doherty . O 'Sullivan reached a second World Championship semi @-@ final , but lost 9 – 17 against Higgins .
= = = 1998 / 1999 – 2000 / 2001 = = =
In the 1998 / 1999 season O 'Sullivan did not defend his UK Championship title . He withdrew from the tournament shortly before his scheduled first @-@ round match , with his manager stating that he was suffering from physical and nervous exhaustion and that doctors had ordered him to rest . Other reports stated that O 'Sullivan was suffering from depression . He reached the quarter @-@ finals of the Masters , but lost 2 – 6 to Doherty . At the World Championship , he reached his third semi @-@ final in four years , but was again denied a place in the final when he lost 13 – 17 to Hendry . During the match , the players made a total of eight century breaks , four from Hendry and four from O 'Sullivan . When Hendry made back @-@ to @-@ back centuries of 101 and 108 in the 21st and 22nd frames , O 'Sullivan responded with 134 in the 23rd frame , narrowly missing out on a maximum break when he missed the pink into the middle pocket . O 'Sullivan went on to make a 110 break in the 24th frame , the fourth consecutive frame won with a century .
In the 1999 / 2000 season O 'Sullivan won two ranking tournaments , the China Open , where he defeated Stephen Lee 9 – 2 in the final , and the Scottish Open , where he defeated Mark Williams 9 – 1 in the final . For the third year in succession he was eliminated from the Masters at the quarter @-@ final stage , losing 3 – 6 to Parrott . At the World Championship O 'Sullivan was eliminated in the first round , losing 9 – 10 to David Gray , despite becoming the first player to compile five century breaks in a best @-@ of @-@ 19 @-@ frame match .
During the 2000 / 2001 season O 'Sullivan won six tournaments , and reached the final of one further event . He won the Champions Cup by defeating Mark Williams 7 – 5 in the final , and reached the final of the Grand Prix , but lost the final 5 – 9 against Williams . He successfully defended his China Open title by defeating Williams 9 – 3 in the final . He won the Irish Masters defeating Stephen Hendry 9 – 8 in the final , and went on to claim his first World Championship title with an 18 – 14 victory over John Higgins . O 'Sullivan dedicated this win to his father . He ended the season by winning the Premier League . After finishing second in the league stage , he defeated Higgins 6 – 3 in the semi @-@ finals , and Hendry 9 – 7 in the final .
= = = 2001 / 2002 – 2003 / 2004 = = =
In the 2001 / 2002 season , O 'Sullivan won his third UK title , with a 10 – 1 victory over Doherty . At the 2002 World Championship , before meeting Hendry in the semi @-@ finals , O 'Sullivan said during a pre @-@ match interview : " I know if I do get beat and he comes up and does a moonie in front of me and goes ' Ne ne ne ' , I 'll just look at him and say ' well done ' and say ' go back to your sad little life ' . " , referring to a previous match against Hendry in 1999 . In the match , O 'Sullivan opened up an 8 – 5 overnight lead , but Hendry rallied on the second day to level at 12 – 12 before the final session . Hendry subsequently outplayed O 'Sullivan , and won by 17 frames to 13 . After the match , O 'Sullivan accused Hendry of poor sportsmanship , referring to his conduct over a " miss " shot at an unnamed prior tournament . Hendry did not comment on his opponent 's outbursts , but O 'Sullivan did receive criticism for his remarks from Steve Davis , Dennis Taylor and Clive Everton , and he later apologised to Hendry for his comments . O 'Sullivan ended the season by defending his Premier League title . Having finished first after the league stage , O 'Sullivan defeated Jimmy White 6 – 2 in the semi @-@ final , and John Higgins 9 – 4 in the final . He began the 2002 / 2003 season ranked number 1 .
O 'Sullivan had another successful season in 2002 / 2003 , reaching the last 16 in seven ranking tournaments . He began the season by winning the invitational Scottish Masters , defeating John Higgins 9 – 4 in the final . He reached the quarter @-@ finals of the LG Cup , losing against eventual champion Chris Small ; the last 16 of the British Open , losing against Paul Hunter , the quarter @-@ finals of the UK Championship , losing against Drew Henry ; and the quarter @-@ finals of the Welsh Open , losing against Marco Fu . After this O 'Sullivan won back @-@ to @-@ back ranking titles , defeating Hendry in the final of the European Open , and Higgins in the final of the Irish Masters . He reached the last 16 of the Scottish Open , before losing against Ken Doherty . His only first @-@ round ranking event defeat of the season came at the World Championship , when he lost 6 – 10 in the first round against the unseeded Marco Fu , despite making a maximum break in the match . This defeat saw him drop to number 3 in the rankings . He participated at the Premier League , but despite topping the table after the league stage , he lost 4 – 6 in the semi @-@ final against Fu .
In the 2003 / 2004 season , O 'Sullivan reached three ranking @-@ event finals . He reached the final of the British Open , but lost 6 – 9 against Stephen Hendry . He won the Welsh Open by defeating Steve Davis 9 – 8 . He reached the final of the Masters , but lost 9 – 10 against Paul Hunter , despite having led 6 – 1 and then 9 – 7 . In 2004 , O 'Sullivan 's father telephoned six @-@ time World Champion Ray Reardon , and asked if he could give O 'Sullivan some advice . With Reardon 's help O 'Sullivan recovered his form , and won the 2004 World Championship . He defeated Hendry 17 – 4 in the semi – finals , the most one @-@ sided defeat ever in a World Championship semi – final . He then defeated Graeme Dott 18 – 8 in the final , despite losing the first five frames . O 'Sullivan blamed his poor start on " mind games " by Dott 's coach Derek Hill , who visited O 'Sullivan 's dressing room just before the match . O 'Sullivan was ranked number one for the next two seasons .
= = = 2004 / 2005 = = =
O 'Sullivan began the 2004 / 2005 season by winning the Grand Prix , defeating Ian McCulloch 9 – 5 in the final . He then reached the semi @-@ finals of the British Open , losing 1 – 6 to Stephen Maguire , and the last 32 of the UK Championship , losing 6 – 9 , once again against Maguire . In 2005 , O 'Sullivan defended his Welsh Open title , by defeating Stephen Hendry 9 – 8 . During the tournament , O 'Sullivan compiled ten century breaks , including a break of 146 , the highest of the tournament . After this , he won his second Masters title , by defeating John Higgins 10 – 3 . After the final , Higgins described O 'Sullivan as a " total genius " .
O 'Sullivan then won his third Irish Masters title , by defeating Matthew Stevens 10 – 8 . He then missed the China Open on medical grounds ; for which he was criticised by Anthony Hamilton , who said that O 'Sullivan has a duty to promote the sport overseas . In the World Championship , O 'Sullivan lost to Peter Ebdon in the quarter @-@ final . From 2 – 8 down , Ebdon began a comeback and eventually won 13 – 11 , by playing in an exceptionally determined and dogged style , with many observers accusing him of deliberate slow play to disrupt O 'Sullivan 's fast game . After the match , O 'Sullivan indicated to the press that he was unlikely to compete in the following season , and would perhaps even retire from the sport altogether . O 'Sullivan participated in the Premier League . After finishing third in the table after the league stage , O 'Sullivan defeated Hendry 5 – 0 in the semi @-@ finals , and Williams 6 – 0 in the final . In September 2005 , he announced that he would play a truncated 2005 / 2006 season , spending some time playing eight @-@ ball pool in the United States , having been chosen to compete on the elite International Pool Tour .
= = = 2005 / 2006 = = =
O 'Sullivan began the 2005 / 2006 season at the Grand Prix , and reached the final , but lost 2 – 9 against John Higgins . In his last 32 match with Mark King at the UK Championship , O 'Sullivan sat with a wet towel draped over his head for most of the contest , and lost 8 – 9 . He then successfully defended his Premier League title . Having finished first in the league stage , he defeated Steve Davis 5 – 3 in the semi @-@ finals , and Stephen Hendry 6 – 0 in the final . O 'Sullivan then reached the final of the Masters , but lost 9 – 10 against Higgins . O 'Sullivan skipped the Malta Cup , and then lost his opening matches at the next two ranking events , as he lost 1 – 5 against Ian McCulloch at the Welsh Open and 0 – 5 against James Wattana at the China Open .
The 2006 World Championship began with O 'Sullivan defeating Dave Harold 10 – 4 , followed by a struggle through to a 13 – 10 win in his second @-@ round match against Welshman Ryan Day . A similar quarter @-@ final match ensued against Mark Williams . O 'Sullivan led 10 – 6 going into the final session . A fightback from Williams saw him take the lead by winning the next five frames ; but O 'Sullivan held his nerve to take the match 13 – 11 , and faced Graeme Dott in the semi – finals . Dott took an early lead before O 'Sullivan drew level at 8 – 8 at the end of the second session . Cue @-@ tip problems , which had dogged O 'Sullivan throughout the event , recurred , including an incident in which television footage appeared to show O 'Sullivan deliberately removing the tip of his cue . This secured him a 15 @-@ minute break to re @-@ tip the cue , before he returned and made a 124 break . Tournament Director Mike Ganley accepted the player 's assurance that the tip had simply fallen off , and no censure was made . The incident drew criticism from his opponent , and from Steve Davis and John Parrott . Dott then took all eight frames of the third session , leaving himself one frame away from his second final in three years . The final session saw O 'Sullivan stage a minor fightback ,
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three losses all came against Canton 's chief rivals , a Massillon Washington High School team led by coach Paul Brown .
After he graduated , Motley enrolled in 1939 at South Carolina State College , a historically black school in Orangeburg , South Carolina . He transferred before his sophomore year to the University of Nevada , Reno , where he was a star on the football team between 1941 and 1943 . As a punishing fullback for the Wolf Pack , Motley played against powerful West Coast teams including USF , Santa Clara , and St. Mary 's . He suffered a knee injury in 1943 and returned to Canton to work after dropping out of school .
= = Military and professional career = =
As America 's involvement in World War II intensified , Motley joined the U.S. Navy in 1944 and was sent to the Great Lakes Naval Training Station . There he played for the Great Lakes Blue Jackets , a military team coached by Paul Brown , who was serving in the Navy during an extended leave from his job as head coach of Ohio State University 's football team . Motley played fullback and linebacker at Great Lakes , and was an important component of the team 's offense and defense . The highlight of his time at Great Lakes was a 39 – 7 victory over Notre Dame in 1945 . Motley was eligible for discharge before the game – it was the final match of the season and the last military game of World War II – but he stayed on to play . Motley put up an impressive performance , thanks in part to Brown 's experimentation with a new play : a delayed handoff later called the draw play .
After the war , Motley went back to Canton and began working at a steel mill , planning to return to Reno in 1946 to finish his degree . That summer , however , Paul Brown was coaching a team in the new All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) called the Cleveland Browns . Motley wrote to Brown asking for a tryout , but Brown declined , saying he already had all the fullbacks he needed . At the beginning of August , however , Brown invited Bill Willis , another African @-@ American star , to try out for the team at its training camp in Bowling Green , Ohio . Ten days later , Brown invited Motley to come , too . " I think they felt [ Willis ] needed a roommate , " Motley later said . " I don 't think they felt I 'd make the team . I 'm glad I was able to fool them . "
Both Motley and Willis made the team and became two of the first African @-@ Americans to play professional football in the modern era . The Los Angeles Rams of the National Football League had signed the only other black players in pro football earlier that year : Kenny Washington and Woody Strode . The four men broke football 's color barrier a full year before Jackie Robinson was promoted from the Class AAA Montreal Royals to join the Brooklyn Dodgers in 1947 . Motley felt the Browns would likely be his only opportunity to make a career of football . " I knew this was the one big chance in my life to rise above the steel mill existence , and I really wanted to take it , " he said .
Motley was signed to a contract worth $ 4 @,@ 500 a year ( $ 54 @,@ 607 in 2016 dollars ) . With the Browns , he joined a potent offense led by quarterback Otto Graham , tackle and placekicker Lou Groza and receivers Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie . He was a force to be reckoned with in the AAFC , and helped the team win every championship in the league 's four years of existence between 1946 and 1949 . He had a combination of quickness and power – he was listed at 238 pounds – that helped him plow through tacklers . He was also an able pass blocker and played on defense as a linebacker . Motley rushed for an average of 8 @.@ 2 yards per carry in his first season . His forte was the trap play , a scheme where a defensive lineman was allowed to come across the line of scrimmage unblocked , opening up space for Motley to run . He led the league in rushing in 1948 as the Browns posted a perfect 15 – 0 record . He was the AAFC 's all @-@ time rushing leader when the league folded after the 1949 season and the Browns were absorbed into the more established National Football League ( NFL ) . The Browns had a 47 – 4 – 3 overall regular @-@ season win @-@ loss @-@ tie record during the AAFC years as Motley rushed for a total of 3 @,@ 024 yards .
Like other black players in the 1940s and 1950s , Motley faced racist attitudes both on and off the field . Paul Brown would not tolerate discrimination within the team ; he wanted to win and would not let anything get in his way . Motley and Willis , however , were sometimes stepped on and called names during games . " Sometimes I wanted to just kill some of those guys , and the officials would just stand right there , " Motley said many years later . " They 'd see those guys stepping on us and heard them saying things and just turn their backs . That kind of crap went on for two or three years until they found out what kind of players we were . " Motley and Willis did not travel to one game against the Miami Seahawks in the Browns ' early years after they received threatening letters . Another time in Miami , Motley and Willis were told they were not welcome at the hotel where the team was staying . Brown threatened to relocate the entire team , and the hotel 's management backed down .
Attitudes toward race in America began to change after the war , which had caused social and political upheaval and prompted people to think about the future with more ambition and confidence . Although progress was slow and racially motivated hostility continued for many years , the color barrier was broken in all major sports by 1950 . Many of Motley and Willis 's teammates on the Browns were used to playing with black players in college , where teams were integrated across most of the country . The presence of Motley and Willis , meanwhile , contributed to strong attendance at many of the Browns ' early games as large black audiences came to watch them . By one estimate , 10 @,@ 000 black fans saw the Browns play their first game .
Aided by Motley 's swiftness and size , the Browns won the NFL championship in 1950 , their first season in the league . In October 1950 , Motley set an NFL record that stood for more than 52 years when he averaged over 17 yards per rush against the Pittsburgh Steelers , with 188 yards on 11 carries . In December 2002 , quarterback Michael Vick of the Atlanta Falcons rushed for 173 yards on 10 carries against the Minnesota Vikings , eclipsing Motley 's average . Motley also had a 69 @-@ yard rushing and 33 @-@ yard receiving touchdowns in the game . While Motley did not factor in the Browns ' championship game win against the Los Angeles Rams , he led the league in rushing with 810 yards in 1950 despite averaging fewer than 12 carries per game . He was a unanimous first @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection .
By the 1951 season , Motley started to feel the physical effects of his hard @-@ hitting , up @-@ the @-@ middle running style . He suffered a knee injury in training camp , and he was getting older ; by the time the season was in full swing , he was 31 . Motley only ran for 273 yards and one touchdown that year , an uncharacteristically low total . Despite Motley 's troubles , the Browns made the championship game again after winning the American Conference with an 11 – 1 record . Cleveland , however , lost the title game to the Rams , 24 – 17 . Motley had just five carries and 23 yards .
Motley 's knees continued to bother him in 1952 . While he showed occasional signs of his old form that season , it became clear to the Browns ' coaching staff that he was no longer in his prime . Motley finished the year with 444 yards of rushing and 4 @.@ 3 yards per carry , a career low . The Browns finished with an 8 – 4 record but still captured the conference title and secured another spot in the NFL championship game . Motley performed well in that matchup against the Detroit Lions , rushing for 95 yards . The Browns , however , lost 17 – 7 .
The 1953 season was no better for Motley , whose effectiveness was again limited by injury . Cleveland finished with an 11 – 1 record and faced Detroit in the championship for the second year in a row . As Motley 's production declined , the Browns relied on Otto Graham 's passing to Lavelli and receiver Ray Renfro , who also lined up as a running back . Motley did not participate in the championship game that year , another loss to the Lions .
Motley thought he could come back and play a ninth season in 1954 , and showed up to training camp to prove it . Paul Brown , however , thought otherwise . Dogged by injuries and 34 years old , Motley quit before the season began , after Brown said he would otherwise be cut from the team . " Marion realized that his knee was weak and did not feel that it was coming around , " Brown said at the time . " He was one of the truly fine fullbacks in his prime , the type that comes along once in a lifetime . I certainly never will forget some of his runs and I imagine Cleveland football fans feel the same . "
Motley took the 1954 season off and attempted a comeback in 1955 after the Browns , who still had rights to Motley under his contract , traded him to the Pittsburgh Steelers for Ed Modzelewski . In Pittsburgh he played seven games as a linebacker , but the Steelers released him before the end of the season . In his eight years in the AAFC and NFL , Motley had rushed for 4 @,@ 712 yards and averaged 5 @.@ 7 yards per carry . His career rushing average is still an all @-@ time record for running backs .
= = Later life and death = =
After ending his playing career for good , Motley asked Brown about a coaching job with the team . Brown , however , rejected his overtures , saying Motley should instead look for work at a steel mill – the very career football was his ticket out of . Unable to find coaching opportunities in the NFL , he worked as a whisky salesman in the early 1960s . He got occasional scouting assignments from the Browns , but as the Civil Rights movement began to coalesce in 1965 , he issued a statement saying he had been refused a permanent coaching position by the team numerous times . He applied for a coaching job in 1964 , he wrote , and was told that there were no vacancies . The Browns then hired Bob Nussbaumer as an assistant . " When I heard of the hiring of a new assistant , I began to wonder if the full reason is whether or not the time is ripe to hire a Negro coach in Cleveland on the professional level , " he wrote . Art Modell , the Browns ' owner , responded by saying the team filled its coaching positions based on ability and experience , not race . " We are represented by scouts at every major Negro school . And we now have 12 Negroes signed for the 1965 season , " he said .
Motley asked Otto Graham for a job with the Washington Redskins when Graham was head coach there in the late 1960s , but he was again turned away . Motley also signed on to coach an all @-@ girl professional football team called the Cleveland Dare Devils in 1967 . By 1969 , the team had only played a few exhibition games as Cleveland theatrical agent Syd Freedman struggled to drum up interest in a women 's league . Later in life , Motley worked for the U.S. postal service in Cleveland , HM Miller Construction Suffield , Ohio , the Ohio Lottery and for the Ohio Department of Youth Services in Akron . He died in 1999 of prostate cancer .
= = Honors and legacy = =
In 1968 , Motley became the second black player voted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame , located in his hometown of Canton . Having played successfully as a fullback and pass blocker on offense and as a linebacker on defense , he is seen as one of the best all @-@ around players in football history . Blanton Collier , an assistant who took over as the team 's head coach after Paul Brown 's firing in 1963 , said Motley " had no equal as a blocker . He could run with anybody for 30 yards or so . And this man was a great , great linebacker . "
Most of Motley 's runs were trap plays up the middle , but he had the speed to run outside . " There 's no telling how much yardage I might have made if I ran as much as some backs do now , " he once said . Running back Jim Brown surpassed Motley 's rushing records in the early 1960s , but many of Motley 's coaches and fellow players regarded Motley as the better player , in part because of his strength as a blocker . " There is no comparison between Jim Brown and Marion Motley , " Graham said at a luncheon in Canton in 1964 . " Motley was the greatest all @-@ around fullback . "
In his books The Thinking Man 's Guide to Pro Football and The New Thinking Man 's Guide To Pro Football , football writer Paul Zimmerman of Sports Illustrated called Motley the best player in the history of the sport . He was named to the NFL 's 75th Anniversary All @-@ Time Team in 1994 .
= 2003 All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship Final =
The 2003 All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship Final was the 116th final of the All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship , a Gaelic football tournament . It was held on 28 September 2003 at Croke Park , Dublin and featured defending champions Armagh against Tyrone . The counties are both in the province of Ulster and share a boundary – this was the first All @-@ Ireland Football Final between sides from the same province . Tyrone won their first title after the match finished 0 – 12 – 0 – 09 in their favour . Many commentators were critical of the game 's entertainment value .
= = Competition structure = =
Each of the 32 traditional counties of Ireland is represented by a county side . Apart from Kilkenny , they all participated in the 2003 All @-@ Ireland Senior Football Championship . The " overseas counties " of London and New York also participated . Every county in Ireland is located in a province ; London and New York were in Connacht for the purpose of the championship . It began with four provincial championships – knock @-@ out competitions between sides in the same province . The four winners progressed to the All @-@ Ireland quarter @-@ finals . The remaining sides , apart from New York , entered the All @-@ Ireland qualifiers to determine the other four teams to contest the quarter @-@ finals . These were followed by the semi @-@ finals and the All @-@ Ireland final .
= = Background = =
This was the first final between two counties from the same province ; in this case , Ulster . This was only possible because of the qualifying system introduced in the 2001 championship . Previously , the All @-@ Ireland Championship was only contested by the four winners of the provincial championships , so a final between two counties from the same province was impossible .
Tyrone had contested the final in 1986 and 1995 but lost on both occasions , against Kerry and Dublin respectively . Armagh were the defending champions , having won their first title the year previously . They had lost the final in 1953 and 1977 . No side had won consecutive titles since Cork in 1989 and 1990 , while no side from Ulster had done so since Down , who won in 1960 and 1961 .
Tyrone had already won the 2003 National Football League and the year 's Ulster Championship , in what was manager Mickey Harte 's first year in charge .
= = Routes to the final = =
Tyrone progressed directly to the All @-@ Ireland quarter finals as they won the 2003 Ulster Senior Football Championship , through victories against Derry , Antrim and Down . Armagh lost to Monaghan in the preliminary round of the Ulster Championship and therefore entered the All @-@ Ireland qualifiers at the first round . They defeated Waterford , Antrim , Dublin and Limerick to join Tyrone at the quarter @-@ final stage ; the ties were played whilst Tyrone were competing in the latter stages of the Ulster Championship .
Sides that had played each other in the provincial championships could not be drawn together in the quarter @-@ finals but none of these restrictions affected Armagh or Tyrone . Tyrone were drawn against Fermanagh , who had unexpectedly defeated Meath and Mayo in the qualifiers , while Armagh were drawn against Leinster championship winners Laois . Tyrone won their game by 1 – 21 ( 24 points ) to 0 – 05 . Armagh defeated Laois by 0 – 15 to 0 – 13 , although the sides were level on points on nine occasions . Even before Donegal 's win over Galway , which meant three of the four semi @-@ finalists were from Ulster , there was intense media speculation about the possibility of an all @-@ Ulster final .
Tyrone 's semi @-@ final was against Kerry . Despite their captain Peter Canavan suffering an injury early on , Tyrone won by 0 – 13 to 0 – 06 . Much of the match analysis focused on the manner in which it was played . It was characterised by persistent fouling ( 73 frees were awarded in total ) and Tyrone 's defensive tactics . While many commentators expressed frustration about the quality of the game , some appreciated the skill with which Tyrone employed their tactics . Mickey Harte countered the criticism by saying : " There 's no use in us playing flamboyantly and losing . "
Donegal were Armagh 's opposition in an all @-@ Ulster semi @-@ final . Armagh were behind at half time but took advantage of Raymond Sweeney 's dismissal just after the interval to finish with a 2 – 10 ( 16 points ) – 1 – 09 ( 12 points ) victory . Armagh may have had a larger winning margin had they not amassed 21 wides . A death threat was allegedly made against referee Michael Monahan in the closing minutes .
= = Pre @-@ match = =
Brian White , who had previously refereed two All @-@ Ireland finals , was announced as the match referee in early September . He had once previously refereed a game between Armagh and Tyrone – an Ulster Championship quarter @-@ final replay in 2002 .
The final was highly anticipated , particularly as Armagh and Tyrone are neighbouring counties . Police Service of Northern Ireland Deputy Chief Constable Paul Leighton estimated that 40 @,@ 000 fans would travel from Northern Ireland to Dublin , despite each competing county only being allocated approximately 10 @,@ 000 match tickets . Declan Martin , policy director for Dublin Chamber of Commerce , expected the revenue generated in the city as a result of the final to double because two sides from Ulster were involved .
Road signs in the Pomeroy area were painted in Tyrone colours leading up to the match . This was condemned by the Roads Service , who said the signs would cost thousands of pounds to replace . In Strabane , a sculpture was covered in Tyrone kit . Ulster Unionist Party councillor for the town , Derek Hussey , responded by saying : " I know it is a unique sporting occasion , an all @-@ British All @-@ Ireland final , but the hysteria that has developed around the whole event is intimidatory to some people . "
John Boyle , a native of Armagh and owner of Boylesports , expressed an interest in placing a £ 250 @,@ 000 bet with nine other businessmen , each of whom would contribute £ 25 @,@ 000 , on Armagh winning the championship . The winnings and the stake would have been given to the Armagh squad . GAA president Seán Kelly denounced the idea : " Playing is a voluntary activity and should have nothing to do with gambling . Such bets put too much pressure on the players and are somewhat obscene . " The GAA was also critical of tickets for the final being sold in newspaper columns and on online auction sites .
= = Match = =
Martin McGuinness of Sinn Féin and Ian Pearson of the Northern Ireland Office were at the match , as were eight family members of victims of the Omagh bombing , who sat in the Hogan Stand as guests of the GAA . Donegal singer Mickey Joe Harte sang Ireland 's national anthem , Amhrán na bhFiann , before the match . In the All @-@ Ireland Minor Football Championship Final , held just before the senior game , Laois and Dublin drew , each side scoring 1 – 11 ( 14 points ) .
The starting line @-@ ups for the senior game were released several days before the match ; both sides chose to start with the same fifteen players that had started their respective semi @-@ final wins . Peter Canavan had recovered sufficiently from the ankle injury he sustained during Tyrone 's semi @-@ final to captain them . He was the only player in their starting line @-@ up who had played in the county 's last All @-@ Ireland final . Ciaran Gourley , who was also an injury concern for Tyrone , was deemed fit enough to play . Brian McGuigan was suffering from the flu but started . Armagh had no injury concerns and twelve of their starting fifteen had played in the final the previous year – only Paul Hearty , Andy Mallon and Phillip Loughran were debutants ,
= = = Match report = = =
Both sides played defensively which led many commentators to bemoan the poor quality of the match . There were frequent pauses for injuries and accusations of diving . However , some analysts commented on the genuine desire to win both teams displayed . Numerous goal opportunities were missed , most notably by Tyrone , although only a block from Conor Gormley prevented Steven McDonnell from equalising for Armagh in the 68th minute . Tyrone led 0 – 08 – 0 – 04 at half @-@ time ; five of their points were scored by Peter Canavan from frees . He was replaced during the interval due to a relapse of his ankle injury during training , although he did return to the pitch for the final few minutes . Diarmuid Marsden was controversially sent off in the second half following an off @-@ the @-@ ball incident , leaving Armagh with only fourteen players . Marsden had been arguing with Conor Gormley when he was approached by Philip Jordan . Marsden raised his arm and made contact with Jordan , who fell to the ground . Some commentators claimed Jordan was feigning injury to get his opponent sent off . Armagh managed to stay within two points of Tyrone at times but were ultimately unable to catch Tyrone . At the final whistle , Tyrone fans invaded the pitch and remained there for an hour . In his speech after lifting the trophy , Peter Canavan dedicated the victory to every Tyrone team he had played on , the 1986 team ( beaten in the final by Kerry ) and every player who had played on teams without success . He also spoke of his father , who had died over the summer , and of Paul McGirr , who had played alongside many of the Tyrone team before he died in a freak accident aged 18 .
= = = Match details = = =
References :
= = Post @-@ match = =
Northern Ireland Secretary of State Paul Murphy congratulated Tyrone on their victory . The Ulster Council of the GAA congratulated both sets of fans , in particular the Tyrone fans who formed a guard of honour for the Armagh players as they returned to their team bus . Joe Kernan , manager of Armagh , also praised the opposition fans : " ... when the final whistle went and all the Tyrone supporters came running past me there wasn 't one bad word said . To me that was great . "
Crowds gathered across Tyrone the following day to celebrate the arrival of the Sam Maguire Cup . The players ' homecoming began at Aughnacloy before moving on to Ballygawley and Omagh , where upwards of 40 @,@ 000 fans gathered . Despite their defeat , Armagh were greeted by hundreds of fans on the Louth – Armagh border on their return .
Armagh manager Joe Kernan claimed he would have resigned had his side won but defeat encouraged him to continue . He lauded his players for their effort nonetheless , saying : " .. we 've won an All @-@ Ireland , and got back to the final . I think that 's a phenomenal achievement . " He added that he was confident Armagh would win another title in the future . Of the match itself , Kernan said : " I think if Steven McDonnell had got that goal towards the end , even with the man down I think we would have won the game . Big matches hinge on certain things and that was one of them . " McDonnell applauded Conor Gormley 's tackle which prevented him from scoring : " ... I 'd say it was one of the best tackles ever . "
The match received extensive media coverage in Northern Ireland , especially from the predominantly nationalist Irish News . The Belfast Telegraph dedicated several pages to the match the following day , including the front and back covers , whereas The News Letter , a largely unionist publication , had sparse coverage , highlighting traditional attitudes to Gaelic games in Northern Ireland .
About a week after the final , a family in Coleraine were targeted in an allegedly sectarian attack , thought to be because they were flying a Tyrone GAA flag from their home .
Two years later , Peter Canavan 's return from injury as a substitute in the final ten minutes finished 14th in RTÉ 's 2005 series Top 20 GAA Moments .
= = = Match controversies = = =
Joe Kernan was adamant that Diarmuid Marsden did not deserve to be sent off and criticised players for pretending to be injured during the game . The player himself also disagreed with the decision : " The umpire said I struck him but I just saw the man coming towards me and it was more a case of getting myself out of the way or protecting myself . " He added : " I 'd never been sent off for Armagh before and to be sent off in an All @-@ Ireland final is hard to take . Hopefully I won 't be remembered for that . And I wouldn 't like to end the career on that note . " Kernan and Marsden contested the decision and subsequent ban , but the GAA 's Games Administration Committee upheld the penalty . However , after taking their case to the Central Council , the ban was overturned .
= Anne Frank =
Annelies Marie Frank ( German pronunciation : [ ʔanəliːs maˈʁiː ˈʔanə ˈfʁaŋk ] ; Dutch pronunciation : [ ʔɑnəˈlis maˈri ˈʔɑnə ˈfrɑŋk ] ; 12 June 1929 – February or March 1945 ) was a German @-@ born diarist and writer . She is one of the most discussed Jewish victims of the Holocaust . Her diary , The Diary of a Young Girl , which documents her life in hiding during the German occupation of the Netherlands in World War II , is one of the world 's most widely known books and has been the basis for several plays and films .
Born in the city of Frankfurt , Germany , she lived most of her life in or near Amsterdam , the Netherlands . Born a German national , Frank lost her citizenship in 1941 and thus became stateless . The Frank family moved from Germany to Amsterdam in the early 1930s when the Nazis gained control over Germany . By May 1940 , they were trapped in Amsterdam by the German occupation of the Netherlands . As persecutions of the Jewish population increased in July 1942 , the family went into hiding in some concealed rooms behind a bookcase in the building where Anne 's father worked . In August 1944 , the group was betrayed and transported to concentration camps . Anne and her sister , Margot , were eventually transferred to Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camp , where they died ( probably of typhus ) in February or March 1945 , just weeks before the camp was liberated in April .
Otto Frank , the only survivor of the family , returned to Amsterdam after the war to find that Anne 's diary had been saved by one of the helpers , Miep Gies , and his efforts led to its publication in 1947 . It was translated from its original Dutch version and first published in English in 1952 as The Diary of a Young Girl , and has since been translated into over 60 languages . The diary , which was given to Anne on her thirteenth birthday , chronicles her life from 12 June 1942 until 1 August 1944 .
= = Early life = =
Frank was born Annelies or Anneliese Marie Frank on 12 June 1929 in Frankfurt , Germany , to Otto Frank ( 1889 – 1980 ) and Edith Frank @-@ Holländer ( 1900 – 45 ) . She had an older sister , Margot ( 1926 – 45 ) . The Franks were liberal Jews , and did not observe all of the customs and traditions of Judaism , and lived in an assimilated community of Jewish and non @-@ Jewish citizens of various religions . Edith Frank was the more devout parent , while Otto Frank was interested in scholarly pursuits and had an extensive library ; both parents encouraged the children to read .
On 13 March 1933 , elections were held in Frankfurt for the municipal council , and Adolf Hitler 's Nazi Party won . Antisemitic demonstrations occurred almost immediately , and the Franks began to fear what would happen to them if they remained in Germany . Later that year , Edith and the children went to Aachen , where they stayed with Edith 's mother , Rosa Holländer . Otto Frank remained in Frankfurt , but after receiving an offer to start a company in Amsterdam , he moved there to organize the business and to arrange accommodations for his family . The Franks were among 300 @,@ 000 Jews who fled Germany between 1933 and 1939 .
Otto Frank began working at the Opekta Works , a company that sold fruit extract pectin , and found an apartment on the Merwedeplein ( Merwede Square ) in the Rivierenbuurt neighborhood of Amsterdam . By February 1934 , Edith and the children had arrived in Amsterdam , and the two girls were enrolled in school — Margot in public school and Anne in a Montessori school . Margot demonstrated ability in arithmetic , and Anne showed aptitude for reading and writing . Her friend Hanneli Goslar later recalled that from early childhood , Frank frequently wrote , although she shielded her work with her hands and refused to discuss the content of her writing . The Frank sisters had highly distinct personalities , Margot being well @-@ mannered , reserved , and studious , while Anne was outspoken , energetic , and extroverted .
In 1938 , Otto Frank started a second company , Pectacon , which was a wholesaler of herbs , pickling salts , and mixed spices , used in the production of sausages . Hermann van Pels was employed by Pectacon as an advisor about spices . A Jewish butcher , he had fled Osnabrück in Germany with his family . In 1939 , Edith 's mother came to live with the Franks , and remained with them until her death in January 1942 .
In May 1940 , Germany invaded the Netherlands , and the occupation government began to persecute Jews by the implementation of restrictive and discriminatory laws ; mandatory registration and segregation soon followed . Otto Frank tried to arrange for the family to emigrate to the United States – the only destination that seemed to him to be viable – but this possibility was blocked from June 1941 , as the US government was concerned that people with close relatives still in Germany could be blackmailed into becoming Nazi spies . The Frank sisters were excelling in their studies and had many friends , but with the introduction of a decree that Jews could attend only Jewish schools , they were enrolled at the Jewish Lyceum . Anne became a friend of Jacqueline van Maarsen in the Lyceum . In April 1941 , Otto Frank took action to prevent Pectacon from being confiscated as a Jewish @-@ owned business . He transferred his shares in Pectacon to Johannes Kleiman and resigned as director . The company was liquidated and all assets transferred to Gies and Company , headed by Jan Gies . In December 1941 , Frank followed a similar process to save Opekta . The businesses continued with little obvious change and their survival allowed Frank to earn a minimal income , but sufficient to provide for his family .
= = Time period chronicled in the diary = =
= = = Before going into hiding = = =
For her thirteenth birthday on 12 June 1942 , Anne Frank received a book she had shown her father in a shop window a few days earlier . Although it was an autograph book , bound with red @-@ and @-@ white checkered cloth and with a small lock on the front , Frank decided she would use it as a diary , and she began writing in it almost immediately . While many of her early entries relate the mundane aspects of her life , she also discusses some of the changes that had taken place in the Netherlands since the German occupation . In her entry dated 20 June 1942 , she lists many of the restrictions that had been placed upon the lives of the Dutch Jewish population , and also notes her sorrow at the death of her grandmother earlier in the year . Frank dreamed about becoming an actress . She loved watching movies , but the Dutch Jews were forbidden access to movie theaters from 8 January 1941 onwards .
In July 1942 , Margot Frank received a call @-@ up notice from the Zentralstelle für jüdische Auswanderung ( Central Office for Jewish Emigration ) ordering her to report for relocation to a work camp . Otto Frank told his family that they would go into hiding in rooms above and behind Opekta 's premises on the Prinsengracht , a street along one of Amsterdam 's canals , where some of his most trusted employees would help them . The call @-@ up notice forced them to relocate several weeks earlier than had been anticipated .
Shortly before going into hiding , Anne gave her friend and neighbor , Toosje Kupers , a book , a tea set , a tin of marbles , and the family cat for safekeeping . As the Associated Press reports : " ' I 'm worried about my marbles , because I 'm scared they might fall into the wrong hands , ' Kupers said Anne told her . ' Could you keep them for me for a little while ? ' "
= = = Life in the Achterhuis = = =
On the morning of Monday , 6 July 1942 , the family moved into their hiding place , a secret annex . Their apartment was left in a state of disarray to create the impression that they had left suddenly , and Otto Frank left a note that hinted they were going to Switzerland . The need for secrecy forced them to leave behind Anne 's cat , Moortje . As Jews were not allowed to use public transport , they walked several kilometers from their home , with each of them wearing several layers of clothing as they did not dare be seen carrying luggage . The Achterhuis ( a Dutch word denoting the rear part of a house , translated as the " Secret Annexe " in English editions of the diary ) was a three @-@ story space entered from a landing above the Opekta offices . Two small rooms , with an adjoining bathroom and toilet , were on the first level , and above that a larger open room , with a small room beside it . From this smaller room , a ladder led to the attic . The door to the Achterhuis was later covered by a bookcase to ensure it remained undiscovered . The main building , situated a block from the Westerkerk , was nondescript , old , and typical of buildings in the western quarters of Amsterdam .
Victor Kugler , Johannes Kleiman , Miep Gies , and Bep Voskuijl were the only employees who knew of the people in hiding . Along with Gies ' husband Jan Gies and Voskuijl 's father Johannes Hendrik Voskuijl , they were the " helpers " for the duration of their confinement . The only connection between the outside world and the occupants of the house , they kept the occupants informed of war news and political developments . They catered to all of their needs , ensured their safety , and supplied them with food , a task that grew more difficult with the passage of time . Frank wrote of their dedication and of their efforts to boost morale within the household during the most dangerous of times . All were aware that , if caught , they could face the death penalty for sheltering Jews .
On 13 July 1942 , the Franks were joined by the van Pels family : Hermann , Auguste , and 16 @-@ year @-@ old Peter , and then in November by Fritz Pfeffer , a dentist and friend of the family . Frank wrote of her pleasure at having new people to talk to , but tensions quickly developed within the group forced to live in such confined conditions . After sharing her room with Pfeffer , she found him to be insufferable and resented his intrusion , and she clashed with Auguste van Pels , whom she regarded as foolish . She regarded Hermann van Pels and Fritz Pfeffer as selfish , particularly in regard to the amount of food they consumed . Some time later , after first dismissing the shy and awkward Peter van Pels , she recognised a kinship with him and the two entered a romance . She received her first kiss from him , but her infatuation with him began to wane as she questioned whether her feelings for him were genuine , or resulted from their shared confinement . Anne Frank formed a close bond with each of the helpers , and Otto Frank later recalled that she had anticipated their daily visits with impatient enthusiasm . He observed that Anne 's closest friendship was with Bep Voskuijl , " the young typist ... the two of them often stood whispering in the corner . "
= = = The young diarist = = =
In her writing , Frank examined her relationships with the members of her family , and the strong differences in each of their personalities . She considered herself to be closest emotionally to her father , who later commented , " I got on better with Anne than with Margot , who was more attached to her mother . The reason for that may have been that Margot rarely showed her feelings and didn 't need as much support because she didn 't suffer from mood swings as much as Anne did . " The Frank sisters formed a closer relationship than had existed before they went into hiding , although Anne sometimes expressed jealousy towards Margot , particularly when members of the household criticised Anne for lacking Margot 's gentle and placid nature . As Anne began to mature , the sisters were able to confide in each other . In her entry of 12 January 1944 , Frank wrote , " Margot 's much nicer ... She 's not nearly so catty these days and is becoming a real friend . She no longer thinks of me as a little baby who doesn 't count . "
Frank frequently wrote of her difficult relationship with her mother , and of her ambivalence towards her . On 7 November 1942 she described her " contempt " for her mother and her inability to " confront her with her carelessness , her sarcasm and her hard @-@ heartedness , " before concluding , " She 's not a mother to me . " Later , as she revised her diary , Frank felt ashamed of her harsh attitude , writing : " Anne , is it really you who mentioned hate , oh Anne , how could you ? " She came to understand that their differences resulted from misunderstandings that were as much her fault as her mother 's , and saw that she had added unnecessarily to her mother 's suffering . With this realization , Frank began to treat her mother with a degree of tolerance and respect .
The Frank sisters each hoped to return to school as soon as they were able , and continued with their studies while in hiding . Margot took a shorthand course by correspondence in Bep Voskuijl 's name and received high marks . Most of Anne 's time was spent reading and studying , and she regularly wrote and edited her diary entries . In addition to providing a narrative of events as they occurred , she wrote about her feelings , beliefs , and ambitions , subjects she felt she could not discuss with anyone . As her confidence in her writing grew , and as she began to mature , she wrote of more abstract subjects such as her belief in God , and how she defined human nature .
Frank aspired to become a journalist , writing in her diary on Wednesday , 5 April 1944 :
I finally realized that I must do my schoolwork to keep from being ignorant , to get on in life , to become a journalist , because that 's what I want ! I know I can write ... , but it remains to be seen whether I really have talent ...
And if I don 't have the talent to write books or newspaper articles , I can always write for myself . But I want to achieve more than that . I can 't imagine living like Mother , Mrs. van Daan and all the women who go about their work and are then forgotten . I need to have something besides a husband and children to devote myself to ! ...
I want to be useful or bring enjoyment to all people , even those I 've never met . I want to go on living even after my death ! And that 's why I 'm so grateful to God for having given me this gift , which I can use to develop myself and to express all that 's inside me !
When I write I can shake off all my cares . My sorrow disappears , my spirits are revived ! But , and that 's a big question , will I ever be able to write something great , will I ever become a journalist or a writer ?
She continued writing regularly until her last entry of 1 August 1944 .
= = Arrest = =
On the morning of 4 August 1944 , following a tip from an informer who has never been identified , the Achterhuis was stormed by a group of German uniformed police ( Grüne Polizei ) led by SS @-@ Oberscharführer Karl Silberbauer of the Sicherheitsdienst . The Franks , van Pelses , and Pfeffer were taken to RSHA headquarters , where they were interrogated and held overnight . On 5 August they were transferred to the Huis van Bewaring ( House of Detention ) , an overcrowded prison on the Weteringschans . Two days later they were transported to the Westerbork transit camp , through which by that time more than 100 @,@ 000 Jews , mostly Dutch and German , had passed . Having been arrested in hiding , they were considered criminals and sent to the Punishment Barracks for hard labor .
Victor Kugler and Johannes Kleiman were arrested and jailed at the penal camp for enemies of the regime at Amersfoort . Kleiman was released after seven weeks , but Kugler was held in various work camps until the war 's end . Miep Gies and Bep Voskuijl were questioned and threatened by the Security Police but not detained . They returned to the Achterhuis the following day , and found Anne 's papers strewn on the floor . They collected them , as well as several family photograph albums , and Gies resolved to return them to Anne after the war . On 7 August 1944 , Gies attempted to facilitate the release of the prisoners by confronting Silberbauer and offering him money to intervene , but he refused .
Although there has been persistent speculation , the source of the information that led the authorities to raid the Achterhuis has never been identified . Signs of the building being occupied after office hours , such as open curtains and accidental noises , may have been noticed and discussed by people on the outside . Reports of such events may have eventually come to the attention of the authorities without there being a specific or intentional informant . Night watchman Martin Sleegers and an unidentified police officer investigated a burglary at the premises in April 1944 and came across the bookcase concealing the secret door . Tonny Ahlers , a member of the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands ( NSB ) , was suspected of being the informant by Carol Ann Lee , biographer of Otto Frank . Another suspect is stockroom manager Willem van Maaren . The Annex occupants did not trust him , as he seemed inquisitive regarding people entering the stockroom after hours . He once unexpectedly asked the employees whether there had previously been a Mr. Frank at the office . Lena Hartog was suspected of being the informant by Anne Frank 's biographer Melissa Müller . Several of these suspects knew one another and might have worked in collaboration . While virtually everyone connected with the betrayal was interrogated after the war , no one was definitively identified as being the informant .
In 2015 , Flemish journalist Jeroen de Bruyn and Joop van Wijk , Bep Voskuijl ’ s youngest son , wrote a biography , Bep Voskuijl , het zwijgen voorbij : een biografie van de jongste helper van het Achterhuis ( Bep Voskuijl , the Silence is Over : A Biography of the Youngest Helper of the Secret Annex ) , in which they alleged that Bep 's younger sister Nelly ( 1923 – 2001 ) could have betrayed the Frank family . According to the book , Bep 's sister Diny and her fiance Bertus Hulsman recollected Nelly telephoning the Gestapo on the morning of 4 August 1944 . Nelly had been critical of Bep and their father , Johannes Voskuijl , helping the Jews . ( Johannes was the one who constructed the bookcase covering the entrance to the hiding place . ) Nelly was a Nazi collaborator between 1942 and 1946 . Karl Silberbauer , the SS officer who received the phone call and made the arrest , was documented to say that the informer had " the voice of a young woman " .
= = Deportation and death = =
On 3 September 1944 , the group was deported on what would be the last transport from Westerbork to the Auschwitz concentration camp and arrived after a three @-@ day journey . On the same train was Bloeme Evers @-@ Emden , an Amsterdam native who had befriended Margot and Anne in the Jewish Lyceum in 1941 . Bloeme saw Anne , Margot , and their mother regularly in Auschwitz , and was interviewed for her remembrances of the Frank women in Auschwitz in the television documentary The Last Seven Months of Anne Frank ( 1988 ) by Dutch filmmaker Willy Lindwer and the BBC documentary Anne Frank Remembered ( 1995 ) .
Upon arrival at Auschwitz , the SS forcibly separated the men from the women and children , and Otto Frank was wrenched from his family . Those deemed able to work were admitted into the camp , and those deemed unfit for labor were immediately killed . Of the 1 @,@ 019 passengers , 549 — including all children younger than 15 — were sent directly to the gas chambers . Anne Frank , who had turned 15 three months earlier , was one of the youngest people to be spared from her transport . She was soon made aware that most people were gassed upon arrival and never learned that the entire group from the Achterhuis had survived this selection . She reasoned that her father , in his mid @-@ fifties and not particularly robust , had been killed immediately after they were separated .
With the other females not selected for immediate death , Frank was forced to strip naked to be disinfected , had her head shaved , and was tattooed with an identifying number on her arm . By day , the women were used as slave labour and Frank was forced to haul rocks and dig rolls of sod ; by night , they were crammed into overcrowded barracks . Some witnesses later testified Frank became withdrawn and tearful when she saw children being led to the gas chambers ; others reported that more often she displayed strength and courage . Her gregarious and confident nature allowed her to obtain extra bread rations for her mother , sister , and herself . Disease was rampant ; before long , Frank 's skin became badly infected by scabies . The Frank sisters were moved into an infirmary , which was in a state of constant darkness and infested with rats and mice . Edith Frank stopped eating , saving every morsel of food for her daughters and passing her rations to them through a hole she made at the bottom of the infirmary wall .
In October 1944 , the Frank women were slated to join a transport to the Liebau labour camp in Upper Silesia . Bloeme Evers @-@ Emden was slated to be on this transport , but Anne was prohibited from going because she had developed scabies , and her mother and sister opted to stay with her . Bloeme went on without them .
On 28 October , selections began for women to be relocated to Bergen @-@ Belsen . More than 8 @,@ 000 women , including Anne and Margot Frank , and Auguste van Pels , were transported . Edith Frank was left behind and later died from starvation . Tents were erected at Bergen @-@ Belsen to accommodate the influx of prisoners , and as the population rose , the death toll due to disease increased rapidly . Frank was briefly reunited with two friends , Hanneli Goslar and Nanette Blitz , who were confined in another section of the camp . Goslar and Blitz survived the war , and later discussed the brief conversations they had conducted with Frank through a fence . Blitz described Anne as bald , emaciated , and shivering . Goslar noted Auguste van Pels was with Anne and Margot Frank , and was caring for Margot , who was severely ill . Neither of them saw Margot , as she was too weak to leave her bunk . Anne told Blitz and Goslar she believed her parents were dead , and for that reason she did not wish to live any longer . Goslar later estimated their meetings had taken place in late January or early February 1945 .
In early 1945 , a typhus epidemic spread through the camp , killing 17 @,@ 000 prisoners . Other diseases , including typhoid fever , were rampant . Due to these chaotic conditions , it is not possible to say what ultimately caused Anne 's death . Witnesses later testified Margot fell from her bunk in her weakened state and was killed by the shock . Anne died a few days after Margot . The exact dates of Margot and Anne 's deaths were not recorded . It was long thought that their deaths occurred only a few weeks before British soldiers liberated the camp on 15 April 1945 , but new research in 2015 indicated that they may have died as early as February of that year . Among other evidence , witnesses recalled that the Franks displayed typhus symptoms by 7 February , and Dutch health authorities reported that most untreated typhus victims died within 12 days of their first symptoms . After liberation , the camp was burned in an effort to prevent further spread of disease ; the sisters were buried in a mass grave at an unknown location .
After the war , it was estimated that only 5 @,@ 000 of the 107 @,@ 000 Jews deported from the Netherlands between 1942 and 1944 survived . An estimated 30 @,@ 000 Jews remained in the Netherlands , with many people aided by the Dutch underground . Approximately two @-@ thirds of this group survived the war .
Otto Frank survived his internment in Auschwitz . After the war ended , he returned to Amsterdam , where he was sheltered by Jan and Miep Gies as he attempted to locate his family . He learned of the death of his wife , Edith , in Auschwitz , but remained hopeful that his daughters had survived . After several weeks , he discovered Margot and Anne had also died . He attempted to determine the fates of his daughters ' friends and learned many had been murdered . Susanne ' ' Sanne ' ' Ledermann , often mentioned in Anne 's diary , had been gassed along with her parents ; her sister , Barbara , a close friend of Margot 's , had survived . Several of the Frank sisters ' school friends had survived , as had the extended families of Otto and Edith Frank , as they had fled Germany during the mid @-@ 1930s , with individual family members settling in Switzerland , the United Kingdom , and the United States .
= = The Diary of a Young Girl = =
= = = Publication = = =
In July 1945 , after the Red Cross confirmed the deaths of the Frank sisters , Miep Gies gave Otto Frank the diary and a bundle of loose notes that she had saved in the hope of returning them to Anne . Otto Frank later commented that he had not realized Anne had kept such an accurate and well @-@ written record of their time in hiding . In his memoir , he described the painful process of reading the diary , recognizing the events described and recalling that he had already heard some of the more amusing episodes read aloud by his daughter . He saw for the first time the more private side of his daughter and those sections of the diary she had not discussed with anyone , noting , " For me it was a revelation ... I had no idea of the depth of her thoughts and feelings ... She had kept all these feelings to herself " . Moved by her repeated wish to be an author , he began to consider having it published .
Frank 's diary began as a private expression of her thoughts ; she wrote several times that she would never allow anyone to read it . She candidly described her life , her family and companions , and their situation , while beginning to recognise her ambition to write fiction for publication . In March 1944 , she heard a radio broadcast by Gerrit Bolkestein — a member of the Dutch government in exile , based in London — who said that when the war ended , he would create a public record of the Dutch people 's oppression under German occupation . He mentioned the publication of letters and diaries , and Frank decided to submit her work when the time came . She began editing her writing , removing some sections and rewriting others , with a view to publication . Her original notebook was supplemented by additional notebooks and loose @-@ leaf sheets of paper . She created pseudonyms for the members of the household and the helpers . The van Pels family became Hermann , Petronella , and Peter van Daan , and Fritz Pfeffer became Albert Düssell . In this edited version , she addressed each entry to " Kitty , " a fictional character in Cissy van Marxveldt 's Joop ter Heul novels that Anne enjoyed reading . Otto Frank used her original diary , known as " version A " , and her edited version , known as " version B " , to produce the first version for publication . He removed certain passages , most notably those in which Anne is critical of her parents ( especially her mother ) , and sections that discussed Frank 's growing sexuality . Although he restored the true identities of his own family , he retained all of the other pseudonyms .
Otto Frank gave the diary to the historian Annie Romein @-@ Verschoor , who tried unsuccessfully to have it published . She then gave it to her husband Jan Romein , who wrote an article about it , titled " Kinderstem " ( " A Child 's Voice " ) , which was published in the newspaper Het Parool on 3 April 1946 . He wrote that the diary " stammered out in a child 's voice , embodies all the hideousness of fascism , more so than all the evidence at Nuremberg put together . " His article attracted attention from publishers , and the diary was published in the Netherlands as Het Achterhuis ( The Annex ) in 1947 , followed by five more printings by 1950 .
It was first published in Germany and France in 1950 , and after being rejected by several publishers , was first published in the United Kingdom in 1952 . The first American edition , published in 1952 under the title Anne Frank : The Diary of a Young Girl , was positively reviewed . The book was successful in France , Germany , and the United States , but in the United Kingdom it failed to attract an audience and by 1953 was out of print . Its most noteworthy success was in Japan , where it received critical acclaim and sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies in its first edition . In Japan , Anne Frank quickly was identified as an important cultural figure who represented the destruction of youth during the war .
A play by Frances Goodrich and Albert Hackett based upon the diary premiered in New York City on 5 October 1955 , and later won a Pulitzer Prize for Drama . It was followed by the 1959 movie The Diary of Anne Frank , which was a critical and commercial success . Biographer Melissa Müller later wrote that the dramatization had " contributed greatly to the romanticizing , sentimentalizing and universalizing of Anne 's story . " Over the years the popularity of the diary grew , and in many schools , particularly in the United States , it was included as part of the curriculum , introducing Anne Frank to new generations of readers .
In 1986 the Dutch Institute for War Documentation published the " Critical Edition " of the diary . It includes comparisons from all known versions , both edited and unedited . It includes discussion asserting the diary 's authentication , as well as additional historical information relating to the family and the diary itself .
Cornelis Suijk — a former director of the Anne Frank Foundation and president of the U.S. Center for Holocaust Education Foundation — announced in 1999 that he was in the possession of five pages that had been removed by Otto Frank from the diary prior to publication ; Suijk claimed that Otto Frank gave these pages to him shortly before his death in 1980 . The missing diary entries contain critical remarks by Anne Frank about her parents ' strained marriage and discuss Frank 's lack of affection for her mother . Some controversy ensued when Suijk claimed publishing rights over the five pages ; he intended to sell them to raise money for his foundation . The Netherlands Institute for War Documentation , the formal owner of the manuscript , demanded the pages be handed over . In 2000 the Dutch Ministry of Education , Culture and Science agreed to donate US $ 300 @,@ 000 to Suijk 's Foundation , and the pages were returned in 2001 . Since then , they have been included in new editions of the diary .
= = = Reception = = =
The diary has been praised for its literary merits . Commenting on Anne Frank 's writing style , the dramatist Meyer Levin commended Frank for " sustaining the tension of a well @-@ constructed novel " , and was so impressed by the quality of her work that he collaborated with Otto Frank on a dramatization of the diary shortly after its publication . Meyer became obsessed with Anne Frank , which he wrote about in his autobiography The Obsession . The poet John Berryman called the book a unique depiction , not merely of adolescence but of the " conversion of a child into a person as it is happening in a precise , confident , economical style stunning in its honesty " .
In her introduction to the diary 's first American edition , Eleanor Roosevelt described it as " one of the wisest and most moving commentaries on war and its impact on human beings that I have ever read . " John F. Kennedy discussed Anne Frank in a 1961 speech , and said , " Of all the multitudes who throughout history have spoken for human dignity in times of great suffering and loss , no voice is more compelling than that of Anne Frank . " In the same year , the Soviet writer Ilya Ehrenburg wrote of her : " one voice speaks for six million — the voice not of a sage or a poet but of an ordinary little girl . "
As Anne Frank 's stature as both a writer and humanist has grown , she has been discussed specifically as a symbol of the Holocaust and more broadly as a representative of persecution . Hillary Rodham Clinton , in her acceptance speech for an Elie Wiesel Humanitarian Award in 1994 , read from Anne Frank 's diary and spoke of her " awakening us to the folly of indifference and the terrible toll it takes on our young , " which Clinton related to contemporary events in Sarajevo , Somalia and Rwanda . After receiving a humanitarian award from the Anne Frank Foundation in 1994 , Nelson Mandela addressed a crowd in Johannesburg , saying he had read Anne Frank 's diary while in prison and " derived much encouragement from it . " He likened her struggle against Nazism to his struggle against apartheid , drawing a parallel between the two philosophies : " Because these beliefs are patently false , and because they were , and will always be , challenged by the likes of Anne Frank , they are bound to fail . " Also in 1994 , Václav Havel said " Anne Frank 's legacy is very much alive and it can address us fully " in relation to the political and social changes occurring at the time in former Eastern Bloc countries .
Primo Levi suggested Anne Frank is frequently identified as a single representative of the millions of people who suffered and died as she did because " One single Anne Frank moves us more than the countless others who suffered just as she did but whose faces have remained in the shadows . Perhaps it is better that way ; if we were capable of taking in all the suffering of all those people , we would not be able to live . " In her closing message in Müller 's biography of Anne Frank , Miep Gies expressed a similar thought , though she attempted to dispel what she felt was a growing misconception that " Anne symbolises the six million victims of the Holocaust " , writing : " Anne 's life and death were her own individual fate , an individual fate that happened six million times over . Anne cannot , and should not , stand for the many individuals whom the Nazis robbed of their lives ... But her fate helps us grasp the immense loss the world suffered because of the Holocaust . "
Otto Frank spent the remainder of his life as custodian of his daughter 's legacy , saying , " It 's a strange role . In the normal family relationship , it is the child of the famous parent who has the honor and the burden of continuing the task . In my case the role is reversed . " He recalled his publisher 's explaining why he thought the diary has been so widely read , with the comment , " he said that the diary encompasses so many areas of life that each reader can find something that moves him personally " . Simon Wiesenthal expressed a similar sentiment when he said that the diary had raised more widespread awareness of the Holocaust than had been achieved during the Nuremberg Trials , because " people identified with this child . This was the impact of the Holocaust , this was a family like my family , like your family and so you could understand this . "
In June 1999 Time magazine published a special edition titled " Time 100 : The Most Important People of the Century " . Anne Frank was selected as one of the " Heroes & Icons " , and the writer , Roger Rosenblatt , described her legacy with the comment , " The passions the book ignites suggest that everyone owns Anne Frank , that she has risen above the Holocaust , Judaism , girlhood and even goodness and become a totemic figure of the modern world — the moral individual mind beset by the machinery of destruction , insisting on the right to live and question and hope for the future of human beings . " He notes that while her courage and pragmatism are admired , her ability to analyze herself and the quality of her writing are the key components of her appeal . He writes , " The reason for her immortality was basically literary . She was an extraordinarily good writer , for any age , and the quality of her work seemed a direct result of a ruthlessly honest disposition . "
= = = Denials of authenticity and legal action = = =
After the diary became widely known in the late 1950s , various allegations against the veracity of the diary and / or its contents appeared , with the earliest published criticisms occurring in Sweden and Norway .
In 1957 , Fria ord ( " Free Words " ) , the magazine of the Swedish neofascist organisation National League of Sweden published an article by Danish author and critic Harald Nielsen , who had previously written antisemitic articles about the Danish @-@ Jewish author Georg Brandes . Among other things , the article claimed that the diary had been written by Meyer Levin .
In 1958 , at a performance of The Diary of Anne Frank in Vienna , Simon Wiesenthal was challenged by a group of protesters who asserted that Anne Frank had never existed , and who challenged Wiesenthal to prove her existence by finding the man who had arrested her . Wiesenthal indeed began searching for Karl Silberbauer and found him in 1963 . When interviewed , Silberbauer admitted his role , and identified Anne Frank from a photograph as one of the people arrested . Silberbauer provided a full account of events , even recalling emptying a briefcase full of papers onto the floor . His statement corroborated the version of events that had previously been presented by witnesses such as Otto Frank .
Opponents of the diary continued to express the view that it was not written by a teen , but was a hoax , with Otto Frank being accused of fraud .
In 1959 , Otto Frank took legal action in Lübeck against Lothar Stielau , a school teacher and former Hitler Youth member who published a school paper that described the diary as " a forgery . " The complaint was extended to include Heinrich Buddegerg , who wrote a letter in support of Stielau , which was published in a Lübeck newspaper . The court examined the diary in 1960 and authenticated the handwriting as matching that in letters known to have been written by Anne Frank . They declared the diary to be genuine . Stielau recanted his earlier statement , and Otto Frank did not pursue the case any further .
In 1976 , Otto Frank took action against Heinz Roth of Frankfurt , who published pamphlets stating that the diary was " a forgery . " The judge ruled that if Roth was to publish any further statements he would be subjected to a fine of 500 @,@ 000 German marks and a six @-@ month jail sentence . Roth appealed against the court 's decision . He died in 1978 , and after a year his appeal was rejected .
Otto Frank mounted a lawsuit in 1976 against Ernst Römer , who distributed a pamphlet titled " The Diary of Anne Frank , Bestseller , A Lie " . When a man named Edgar Geiss distributed the same pamphlet in the courtroom , he too was prosecuted . Römer was fined 1 @,@ 500 Deutschmarks , and Geiss was sentenced to six months imprisonment . The sentence of Geiss was reduced on appeal , and the case was eventually dropped following a subsequent appeal because the statutory limitation for libel had expired .
With Otto Frank 's death in 1980 , the original diary , including letters and loose sheets , were willed to the Dutch Institute for War Documentation , who commissioned a forensic study of the diary through the Netherlands Ministry of Justice in 1986 . They examined the handwriting against known examples and found that they matched . They determined that the paper , glue , and ink were readily available during the time the diary was said to have been written . They concluded that the diary is authentic , and their findings were published in what has become known as the " Critical Edition " of the diary . On 23 March 1990 , the Hamburg Regional Court confirmed the diary 's authenticity .
In 1991 , Holocaust deniers Robert Faurisson and Siegfried Verbeke produced a booklet titled The Diary of Anne Frank : A Critical Approach , in which they revived the allegation that Otto Frank wrote the diary . Purported evidence , as before , included several contradictions in the diary , that the prose style and handwriting were not those of a teenager , and that hiding in the Achterhuis would have been impossible . In December 1993 the Anne Frank House in Amsterdam and the Anne Frank Funds in Basel filed a civil lawsuit to prohibit further distribution of Faurisson and Verbeke 's booklet in the Netherlands . On 9 December 1998 the Amsterdam District Court ruled in favour of the claimants , forbade any further denial of the authenticity of the diary and unsolicited distribution of publications to that effect , and imposed a penalty of 25 @,@ 000 guilders per infringement .
= = = Complaints regarding unabridged version = = =
An unabridged edition of Anne Frank 's work was published in 1995 . This version included Anne 's description of her exploration of her own genitalia and her puzzlement regarding sex and childbirth , a passage that had previously been edited out by Otto Frank . When Gail Horalek of Northville , Michigan , learned in March 2013 that her daughter 's seventh @-@ grade class was using this edition of the diary in class , she filed a complaint with the school district asking that an edited version be used instead . Horalek , who described the passage as pornographic , said the school should have obtained prior approval from parents before assigning the book . In 2010 , school officials in Culpeper County , Virginia , stopped assigning the unabridged version after similar complaints were lodged .
Emer O 'Toole of The Guardian noted that " we live in a society in which young women are taught to be ashamed of the changes that their bodies undergo at puberty – to be secretive about them , and even to pretend that they don 't exist . " Clem Bastow of Daily Life found the complaint " infuriating " .
= = Legacy = =
On 3 May 1957 , a group of citizens , including Otto Frank , established the Anne Frank Stichting in an effort to rescue the Prinsengracht building from demolition and to make it accessible to the public . The Anne Frank House opened on 3 May 1960 . It consists of the Opekta warehouse and offices and the Achterhuis , all unfurnished so that visitors can walk freely through the rooms . Some personal relics of the former occupants remain , such as movie star photographs glued by Anne to a wall , a section of wallpaper on which Otto Frank marked the height of his growing daughters , and a map on the wall where he recorded the advance of the Allied Forces , all now protected behind Perspex sheets . From the small room which was once home to Peter van Pels , a walkway connects the building to its neighbours , also purchased by the Foundation . These other buildings are used to house the diary , as well as rotating exhibits that chronicle aspects of the Holocaust and more contemporary examinations of racial intolerance around the world . One of Amsterdam 's main tourist attractions , it received a record 965 @,@ 000 visitors in 2005 . The House provides information via the internet and offers exhibitions that in 2005 travelled to 32 countries in Europe , Asia , North America , and South America .
In 1963 , Otto Frank and his second wife , Elfriede Geiringer @-@ Markovits , set up the Anne Frank Fonds as a charitable foundation , based in Basel , Switzerland . The Fonds raises money to donate to causes " as it sees fit " . Upon his death , Otto willed the diary 's copyright to the Fonds , on the provision that the first 80 @,@ 000 Swiss francs in income each year was to be distributed to his heirs . Any income above this figure is to be retained by the Fonds for use on whatever projects its administrators considered worthy . It provides funding for the medical treatment of the Righteous among the Nations on a yearly basis . The Fonds aims to educate young people against racism , and loaned some of Anne Frank 's papers to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington for an exhibition in 2003 . Its annual report that year outlined its efforts to contribute on a global level , with support for projects in Germany , Israel , India , Switzerland , the United Kingdom , and the United States .
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1997 , the Anne Frank Educational Centre ( Jugendbegegnungsstätte Anne Frank ) was opened in the Dornbusch neighborhood of Frankfurt , where Frank lived with her family until 1934 . The Centre is " a place where both young people and adults can learn about the history of National Socialism and discuss its relevance to today . "
The Merwedeplein apartment , where the Frank family lived from 1933 until 1942 , remained privately owned until the 2000s . After becoming the focus of a television documentary , the building — in a serious state of disrepair — was purchased by a Dutch housing corporation . Aided by photographs taken by the Frank family and descriptions in letters written by Anne Frank , it was restored to its 1930s appearance . Teresien da Silva of the Anne Frank House and Frank 's cousin , Bernhard " Buddy " Elias , contributed to the restoration project . It opened in 2005 . Each year , a writer who is unable to write freely in his or her own country is selected for a year @-@ long tenancy , during which they reside and write in the apartment . The first writer selected was the Algerian novelist and poet El @-@ Mahdi Acherchour .
In June 2007 , " Buddy " Elias donated some 25 @,@ 000 family documents to the Anne Frank House . Among the artifacts are Frank family photographs taken in Germany and the Netherlands and the letter Otto Frank sent his mother in 1945 , informing her that his wife and daughters had perished in Nazi concentration camps .
In November 2007 , the Anne Frank tree — by then infected with a fungal disease affecting the tree trunk — was scheduled to be cut down to prevent it from falling on the surrounding buildings . Dutch economist Arnold Heertje said about the tree : " This is not just any tree . The Anne Frank tree is bound up with the persecution of the Jews . " The Tree Foundation , a group of tree conservationists , started a civil case to stop the felling of the horse chestnut , which received international media attention . A Dutch court ordered city officials and conservationists to explore alternatives and come to a solution . The parties built a steel construction that was expected to prolong the life of the tree up to 15 years . However , it was only three years later , on 23 August 2010 , that gale @-@ force winds blew down the tree . Eleven saplings from the tree were distributed to museums , schools , parks and Holocaust remembrance centers through a project led by the Anne Frank Center USA . The first sapling was planted in April 2013 at The Children 's Museum of Indianapolis . Saplings were also sent to a school in Little Rock , Arkansas that was the scene of a desegregation battle , Liberty Park ( Manhattan ) , which honors victims of the September 11 attacks , and other sites in the United States .
Over the years , several films about Anne Frank appeared . Her life and writings have inspired a diverse group of artists and social commentators to make reference to her in literature , popular music , television , and other media . These include The Anne Frank Ballet by Adam Darius , first performed in 1959 , and the choral work Annelies , first performed in 2005 . The only known footage of the real Anne Frank comes from a 1941 silent film recorded for her newlywed next @-@ door neighbor . She is seen leaning out of a second @-@ floor window in an attempt to better view the bride and groom . The couple , who survived the war , gave the film to the Anne Frank House .
In 1999 , Time named Anne Frank among the heroes and icons of the 20th century on their list The Most Important People of the Century , stating : " With a diary kept in a secret attic , she braved the Nazis and lent a searing voice to the fight for human dignity " . Philip Roth called her the " lost little daughter " of Franz Kafka . Madame Tussauds wax museum unveiled an exhibit featuring a likeness of Anne Frank in 2012 . Asteroid 5535 Annefrank was named in her honor in 1995 , after having been discovered in 1942 .
= Live Forever =
" Live Forever " is a song by the English rock band Oasis . Written by Noel Gallagher , the song was released as the third single from their debut album Definitely Maybe ( 1994 ) on 8 August 1994 , just prior to that album 's release .
Gallagher wrote the song in 1991 , before he joined Oasis . Inspired by the Rolling Stones ' " Shine a Light " , " Live Forever " features a basic song structure and lyrics with an optimistic outlook that contrasted with the attitude of the grunge bands popular at the time . The song was the first Oasis single to enter the top ten in the United Kingdom , and garnered critical acclaim .
= = Background and recording = =
Noel Gallagher began working on " Live Forever " in 1991 , while working for a building company in his hometown of Manchester . After his foot was crushed by a pipe in an accident , he was given a less @-@ strenuous job working in the storeroom , allowing him more time to write songs . One night , he was listening to the Rolling Stones ' album Exile on Main St ; while playing one of his own chord progressions , Gallagher noted that it sounded good against one of the vocal melodies from the album : " It was the bit from " Shine a Light " that goes [ sings ] , " May the good Lord shine a light on you " " , Gallagher recalled . Gallagher incorporated the melody , changing the line to " Maybe I don 't really want to know " . For a period afterwards , that was the only part of the song Gallagher had completed .
Noel Gallagher presented a fully composed " Live Forever " to the band for the first time in early 1993 during rehearsals . According to drummer Tony McCarroll , the band were admittedly awed by it . The song was later instrumental in helping the band secure their record deal with Creation Records . Reflecting on when he first heard the song , Creation boss Alan McGee recalled , " It was probably the single greatest moment I 've ever experienced with them " .
The demo version of " Live Forever " begins with an acoustic guitar intro . While recording the album version , the record 's producer Owen Morris cut out this intro and replaced it with a drumbeat played by McCarroll . Morris further cut a second section in Gallagher 's guitar solo . Although Gallagher was upset , Morris felt the part had sounded " a bit like fucking Slash from Guns N ' Roses " .
= = Composition = =
" Live Forever " is in the key of G major ( varispeeded up by less than half a semitone during mixing ) and is based on a G – D – Am7 – C – D chord progression , with the G chord becoming an Em during the pre @-@ chorus , though the key changes to A minor following the last chorus . The song has no proper distinction between the verses or chorus section ( with only a falsetto refrain of " You and I are gonna live forever " marking off sections ) , and the vocal melody only consists of a few notes . The simplistic arrangement of the song " meant the song never resolved " . Guitarist Paul Arthurs said , " for me that song could keep going . "
The song begins with a voice whistling briefly and saying " Oh yeah " , followed by a drum beat that plays unaccompanied for a few measures . An intermingling of the main guitar line , piano notes , and Liam Gallagher 's vocals then enter . Each verse begins with Liam singing the phrase " Maybe / I don 't really wanna know / How your garden grows / ' Cause I just wanna fly " , and each verse ends with the falsetto refrain . A guitar solo appears after the second refrain of " You and I are gonna live forever " . After the third verse and refrain section , Liam Gallagher repeats the line " Gonna live forever ! " four times with ' ache in his voice ' , followed by one final guitar solo .
The song is interpreted to be an ode to Noel and Liam Gallagher 's mother Peggy . In general the lyrics of the song stress an optimistic outlook . Noel Gallagher explained that " At the time . . . it was written in the middle of grunge and all that , and I remember Nirvana had a tune called ' I Hate Myself and Want to Die ' , and I was like . . . ' Well , I 'm not fucking having that . ' As much as I fucking like him [ Nirvana frontman Kurt Cobain ] and all that shit , I 'm not having that . I can 't have people like that coming over here , on smack , fucking saying that they hate themselves and they wanna die . That 's fucking rubbish . Kids don 't need to be hearing that nonsense . " While Gallagher has stated he did not intend " Live Forever " as a direct retort to Nirvana or their music ( being a professed fan of the band ) , he contrasted the lives of Cobain and his band at that point , saying , " Seems to me that here was a guy who had everything , and was miserable about it . And we had fuck @-@ all , and I still thought that getting up in the morning was the greatest fuckin ' thing ever , ' cause you didn 't know where you 'd end up at night . And we didn 't have a pot to piss in , but it was fucking great , man " . Gallagher considers the line " We see things they 'll never see " the most important line of the song , explaining that old friends tend to laugh at jokes and stories that " no one else gets " .
= = Reception = =
" Live Forever " was released on 8 August 1994 as the band 's third single , a month before the release of their debut album Definitely Maybe . The song had been part of the band 's set for longer than a year at that point , and had amassed so many mentions in reviews of the group that " its release [ as a single ] had long seemed inevitable . " In its review of the single , NME found " Live Forever " to be an improvement over Oasis ' previous singles , concluding , " Basically , what thus far looked like obnoxious Manc arrogance suddenly looks like sheer effortlessness . A terrific record . "
While Oasis ' first two singles , " Supersonic " and " Shakermaker " , were modestly received , it was " Live Forever " that " got the world 's attention " . " Live Forever " became Oasis ' first top ten hit , reaching number ten on the British singles charts in 1994 . In 1995 , the song became the band 's first chart success in the United States , reaching number two and ten on Billboard 's Modern Rock Tracks and Mainstream Rock Tracks charts , respectively . Noel Gallagher commented on the praise given to the song : " People said to me after ' Live Forever ' , ' Where are you gonna go after that ? ' And I was like , I don 't think it 's that good . I think it 's a fucking good song , but I think I can do better . "
" Live Forever " has garnered additional acclaim years after its release . In 2006 , " Live Forever " was named the greatest song of all @-@ time in a poll released by Q ; the song had ranked ninth in a similar Q poll three years prior . In 2007 , " Live Forever " placed number one in the NME and XFM poll of the 50 " Greatest Indie Anthems Ever " . Pitchfork labeled the song as Oasis ' best ever track and said of the song ; " It 's an honest , aspirational sentiment just as the photo of John Lennon 's childhood home on the single 's sleeve is an honest , tasteful exhibition of fandom . " The music site went on to praise the song for its ' fearless optimism ' .
= = Music videos = =
Two music videos were made for " Live Forever " for British and American airplay . The original video , shot on 8 May 1994 , was directed by Carlos Grasso and features unusual imagery such as Liam Gallagher sitting on a chair affixed to a wall , and a number of scenes are devoted to the band burying drummer Tony McCarroll alive . Some of the UK version of the promotional video was filmed at the Strawberry Fields memorial , the area of New York City 's Central Park dedicated to John Lennon — the single cover features 251 Menlove Avenue , the childhood home of Lennon . The American video , directed by Nick Egan features the band playing in an office with pictures of Sid Vicious , Kurt Cobain , Jim Morrison , John Lennon , Brian Jones , Jimi Hendrix , Marc Bolan , and Bobby Moore on the wall . Both videos are included on the 2004 Definitely Maybe DVD .
= = Live performances = =
" Live Forever " is a crowd favorite to play at concerts . In some concerts , most notably Manchester in 1996 , a slideshow of famous deceased musicians Oasis admired - such as Elvis Presley , Bob Marley , and Sid Vicious - would be displayed behind the band , with a picture of John Lennon always at the end of the slideshow . During the early years , Liam Gallagher would personally sing the falsetto part , " You and I , we 're gonna live forever . " Noel Gallagher eventually picked up the role of singing the falsetto , as " Liam thought it was a bit gay . "
= = Track listings = =
= = = UK track listing = = =
CD CRESCD 185
" Live Forever " – 4 : 38
" Up in the Sky " ( acoustic ) – 3 : 32
" Cloudburst " – 5 : 21
" Supersonic " ( live ) – 5 : 12
7 " CRE 185
" Live Forever " – 4 : 38
" Up in the Sky " ( acoustic ) – 3 : 32
12 " CRE 185T
" Live Forever " – 4 : 38
" Up in the Sky " ( acoustic ) – 3 : 32
" Cloudburst " – 5 : 21
Cassette CRECS 185
" Live Forever " – 4 : 38
" Up in the Sky " ( Acoustic ) – 3 : 32
= = = European track listing = = =
CD HES 660689 2
" Live Forever " ( radio edit ) – 3 : 43
" Live Forever " – 4 : 37
" Up in the Sky " ( acoustic ) – 3 : 32
" Cloudburst " – 5 : 21
" Supersonic " ( live ) – 5 : 10
= = Chart positions = =
= Everard Digby =
Sir Everard Digby ( c . 1578 – 30 January 1606 ) was a member of the group of provincial English Catholics who planned the failed Gunpowder Plot of 1605 . Although he was raised in a Protestant household , and married a Protestant , Digby and his wife were converted to Catholicism by the Jesuit priest John Gerard . In the autumn of 1605 he was part of a Catholic pilgrimage to the shrine of St Winefride 's Well in Holywell . About this time he met Robert Catesby , a religious fanatic who planned to blow up the House of Lords with gunpowder , killing James I. Catesby then planned to incite a popular revolt , during which a Catholic monarch would be restored to the English throne .
The full extent of Digby 's knowledge of and involvement in the plot is unknown , but on Catesby 's behest Digby rented Coughton Court and prepared a " hunting party " , ready for the planned uprising . The plot failed however , and Digby joined the conspirators as they took flight through the Midlands , failing to garner support along their way . Digby left the other fugitives at Holbeche House in Staffordshire , and was soon captured and taken to the Tower of London .
Digby was tried on 27 January 1606 . Despite an eloquent defence , he was found guilty of high treason , and three days later was hanged , drawn and quartered .
= = Early life = =
Everard Digby was the son of Everard Digby , and Maria Digby ( née Neale ) , daughter of Francis Neale of Keythorpe in Leicestershire . He was also a cousin of Anne Vaux , who for years placed herself at considerable risk by sheltering Jesuit priests such as Henry Garnet . According to author Roy Digby Thomas , the Digby family may have been founded during the Norman conquest of England , when William the Conqueror was accompanied by Almar , who settled at Tilton in Rutland . Sir John Digby ( d . 1269 ) served on two crusades , and by 1418 Sir Everard " Greenleaf " Digby was Lord of Tilton and owner of the manor at Drystoke , and Rutland 's member of Parliament . Sir Everard lost his life ( and his family much of their fortune ) fighting in 1461 for Henry VI against Edward IV . The family had a reversal of fortune in 1485 when Sir Everard 's sons fought for the victorious Henry VII at the Battle of Bosworth Field . Digby may have been related to the 16th @-@ century scholar , Everard Digby .
In 1596 , while still a teenager , he married Mary Mulshaw , a young heiress who brought with her Gayhurst House in Buckinghamshire . By all accounts their marriage was a happy one , and they had two sons ; Kenelm was born in 1603 at Gayhurst , and John in 1605 . Unlike other English Catholics , Digby had little first @-@ hand experience of England 's recusancy laws . Following the death of his father he had been made a ward of Chancery and was raised in a Protestant household . His wife Mary was converted to Catholicism by the Jesuit priest John Gerard . When Digby fell seriously ill , Gerard used the occasion to convert him also , and the two subsequently became close friends , " calling eachother [ sic ] ' brother ' when we wrote and spoke " . Gerard was godfather to Digby 's eldest son , Kenelm , and the Digbys also built a hidden chapel and sacristy at Gayhurst .
Digby frequented the court of Elizabeth I , and became informally associated with the Elizabethan gentlemen pensioners . His marriage had significantly expanded his holdings , however , and possibly for this reason he left court to manage his estates . He was apparently an unforgiving landlord , as his tenants in Tilton petitioned the Crown for redress when he failed to honour the expensive leases granted them by his father . He added to his property in Buckinghamshire by buying land in Great Missenden , and a month after the queen 's death his social station was elevated when on 24 April 1603 he was knighted by James I at Belvoir Castle . Four days later he was present for Elizabeth 's funeral in London .
= = Robert Catesby = =
In late August or early September 1605 , Digby , his wife and their secret Jesuit chaplain Edward Oldcorne joined a pilgrimage organised by , amongst others , Henry Garnet and Anne Vaux . The party had set out from White Webbs at Enfield Chase , heading for the shrine of St Winefride 's Well at Holywell , and had occasionally stopped along the way to collect more followers . As the thirty or so pilgrims returned from Holywell in mid @-@ September , they stopped at Rushton Hall where Sir Thomas Tresham had recently died , and then continued on to Digby 's seat at Gayhurst .
On 21 October Digby , his wife , Garnet and Vaux were at Harrowden celebrating a delayed Feast of St Luke . While there he met Robert Catesby , who at some point asked him to swear an oath of secrecy before introducing him to what later became known as the Gunpowder Plot . English Catholics had hoped that the years of persecution they suffered during Elizabeth 's reign would end when James I came to the throne , as his attitude appeared moderate , even tolerant towards Catholics . In Catesby 's view however , James had reneged on his promises , and he had quickly lost patience with the new dynasty . He therefore planned to kill James by blowing up the House of Lords with gunpowder , and then inciting a popular revolt during which a Catholic monarch would be restored to the throne . Catesby had enlisted the aid of other Catholics , but had borne much of the scheme 's financial cost and was running out of money . The group had therefore agreed to expand their numbers . To this end Catesby had recruited Ambrose Rookwood — a young and wealthy Catholic with a stable of fine horses — and a wealthy cousin , Francis Tresham .
The extent of Digby 's knowledge of the plot is unknown , but in the opinion of author Alan Haynes , Digby was shocked by what he heard , and asked what would become of some of their Catholic friends . Catesby replied " Assure your selfe that such of the nobilitie as are worth the saving shalbe preserved and yet knowe not of the matter . " None of their friends would be caught in the explosion . He asked if Catesby had spoken of the matter with Garnet , or any other Jesuits ; although Catesby was in no doubt that the Jesuits disapproved of any such action , he lied and said that he would not act without their approbation . Catesby then named the other conspirators , and promised Digby that as soon as they reached Gayhurst he would demonstrate that their religion allowed such acts of regicide , thus dissuading the young lord from confessing to Garnet and discovering the Jesuit 's opinion of the matter . Catesby told him to rent Coughton Court from the head of the Throckmorton family , so that he would " the better to be able to do good to the cause [ kidnap Princess Elizabeth ] " . From there , he was to organise a hunting party ( in reality a group of armed men on horseback ) and be ready for some kind of military manoeuvre . Digby also provided monetary assistance ; he promised £ 1 @,@ 500 after fellow plotter Thomas Percy failed to pay the rent due for several properties in Westminster .
= = Hunting party = =
On 2 November at Gayhurst , while making preparations for his hunting party , Digby was visited by Gerard . Having noticed that the house was almost completely empty , the Jesuit asked him if there was " any matter in hand " and if Garnet knew of it . Keen not to implicate Gerard , despite being told less than two weeks earlier that the plot had Jesuit approval , Digby told him that there was nothing he knew of " or could tell him of " . Although Gerard later used this conversation to defend himself against those who accused him of involvement in the plot , he lived to regret not being given the opportunity to dissuade Digby from his course .
Two days later Digby and his servants were ensconced at the Red Lion inn , in Dunchurch , where his hunt was to take place . He took with him several items of clothing , including " a white satin doublet cut with purple " . Also present , but uninvolved , were his uncle , Sir Robert Digby , Humphrey Littleton and his nephew Stephen Littleton . They ate supper , before being joined by fellow conspirator John Grant and a friend . Also invited was the stepbrother of plotters Robert and Thomas Wintour , John Wintour . They attended a mass the next morning , conducted by a Father Hammond , before the party moved on .
Around midnight on 4 November , Guy Fawkes was discovered guarding the gunpowder the plotters had placed beneath the House of Lords , and arrested . Those conspirators still in London soon took flight for the Midlands , finding along the way those who had already left to prepare for the planned uprising . They met Digby and his party at Dunchurch . Catesby told Digby that the king and Salisbury were dead , and " if true Catholics would now stir , he doubted not that they might procure to themselves good conditions " . Digby was won over , but many of his party were less than impressed at being so badly deceived , and worse , being associated with treason . One of his servants asked Digby what would happen to them ; Digby told him that although he was aware of their ignorance , " but now there is no remedy " .
= = Flight = =
On 6 November the fugitives raided Warwick Castle and managed to secure more horses , before moving on to Norbrook to collect stored weapons . From there they continued their journey toward Huddington . Catesby ordered his servant ( and fellow plotter ) Thomas Bates to deliver a letter to Father Garnet at Coughton Court . Catesby and Digby asked Garnet to excuse their recklessness , before asking for his help in raising an army in Wales . Garnet 's reply begged them to stop their " wicked actions " , and to listen to the Pope 's teachings . When the priest tried to comfort Mary Digby , also at Coughton Court , she burst into tears .
With their ever @-@ decreasing band of supporters , the remaining fugitives arrived at Huddington at about 2 : 00 pm . Any expectation they had of support began to vanish ; almost everyone they met showed concern only for their own safety , fearful of being involved with traitors . The next morning they rode through the rain , stopping briefly to help themselves to supplies from the home of the absent Lord Windsor at Hewell Grange . Still the locals refused to have anything to do with them ; Digby later admitted that " not one man " joined them . They arrived that night at Holbeche House on the border of Staffordshire , and tired and desperate , spread out some of the now @-@ soaked gunpowder in front of the fire , to dry out . A spark from the fire landed on the powder and the resultant flames engulfed Catesby , Rookwood , Grant , and another man .
= = Surrender = =
Catesby and fellow conspirators Thomas Percy , John Wright and his brother Christopher were killed by the Sheriff of Worcester 's men early on 8 November , but Digby had already left to give himself up ( the only conspirator to do so ) . With two servants , possibly Bates and his son , he took several horses and hid in nearby woods . Their tracks were soon found however , and with some hesitation ( Digby had intended to surrender himself to someone more worthy ) , early that morning he presented himself to the most senior @-@ looking of his adversaries . While Digby was taken to the Tower of London , Gayhurst was ransacked ; the servants ' belongings were stolen , the livestock was sold cheaply , and Mary Digby was left destitute . The sheriff later remarked " All goods are carried away , even to the very floor of the great parlour . " At the Tower , Digby 's two trunks of clothing were searched , and found to contain £ 100 in gold , and £ 50 in white money . William Waad , Lieutenant of the Tower , asked if he could take £ 50 to pay for Digby 's food and bedding .
Digby unsuccessfully sought an audience with James to try and explain himself , in Fraser 's opinion suggesting either that the extent of his involvement was limited , or that he was " astonishingly naive and trusting of his sovereign 's forgiveness . " While imprisoned he busied himself with writing secret letters , smuggled from the Tower and not rediscovered until Kenelm Digby 's death in 1675 . Although he was fortunate not to suffer the fate of Guy Fawkes , who was tortured on several occasions , one of these letters hints that it had been " in a fashion , offered " . He described his refusal to cooperate with his interrogators , boasted of his deceit , and how there was nothing he could do to make the plot appear less abhorrent to fellow Catholics . Digby also carved an inscription on the wall of his cell , extant as of 1996 .
= = Trial and execution = =
Digby was tried on the same day as seven of his surviving co @-@ conspirators , in Westminster Hall , on Monday 27 January 1606 . As the king and his family watched in secret , the charges against the plotters were read aloud . Alone amongst them Digby pleaded " Guilty " , and was tried on a separate indictment . Dressed in a black satin suit and " tuff taffetie gown " , he gave a short and moving speech , defending his actions by explaining his affection for Catesby , and the cause of his religion . He accused King James of reneging on his promises of toleration for Catholics , and told of his fears of harsher laws against recusancy . He also pleaded on behalf of his family , that they should not pay for his actions , before making a final request to be beheaded . His words fell on mostly deaf ears . The prosecution poured scorn on James 's supposed perfidy , and ridiculed Digby for asking for leniency where he would have given none . Along with the other plotters , he was found guilty . As they were led from the hall , Digby exclaimed : " If I may but hear any of your lordships say , you forgive me , I shall go more cheerfully to the gallows . " The reply came back , " God forgive you , and we do . "
He spent his last few days in the Tower writing letters to his wife and his sons , urging the two brothers to avoid the examples set by figures such as Cain and Abel . He also wrote poetry :
Who 's that which knocks ? Oh stay , my Lord , I come :
I know that call , since first it made me know
Myself , which makes me now with joy to run
Lest he be gone that can my duty show .
Jesu , my Lord , I know thee by the Cross
Thou offer 'st me , but not unto my loss .
Digby was hanged , drawn and quartered early on Thursday 30 January . Throngs of spectators lined the streets as he was strapped to a wattled hurdle , and alongside Robert Wintour and John Grant was dragged by horse to the western end of Old St Paul 's Cathedral churchyard . Thomas Bates was delivered in a similar fashion , but from the Gatehouse Prison . Armed guards interspersed along the route were there to defend against any possible rescue , but did not keep the miscreants ' families from witnessing the fate of the four men . Cold and grubby , Digby was the first of the four to face the executioner . He mounted the scaffold and addressed the audience , telling them that he knew he had broken the law , but that morally , and in the eyes of his religion , he had committed no offence . He asked for God 's forgiveness , and the country 's , and protested the Jesuits ' and Father Gerard 's innocence . He refused the attentions of a Protestant clergyman , speaking to himself in Latin , before saying goodbye to his friends .
Digby was then stripped of his clothing , except for his shirt . Murmuring " O Jesus , Jesus , save me and keep me " , he climbed the ladder and was hanged for a short period . The executioner cut the rope , and Digby fell back to the scaffold , wounding his forehead . Fully conscious , he was taken to the block and castrated , disembowelled , and quartered . Wintour , Grant and Bates followed . The remaining four conspirators suffered similar fates the following day , at the Old Palace Yard in Westminster .
= Battle of Pell 's Point =
The Battle of Pell 's Point ( October 18 , 1776 ) , also known as the Battle of Pelham , was a skirmish fought between British and American troops during the New York and New Jersey campaign of the American Revolutionary War . The conflict took place in what is now part of Pelham Bay Park in the Bronx , New York City .
On October 12 , British forces landed at Throgs Neck in order to execute a flanking maneuver that would trap Gen. George Washington , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the American revolutionary forces , and the main body of the Continental Army on the island of Manhattan . The Americans thwarted the landing , and Gen. Sir William Howe , commander @-@ in @-@ chief of British forces in North America , looked for another location along Long Island Sound to disembark his troops . On October 18 , he landed 4 @,@ 000 men at Pelham , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of Throgs Neck . Inland were 750 men of a brigade under the command of the American Col. John Glover . Glover positioned his troops behind a series of stone walls and attacked the British advance units . As the British overran each position , the American troops fell back and reorganized behind the next wall . After several such attacks , the British broke off , and the Americans retreated .
The battle delayed British movements long enough for Washington to move the main army to White Plains and avoid being surrounded on Manhattan . After losing to the British in a battle at White Plains , and losing Fort Washington , Washington retreated across New Jersey to Pennsylvania .
= = Background = =
After a victory at the Battle of Long Island in late August , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of British forces in North America , Gen. Sir William Howe landed his troops at Kip 's Bay , on the eastern shore of present @-@ day Manhattan , on September 15 . George Washington and his army retreated to Harlem Heights , a plateau situated on the north end of Manhattan Island . Washington was in a good defensive position , with his rear guarded on two sides by rocky heights and the Hudson and Harlem Rivers , and with more rocky heights to the south between his forces and the British . The next day , the British attacked the Americans and were defeated at the Battle of Harlem Heights . There was very little action for the next month , while the two forces remained in their fortified positions , each unable to decide upon their next move . The Americans believed Howe would either attack Fort Washington or attempt to flank the Americans with a landing at some point on Long Island Sound . A council @-@ of @-@ war decided to guard against both possibilities ; Washington kept 10 @,@ 000 men to defend Harlem Heights and Fort Washington , while Maj. Gen. William Heath took 10 @,@ 000 troops to defend Kingsbridge , and Maj. Gen. Nathanael Greene was given 5 @,@ 000 troops to defend the other side of the Hudson River , near Fort Constitution .
After 26 days of contemplation , Howe decided against a frontal attack on Harlem Heights and Fort Washington , and chose instead to attempt a flanking maneuver . On October 12 , leaving behind three brigades under the command of Lord Hugh Percy on Manhattan Island , Howe embarked his main army in 80 vessels and proceeded up the East River , through Hell Gate , and landed at Throgs Neck . Throgs Neck — originally known as Throckmorton 's , and also known as Throck 's , Frog 's Neck , and Frog 's Point — is a narrow spit of land that sits between the East River and Long Island Sound . Conveniently for Howe , there was a road running from Throgs Neck to Kingsbridge , directly behind the American forces . Howe hoped to use this road to flank the Americans and pin them against the Hudson River .
Under the cover of fog , an advance force of 4 @,@ 000 men under the command of General Henry Clinton was landed on Throgs Neck . To their dismay , they found they were not on a peninsula , but on an island , separated from the mainland by a creek and a marsh . There were two ways to get to the mainland : a causeway and bridge at the lower end , and a ford at the other . The Americans were guarding both . Col. Edward Hand and a detachment of 25 men from the 1st Pennsylvania Regiment positioned themselves behind a length of cordwood along the causeway , after having removed the planks of wood from the bridge . They surprised the British troops , who fell back and made an attempt to cross at the ford , which was guarded by another detachment . The Americans guarding both positions were quickly reinforced , and the defenders soon numbered over 1 @,@ 800 men . Howe decided it would be better to retreat and land somewhere else . He made camp on Throgs Neck and remained there for six days while supplies and reinforcements , including 7 @,@ 000 Hessian soldiers under the command of Gen. Wilhelm von Knyphausen , were brought up from New York . Just after midnight on October 18 , Howe embarked his army again and decided to land at Pell 's Point near the town of Pelham , a few miles to the north .
After hearing of the landing on Throgs Neck , Washington knew he risked entrapment on Manhattan . He made the decision to move his army to White Plains , where he believed they would be safe . By October 17 , the Continental Army was on its way to White Plains , leaving behind 2 @,@ 000 men to garrison Fort Washington .
= = Battle = =
At dawn , the British began to land on the shore , Clinton 's advance guard of 4 @,@ 000 British light infantry and Hessian jägers landing first . Inland , opposing them , was a brigade of some 750 men under the command of John Glover . Glover was atop a hill with a telescope when he noticed the British ships . Glover sent an officer , Major William Lee , to report to Charles Lee , Washington 's second in command , and ask for orders . However , Lee did not give any orders , and in the absence of orders Glover chose to attack . Glover turned out his brigade , which consisted of the 14th , 13th , 3rd and the 26th Continental Regiments . Glover left the 150 men of the 14th Continentals behind in reserve . Glover had not closed half the distance when he ran into approximately 30 skirmishers . Glover ordered a Captain and his 40 @-@ man company forward as an advance guard to hold the British in check , while Glover organized the rest of the force .
Glover prepared an ambush by placing the main body in staggered positions behind the stone walls that lined either side of the laneway leading from the beachhead to the interior . Glover instructed each of the regiments to hold their position as long as they could and then to fall back to a position in the rear , while the next unit took up the fighting . Glover then rode up to take command of the advance guard . The advance guard and the British began to engage each other , both sides taking casualties . After a little while the British were reinforced , and Glover ordered a retreat , which was done without confusion . The British troops began to advance at the retreating Americans . However , the 200 troops of the 13th Continentals that Glover had stationed behind the stone wall stood up and fired at the British when there were only 30 yards away . The ambush worked , and the column of British troops took heavy losses and fell back to the main body of the invading army .
The British waited half an hour before attacking again . This time when they attacked , they attacked with all 4 @,@ 000 men and seven cannon . The British bombarded the American position behind the stone wall as their infantry advanced . The cannon fire was ineffective , and when the British were 50 yards away the Americans fired a volley which stopped the British infantry . The British returned fire , and musket and rifle fire ensued for 20 minutes , the British supported by cannon , at which point the lead American regiment fell back under cover of the next reserve regiment . The 3rd Continental Regiment was stationed behind the stone wall on the opposite side of the road .
The British attacked the position of the 3rd Continentals , and an engagement ensued . Both sides kept up constant fire , the Americans breaking the British lines several times . However , after 17 volleys , the British numbers began to overwhelm the Americans , and Glover ordered a withdrawal to another stone wall on the crest of a hill while the next regiment in line , the 26th Continentals , engaged the British .
A reconnaissance party of 30 men was sent out from behind the third stone wall to see if the British would try and flank the American position . The party ran into the British , who had continued to advance , and they fell back to the stone wall . The Americans behind the wall fired one volley before Glover gave the order to retreat . The Americans retreated across a bridge over the Hutchinson stream , their retreat covered by the 150 men of the 14th Continentals who engaged in an artillery duel with the British . Howe camped on a hill on the opposite side of the stream but made no attempt to cross the stream .
= = Aftermath = =
The next day , Glover and his force retreated to the town of Yonkers . American casualties were 8 killed and 13 wounded . British and Hessian casualties are not known . Howe 's official dispatch listed British casualties as 3 killed and 20 wounded , although the report did not include Hessian casualties . As the Hessians made up the majority of the landing force , it is reasonable to expect they made up the majority of the casualties . Over the next few days , from knowledge collected from British deserters , the Americans estimated that the British lost between 800 and 1 @,@ 000 killed or wounded , likely an exaggeration . Colonel Loammi Baldwin , who was present at the battle , estimated that the Americans had killed 200 British and Hessians , but historian David McCullough says this was " undoubtedly an exaggeration . " Historian George Athan Billias argues in support of Baldwin 's estimates , due in part to the corroborating admission of another British deserter . Regardless , the combined British and Hessian casualties were almost certainly larger than those of the Americans .
With the British advance delayed , the main American army under Washington was able to safely evacuate from Harlem ( on the island of Manhattan ) to White Plains . Howe slowly moved his army through New Rochelle and Scarsdale . On October 28 , he sent 13 @,@ 000 men to attack the Americans , resulting in a minor victory over Washington at the Battle of White Plains . Fort Washington , the last American stronghold on Manhattan , fell on November 16 . With these defeats , Washington and his army retreated across New Jersey and into Pennsylvania , paving the way for the Battles of Trenton and Princeton .
= The Transformation =
" The Transformation " is the thirteenth episode of the first season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . Its storyline centers on the circumstances surrounding a deceased scientist ( Neal Huff ) , who was doped with a " designer virus " and transformed into a dangerous monster , causing his plane to crash . Fringe agent Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) and FBI consultants Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) and Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) connect the event to an impending arms deal . Olivia must explore her mind for remaining memories of her former partner and lover , John Scott ( Mark Valley ) , in order to prevent the sale of the virus .
The episode was co @-@ written by Zack Whedon and supervising producer J. R. Orci , while producer Brad Anderson served as the director . The creation of the monster took the crew approximately eleven days – they took molds of guest actor Huff 's head and back and created eight sets of dentures in order to create the special effect of transformation . To create the plane crash set , the crew spent over a week strategically placing around 15 @,@ 000 pounds worth of plane parts .
It was first screened at PaleyFest in November 2008 . On February 3 , 2009 , the episode was broadcast in the United States on Fox to an estimated 12 @.@ 78 million viewers . The episode earned a 5 / 6 @.@ 5 ratings share among adults aged 18 to 49 , finishing in eighth place for the week . It received generally positive reviews . Commentators have noted allusions to the pilot and a fourth season episode , in addition to the television series Lost and H.G. Wells ' novel The Island of Doctor Moreau .
= = Plot = =
On an airplane in flight , scientist Marshall Bowman ( Neal Huff ) gets a nosebleed , and he tries to warn the crew to give him sedatives or use force against him . He transforms into a beast in the bathroom , and bursts out , causing the plane to crash in Scarsdale , New York . The Fringe team arrives on the scene and discover the beast 's body . Dr. Walter Bishop ( John Noble ) concludes that it started out as a human . Agent Olivia Dunham ( Anna Torv ) recognizes Bowman 's picture from John Scott 's ( Mark Valley ) memories , realizing that Bowman was flying to meet another man in the memories named Daniel Hicks ( Felix Solis ) . Back at the lab at Harvard , Walter finds a small crystalline disc implanted in the beast 's hand similar to one seen inside the woman killed in " The Ghost Network " , and thinks Marshall was dosed with a " designer virus " .
Hicks is brought in for questioning . After beginning to transform into a beast , he admits that " Conrad " dosed them before Peter Bishop ( Joshua Jackson ) pauses the process by administering a sedative and placing him in an induced coma . Walter develops an antidote , while Olivia finds another small disc in Hicks ' hand . Her demand to see Scott 's body leads her and Phillip Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) to Massive Dynamic , where Nina Sharp ( Blair Brown ) tells her that the information gleaned from Scott 's body implicates him in a bioterrorist cell with the other two .
French intelligence states that weapons manufacturer Conrad is involved in a sale , leading to Olivia returning to the sensory deprivation tank in order to find out more from Scott 's memories . In a motel room they used to share , Scott talks to Olivia , scaring her into shooting him . Olivia next appears in an alleyway , where she follows Scott into a memory of him almost killing Conrad . He reveals that he , Hicks , and Marshall are all undercover government agents for the NSA , and tells Olivia to ask Hicks where the meeting is going to happen . They awake Hicks , who tells them more about the weapons sale .
Being given details from a secret radio by Hicks , Olivia pretends to be the weapons buyer , and is accompanied by Peter . They successfully make contact , but the sellers become suspicious after Hicks ' transformation restarts , depriving Olivia of the necessary information . Conrad makes his appearance and realizes Olivia and Peter are lying ; just before he orders them killed , the FBI moves in and arrests the sellers .
The episode ends with Walter telling Olivia her brain waves are going back to normal , and that Scott 's memories are fading from her mind . Olivia requests to enter the tank regardless , and she makes a last encounter with Scott , where he tells her he loved her and was going to marry her . She bids farewell to his consciousness , which has finally left her own .
= = Production = =
" The Transformation " was co @-@ written by Zack Whedon and supervising producer J.R. Orci . Whedon had last co @-@ written the season 's ninth episode , " The Dreamscape " , while Orci helped write " The Equation " , the season 's eighth episode . Producer Brad Anderson served as director , his latest Fringe work since directing " In Which We Meet Mr. Jones " six episodes earlier . The episode resolved the John Scott storyline and featured the last appearance of actor Mark Valley . Media outlets speculated that because Valley and Torv married over the holiday break , his departure " would eliminate any chances of the marriage conflicting with the show . " Co @-@ creator Roberto Orci called Scott 's final scene a " truly satisfactory conclusion to his story . "
The creation of the monster took the series special effects crew approximately eleven days to implement . They created molds of guest actor Neal Huff 's head and back , giving him " creature eye " contact lenses and covering the back foam mold with " backbarbs " . Eight different dentures were made of Huff 's mouth to depict the character gradually losing his teeth , " anything from simple teeth that match his own ... , to wiggling teeth that he can start to loosen up , to ones where he 's already started to lose a tooth , " explained Special Effects Makeup crewman Stephen Kelley . Each denture appliance took about a day to create . The final version of the creature , Kelley noted , was " very exaggerated ... He 's got the big giant quills coming off it like a porcupine . And it 's also got six nipples on it , which is part of us trying to investigate what this creature actually it is . "
Andrew Orloff , the Creative Director and Visual Effects Supervisor of Zoic Studios , considered the creature one of the most challenging effects his company helped make for the season . He explained that this and other designed monsters are " really super fantastical , they ’ re really out there , the anatomy and the biology of them is so wild and crazy , that it really takes a lot to make it look real in the scene and make it a part of the actors are reacting to these things – to get the audience to believe in it is kind of the biggest challenge we ’ ve faced on the show so far . " During filming , the cast and crew referred to the monster as a " were @-@ upine " or " porcuman " . Lance Reddick commented on set , " When I first got here tonight , I was expecting zombies to come up out of the ground . And the actual creature looks so bizarre , I mean it really looks like something I wouldn 't want to be caught in the woods with . " The crew spent over a week collecting and placing the plane wreckage together . According to Set Dresser Russ Griffin , the set included approximately 15 @,@ 000 pounds worth of plane parts .
Though the episode first aired in February 2009 , " The Transformation " had an early screening at the November 2008 PaleyFest , where Fringe 's producers answered questions from the audience . When asked in an interview if the " giant germ " from " Bound " was the grossest thing of the season , executive producer Jeff Pinkner replied that " the huge porcupine man on the airplane [ from " The Transformation " ] was more shocking . It was so unexpected . " At the time " The Transformation " aired , Joshua Jackson considered it the series ' best episode . John Noble called it " grotesque " and " possibly one of the more gruesome ones we 've done . "
= = Analysis and legacy = =
In her 2011 book Into the Looking Glass : Exploring the Worlds of Fringe , author Sarah Clarke Stuart observed that two unrelated Fringe characters , Conrad Moreau of " The Transformation " and Moreau ( Brad Dourif ) of " The Day We Died " , are allusions to H.G. Wells ' 1896 novel The Island of Doctor Moreau . Both are " scientifically inspired men with questionable integrity , " while Wells ' Doctor Moreau is an " unethical researcher " who fell " under the overmastering spell of research , " in a vein similar to Walter .
Like the pilot episode , " The Transformation " begins on the passenger section of an airplane in flight . Actor Mark Valley was asked how the episode differed from the pilot , leading him to joke that " it 's a completely different airline this time . " His character , John Scott , was first seen in an episode about a plane disaster ; accordingly , IGN expressed , it made sense thematically to have his last appearance be in an episode about a similar type of disaster . The Los Angeles Times viewed the flight number of 718 and its subsequent crash as a nod to co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams ' other series , Lost .
The episode also had an influence on the series ' fourth season , which featured parallel stories to those that occurred in earlier episodes . The season 's sixteenth episode , " Nothing As It Seems " , centers around the " designer virus " that had caused Marshall Bowman to transform , but this time he does so in the airport after his plane has safely landed . Peter recognizes the case from his own timeline , as seen in the events of " The Transformation " , and helps the Fringe team locate Daniel Hicks .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Transformation " first aired on February 3 , 2009 in the United States , and was watched by an estimated 12 @.@ 78 million viewers . The episode earned a 5 / 6 @.@ 5 ratings share among viewers aged 18 – 49 , meaning that it was seen by 5 @.@ 0 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 6 @.@ 5 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of broadcast . This rating meant it ranked eighth for the week among all the major networks . Sarah Stegall of SFScope attributed this ratings success to its lead @-@ in show , the highly @-@ rated American Idol , and observed that " with episodes like this one , mixing action , horror , and a few tender moments , it looks like Fringe is hitting its stride with viewers . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Transformation " received generally positive reviews . Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times gave the episode a positive review , opining that it " hit the perfect tone for Fringe [ and had ] the right mixture of science fiction , dark comedy , crime story and melodrama " . Hanson was however disappointed with the closure of the Olivia – John Scott storyline , as he hoped that " she doesn 't carry this torch too long " because he preferred the " flirty " Olivia . Ramsey Isler of IGN gave the episode 9 @.@ 0 / 10 , an indication of an " amazing " installment . He was pleased with the absence of Sanford Harris and enjoyed the " brilliantly written and directed " undercover sting operation , particularly because Peter was properly utilized as Olivia 's " wingman . " Isler also criticized the monster 's special effects and believed there were still unanswered questions concerning Scott 's storyline .
Writing for The A.V. Club , Noel Murray thought it was the best " freak @-@ meet " of the series thus far , as well as one of its best episodes , which he would " eagerly show to Fringe @-@ doubters as evidence that the series has found its legs . " He consequently graded the episode an A − , further attributing the success of the episode to " top @-@ tier " writers Orci and Whedon and " skilled " director Brad Anderson . Murray wrote , " I wouldn 't say that ' The Transformation ' broke any new ground . If anything , it recapitulated pretty much every previous Fringe element — bio @-@ weapons sales , telepathic communication , Massive Dynamics , [ sic ] airplane crashes , etc . — but did so in a way that was energetic , tense , and even a little emotional . " SFScope columnist Sarah Stegall had difficulty " suspend [ ing her ] disbelief " with the science behind Bowman 's rapid transformation . Though she thought it was " sweet " that Scott 's proposal " echo [ ed ] the real @-@ life recent marriage between Anna Torv and Mark Valley , " Stegall was pleased that the series could now move onto another storyline .
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provide a more dramatic effect for the program . Carey 's appearance on TRL garnered strong media attention , with many critics and newspapers citing her behavior as " troubled " and " erratic " .
= = = Hospitalization = = =
In the days following her appearance on TRL , Carey began displaying what was described as " erratic behavior " . On July 20 , Carey held a record signing for the " Loverboy " single at Roosevelt Field shopping mall in Long Island before fans and the media . As a camera crew covered the event , she began rambling on several subjects before finally discussing radio @-@ host Howard Stern and how his jokes about herself on his program bothered her greatly and how everything in life should be positive . At that point , Carey 's publicist Cindi Berger grabbed the microphone from her hand , and asked the news crew to stop filming . Berger said later , " She was not speaking clearly and not talking about what she had come to talk about : her record . " Only days later , Carey began posting irregular voice notes and messages on her official website :
I 'm trying to understand things in life right now and so I really don 't feel that I should be doing music right now . What I 'd like to do is just a take a little break or at least get one night of sleep without someone popping up about a video . All I really want is [ to ] just be me and that 's what I should have done in the first place ... I don 't say this much but guess what , I don 't take care of myself .
Following the quick removal of the messages , Berger commented that Carey had been " obviously exhausted and not thinking clearly " when she posted the letters . Two days later on July 26 , she was hospitalized , citing " extreme exhaustion " and a " physical and emotional breakdown " . News websites and programs began reporting how Carey threatened to commit suicide by slitting her wrists the night before , and how Patricia , Carey 's mother , hastily called for help . When questioned regarding Carey 's suicidal rumor , Berger claimed Carey had broken dishes out of desperation , and as a result , accidentally cut her hands and feet . Following her induction at an un @-@ disclosed hospital in Connecticut , Carey remained hospitalized and under doctor 's care for two weeks , followed by an extended absence from the public .
= = = Project delay = = =
Following the heavy media coverage surrounding Carey 's publicized breakdown and hospitalization , Virgin Records and 20th Century Fox delayed the release of both Glitter , as well as its soundtrack of the same name . The announcement was made on August 9 , 2001 , that both the soundtrack and the film would be postponed three weeks , respectively from August 21 to September 11 , and from August 31 to September 21 . When asked regarding the motives behind the delay , Nancy Berry , vice chairman of Virgin Music Group Worldwide , addressed Carey 's personal and physical condition :
Mariah is looking forward to being able to participate in both her album and movie projects and we are hopeful that this new soundtrack release date will allow her to do so . She has been making great recovery progress , and continues to grow stronger every day . Virgin Music Worldwide continues to give its absolute commitment and support to Mariah on every level .
When discussing the project 's weak commercial reaction , Carey blamed the terrorist attacks of September 11 . Carey made specific remarks regarding the album 's commercial failure stating , " I released it on September 11 , 2001 . The talk shows needed something to distract from 9 / 11 . I became a punching bag . I was so successful that they tore me down because my album was at number 2 instead of number 1 . The media was laughing at me and attacked me . "
= = = Departure from Virgin = = =
Glitter performed poorly at the box @-@ office . And following the poor sales of the album as well , Virgin invoked a clause in its contract with Carey that allowed Virgin get out of the $ 100 million deal for approximately $ 28 million . Subsequently , Virgin dropped Carey from the label roster . These decisions were brought on due to the low sales of the album , as well as the negative publicity surrounding her breakdown . While the two sides were laying out the terms for Carey 's exit from Virgin , Carey 's team requested that the two parties just use the word " canceled " when asked by the media regarding the failed venture . Less than 24 hours after the settlement was made , Virgin released a statement that they had " terminated " the contract with Carey , and paid her $ 28 million to do so . Carey 's lawyers threatened to sue , with her attorney Marshall Grossman calling their behavior in the matter " deplorable " . Virgin replied that in terms of Carey 's payout , they only listed the money they gave her for departing , not including the $ 23 @.@ 5 million they already had paid while under contract for the first and only album they released by her . Additionally , Virgin stated they would counter @-@ sue Carey for " defamation " following Carey 's press release . The matter was resolved outside of court , with Carey and Virgin opting not to take the matter to the judicial system . Soon after , Carey flew to Italy for a period of five months . After several months , Carey signed a new $ 20 million deal with Island Records , which also included Carey 's own vanity label , MonarC Entertainment .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Musically , Glitter was notably different from anything Carey had ever written or recorded , drawing influence from the 1980s . Due to the parent film taking place in 1983 , the soundtrack harbored on recreating an older sound , while incorporating the usual ballads for which Carey was known . While some critics favored the album 's retro style , and inclusion of several sampled melodies , many felt that Glitter lacked originality , and its excess of guest artists overpowered Carey 's artistry . In an interview with MTV News , Carey described the album 's content , as well as its influences :
There are songs that are definitely going to take people back and make them go , ' Oh , man , this song from the ' 80s — I loved it growing up ' . Or people who never heard the songs before might be like , ' This is cool . ' When you see the movie , you 're gonna see the uptempo songs and the songs that are remakes in there as they would have sounded in the ' 80s , but the album is the way that I would make the record now , and the ballads can stand on their own as songs from a Mariah Carey album .
Serving as the project 's lead single , " Loverboy " features a sample from " Candy " by American band Cameo , which interpolates the melody into the chorus and instrumental introduction . Additionally , aside from sampling " Candy " as the musical bed for the song , Cameo serves as a featured artist on the song . Sarah Rodman from the Boston Herald compared it to Carey 's previous lead singles , and described its production as " another in an increasingly long line of glitzy , candy @-@ coated , creatively stunted Carey songs " . The song 's lyrics and vocals were described as " super @-@ sexed " by Sal Cinquemani from Slant magazine when put into comparison with Carey 's previous work . The official remix for " Loverboy " also earned a place on Glitter , adding rap verses from both Ludacris and Da Brat to the original version . The album 's second release , " Never Too Far " , was written and produced by Carey and Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis . Described as an " adult @-@ contemporary , slow @-@ jam love song " , the song 's lyrics read " Too painful to talk about it , so I hold it in / So my heart can mend and be brave enough to love again " , speaking of emotions felt by the protagonist in the film . " Never Too Far " features " a bed of synthesized strings , gentle drums and Spanish @-@ style guitar " as its primary instrumentation , and incorporates violin and keyboard notes prior to the first verse . The third single from Glitter , " Don 't Stop ( Funkin ' 4 Jamaica ) " , was composed by Carey and DJ Clue , and interpolates " Funkin ' for Jamaica ( N.Y. ) " by Tom Browne . Featuring guest verses from Mystikal , with the former declaring " Ain 't nothin ' you could do with the man / Except for shake your ass and clap your hands " , while Carey responds " Don 't stop bay @-@ beee , its ex @-@ ta @-@ see / Turn me up a little . " Serving as the fourth and final single from Glitter , " Reflections ( Care Enough ) " was written by Carey and Philippe Pierre , and released as a single towards the end of 2001 . Lyrically , the song 'a protagonist " laments the end of a relationship " , while confronting her mother regarding her early abandonment . Additionally , during its bridge , Carey " eerily " refers to abortion , " You could have had the decency / To give me up / Before you gave me life " , as an option over abandoning the child . Cinquemani felt the song was reminiscent of Carey 's ballads during the earlier lengths of her career , and described the song as a " simple beauty " . In a review for the album in The Free Lance – Star , a writer outed the song 's first verse " A displeased little girl / Wept years in silence / And whispers wishes you 'd materialize / She pressed on night and day / To keep on living / And tried so many ways / To keep her soul alive " as his favorite lyric from Glitter , and described it as an " emotional and heart @-@ wrenching ballad " . Conceptualized in 1997 , " Lead the Way " was an unused track from Butterfly ( 1997 ) , written and produced by Carey and Walter Afanasieff . The ballad was the last song composed by the pair , as they halted work with one another shortly after its completion , due to their growing creative differences . Though written , the song was recorded during 2000 , as Carey began producing Glitter . Beginning with a classic and simple piano introduction , Carey starts the song with soft and breathy vocals , eventually leading to a vocal climax , in which she belts an 18 @-@ second note , the longest from any of her recordings . He described it as one of her " best vocal performances " , as well as one of her " favorite songs . " In an interview with MTV News , Carey addressed Glitter as well as " Lead the Way " :
To me , ' Glitter ' is one of my best albums . A lot of people got confused , not knowing whether it was a soundtrack or an album or what . There 's a song called ' Lead the Way ' which I did on Ally McBeal , and it 's coming out in January . I sang the song on [ the show ] . It 's one of those ballads that basically everybody that 's been following my career says reminds them of a ' Vision of Love ' -type record , and that 's one of my favorite songs from the record . The cool thing for me is to be able to tie in ' Never Too Far ' and ' Hero ' . Having the Greatest Hits coming out , to be able to tie in both those records is almost like a circle .
Carey 's cover of the 1982 Indeep song " Last Night a D.J. Saved My Life " was one of the album 's more club @-@ themed songs . It features rappers Fabolous and Busta Rhymes , and was composed and produced by Carey and DJ Clue . Michael Paoletta from Billboard called it a " painful low " on Glitter , and commented how Carey seemed detached and over @-@ powered on the song , due to the inclusion of several male guests . " Twister " , another one of the album 's ballads , drew strong comparisons to Carey 's older work , in light of the very different remainder of the album . Paoletta called it " quietly heartbreaking " , in reference to the song 's lyrics , which relate to the suicide of Carey 's friend and hairstylist , Tonjua Twist . According to Carey , Twist took her own life in the spring of 2000 , and was known for her joy of life and her ability to put people at ease . She was " child like and effervescent " , but behind her mask of happiness was " a well " of lifelong and deep @-@ rooted pain . In " Twister " , Carey described the hidden inner @-@ struggle of her friend , and tried to find " closure " ; her " way of saying goodbye " . Chris Chuck from Daily News described its lyrics as " an airy requiem for a friend lost to suicide " and felt it was " the only memorable song on the album . " With lyrics reading " Feelin ' kinda fragile and I 've got a lot to handle / But I guess this is my way of saying goodbye " , David Browne from Entertainment Weekly felt that Carey was possibly referring to her own suicide rather than her friends , especially in light of the events that were taking place during the album 's release . " Didn 't Mean to Turn You On " is a cover of the 1984 Cherelle song of the same title . Aside from the heavy sampling of the hook and lyrics , Carey , who produced the song alongside Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , added keyboard notes and synthesizers to enhance the songs club appeal . In the song , Carey sings " I was only trying to be nice / Only trying to be nice / Sooooooo , I didn 't mean to turn you on " , indicating a woman who is weakly apologetic over fooling a man over intimacy . On the track " Want You " , American singer Eric Benét duets with Carey , while lyrically implying and suggesting the " exploration of bedroom fantasies . "
= = = " Loverboy " sample controversy = = =
Throughout 2000 , Carey had already been writing and recording material for Glitter and during this period , she developed the concept for " Loverboy " . Originally , Carey had sampled the melody and hook from the 1978 Yellow Magic Orchestra song " Firecracker " , using an interpolation of it throughout the chorus and introduction . In early theatrical trailers for Glitter , the original version of " Loverboy " was still featured . As Carey had ended her contract with Columbia Records , Jennifer Lopez was signed by Tommy Mottola , and had begun recording material for her album , J.Lo ( 2001 ) . According to record producer Irv Gotti , Mottola knew of Carey 's usage of the " Firecracker " sample , and attempted to have Lopez use the same sample before her . At the time , Carey had become increasingly paranoid over outside executives being informed about Glitter , especially following news of Lopez 's " theft " of the song . When the music publishers for " Firecracker " were questioned , they admitted Carey had licensed usage of the sample first , and Lopez had signed for it over one month later , under Mottola 's arrangement . Ultimately Carey was not able to use the original sample , as Lopez 's album was to be released far earlier than Glitter . She subsequently changed the composition of " Loverboy " , and incorporated a new sample , " Candy " by Cameo . The " Firecracker " sample was eventually used by Lopez on her song " I 'm Real " and according to Gotti , Mottola contacted him with instructions to create the Murder Remix of " I 'm Real " to sound exactly like another Glitter track he produced , titled " If We " featuring rappers Ja Rule and Nate Dogg .
= = Critical reception = =
On the website Metacritic , which averages professional reviews into a numerical score , the album received a 59 / 100 , indicating " generally mixed or average reviews . " Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album one and a half out of five stars , calling it an " utter meltdown -- the pop equivalent of Chernobyl " and wrote " It 's an embarrassment , one that might have been easier to gawk at if its creator wasn 't so close to emotional destruction at the time of release . " Michael Paoletta from Billboard was less critical , citing it as a " minor misstep in a stellar career that has earned the singer a few free passes . Editor Sarah Rodman from The Boston Herald gave Glitter a mixed review , praising Carey 's song @-@ writing and voice , although panning the excess of secondary musical guests . While criticizing the album 's roster of appearances , Rodman wrote " the artists contribute mostly distracting , self @-@ promoting jibber jabber all over what could have been Carey 's best , most emotionally mature record to date . " Daily News editor Chuck Campley rated the album two and a half out of five stars , writing " Maybe this was the best Mariah Carey could muster under the circumstances , but ' Glitter ' needed more work . " David Browne from Entertainment Weekly gave Glitter a mixed review , criticizing the abundance of rappers and describing Carey 's vocals as " barely there " on several tracks . Concluding his review on a poor note , Browne wrote " ' Glitter ' is a mess , but its shameless genre hopping ( and Carey 's crash ) makes it an unintentional concept album about the toll of relentless careerism . "
Heather Vaughn from The Free @-@ Lance Star gave Glitter a positive review , complimenting both the dance @-@ oriented tracks , as well as the ballads . In reference to their weight on the album as a whole , Vaughn wrote " Sounds like Mariah 's other albums , but with more of an 80s twist . The ballads really let you hear how stunning her voice actually is . " Los Angeles Times critic and writer Natalie Nichols gave Glitter two out of a possible four stars , writing how Carey let the album " reflect the synth @-@ driven robo @-@ funk of that wretched decade . " Nichols called the album 's covers " tepid and pointless " , while agreeing that Carey was overwhelmed by the many guest rappers , calling her voice " semi @-@ disguised " . Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars , criticizing the ballads as " big and goopy , with zero melodic or emotional punch . " Aside from the ballads , Sheffield felt Glitter failed to deliver the success or quality that Carey needed on her debut film and soundtrack . He concluded his review of the album with a comparison to Whitney Houston 's massive The Bodyguard ( 1992 ) , " Mariah still hasn 't found her theme song , the one people will remember her voice by . Glitter is good enough to make you hope she finds it . " Slant Magazine magazine editor Sal Cinquemani awarded Glitter three out of five stars , writing " Carey 's edgier tracks are inundated with so many guest artists that her sound ultimately becomes muddled ; her pop tunes are so formulaic that it 's difficult to distinguish one from the next . " USA Today 's Edna Gunderson rated the album one and a half out of four stars , criticizing Carey 's overall image for the project , as well as the many guest artists on the record . She described Carey as " cheapening her image " and wrote " The whiff of desperation grows more pungent on ' Glitter ' in Carey 's gratuitous coloratura and transparent enlistment of street @-@ cred boosters such as rappers Ja Rule and Mystikal .
= = Commercial performance = =
Glitter became Carey 's least commercially successful album to that point . It debuted at number seven on the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 116 @,@ 000 copies , but far from the first @-@ week sales of 323 @,@ 000 with her previous release , Rainbow in 1999 . Glitter became Carey 's lowest peaking album in the United States , with her second album Emotions ( 1991 ) , coming in at number four . It remained in the album 's chart for only eight weeks , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of 500 @,@ 000 units ; and as it fell from the charts , received platinum certification , denoting shipments of 1 million in the US . Large quantities of the album remained unsold in record stores and , as such , record stores have the ability to return unsold product back to the record label -this had no effect on the certification already given , however . As of April 2013 , Nielsen SoundScan estimates sales of the Glitter album at 652 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In Canada , the album peaked at number four on the Canadian Albums Chart . Glitter entered the Australian Albums Chart at its peak position of number thirteen , during the week dated September 9 , 2001 . Remaining in the chart for only three weeks , the album made its exit at number forty on September 23 . Similarly in Austria , Glitter peaked at number fourteen , remaining on the albums chart for only four weeks .
In both the Flemish and Wallonian territories in Belgium , Glitter peaked at numbers ten and eleven , respectively , while charting for a total of four weeks . In France , Glitter peaked at number five on the albums chart , during the week dated September 15 , 2001 . Following seventeen weeks fluctuating in the chart , the album was certified Gold by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , denoting shipments of 150 @,@ 000 units . French sales of the album are estimated at 121 @,@ 100 copies . On the Dutch Albums Chart , Glitter debuted at number twenty @-@ six , during the week dated September 22 , 2001 . Reaching its peak position of number twelve the following week , the album remained a total of six weeks in the albums chart . In both New Zealand and Norway , Glitter peaked at number eleven , staying within the chart for four and one weeks , respectively . In Switzerland , the album peaked at number seven , and stayed within the chart for ten weeks . The International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) certified Glitter Gold in Switzerland , for shipments of 20 @,@ 000 copies . On the UK Albums Chart dated September 22 , 2001 , the album made its debut at number ten . The following week , Glitter fell to number twenty @-@ seven , staying in the chart for one more additional week . British sales of the album are at 55 @,@ 080 units as of July 2014 . In Japan , Glitter saw particular commercial success , debuting atop the albums chart and selling 450 @,@ 000 units within a month of release .
= = Singles = =
" Loverboy " was released as the first single from Glitter on July 16 , 2001 . The song received mixed reviews from music critics , with many both criticizing and praising the inclusion of the " Candy " sample . It became one of Carey 's weakest charting lead singles to date , reaching number two on the Billboard Hot 100 . Following Carey 's publicized hospitalization and breakdown , as well as Virgin 's price reduction on the single , " Loverboy " managed to attain a new peak of number two on the chart . Although being propelled by high sales , radio airplay was still weak , due to many radio DJs feeling tepid towards its 1980s retro sound . Accompanied by little promotion from Carey , due to her hospitalization , " Loverboy " quickly descended the Hot 100 . Outside the United States , the song attained weak charting , peaking inside the top ten in Australia and Canada , and within the top twenty in Italy and the United Kingdom . The music video for " Loverboy " features Carey dressed in a variation of revealing outfits , while patrolling a large race track as her ' loverboy ' wins the race . The video was notable for portraying Carey in a more sexually oriented manner than before .
" Never Too Far " , the album 's second release , was released on October 23 , 2001 . It failed to impact the main Billboard chart , and achieved weak international charting . Carey was unable to film a music video for the single , as she was still recovering from her collapse . Instead , a video was created using a scene taken directly from the film Glitter , where Billie Frank ( played by Carey ) sings the song at Madison Square Garden during her first sold @-@ out concert . Frank 's performance of the song in the film omits its entire second verse , and the song 's development runs in parallel with the film 's love story . The album 's third single , " Don 't Stop ( Funkin ' 4 Jamaica ) " , released on December 10 , 2001 , mirrored the same weak charting as " Never Too Far " , although receiving more rotation on MTV due to its video . Directed by Sanaa Hamri , it features the theme of southern bayous and lifestyles , and presents Carey and Mystikal in " southern style " clothing and hairstyles . Some shots feature three versions of Carey singing into a microphone on the screen at one time . The final single released from Glitter was " Reflections ( Care Enough ) " , which received a limited release in Japan on December 15 , 2001 . Following its limited promotional push from Virgin , and the absence of a music video , the song failed to make much of an impact .
= = Track listing = =
" Loverboy " and " Loverboy ( Remix ) " both contain a sample of " Candy " by Cameo .
" Didn 't Mean to Turn You On " is a cover of Cherrelle 's " I Didn 't Mean to Turn You On " . The cover is produced by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , who produced Cherrelle 's original song . Mariah sang over the original instrumental as well .
" Don 't Stop ( Funkin ' 4 Jamaica ) " contains interpolates of " Funkin ' for Jamaica ( N.Y. ) " by Tom Browne .
" Last Night A DJ Saved My Life " contains a sample of " Put Your Hands Where My Eyes Could See " by Busta Rhymes and is a cover of " Last Night a D.J. Saved My Life " by Indeep .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Glitter adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= M @-@ 152 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 152 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan in Cass and Van Buren counties . The highway runs through the Sister Lakes area providing access to the lake cabins and adjoining farmlands . The highway has existed mostly unchanged since the designation was commissioned in the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 152 begins at an intersection with South County Line Road on the border between Van Buren and Berrien counties just west of Round Lake . Known as 92nd Avenue , M @-@ 152 travels due east past the Sister Lakes area before turning south on 66th Street . From there , the road passes between Dewey and Magician Lakes before returning to its easterly course where it assumes the name Dewey Lake Street . Between the western terminus and Dewey Lake Street , the highway passes provides access to the cabins around the lakes . The route continues eastward for nearly three and a half miles through farmland before terminating at a junction with M @-@ 51 . M @-@ 152 is not on the National Highway System , a system of regionally important highways . In a traffic survey by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) in 2009 , the department measured the average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , a computation of the average traffic levels for a segment of roadway on any given day of the year . This was calculated at 3 @,@ 318 vehicles over the entire length of M @-@ 152 . The commercial AADT in the same survey was 73 vehicles .
= = History = =
M @-@ 152 was assumed into the state trunkline system in 1933 . Aside from completing the pavement surfacing of the road in 1945 , the route has remain unchanged since its inception . The highway has been considered a potential candidate for transfer to local control . MDOT marked it as a " proposed transfer " in its Control Section Atlas in 1978 .
= = Major intersections = =
= It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue =
" It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " is a song written and performed by Bob Dylan and featured on his Bringing It All Back Home album , released on March 22 , 1965 by Columbia Records ( see 1965 in music ) . The song was recorded on January 15 , 1965 with Dylan 's acoustic guitar and harmonica and William E. Lee 's bass guitar the only instrumentation . The lyrics were heavily influenced by Symbolist poetry and bid farewell to the titular " Baby Blue . " There has been much speculation about the real life identity of " Baby Blue " , with suspects including Joan Baez , David Blue , Paul Clayton , Dylan 's folk music audience , and even Dylan himself .
" It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " has been covered many times by a variety of artists , including Baez , Bryan Ferry , The Seldom Scene , Them , The Byrds , The Animals , The Chocolate Watchband , Graham Bonnet , Judy Collins , Joni Mitchell , Marianne Faithfull , Falco , The 13th Floor Elevators , the Grateful Dead , Link Wray , Hugh Masekela , Echo and the Bunnymen and Bad Religion . Them 's version , released in 1966 influenced garage bands during the mid @-@ 60 's and Beck later sampled it for his 1996 single " Jack @-@ Ass " . The Byrds recorded the song twice in 1965 as a possible follow up single to " Mr. Tambourine Man " and " All I Really Want to Do " , but neither recording was released in that form . The Byrds did release a 1969 recording of the song on their Ballad of Easy Rider album ( see 1969 in music ) .
= = Bob Dylan 's version = =
= = = Composition and recording = = =
Bob Dylan most likely wrote " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " in January 1965 . The master take of the song was recorded during the sessions for the Bringing It All Back Home album on January 15 , 1965 and was produced by Tom Wilson . The track was recorded on the same day Dylan recorded the other three songs on side 2 of the album : " Mr. Tambourine Man " , " Gates of Eden " and " It 's Alright Ma ( I 'm Only Bleeding ) " . However , Dylan had been playing those other songs live for some time , allowing them to evolve before recording of the album commenced . For " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " , Dylan wanted to record the song before he became too familiar with it . There were at least two studio recordings prior to the one that was released on the album . Dylan recorded a solo acoustic version on January 13 , 1965 ( released in 2005 on The Bootleg Series Vol . 7 : No Direction Home ) and a semi @-@ electric version on January 14 .
The version of the song on the album is sparsely arranged with Dylan accompanying himself on acoustic guitar and harmonica , with William E. Lee playing bass guitar . Author Clinton Heylin states that the song is another of Dylan 's " ' go out in the real world ' songs , like " To Ramona " , though less conciliatory – the tone is crueler and more demanding . " As well as being the final track on Bringing It All Back Home , " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " was also the final song to be recorded for the album .
Bill Janovitz of Allmusic describes the music as beautiful , with folk guitar chord changes and a somber melody , while the chorus , with its line " and it 's all over now , Baby Blue " has a heartbreaking quality to it . Like other Dylan songs of the period , such as " Chimes of Freedom " and " Mr. Tambourine Man " , the lyrics of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " bear the strong influence of Symbolist poets such as Arthur Rimbaud . Lines such as " take what you have gathered from coincidence " reflect the I Ching philosophy that coincidence represents more than mere chance . The song was described by Q magazine as , " The most toxic of strummed kiss @-@ offs , with not a snowball 's chance in hell of reconciliation . " Dylan , later describing the song , said that " I had carried that song around in my head for a long time and I remember that when I was writing it , I 'd remembered a Gene Vincent song . It had always been one of my favorites , Baby Blue ... ' When first I met my baby / she said how do you do / she looked into my eyes and said / my name is Baby Blue . ' It was one of the songs I used to sing back in high school . Of course , I was singing about a different Baby Blue . "
= = = Identity of " Baby Blue " = = =
Dylan 's two previous albums , The Times They Are A @-@ Changin ' and Another Side of Bob Dylan both ended with a farewell song , " Restless Farewell " and " It Ain 't Me , Babe " respectively . " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " concludes Bringing It All Back Home in consistent fashion . Much speculation has surrounded who or what the " Baby Blue " to whom Dylan is singing farewell is . Although Dylan himself has remained mute on the subject , Dylan scholars believe that it is probably an amalgam of personalities within Dylan 's social orbit . One person who has been regarded as the subject of the song is folk singer Joan Baez . Dylan and Baez were still in a relationship and were planning to tour together , but Dylan had been growing as an artist and as a person and may have already been planning to leave the relationship . Another possibility is a singer @-@ songwriter named David Blue . A friend or acquaintance of Dylan 's from his days in New York 's Greenwich Village , Blue is pictured on the cover of Dylan and the Band 's The Basement Tapes album wearing a trench coat . Yet another possibility is Dylan 's one @-@ time friend , folk singer Paul Clayton . Although Clayton had been Dylan 's friend throughout 1964 , and had accompanied Dylan on the road trip across the United States on which " Chimes of Freedom " and " Mr. Tambourine Man " were written , by 1965 he may have become more devoted to Dylan than Dylan was comfortable with , and Clayton 's use of amphetamines may have made him difficult to be around . However , author Paul Williams , in his book Performing Artist : Book One 1960 – 1973 , counters that " Dylan may have been thinking of a particular person as he wrote it , but not necessarily " , adding that the song has such a natural , flowing structure to it , that it could " easily have finished writing itself before Dylan got around to thinking about who ' Baby Blue ' was . "
Another interpretation of the song is that it is directed at Dylan 's folk music audience . The song was written at a time when he was moving away from the folk protest movement musically and , as such , can be seen as a farewell to his days as an acoustic guitar @-@ playing protest singer . Dylan 's choice of performing " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " as his last acoustic song at the infamous Newport Folk Festival of 1965 , after having had his electric set met with boos , is often used as evidence to support this theory . That particular performance of the song is included in Murray Lerner 's film The Other Side of the Mirror .
Yet another interpretation is that Dylan is directing the farewell to himself , particularly his acoustic performer self . The opening line " You must leave now " can be a command , similar to the line " Go away from my window " that opens " It Ain 't Me , Babe " . But it can also be an imperative , meaning just that it is necessary that you leave . And the song is as much about new beginnings as it is about endings . The song not only notes the requirement that Baby Blue leave , but also includes the hope that Baby Blue will move forward , in lines such as " Strike another match , go start anew " . If Dylan is singing the song to himself , then he himself would be the " vagabond who 's rapping at your door / standing in the clothes that you once wore " . That is , the new , electric , surrealist Dylan would be the vagabond , not yet having removed the " clothes " of the old protest singer . Alternatively , the vagabond and " stepping stones " referenced in the song have been interpreted as Dylan 's folk audience whom he needs to leave behind . He would also be telling himself to " Forget the dead you 've left , they will not follow you . " Others to whom he may be saying farewell in the song are any of the women he had known , the political left or to the illusions of his youth .
= = = Legacy = = =
In addition to appearing on the Bringing It All Back Home album , " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " is also included on the compilation albums Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits Vol . II , The Essential Bob Dylan , Dylan and the UK version of Bob Dylan 's Greatest Hits . Dylan played the song for Donovan in his hotel room during his May 1965 tour of England in a scene shown in the D. A. Pennebaker documentary Dont Look Back . A version of the song is included on the soundtrack to Martin Scorsese 's documentary No Direction Home . A live version from Dylan 's famous May 17 , 1966 concert in Manchester , England ( popularly but mistakenly known as the Royal Albert Hall concert ) was released in 1985 on Dylan 's box set Biograph and subsequently included on The Bootleg Series Vol . 4 : Bob Dylan Live 1966 , The " Royal Albert Hall " Concert . Another live version , recorded during the Rolling Thunder Revue tour of 1975 , is contained on The Bootleg Series Vol . 5 : Bob Dylan Live 1975 , The Rolling Thunder Revue . As of 2009 , Dylan continued to perform the song in concert .
In a 2005 readers ' poll reported in Mojo , " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " was listed as the # 10 all @-@ time best Bob Dylan song , and a similar poll of artists ranked the song # 7 . In 2002 , Uncut listed it as the # 11 all @-@ time best Bob Dylan song .
= = Covers = =
= = = Them 's version = = =
The Belfast band Them ( featuring Van Morrison ) recorded a cover of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " that was first released on their album , Them Again , in January 1966 in the UK and April 1966 in the U.S. The song was subsequently issued as a single ( b / w " I 'm Gonna Dress in Black " ) in the Netherlands during October 1966 but failed to reach the Dutch Singles Chart . It was later re @-@ released in Germany in December 1973 with " Bad or Good " on the B @-@ side , following its appearance in the 1972 German television movie , Die Rocker ( aka Rocker ) . The single became a hit in Germany , first entering the charts in February 1974 and peaking at # 13 , during a chart stay of 14 weeks .
Morrison recalled his first encounter with Dylan 's music in an interview in 2000 : " I think I heard [ The Freewheelin ' Bob Dylan ] in a record shop in Smith Street . And I just thought it was just incredible that this guy 's not singing about ' moon in June ' and he 's getting away with it ... The subject matter wasn 't pop songs , ya know , and I thought this kind of opens the whole thing up . " Morrison 's record producer at the time , Bert Berns , encouraged him to find models for his songs , so he bought Dylan 's Bringing It All Back Home album in March 1965 . One of the songs on the album held a unique fascination for Morrison and he soon started performing " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " in small clubs and pubs as a solo artist ( without Them ) .
Producer Tommy Scott was conscious of the importance of Dylan 's music on the current pop scene and was eager for Morrison to cover " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " during the 1965 sessions for Them 's second LP . After a failed , preliminary attempt to record the track with session pianist Phil Coulter at Regent Sound studios in London , Scott reconsidered his approach to the song . Scott recalled in interview that " The number wasn 't going down , Van wasn 't sure . Then the guys said he didn 't fancy it and thought it was cheap because I 'd tried to go after the " Here Comes the Night " tempo . " The band returned to the song during a later session at Decca 's recording studios . Scott decided to rearrange the song 's musical backing , incorporating a distinctive recurring blues riff and piano work from Them 's keyboard player , Peter Bardens , resulting in a finished recording that the band were satisfied with . The song featured one of Morrison 's most expressive vocals and included subtle changes to Dylan 's lyrics ; instead of singing " Forget the dead you 've left " Morrison alters the line to " Forget the debts you 've left " .
Greil Marcus stated in a 1969 Rolling Stone review that " Only on Dylan 's ' It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue ' does Van truly shatter all the limits on his special powers ... Each note stands out as a special creation – ' the centuries of emotion that go into a musician ’ s choice from one note to the next ' is a phrase that describes the startling depth of this recording . Played very fast , Van 's voice virtually fighting for control over the band , ' Baby Blue ' emerges as music that is both dramatic and terrifying . " In recent years , author Clinton Heylin has noted that Them 's 1966 recording of the song is " that genuine rarity , a Dylan cover to match the original . " After Van Morrison left the band in 1966 , Them spinoff group , The Belfast Gypsies , recorded a cover of the song on their 1967 album , Them Belfast Gypsies .
Them 's interpretation of the song , with Morrison as vocalist , became influential during the years 1966 and 1967 , with several garage rock bands , including The Chocolate Watchband and The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band , recording versions of the song that were indebted to Them 's cover version . Beck used a sample of Them 's 1966 recording of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " as the basis for his single " Jack @-@ Ass " , which appeared on his 1996 album , Odelay ( see 1996 in music ) . Insane Clown Posse later sampled Beck 's song as the basis for " Another Love Song " , which appeared on their 1999 album , The Amazing Jeckel Brothers . Hole 's cover of the song also uses Them 's recording as a blueprint . Them 's original 1966 version of the song has appeared in movies , such as the 1996 film Basquiat , the 1972 German film Rocker by Klaus Lemke and the 2000 film Girl , Interrupted .
In 1993 , Van Morrison included Them 's cover of the song on his compilation album The Best of Van Morrison Volume Two . In addition to recording " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " with Them , Morrison has covered the song frequently in concert throughout his solo career , beginning in 1974 , but has never released a studio or live recording of it as a solo artist . In 1984 , Morrison made a guest appearance at one of Bob Dylan 's concerts in London and the two musicians performed a duet of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " . Morrison and Dylan also sang a duet of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " at the final concert of Dylan 's 1984 tour on July 8 , 1984 at Slane Castle , Ireland .
In a 2009 Paste magazine readers , writers and editors poll of the 50 Best Bob Dylan Covers of All Time , Them 's version of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " was ranked at # 28 .
= = = The Byrds ' version = = =
The Byrds ' recording of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " first saw release on October 29 , 1969 as part of the band 's Ballad of Easy Rider album . The song also appeared on the B @-@ side of the band 's December 1969 single , " Jesus Is Just Alright " , which reached # 97 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . The Byrds had previously attempted to record the song on two separate occasions , some four years earlier , during studio sessions for their second album , Turn ! Turn ! Turn !
The Byrds initially planned to release " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " in 1965 , as a follow @-@ up to their previous hit Bob Dylan covers , " Mr. Tambourine Man " and " All I Really Want to Do " . The band 's first attempt at recording the song was on June 28 , 1965 : resulting in an irreverent , garage rock style take on the song . This version was deemed unsatisfactory and remained unreleased for 22 years , until its inclusion on the Never Before album in 1987 . The June 28 , 1965 recording can also be heard on the 1996 expanded re
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Supply for requirements and resources , felt that the highest rating he could assign was AA @-@ 3 , although he was willing to provide a AAA rating on request for critical materials if the need arose . Nichols and Marshall were disappointed ; AA @-@ 3 was the same priority as Nichols ' TNT plant in Pennsylvania .
= = = Military Policy Committee = = =
Bush became dissatisfied with Colonel Marshall 's failure to get the project moving forward expeditiously , specifically the failure to acquire the Tennessee site , the low priority allocated to the project by the Army and the location of his headquarters in New York City . Bush felt that more aggressive leadership was required , and spoke to Harvey Bundy and Generals Marshall , Somervell , and Styer about his concerns . He wanted the project placed under a senior policy committee , with a prestigious officer , preferably Styer , as overall director .
Somervell and Styer selected Groves for the post , informing him on 17 September of this decision , and that General Marshall ordered that he be promoted to brigadier general , as it was felt that the title " general " would hold more sway with the academic scientists working on the Manhattan Project . Groves ' orders placed him directly under Somervell rather than Reybold , with Colonel Marshall now answerable to Groves . Groves established his headquarters in Washington , D.C. , on the fifth floor of the New War Department Building , where Colonel Marshall had his liaison office . He assumed command of the Manhattan Project on 23 September . Later that day , he attended a meeting called by Stimson , which established a Military Policy Committee , responsible to the Top Policy Group , consisting of Bush ( with Conant as an alternate ) , Styer and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell . Tolman and Conant were later appointed as Groves ' scientific advisers .
On 19 September , Groves went to Donald Nelson , the chairman of the War Production Board , and asked for broad authority to issue a AAA rating whenever it was required . Nelson initially balked but quickly caved in when Groves threatened to go to the President . Groves promised not to use the AAA rating unless it was necessary . It soon transpired that for the routine requirements of the project the AAA rating was too high but the AA @-@ 3 rating was too low . After a long campaign , Groves finally received AA @-@ 1 authority on 1 July 1944 . According to Groves , " In Washington you became aware of the importance of top priority . Most everything proposed in the Roosevelt administration would have top priority . That would last for about a week or two and then something else would get top priority " .
One of Groves ' early problems was to find a director for Project Y , the group that would design and build the bomb . The obvious choice was one of the three laboratory heads , Urey , Lawrence , or Compton , but they could not be spared . Compton recommended Oppenheimer , who was already intimately familiar with the bomb design concepts . However , Oppenheimer had little administrative experience , and , unlike Urey , Lawrence , and Compton , had not won a Nobel Prize , which many scientists felt that the head of such an important laboratory should have . There were also concerns about Oppenheimer 's security status , as many of his associates were Communists , including his brother , Frank Oppenheimer ; his wife , Kitty ; and his girlfriend , Jean Tatlock . A long conversation on a train in October 1942 convinced Groves and Nichols that Oppenheimer thoroughly understood the issues involved in setting up a laboratory in a remote area and should be appointed as its director . Groves personally waived the security requirements and issued Oppenheimer a clearance on 20 July 1943 .
= = = Collaboration with the United Kingdom = = =
The British and Americans exchanged nuclear information but did not initially combine their efforts . Britain rebuffed attempts by Bush and Conant in 1941 to strengthen cooperation with its own project , codenamed Tube Alloys , because it was reluctant to share its technological lead and help the United States develop its own atomic bomb . An American scientist who brought a personal letter from Roosevelt to Churchill offering to pay for all research and development in an Anglo @-@ American project was poorly treated , and Churchill did not reply to the letter . The United States as a result decided as early as April 1942 that if its offer was rejected , they should proceed alone . The British , who had made significant contributions early in the war , did not have the resources to carry through such a research program while fighting for their survival . As a result , Tube Alloys soon fell behind its American counterpart. and on 30 July 1942 , Sir John Anderson , the minister responsible for Tube Alloys , advised Churchill that : " We must face the fact that ... [ our ] pioneering work ... is a dwindling asset and that , unless we capitalise it quickly , we shall be outstripped . We now have a real contribution to make to a ' merger . ' Soon we shall have little or none . " That month Churchill and Roosevelt made an informal , unwritten agreement for atomic collaboration .
The opportunity for an equal partnership no longer existed , however , as shown in August 1942 when the British unsuccessfully demanded substantial control over the project while paying none of the costs . By 1943 the roles of the two countries had reversed from late 1941 ; in January Conant notified the British that they would no longer receive atomic information except in certain areas . While the British were shocked by the abrogation of the Churchill @-@ Roosevelt agreement , head of the Canadian National Research Council C. J. Mackenzie was less surprised , writing " I can 't help feeling that the United Kingdom group [ over ] emphasizes the importance of their contribution as compared with the Americans . " As Conant and Bush told the British , the order came " from the top " .
The British bargaining position had worsened ; the American scientists had decided that the United States no longer needed outside help , and they wanted to prevent Britain exploiting post @-@ war commercial applications of atomic energy . The committee supported , and Roosevelt agreed to , restricting the flow of information to what Britain could use during the war — especially not bomb design — even if doing so slowed down the American project . By early 1943 the British stopped sending research and scientists to America , and as a result the Americans stopped all information sharing . The British considered ending the supply of Canadian uranium and heavy water to force the Americans to again share , but Canada needed American supplies to produce them . They investigated the possibility of an independent nuclear program , but determined that it could not be ready in time to affect the outcome of the war in Europe .
By March 1943 Conant decided that British help would benefit some areas of the project . James Chadwick and one or two other British scientists were important enough that the bomb design team at Los Alamos needed them , despite the risk of revealing weapon design secrets . In August 1943 Churchill and Roosevelt negotiated the Quebec Agreement , which resulted in a resumption of cooperation between scientists working on the same problem . Britain , however , agreed to restrictions on data on the building of large @-@ scale production plants necessary for the bomb . The subsequent Hyde Park Agreement in September 1944 extended this cooperation to the postwar period . The Quebec Agreement established the Combined Policy Committee to coordinate the efforts of the United States , United Kingdom and Canada . Stimson , Bush and Conant served as the American members of the Combined Policy Committee , Field Marshal Sir John Dill and Colonel J. J. Llewellin were the British members , and C. D. Howe was the Canadian member . Llewellin returned to the United Kingdom at the end of 1943 and was replaced on the committee by Sir Ronald Ian Campbell , who in turn was replaced by the British Ambassador to the United States , Lord Halifax , in early 1945 . Sir John Dill died in Washington , D.C. , in November 1944 and was replaced both as Chief of the British Joint Staff Mission and as a member of the Combined Policy Committee by Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson .
When cooperation resumed after the Quebec agreement , the Americans ' progress and expenditures amazed the British . The United States had already spent more than $ 1 billion ( $ 13 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 today ) , while in 1943 , the United Kingdom had spent about £ 0 @.@ 5 million . Chadwick thus pressed for British involvement in the Manhattan Project to the fullest extent and abandon any hopes of a British project during the war . With Churchill 's backing , he attempted to ensure that every request from Groves for assistance was honored . The British Mission that arrived in the United States in December 1943 included Niels Bohr , Otto Frisch , Klaus Fuchs , Rudolf Peierls , and Ernest Titterton . More scientists arrived in early 1944 . While those assigned to gaseous diffusion left by the fall of 1944 , the 35 working with Lawrence at Berkeley were assigned to existing laboratory groups and stayed until the end of the war . The 19 sent to Los Alamos also joined existing groups , primarily related to implosion and bomb assembly , but not the plutonium @-@ related ones . Part of the Quebec Agreement specified that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent . In June 1945 , Wilson agreed that the use of nuclear weapons against Japan would be recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee .
The Combined Policy Committee created the Combined Development Trust in June 1944 , with Groves as its chairman , to procure uranium and thorium ores on international markets . The Belgian Congo and Canada held much of the world 's uranium outside Eastern Europe , and the Belgian government in exile was in London . Britain agreed to give the United States most of the Belgian ore , as it could not use most of the supply without restricted American research . In 1944 , the Trust purchased 3 @,@ 440 @,@ 000 pounds ( 1 @,@ 560 @,@ 000 kg ) of uranium oxide ore from companies operating mines in the Belgian Congo . In order to avoid briefing US Secretary of the Treasury Henry Morgenthau Jr. on the project , a special account not subject to the usual auditing and controls was used to hold Trust monies . Between 1944 and the time he resigned from the Trust in 1947 , Groves deposited a total of $ 37 @.@ 5 million into the Trust 's account .
Groves appreciated the early British atomic research and the British scientists ' contributions to the Manhattan Project , but stated that the United States would have succeeded without them . He also said that Churchill was " the best friend the atomic bomb project had [ as ] he kept Roosevelt 's interest up ... He just stirred him up all the time by telling him how important he thought the project was . "
The British wartime participation was crucial to the success of the United Kingdom 's independent nuclear weapons program after the war when the McMahon Act of 1946 temporarily ended American nuclear cooperation .
= = Project sites = =
= = = Oak Ridge = = =
The day after he took over the project , Groves took a train to Tennessee with Colonel Marshall to inspect the proposed site there , and Groves was impressed . On 29 September 1942 , United States Under Secretary of War Robert P. Patterson authorized the Corps of Engineers to acquire 56 @,@ 000 acres ( 23 @,@ 000 ha ) of land by eminent domain at a cost of $ 3 @.@ 5 million . An additional 3 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 ha ) was subsequently acquired . About 1 @,@ 000 families were affected by the condemnation order , which came into effect on 7 October . Protests , legal appeals , and a 1943 Congressional inquiry were to no avail . By mid @-@ November U.S. Marshals were tacking notices to vacate on farmhouse doors , and construction contractors were moving in . Some families were given two weeks ' notice to vacate farms that had been their homes for generations ; others had settled there after being evicted to make way for the Great Smoky Mountains National Park in the 1920s or the Norris Dam in the 1930s . The ultimate cost of land acquisition in the area , which was not completed until March 1945 , was only about $ 2 @.@ 6 million , which worked out to around $ 47 an acre . When presented with Public Proclamation Number Two , which declared Oak Ridge a total exclusion area that no one could enter without military permission , the Governor of Tennessee , Prentice Cooper , angrily tore it up .
Initially known as the Kingston Demolition Range , the site was officially renamed the Clinton Engineer Works ( CEW ) in early 1943 . While Stone and Webster concentrated on the production facilities , the architectural and engineering firm Skidmore , Owings & Merrill designed and built a residential community for 13 @,@ 000 . The community was located on the slopes of Black Oak Ridge , from which the new town of Oak Ridge got its name . The Army presence at Oak Ridge increased in August 1943 when Nichols replaced Marshall as head of the Manhattan Engineer District . One of his first tasks was to move the district headquarters to Oak Ridge although the name of the district did not change . In September 1943 the administration of community facilities was outsourced to Turner Construction Company through a subsidiary , the Roane @-@ Anderson Company ( for Roane and Anderson Counties , in which Oak Ridge was located ) . Chemical engineers , including William J. Wilcox Jr. and Warren Fuchs , were part of " frantic efforts " to make 10 % to 12 % enriched uranium 235 , known as the code name " tuballoy tetroxide " , with tight security and fast approvals for supplies and materials . The population of Oak Ridge soon expanded well beyond the initial plans , and peaked at 75 @,@ 000 in May 1945 , by which time 82 @,@ 000 people were employed at the Clinton Engineer Works , and 10 @,@ 000 by Roane @-@ Anderson .
Respected fine @-@ arts photographer , Josephine Herrick , and her colleague , Mary Steers , helped document the developing stages of the bomb in Oak Ridge .
= = = Los Alamos = = =
The idea of locating Project Y at Oak Ridge was considered , but in the end it was decided that it should be in a remote location . On Oppenheimer 's recommendation , the search for a suitable site was narrowed to the vicinity of Albuquerque , New Mexico , where Oppenheimer owned a ranch . In October 1942 , Major John H. Dudley of the Manhattan Project was sent to survey the area , and he recommended a site near Jemez Springs , New Mexico . On 16 November , Oppenheimer , Groves , Dudley and others toured the site . Oppenheimer feared that the high cliffs surrounding the site would make his people feel claustrophobic , while the engineers were concerned with the possibility of flooding . The party then moved on to the vicinity of the Los Alamos Ranch School . Oppenheimer was impressed and expressed a strong preference for the site , citing its natural beauty and views of the Sangre de Cristo Mountains , which , it was hoped , would inspire those who would work on the project . The engineers were concerned about the poor access road , and whether the water supply would be adequate , but otherwise felt that it was ideal .
Patterson approved the acquisition of the site on 25 November 1942 , authorizing $ 440 @,@ 000 for the purchase of the site of 54 @,@ 000 acres ( 22 @,@ 000 ha ) , all but 8 @,@ 900 acres ( 3 @,@ 600 ha ) of which were already owned by the Federal Government . Secretary of Agriculture Claude R. Wickard granted use of some 45 @,@ 100 acres ( 18 @,@ 300 ha ) of United States Forest Service land to the War Department " for so long as the military necessity continues " . The need for land for a new road , and later for a right of way for a 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) power line , eventually brought wartime land purchases to 45 @,@ 737 acres ( 18 @,@ 509 @.@ 1 ha ) , but only $ 414 @,@ 971 was spent . Construction was contracted to the M. M. Sundt Company of Tucson , Arizona , with Willard C. Kruger and Associates of Santa Fe , New Mexico , as architect and engineer . Work commenced in December 1942 . Groves initially allocated $ 300 @,@ 000 for construction , three times Oppenheimer 's estimate , with a planned completion date of 15 March 1943 . It soon became clear that the scope of Project Y was greater than expected , and by the time Sundt finished on 30 November 1943 , over $ 7 million had been spent .
Because it was secret , Los Alamos was referred to as " Site Y " or " the Hill " . Birth certificates of babies born in Los Alamos during the war listed their place of birth as PO Box 1663 in Santa Fe . Initially Los Alamos was to have been a military laboratory with Oppenheimer and other researchers commissioned into the Army . Oppenheimer went so far as to order himself a lieutenant colonel 's uniform , but two key physicists , Robert Bacher and Isidor Rabi , balked at the idea . Conant , Groves and Oppenheimer then devised a compromise whereby the laboratory was operated by the University of California under contract to the War Department .
= = = Argonne = = =
An Army @-@ OSRD council on 25 June 1942 decided to build a pilot plant for plutonium production in Red Gate Woods southwest of Chicago . In July , Nichols arranged for a lease of 1 @,@ 025 acres ( 415 ha ) from the Cook County Forest Preserve District , and Captain James F. Grafton was appointed Chicago area engineer . It soon became apparent that the scale of operations was too great for the area , and it was decided to build the plant at Oak Ridge , and keep a research and testing facility in Chicago .
Delays in establishing the plant in Red Gate Woods led Compton to authorize the Metallurgical Laboratory to construct the first nuclear reactor beneath the bleachers of Stagg Field at the University of Chicago . The reactor required an enormous amount of graphite blocks and uranium pellets . At the time , there was a limited source of pure uranium . Frank Spedding of Iowa State University were able to produce only two short tons of pure uranium . Additional three short tons of uranium metal was supplied by Westinghouse Lamp Plant which was produced in a rush with makeshift process . A large square balloon was constructed by Goodyear Tire to encase the reactor . On 2 December 1942 , a team led by Enrico Fermi initiated the first artificial self @-@ sustaining nuclear chain reaction in an experimental reactor known as Chicago Pile @-@ 1 . The point at which a reaction becomes self @-@ sustaining became known as " going critical " . Compton reported the success to Conant in Washington , D.C. , by a coded phone call , saying , " The Italian navigator [ Fermi ] has just landed in the new world . "
In January 1943 , Grafton 's successor , Major Arthur V. Peterson , ordered Chicago Pile @-@ 1 dismantled and reassembled at Red Gate Woods , as he regarded the operation of a reactor as too hazardous for a densely populated area . At the Argonne site , Chicago Pile @-@ 3 , the first heavy water reactor , went critical on 15 May 1944 . After the war , the operations that remained at Red Gate moved to the new Argonne National Laboratory about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) away .
= = = Hanford = = =
By December 1942 there were concerns that even Oak Ridge was too close to a major population center ( Knoxville ) in the unlikely event of a major nuclear accident . Groves recruited DuPont in November 1942 to be the prime contractor for the construction of the plutonium production complex . DuPont was offered a standard cost plus fixed fee contract , but the President of the company , Walter S. Carpenter , Jr . , wanted no profit of any kind , and asked for the proposed contract to be amended to explicitly exclude the company from acquiring any patent rights . This was accepted , but for legal reasons a nominal fee of one dollar was agreed upon . After the war , DuPont asked to be released from the contract early , and had to return 33 cents .
DuPont recommended that the site be located far from the existing uranium production facility at Oak Ridge . In December 1942 , Groves dispatched Colonel Franklin Matthias and DuPont engineers to scout potential sites . Matthias reported that Hanford Site near Richland , Washington , was " ideal in virtually all respects " . It was isolated and near the Columbia River , which could supply sufficient water to cool the reactors that would produce the plutonium . Groves visited the site in January and established the Hanford Engineer Works ( HEW ) , codenamed " Site W " .
Under Secretary Patterson gave his approval on 9 February , allocating $ 5 million for the acquisition of 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 ha ) of land in the area . The federal government relocated some 1 @,@ 500 residents of White Bluffs and Hanford , and nearby settlements , as well as the Wanapum and other tribes using the area . A dispute arose with farmers over compensation for crops , which had already been planted before the land was acquired . Where schedules allowed , the Army allowed the crops to be harvested , but this was not always possible . The land acquisition process dragged on and was not completed before the end of the Manhattan Project in December 1946 .
The dispute did not delay work . Although progress on the reactor design at Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont was not sufficiently advanced to accurately predict the scope of the project , a start was made in April 1943 on facilities for an estimated 25 @,@ 000 workers , half of whom were expected to live on @-@ site . By July 1944 , some 1 @,@ 200 buildings had been erected and nearly 51 @,@ 000 people were living in the construction camp . As area engineer , Matthias exercised overall control of the site . At its peak , the construction camp was the third most populous town in Washington state . Hanford operated a fleet of over 900 buses , more than the city of Chicago . Like Los Alamos and Oak Ridge , Richland was a gated community with restricted access , but it looked more like a typical wartime American boomtown : the military profile was lower , and physical security elements like high fences , towers and guard dogs were less evident .
= = = Canadian sites = = =
= = = = British Columbia = = = =
Cominco had produced electrolytic hydrogen at Trail , British Columbia , since 1930 . Urey suggested in 1941 that it could produce heavy water . To the existing $ 10 million plant consisting of 3 @,@ 215 cells consuming 75 MW of hydroelectric power , secondary electrolysis cells were added to increase the deuterium concentration in the water from 2 @.@ 3 % to 99 @.@ 8 % . For this process , Hugh Taylor of Princeton developed a platinum @-@ on @-@ carbon catalyst for the first three stages while Urey developed a nickel @-@ chromia one for the fourth stage tower . The final cost was $ 2 @.@ 8 million . The Canadian Government did not officially learn of the project until August 1942 . Trail 's heavy water production started in January 1944 and continued until 1956 . Heavy water from Trail was used for Chicago Pile 3 , the first reactor using heavy water and natural uranium , which went critical on 15 May 1944 .
= = = = Ontario = = = =
The Chalk River , Ontario , site was established to rehouse the Allied effort at the Montreal Laboratory away from an urban area . A new community was built at Deep River , Ontario , to provide residences and facilities for the team members . The site was chosen for its proximity to the industrial manufacturing area of Ontario and Quebec , and proximity to a rail head adjacent to a large military base , Camp Petawawa . Located on the Ottawa River , it had access to abundant water . The first director of the new laboratory was John Cockcroft , later replaced by Bennett Lewis . A pilot reactor known as ZEEP ( zero @-@ energy experimental pile ) became the first Canadian reactor , and the first to be completed outside the United States , when it went critical in September 1945 , ZEEP remained in use by researchers until 1970 . A larger 10 MW NRX reactor , which was designed during the war , was completed and went critical in July 1947 .
= = = = Northwest Territories = = = =
The Eldorado Mine at Port Radium was a source of uranium ore .
= = = Heavy water sites = = =
Although DuPont 's preferred designs for the nuclear reactors were helium cooled and used graphite as a moderator , DuPont still expressed an interest in using heavy water as a backup , in case the graphite reactor design proved infeasible for some reason . For this purpose , it was estimated that 3 long tons ( 3 @.@ 0 t ) of heavy water would be required per month . The P @-@ 9 Project was the government 's code name for the heavy water production program . As the plant at Trail , which was then under construction , could produce 0 @.@ 5 long tons ( 0 @.@ 51 t ) per month , additional capacity was required . Groves therefore authorized DuPont to establish heavy water facilities at the Morgantown Ordnance Works , near Morgantown , West Virginia ; at the Wabash River Ordnance Works , near Dana and Newport , Indiana ; and at the Alabama Ordnance Works , near Childersburg and Sylacauga , Alabama . Although known as Ordnance Works and paid for under Ordnance Department contracts , they were built and operated by the Army Corps of Engineers . The American plants used a process different from Trail 's ; heavy water was extracted by distillation , taking advantage of the slightly higher boiling point of heavy water .
= = Uranium = =
= = = Ore = = =
The key raw material for the project was uranium , which was used as fuel for the reactors , as feed that was transformed into plutonium , and , in its enriched form , in the atomic bomb itself . There were four known major deposits of uranium in 1940 : in Colorado , in northern Canada , in Joachimstal in Czechoslovakia , and in the Belgian Congo . All but Joachimstal were in allied hands . A November 1942 survey determined that sufficient quantities of uranium were available to satisfy the project 's requirements . Nichols arranged with the State Department for export controls to be placed on uranium oxide and negotiated for the purchase of 1 @,@ 200 long tons ( 1 @,@ 200 t ) of uranium ore from the Belgian Congo that was being stored in a warehouse on Staten Island and the remaining stocks of mined ore stored in the Congo . He negotiated with Eldorado Gold Mines for the purchase of ore from its refinery in Port Hope , Ontario , and its shipment in 100 @-@ ton lots . The Canadian government subsequently bought up the company 's stock until it acquired a controlling interest .
While these purchases assured a sufficient supply to meet wartime needs , the American and British leaders concluded that it was in their countries ' interest to gain control of as much of the world 's uranium deposits as possible . The richest source of ore was the Shinkolobwe mine in the Belgian Congo , but it was flooded and closed . Nichols unsuccessfully attempted to negotiate its reopening and the sale of the entire future output to the United States with Edgar Sengier , the director of the company that owned the mine , Union Minière du Haut Katanga . The matter was then taken up by the Combined Policy Committee . As 30 percent of Union Minière 's stock was controlled by British interests , the British took the lead in negotiations . Sir John Anderson and Ambassador John Winant hammered out a deal with Sengier and the Belgian government in May 1944 for the mine to be reopened and 1 @,@ 720 long tons ( 1 @,@ 750 t ) of ore to be purchased at $ 1 @.@ 45 a pound . To avoid dependence on the British and Canadians for ore , Groves also arranged for the purchase of US Vanadium Corporation 's stockpile in Uravan , Colorado . Uranium mining in Colorado yielded about 800 long tons ( 810 t ) of ore .
Mallinckrodt Incorporated in St. Louis , Missouri , took the raw ore and dissolved it in nitric acid to produce uranyl nitrate . Ether was then added in a liquid – liquid extraction process to separate the impurities from the uranyl nitrate . This was then heated to form uranium trioxide , which was reduced to highly pure uranium dioxide . By July 1942 , Mallinckrodt was producing a ton of highly pure oxide a day , but turning this into uranium metal initially proved more difficult for contractors Westinghouse and Metal Hydrides . Production was too slow and quality was unacceptably low . A special branch of the Metallurgical Laboratory was established at Iowa State College in Ames , Iowa , under Frank Spedding to investigate alternatives . This became known as the Ames Project , and its Ames process became available in 1943 .
= = = Isotope separation = = =
Natural uranium consists of 99 @.@ 3 % uranium @-@ 238 and 0 @.@ 7 % uranium @-@ 235 , but only the latter is fissile . The chemically identical uranium @-@ 235 has to be physically separated from the more plentiful isotope . Various methods were considered for uranium enrichment , most of which was carried out at Oak Ridge .
The most obvious technology , the centrifuge , failed , but electromagnetic separation , gaseous diffusion , and thermal diffusion technologies were all successful and contributed to the project . In February 1943 , Groves came up with the idea of using the output of some plants as the input for others .
= = = = Centrifuges = = = =
The centrifuge process was regarded as the only promising separation method in April 1942 . Jesse Beams had developed such a process at the University of Virginia during the 1930s , but had encountered technical difficulties . The process required high rotational speeds , but at certain speeds harmonic vibrations developed that threatened to tear the machinery apart . It was therefore necessary to accelerate quickly through these speeds . In 1941 he began working with uranium hexafluoride , the only known gaseous compound of uranium , and was able to separate uranium @-@ 235 . At Columbia , Urey had Cohen investigate the process , and he produced a body of mathematical theory making it possible to design a centrifugal separation unit , which Westinghouse undertook to construct .
Scaling this up to a production plant presented a formidable technical challenge . Urey and Cohen estimated that producing a kilogram ( 2 @.@ 2 lb ) of uranium @-@ 235 per day would require up to 50 @,@ 000 centrifuges with 1 @-@ meter ( 3 ft 3 in ) rotors , or 10 @,@ 000 centrifuges with 4 @-@ meter ( 13 ft ) rotors , assuming that 4 @-@ meter rotors could be built . The prospect of keeping so many rotors operating continuously at high speed appeared daunting , and when Beams ran his experimental apparatus , he obtained only 60 % of the predicted yield , indicating that more centrifuges would be required . Beams , Urey and Cohen then began work on a series of improvements which promised to increase the efficiency of the process . However , frequent failures of motors , shafts and bearings at high speeds delayed work on the pilot plant . In November 1942 the centrifuge process was abandoned by the Military Policy Committee following a recommendation by Conant , Nichols and August C. Klein of Stone & Webster .
= = = = Electromagnetic separation = = = =
Electromagnetic isotope separation was developed by Lawrence at the University of California Radiation Laboratory . This method employed devices known as calutrons , a hybrid of the standard laboratory mass spectrometer and cyclotron . The name was derived from the words California , university and cyclotron . In the electromagnetic process , a magnetic field deflected charged particles according to mass . The process was neither scientifically elegant nor industrially efficient . Compared with a gaseous diffusion plant or a nuclear reactor , an electromagnetic separation plant would consume more scarce materials , require more manpower to operate , and cost more to build . Nonetheless , the process was approved because it was based on proven technology and therefore represented less risk . Moreover , it could be built in stages , and rapidly reach industrial capacity .
Marshall and Nichols discovered that the electromagnetic isotope separation process would require 5 @,@ 000 short tons ( 4 @,@ 500 tonnes ) of copper , which was in desperately short supply . However , silver could be substituted , in an 11 : 10 ratio . On 3 August 1942 , Nichols met with Under Secretary of the Treasury Daniel W. Bell and asked for the transfer of 6 @,@ 000 tons of silver bullion from the West Point Bullion Depository . " Young man , " Bell told him , " you may think of silver in tons but the Treasury will always think of silver in troy ounces ! " Eventually , 14 @,@ 700 short tons ( 13 @,@ 300 tonnes ; 430 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 troy ounces ) were used .
The 1 @,@ 000 @-@ troy @-@ ounce ( 31 kg ) silver bars were cast into cylindrical billets and taken to Phelps Dodge in Bayway , New Jersey , where they were extruded into strips 0 @.@ 625 inches ( 15 @.@ 9 mm ) thick , 3 inches ( 76 mm ) wide and 40 feet ( 12 m ) long . These were wound onto magnetic coils by Allis @-@ Chalmers in Milwaukee , Wisconsin . After the war , all the machinery was dismantled and cleaned and the floorboards beneath the machinery were ripped up and burned to recover minute amounts of silver . In the end , only 1 / 3,600,000th was lost . The last silver was returned in May 1970 .
Responsibility for the design and construction of the electromagnetic separation plant , which came to be called Y @-@ 12 , was assigned to Stone & Webster by the S @-@ 1 Committee in June 1942 . The design called for five first @-@ stage processing units , known as Alpha racetracks , and two units for final processing , known as Beta racetracks . In September 1943 Groves authorized construction of four more racetracks , known as Alpha II . Construction began in February 1943 .
When the plant was started up for testing on schedule in October , the 14 @-@ ton vacuum tanks crept out of alignment because of the power of the magnets , and had to be fastened more securely . A more serious problem arose when the magnetic coils started shorting out . In December Groves ordered a magnet to be broken open , and handfuls of rust were found inside . Groves then ordered the racetracks to be torn down and the magnets sent back to the factory to be cleaned . A pickling plant was established on @-@ site to clean the pipes and fittings . The second Alpha I was not operational until the end of January 1944 , the first Beta and first and third Alpha I 's came online in March , and the fourth Alpha I was operational in April . The four Alpha II racetracks were completed between July and October 1944 .
Tennessee Eastman was hired to manage Y @-@ 12 on the usual cost plus fixed fee basis , with a fee of $ 22 @,@ 500 per month plus $ 7 @,@ 500 per racetrack for the first seven racetracks and $ 4 @,@ 000 per additional racetrack . The calutrons were initially operated by scientists from Berkeley to remove bugs and achieve a reasonable operating rate . They were then turned over to trained Tennessee Eastman operators who had only a high school education . Nichols compared unit production data , and pointed out to Lawrence that the young " hillbilly " girl operators were outperforming his PhDs . They agreed to a production race and Lawrence lost , a morale boost for the Tennessee Eastman workers and supervisors . The girls were " trained like soldiers not to reason why " , while " the scientists could not refrain from time @-@ consuming investigation of the cause of even minor fluctuations of the dials . "
Y @-@ 12 initially enriched the uranium @-@ 235 content to between 13 % and 15 % , and shipped the first few hundred grams of this to Los Alamos in March 1944 . Only 1 part in 5 @,@ 825 of the uranium feed emerged as final product . Much of the rest was splattered over equipment in the process . Strenuous recovery efforts helped raise production to 10 % of the uranium @-@ 235 feed by January 1945 . In February the Alpha racetracks began receiving slightly enriched ( 1 @.@ 4 % ) feed from the new S @-@ 50 thermal diffusion plant . The next month it received enhanced ( 5 % ) feed from the K @-@ 25 gaseous diffusion plant . By August K @-@ 25 was producing uranium sufficiently enriched to feed directly into the Beta tracks .
= = = = Gaseous diffusion = = = =
The most promising but also the most challenging method of isotope separation was gaseous diffusion . Graham 's law states that the rate of effusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its molecular mass , so in a box containing a semi @-@ permeable membrane and a mixture of two gases , the lighter molecules will pass out of the container more rapidly than the heavier molecules . The gas leaving the container is somewhat enriched in the lighter molecules , while the residual gas is somewhat depleted . The idea was that such boxes could be formed into a cascade of pumps and membranes , with each successive stage containing a slightly more enriched mixture . Research into the process was carried out at Columbia University by a group that included Harold Urey , Karl P. Cohen and John R. Dunning .
In November 1942 the Military Policy Committee approved the construction of a 600 @-@ stage gaseous diffusion plant . On 14 December , M. W. Kellogg accepted an offer to construct the plant , which was codenamed K @-@ 25 . A cost plus fixed fee contract was negotiated , eventually totaling $ 2 @.@ 5 million . A separate corporate entity called Kellex was created for the project , headed by Percival C. Keith , one of Kellogg 's vice presidents . The process faced formidable technical difficulties . The highly corrosive gas uranium hexafluoride would have to be used , as no substitute could be found , and the motors and pumps would have to be vacuum tight and enclosed in inert gas . The biggest problem was the design of the barrier , which would have to be strong , porous and resistant to corrosion by uranium hexafluoride . The best choice for this seemed to be nickel . Edward Adler and Edward Norris created a mesh barrier from electroplated nickel . A six @-@ stage pilot plant was built at Columbia to test the process , but the Norris @-@ Adler prototype proved to be too brittle . A rival barrier was developed from powdered nickel by Kellex , the Bell Telephone Laboratories and the Bakelite Corporation . In January 1944 , Groves ordered the Kellex barrier into production .
Kellex 's design for K @-@ 25 called for a four @-@ story 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) long U @-@ shaped structure containing 54 contiguous buildings . These were divided into nine sections . Within these were cells of six stages . The cells could be operated independently , or consecutively within a section . Similarly , the sections could be operated separately or as part of a single cascade . A survey party began construction by marking out the 500 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 0 km2 ) site in May 1943 . Work on the main building began in October 1943 , and the six @-@ stage pilot plant was ready for operation on 17 April 1944 . In 1945 Groves canceled the upper stages of the plant , directing Kellex to instead design and build a 540 @-@ stage side feed unit , which became known as K @-@ 27 . Kellex transferred the last unit to the operating contractor , Union Carbide and Carbon , on 11 September 1945 . The total cost , including the K @-@ 27 plant completed after the war , came to $ 480 million .
The production plant commenced operation in February 1945 , and as cascade after cascade came online , the quality of the product increased . By April 1945 , K @-@ 25 had attained a 1 @.@ 1 % enrichment and the output of the S @-@ 50 thermal diffusion plant began being used as feed . Some product produced the next month reached nearly 7 % enrichment . In August , the last of the 2 @,@ 892 stages commenced operation . K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 27 achieved their full potential in the early postwar period , when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants .
= = = = Thermal diffusion = = = =
The thermal diffusion process was based on Sydney Chapman and David Enskog 's theory , which explained that when a mixed gas passes through a temperature gradient , the heavier one tends to concentrate at the cold end and the lighter one at the warm end . Since hot gases tend to rise and cool ones tend to fall , this can be used as a means of isotope separation . This process was first demonstrated by H. Clusius and G. Dickel in Germany in 1938 . It was developed by US Navy scientists , but was not one of the enrichment technologies initially selected for use in the Manhattan Project . This was primarily due to doubts about its technical feasibility , but the inter @-@ service rivalry between the Army and Navy also played a part .
The Naval Research Laboratory continued the research under Philip Abelson 's direction , but there was little contact with the Manhattan Project until April 1944 , when Captain William S. Parsons , the naval officer who was in charge of ordnance development at Los Alamos , brought Oppenheimer news of encouraging progress in the Navy 's experiments on thermal diffusion . Oppenheimer wrote to Groves suggesting that the output of a thermal diffusion plant could be fed into Y @-@ 12 . Groves set up a committee consisting of Warren K. Lewis , Eger Murphree and Richard Tolman to investigate the idea , and they estimated that a thermal diffusion plant costing $ 3 @.@ 5 million could enrich 50 kilograms ( 110 lb ) of uranium per week to nearly 0 @.@ 9 % uranium @-@ 235 . Groves approved its construction on 24 June 1944 .
Groves contracted with the H. K. Ferguson Company of Cleveland , Ohio , to build the thermal diffusion plant , which was designated S @-@ 50 . Groves ' advisers , Karl Cohen and W. I. Thompson from Standard Oil , estimated that it would take six months to build . Groves gave Ferguson just four . Plans called for the installation of 2 @,@ 142 48 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 15 m ) diffusion columns arranged in 21 racks . Inside each column were three concentric tubes . Steam , obtained from the nearby K @-@ 25 powerhouse at a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch ( 690 kPa ) and temperature of 545 ° F ( 285 ° C ) , flowed downward through the innermost 1 @.@ 25 @-@ inch ( 32 mm ) nickel pipe , while water at 155 ° F ( 68 ° C ) flowed upward through the outermost iron pipe . Isotope separation occurred in the uranium hexafluoride gas between the nickel and copper pipes .
Work commenced on 9 July 1944 , and S @-@ 50 began partial operation in September . Ferguson operated the plant through a subsidiary known as Fercleve . The plant produced just 10 @.@ 5 pounds ( 4 @.@ 8 kg ) of 0 @.@ 852 % uranium @-@ 235 in October . Leaks limited production and forced shutdowns over the next few months , but in June 1945 it produced 12 @,@ 730 pounds ( 5 @,@ 770 kg ) . By March 1945 , all 21 production racks were operating . Initially the output of S @-@ 50 was fed into Y @-@ 12 , but starting in March 1945 all three enrichment processes were run in series . S @-@ 50 became the first stage , enriching from 0 @.@ 71 % to 0 @.@ 89 % . This material was fed into the gaseous diffusion process in the K @-@ 25 plant , which produced a product enriched to about 23 % . This was , in turn , fed into Y @-@ 12 , which boosted it to about 89 % , sufficient for nuclear weapons .
= = = Aggregate U @-@ 235 production = = =
About 50 kilograms ( 110 lb ) of uranium enriched to 89 % uranium @-@ 235 was delivered to Los Alamos by July 1945 . The entire 50 kg , along with some 50 % -enriched , averaging out to about 85 % enriched , were used in Little Boy
= = Plutonium = =
The second line of development pursued by the Manhattan Project used the fissile element plutonium . Although small amounts of plutonium exist in nature , the best way to obtain large quantities of the element is in a nuclear reactor , in which natural uranium is bombarded by neutrons . The uranium @-@ 238 is transmuted into uranium @-@ 239 , which rapidly decays , first into neptunium @-@ 239 and then into plutonium @-@ 239 . Only a small amount of the uranium @-@ 238 will be transformed , so the plutonium must be chemically separated from the remaining uranium , from any initial impurities , and from fission products .
= = = X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor = = =
In March 1943 , DuPont began construction of a plutonium plant on a 112 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 5 km2 ) site at Oak Ridge . Intended as a pilot plant for the larger production facilities at Hanford , it included the air @-@ cooled X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor , a chemical separation plant , and support facilities . Because of the subsequent decision to construct water @-@ cooled reactors at Hanford , only the chemical separation plant operated as a true pilot . The X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor consisted of a huge block of graphite , 24 feet ( 7 @.@ 3 m ) long on each side
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, weighing around 1 @,@ 500 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 t ) , surrounded by 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) of high @-@ density concrete as a radiation shield .
The greatest difficulty was encountered with the uranium slugs produced by Mallinckrodt and Metal Hydrides . These somehow had to be coated in aluminum to avoid corrosion and the escape of fission products into the cooling system . The Grasselli Chemical Company attempted to develop a hot dipping process without success . Meanwhile , Alcoa tried canning . A new process for flux @-@ less welding was developed , and 97 % of the cans passed a standard vacuum test , but high temperature tests indicated a failure rate of more than 50 % . Nonetheless , production began in June 1943 . The Metallurgical Laboratory eventually developed an improved welding technique with the help of General Electric , which was incorporated into the production process in October 1943 .
Watched by Fermi and Compton , the X @-@ 10 Graphite Reactor went critical on 4 November 1943 with about 30 long tons ( 30 t ) of uranium . A week later the load was increased to 36 long tons ( 37 t ) , raising its power generation to 500 kW , and by the end of the month the first 500 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 018 oz ) of plutonium was created . Modifications over time raised the power to 4 @,@ 000 kW in July 1944 . X @-@ 10 operated as a production plant until January 1945 , when it was turned over to research activities .
= = = Hanford reactors = = =
Although an air @-@ cooled design was chosen for the reactor at Oak Ridge to facilitate rapid construction , it was recognized that this would be impractical for the much larger production reactors . Initial designs by the Metallurgical Laboratory and DuPont used helium for cooling , before they determined that a water @-@ cooled reactor would be simpler , cheaper and quicker to build . The design did not become available until 4 October 1943 ; in the meantime , Matthias concentrated on improving the Hanford site by erecting accommodations , improving the roads , building a railway switch line , and upgrading the electricity , water and telephone lines .
As at Oak Ridge , the most difficulty was encountered while canning the uranium slugs , which commenced at Hanford in March 1944 . They were pickled to remove dirt and impurities , dipped in molten bronze , tin , and aluminum @-@ silicon alloy , canned using hydraulic presses , and then capped using arc welding under an argon atmosphere . Finally , they were subjected to a series of tests to detect holes or faulty welds . Disappointingly , most canned slugs initially failed the tests , resulting in an output of only a handful of canned slugs per day . But steady progress was made and by June 1944 production increased to the point where it appeared that enough canned slugs would be available to start Reactor B on schedule in August 1944 .
Work began on Reactor B , the first of six planned 250 MW reactors , on 10 October 1943 . The reactor complexes were given letter designations A through F , with B , D and F sites chosen to be developed first , as this maximised the distance between the reactors . They would be the only ones constructed during the Manhattan Project . Some 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of steel , 17 @,@ 400 cubic yards ( 13 @,@ 300 m3 ) of concrete , 50 @,@ 000 concrete blocks and 71 @,@ 000 concrete bricks were used to construct the 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) high building .
Construction of the reactor itself commenced in February 1944 . Watched by Compton , Matthias , DuPont 's Crawford Greenewalt , Leona Woods and Fermi , who inserted the first slug , the reactor was powered up beginning on 13 September 1944 . Over the next few days , 838 tubes were loaded and the reactor went critical . Shortly after midnight on 27 September , the operators began to withdraw the control rods to initiate production . At first all appeared well but around 03 : 00 the power level started to drop and by 06 : 30 the reactor had shut down completely . The cooling water was investigated to see if there was a leak or contamination . The next day the reactor started up again , only to shut down once more .
Fermi contacted Chien @-@ Shiung Wu , who identified the cause of the problem as neutron poisoning from xenon @-@ 135 , which has a half @-@ life of 9 @.@ 2 hours . Fermi , Woods , Donald J. Hughes and John Archibald Wheeler then calculated the nuclear cross section of xenon @-@ 135 , which turned out to be 30 @,@ 000 times that of uranium . Fortunately , DuPont engineer George Graves had deviated from the Metallurgical Laboratory 's original design in which the reactor had 1 @,@ 500 tubes arranged in a circle , and had added an additional 504 tubes to fill in the corners . The scientists had originally considered this overengineering a waste of time and money , but Fermi realized that by loading all 2 @,@ 004 tubes , the reactor could reach the required power level and efficiently produce plutonium . Reactor D was started on 17 December 1944 and Reactor F on 25 February 1945 .
= = = Separation process = = =
Meanwhile , the chemists considered the problem of how plutonium could be separated from uranium when its chemical properties were not known . Working with the minute quantities of plutonium available at the Metallurgical Laboratory in 1942 , a team under Charles M. Cooper developed a lanthanum fluoride process for separating uranium and plutonium , which was chosen for the pilot separation plant . A second separation process , the bismuth phosphate process , was subsequently developed by Seaborg and Stanly G. Thomson . This process worked by toggling plutonium between its + 4 and + 6 oxidation states in solutions of bismuth phosphate . In the former state , the plutonium was precipitated ; in the latter , it stayed in solution and the other products were precipitated .
Greenewalt favored the bismuth phosphate process due to the corrosive nature of lanthanum fluoride , and it was selected for the Hanford separation plants . Once X @-@ 10 began producing plutonium , the pilot separation plant was put to the test . The first batch was processed at 40 % efficiency but over the next few months this was raised to 90 % .
At Hanford , top priority was initially given to the installations in the 300 area . This contained buildings for testing materials , preparing uranium , and assembling and calibrating instrumentation . One of the buildings housed the canning equipment for the uranium slugs , while another contained a small test reactor . Notwithstanding the high priority allocated to it , work on the 300 area fell behind schedule due to the unique and complex nature of the 300 area facilities , and wartime shortages of labor and materials .
Early plans called for the construction of two separation plants in each of the areas known as 200 @-@ West and 200 @-@ East . This was subsequently reduced to two , the T and U plants , in 200 @-@ West and one , the B plant , at 200 @-@ East . Each separation plant consisted of four buildings : a process cell building or " canyon " ( known as 221 ) , a concentration building ( 224 ) , a purification building ( 231 ) and a magazine store ( 213 ) . The canyons were each 800 feet ( 240 m ) long and 65 feet ( 20 m ) wide . Each consisted of forty 17 @.@ 7 @-@ by @-@ 13 @-@ by @-@ 20 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 4 by 4 @.@ 0 by 6 @.@ 1 m ) cells .
Work began on 221 @-@ T and 221 @-@ U in January 1944 , with the former completed in September and the latter in December . The 221 @-@ B building followed in March 1945 . Because of the high levels of radioactivity involved , all work in the separation plants had to be conducted by remote control using closed @-@ circuit television , something unheard of in 1943 . Maintenance was carried out with the aid of an overhead crane and specially designed tools . The 224 buildings were smaller because they had less material to process , and it was less radioactive . The 224 @-@ T and 224 @-@ U buildings were completed on 8 October 1944 , and 224 @-@ B followed on 10 February 1945 . The purification methods that were eventually used in 231 @-@ W were still unknown when construction commenced on 8 April 1944 , but the plant was complete and the methods were selected by the end of the year . On 5 February 1945 , Matthias hand @-@ delivered the first shipment of 80 grams ( 2 @.@ 6 ozt ) of 95 % -pure plutonium nitrate to a Los Alamos courier in Los Angeles .
= = = Weapon design = = =
In 1943 , development efforts were directed to a gun @-@ type fission weapon with plutonium called Thin Man . Initial research on the properties of plutonium was done using cyclotron @-@ generated plutonium @-@ 239 , which was extremely pure , but could only be created in very small amounts . Los Alamos received the first sample of plutonium from the Clinton X @-@ 10 reactor in April 1944 and within days Emilio Segrè discovered a problem : the reactor @-@ bred plutonium had a higher concentration of plutonium @-@ 240 , resulting in up to five times the spontaneous fission rate of cyclotron plutonium . Seaborg had correctly predicted in March 1943 that some of the plutonium @-@ 239 would absorb a neutron and become plutonium @-@ 240 .
This made reactor plutonium unsuitable for use in a gun @-@ type weapon . The plutonium @-@ 240 would start the chain reaction too quickly , causing a predetonation that would release enough energy to disperse the critical mass with a minimal amount of plutonium reacted ( a fizzle ) . A faster gun was suggested but found to be impractical . The possibility of separating the isotopes was considered and rejected , as plutonium @-@ 240 is even harder to separate from plutonium @-@ 239 than uranium @-@ 235 from uranium @-@ 238 .
Work on an alternative method of bomb design , known as implosion , had begun earlier at the instigation of the physicist Seth Neddermeyer . Implosion used explosives to crush a subcritical sphere of fissile material into a smaller and denser form . When the fissile atoms are packed closer together , the rate of neutron capture increases , and the mass becomes a critical mass . The metal needs to travel only a very short distance , so the critical mass is assembled in much less time than it would take with the gun method . Neddermeyer 's 1943 and early 1944 investigations into implosion showed promise , but also made it clear that the problem would be much more difficult from a theoretical and engineering perspective than the gun design . In September 1943 , John von Neumann , who had experience with shaped charges used in armor @-@ piercing shells , argued that not only would implosion reduce the danger of predetonation and fizzle , but would make more efficient use of the fissionable material . He proposed using a spherical configuration instead of the cylindrical one that Neddermeyer was working on .
By July 1944 , Oppenheimer had concluded plutonium could not be used in a gun design , and opted for implosion . The accelerated effort on an implosion design , codenamed Fat Man , began in August 1944 when Oppenheimer implemented a sweeping reorganization of the Los Alamos laboratory to focus on implosion . Two new groups were created at Los Alamos to develop the implosion weapon , X ( for explosives ) Division headed by George Kistiakowsky and G ( for gadget ) Division under Robert Bacher . The new design that von Neumann and T ( for theoretical ) Division , most notably Rudolf Peierls , had devised used explosive lenses to focus the explosion onto a spherical shape using a combination of both slow and fast high explosives .
The design of lenses that detonated with the proper shape and velocity turned out to be slow , difficult and frustrating . Various explosives were tested before settling on composition B as the fast explosive and baratol as the slow explosive . The final design resembled a soccer ball , with 20 hexagonal and 12 pentagonal lenses , each weighing about 80 pounds ( 36 kg ) . Getting the detonation just right required fast , reliable and safe electrical detonators , of which there were two for each lens for reliability . It was therefore decided to use exploding @-@ bridgewire detonators , a new invention developed at Los Alamos by a group led by Luis Alvarez . A contract for their manufacture was given to Raytheon .
To study the behavior of converging shock waves , Robert Serber devised the RaLa Experiment , which used the short @-@ lived radioisotope lanthanum @-@ 140 , a potent source of gamma radiation . The gamma ray source was placed in the center of a metal sphere surrounded by the explosive lenses , which in turn were inside in an ionization chamber . This allowed the taking of an X @-@ ray movie of the implosion . The lenses were designed primarily using this series of tests . In his history of the Los Alamos project , David Hawkins wrote : " RaLa became the most important single experiment affecting the final bomb design " .
Within the explosives was the 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 110 mm ) thick aluminum pusher , which provided a smooth transition from the relatively low density explosive to the next layer , the 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) thick tamper of natural uranium . Its main job was to hold the critical mass together as long as possible , but it would also reflect neutrons back into the core . Some part of it might fission as well . To prevent predetonation by an external neutron , the tamper was coated in a thin layer of boron . A polonium @-@ beryllium modulated neutron initiator , known as an " urchin " because its shape resembled a sea urchin , was developed to start the chain reaction at precisely the right moment . This work with the chemistry and metallurgy of radioactive polonium was directed by Charles Allen Thomas of the Monsanto Company and became known as the Dayton Project . Testing required up to 500 curies per month of polonium , which Monsanto was able to deliver . The whole assembly was encased in a duralumin bomb casing to protect it from bullets and flak .
The ultimate task of the metallurgists was to determine how to cast plutonium into a sphere . The difficulties became apparent when attempts to measure the density of plutonium gave inconsistent results . At first contamination was believed to be the cause , but it was soon determined that there were multiple allotropes of plutonium . The brittle α phase that exists at room temperature changes to the plastic β phase at higher temperatures . Attention then shifted to the even more malleable δ phase that normally exists in the 300 ° C to 450 ° C range . It was found that this was stable at room temperature when alloyed with aluminum , but aluminum emits neutrons when bombarded with alpha particles , which would exacerbate the pre @-@ ignition problem . The metallurgists then hit upon a plutonium @-@ gallium alloy , which stabilized the δ phase and could be hot pressed into the desired spherical shape . As plutonium was found to corrode readily , the sphere was coated with nickel .
The work proved dangerous . By the end of the war , half the experienced chemists and metallurgists had to be removed from work with plutonium when unacceptably high levels of the element appeared in their urine . A minor fire at Los Alamos in January 1945 led to a fear that a fire in the plutonium laboratory might contaminate the whole town , and Groves authorized the construction of a new facility for plutonium chemistry and metallurgy , which became known as the DP @-@ site . The hemispheres for the first plutonium pit ( or core ) were produced and delivered on 2 July 1945 . Three more hemispheres followed on 23 July and were delivered three days later .
= = = Trinity = = =
Because of the complexity of an implosion @-@ style weapon , it was decided that , despite the waste of fissile material , an initial test would be required . Groves approved the test , subject to the active material being recovered . Consideration was therefore given to a controlled fizzle , but Oppenheimer opted instead for a full @-@ scale nuclear test , codenamed " Trinity " .
In March 1944 , planning for the test was assigned to Kenneth Bainbridge , a professor of physics at Harvard , working under Kistiakowsky . Bainbridge selected the bombing range near Alamogordo Army Airfield as the site for the test . Bainbridge worked with Captain Samuel P. Davalos on the construction of the Trinity Base Camp and its facilities , which included barracks , warehouses , workshops , an explosive magazine and a commissary .
Groves did not relish the prospect of explaining the loss of a billion dollars worth of plutonium to a Senate committee , so a cylindrical containment vessel codenamed " Jumbo " was constructed to recover the active material in the event of a failure . Measuring 25 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) long and 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide , it was fabricated at great expense from 214 long tons ( 217 t ) of iron and steel by Babcock & Wilcox in Barberton , Ohio . Brought in a special railroad car to a siding in Pope , New Mexico , it was transported the last 25 miles ( 40 km ) to the test site on a trailer pulled by two tractors . By the time it arrived , however , confidence in the implosion method was high enough , and the availability of plutonium was sufficient , that Oppenheimer decided not to use it . Instead , it was placed atop a steel tower 800 yards ( 730 m ) from the weapon as a rough measure of how powerful the explosion would be . In the end , Jumbo survived , although its tower did not , adding credence to the belief that Jumbo would have successfully contained a fizzled explosion .
A pre @-@ test explosion was conducted on 7 May 1945 to calibrate the instruments . A wooden test platform was erected 800 yards ( 730 m ) from Ground Zero and piled with 100 long tons ( 100 t ) of TNT spiked with nuclear fission products in the form of an irradiated uranium slug from Hanford , which was dissolved and poured into tubing inside the explosive . This explosion was observed by Oppenheimer and Groves 's new deputy commander , Brigadier General Thomas Farrell . The pre @-@ test produced data that proved vital for the Trinity test .
For the actual test , the weapon , nicknamed " the gadget " , was hoisted to the top of a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) steel tower , as detonation at that height would give a better indication of how the weapon would behave when dropped from a bomber . Detonation in the air maximized the energy applied directly to the target , and generated less nuclear fallout . The gadget was assembled under the supervision of Norris Bradbury at the nearby McDonald Ranch House on 13 July , and precariously winched up the tower the following day . Observers included Bush , Chadwick , Conant , Farrell , Fermi , Groves , Lawrence , Oppenheimer and Tolman . At 05 : 30 on 16 July 1945 the gadget exploded with an energy equivalent of around 20 kilotons of TNT , leaving a crater of Trinitite ( radioactive glass ) in the desert 250 feet ( 76 m ) wide . The shock wave was felt over 100 miles ( 160 km ) away , and the mushroom cloud reached 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) in height . It was heard as far away as El Paso , Texas , so Groves issued a cover story about an ammunition magazine explosion at Alamogordo Field .
= = Personnel = =
In June 1944 , the Manhattan Project employed some 129 @,@ 000 workers , of whom 84 @,@ 500 were construction workers , 40 @,@ 500 were plant operators and 1 @,@ 800 were military personnel . As construction activity fell off , the workforce declined to 100 @,@ 000 a year later , but the number of military personnel increased to 5 @,@ 600 . Procuring the required numbers of workers , especially highly skilled workers , in competition with other vital wartime programs proved very difficult . In 1943 , Groves obtained a special temporary priority for labor from the War Manpower Commission . In March 1944 , both the War Production Board and the War Manpower Commission gave the project their highest priority .
Tolman and Conant , in their role as the project 's scientific advisers , drew up a list of candidate scientists and had them rated by scientists already working on the project . Groves then sent a personal letter to the head of their university or company asking for them to be released for essential war work . At the University of Wisconsin – Madison , Stanislaw Ulam gave one of his students , Joan Hinton , an exam early , so she could leave to do war work . A few weeks later , Ulam received a letter from Hans Bethe , inviting him to join the project . Conant personally persuaded the explosives expert George Kistiakowsky to join the project .
One source of skilled personnel was the Army itself , particularly the Army Specialized Training Program . In 1943 , the MED created the Special Engineer Detachment ( SED ) , with an authorized strength of 675 . Technicians and skilled workers drafted into the Army were assigned to the SED . Another source was the Women 's Army Corps ( WAC ) . Initially intended for clerical tasks handling classified material , the WACs were soon tapped for technical and scientific tasks as well . On 1 February 1945 , all military personnel assigned to the MED , including all SED detachments , were assigned to the 9812th Technical Service Unit , except at Los Alamos , where military personnel other than SED , including the WACs and Military Police , were assigned to the 4817th Service Command Unit .
An Associate Professor of Radiology at the University of Rochester School of Medicine , Stafford L. Warren , was commissioned as a colonel in the United States Army Medical Corps , and appointed as chief of the MED 's Medical Section and Groves ' medical advisor . Warren 's initial task was to staff hospitals at Oak Ridge , Richland and Los Alamos . The Medical Section was responsible for medical research , but also for the MED 's health and safety programs . This presented an enormous challenge , because workers were handling a variety of toxic chemicals , using hazardous liquids and gases under high pressures , working with high voltages , and performing experiments involving explosives , not to mention the largely unknown dangers presented by radioactivity and handling fissile materials . Yet in December 1945 , the National Safety Council presented the Manhattan Project with the Award of Honor for Distinguished Service to Safety in recognition of its safety record . Between January 1943 and June 1945 , there were 62 fatalities and 3 @,@ 879 disabling injuries , which was about 62 percent below the rate of private industry .
= = Secrecy = =
A 1945 Life article estimated that before the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombings " probably no more than a few dozen men in the entire country knew the full meaning of the Manhattan Project , and perhaps only a thousand others even were aware that work on atoms was involved . " The magazine wrote that the more than 100 @,@ 000 others employed with the project " worked like moles in the dark " . Warned that disclosing the project 's secrets was punishable by 10 years in prison or a $ 10 @,@ 000 ( $ 131 @,@ 000 today ) fine , they saw enormous quantities of raw materials enter factories with nothing coming out , and monitored " dials and switches while behind thick concrete walls mysterious reactions took place " without knowing the purpose of their jobs .
Oak Ridge security personnel considered any private party with more than seven people as suspicious , and residents — who believed that US government agents were secretly among them — avoided repeatedly inviting the same guests . Although original residents of the area could be buried in existing cemeteries , every coffin was reportedly opened for inspection . Everyone , including top military officials , and their automobiles were searched when entering and exiting project facilities . One Oak Ridge worker stated that " if you got inquisitive , you were called on the carpet within two hours by government secret agents . Usually those summoned to explain were then escorted bag and baggage to the gate and ordered to keep going . " Nonetheless , despite being told that their work would help end the war and perhaps all future wars , not seeing or understanding the results of their often tedious duties — or even typical side effects of factory work such as smoke from smokestacks — and the war in Europe ending without the use of their work , caused serious morale problems among workers and caused many rumors to spread . One manager stated after the war :
Well it wasn 't that the job was tough ... it was confusing . You see , no one knew what was being made in Oak Ridge , not even me , and a lot of the people thought they were wasting their time here . It was up to me to explain to the dissatisfied workers that they were doing a very important job . When they asked me what , I 'd have to tell them it was a secret . But I almost went crazy myself trying to figure out what was going on .
Another worker told of how , working in a laundry , she every day held " a special instrument " to uniforms and listened for " a clicking noise " . She learned only after the war that she had been performing the important task of checking for radiation with a geiger counter . To improve morale among such workers Oak Ridge created an extensive system of intramural sports leagues , including 10 baseball teams , 81 softball teams , and 26 football teams .
= = = Censorship = = =
Voluntary censorship of atomic information began before the Manhattan Project . After the start of the European war in 1939 American scientists began avoiding publishing military @-@ related research , and in 1940 scientific journals began asking the National Academy of Sciences to clear articles . William L. Laurence of The New York Times , who wrote an article for The Saturday Evening Post in September 1940 on atomic fission , later learned that government officials asked librarians nationwide in 1943 to withdraw the issue . The Soviets noticed the silence , however . In April 1942 nuclear physicist Georgy Flyorov wrote to Josef Stalin on the absence of articles on nuclear fission in American journals ; this resulted in the Soviet Union establishing its own atomic bomb project .
The Manhattan Project operated under tight security lest its discovery induce Axis powers , especially Germany , to accelerate their own nuclear projects or undertake covert operations against the project . The government 's Office of Censorship , by contrast , relied on the press to comply with a voluntary code of conduct it published , and the project at first avoided notifying the office . By early 1943 newspapers began publishing reports of large construction in Tennessee and Washington based on public records , and the office began discussing with the project how to maintain secrecy . In June the Office of Censorship asked newspapers and broadcasters to avoid discussing " atom smashing , atomic energy , atomic fission , atomic splitting , or any of their equivalents . The use for military purposes of radium or radioactive materials , heavy water , high voltage discharge equipment , cyclotrons . " The office also asked to avoid discussion of " polonium , uranium , ytterbium , hafnium , protactinium , radium , rhenium , thorium , deuterium " ; only uranium was sensitive , but was listed with other elements to hide its importance .
= = = Soviet spies = = =
The prospect of sabotage was always present , and sometimes suspected when there were equipment failures . While there were some problems believed to be the result of careless or disgruntled employees , there were no confirmed instances of Axis @-@ instigated sabotage . However , on 10 March 1945 , a Japanese fire balloon struck a power line , and the resulting power surge caused the three reactors at Hanford to be temporarily shut down . With so many people involved , security was a difficult task . A special Counter Intelligence Corps detachment was formed to handle the project 's security issues . By 1943 , it was clear that the Soviet Union was attempting to penetrate the project . Lieutenant Colonel Boris T. Pash , the head of the Counter Intelligence Branch of the Western Defense Command , investigated suspected Soviet espionage at the Radiation Laboratory in Berkeley . Oppenheimer informed Pash that he had been approached by a fellow professor at Berkeley , Haakon Chevalier , about passing information to the Soviet Union .
The most successful Soviet spy was Klaus Fuchs , a member of the British Mission who played an important part at Los Alamos . The 1950 revelation of his espionage activities damaged the United States ' nuclear cooperation with Britain and Canada . Subsequently , other instances of espionage were uncovered , leading to the arrest of Harry Gold , David Greenglass and Ethel and Julius Rosenberg . Other spies like George Koval and Theodore Hall remained unknown for decades . The value of the espionage is difficult to quantify , as the principal constraint on the Soviet atomic bomb project was a shortage of uranium ore . The consensus is that espionage saved the Soviets one or two years of effort .
= = Foreign intelligence = =
In addition to developing the atomic bomb , the Manhattan Project was charged with gathering intelligence on the German nuclear energy project . It was believed that the Japanese nuclear weapons program was not far advanced because Japan had little access to uranium ore , but it was initially feared that Germany was very close to developing its own weapons . At the instigation of the Manhattan Project , a bombing and sabotage campaign was carried out against heavy water plants in German @-@ occupied Norway . A small mission was created , jointly staffed by the Office of Naval Intelligence , OSRD , the Manhattan Project , and Army Intelligence ( G @-@ 2 ) , to investigate enemy scientific developments . It was not restricted to those involving nuclear weapons . The Chief of Army Intelligence , Major General George V. Strong , appointed Boris Pash to command the unit , which was codenamed " Alsos " , a Greek word meaning " grove " .
The Alsos Mission to Italy questioned staff of the physics laboratory at the University of Rome following the capture of the city in June 1944 . Meanwhile , Pash formed a combined British and American Alsos mission in London under the command of Captain Horace K. Calvert to participate in Operation Overlord . Groves considered the risk that the Germans might attempt to disrupt the Normandy landings with radioactive poisons was sufficient to warn General Dwight D. Eisenhower and send an officer to brief his chief of staff , Lieutenant General Walter Bedell Smith . Under the codename Operation Peppermint , special equipment was prepared and Chemical Warfare Service teams were trained in its use .
Following in the wake of the advancing Allied armies , Pash and Calvert interviewed Frédéric Joliot @-@ Curie about the activities of German scientists . They spoke to officials at Union Minière du Haut Katanga about uranium shipments to Germany . They tracked down 68 tons of ore in Belgium and 30 tons in France . The interrogation of German prisoners indicated that uranium and thorium were being processed in Oranienburg , 20 miles north of Berlin , so Groves arranged for it to be bombed on 15 March 1945 .
An Alsos team went to Stassfurt in the Soviet Occupation Zone and retrieved 11 tons of ore from WIFO . In April 1945 , Pash , in command of a composite force known as T @-@ Force , conducted Operation Harborage , a sweep behind enemy lines of the cities of Hechingen , Bisingen and Haigerloch that were the heart of the German nuclear effort . T @-@ Force captured the nuclear laboratories , documents , equipment and supplies , including heavy water and 1 @.@ 5 tons of metallic uranium .
Alsos teams rounded up German scientists including Kurt Diebner , Otto Hahn , Walther Gerlach , Werner Heisenberg and Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker , who were taken to England where they were interned at Farm Hall , a bugged house in Godmanchester . After the bombs were detonated in Japan , the Germans were forced to confront the fact that the Allies had done what they could not .
= = Bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki = =
= = = Preparations = = =
Starting in November 1943 , the Army Air Forces Materiel Command at Wright Field , Ohio , began Silverplate , the codename modification of B @-@ 29s to carry the bombs . Test drops were carried out at Muroc Army Air Field , California , and the Naval Ordnance Test Station at Inyokern , California . Groves met with the Chief of United States Army Air Forces ( USAAF ) , General Henry H. Arnold , in March 1944 to discuss the delivery of the finished bombs to their targets . The only Allied aircraft capable of carrying the 17 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) long Thin Man or the 59 @-@ inch ( 150 cm ) wide Fat Man was the British Avro Lancaster , but using a British aircraft would have caused difficulties with maintenance . Groves hoped that the American Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress could be modified to carry Thin Man by joining its two bomb bays together . Arnold promised that no effort would be spared to modify B @-@ 29s to do the job , and designated Major General Oliver P. Echols as the USAAF liaison to the Manhattan Project . In turn , Echols named Colonel Roscoe C. Wilson as his alternate , and Wilson became Manhattan Project 's main USAAF contact . President Roosevelt instructed Groves that if the atomic bombs were ready before the war with Germany ended , he should be ready to drop them on Germany .
The 509th Composite Group was activated on 17 December 1944 at Wendover Army Air Field , Utah , under the command of Colonel Paul W. Tibbets . This base , close to the border with Nevada , was codenamed " Kingman " or " W @-@ 47 " . Training was conducted at Wendover and at Batista Army Airfield , Cuba , where the 393d Bombardment Squadron practiced long @-@ distance flights over water , and dropping dummy pumpkin bombs . A special unit known as Alberta was formed at Los Alamos under Captain William S. Parsons as part of the Manhattan Project to assist in preparing and delivering the bombs . Commander Frederick L. Ashworth from Alberta met with Fleet Admiral Chester W. Nimitz on Guam in February 1945 to inform him of the project . While he was there , Ashworth selected North Field on the Pacific Island Tinian as a base for the 509th Composite Group , and reserved space for the group and its buildings . The group deployed there in July 1945 . Farrell arrived at Tinian on 30 July as the Manhattan Project representative .
Most of the components for Little Boy left San Francisco on the cruiser USS Indianapolis on 16 July and arrived on Tinian on 26 July . Four days later the ship was sunk by a Japanese submarine . The remaining components , which included six uranium @-@ 235 rings , were delivered by three C @-@ 54 Skymasters of the 509th Group 's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron . Two Fat Man assemblies travelled to Tinian in specially modified 509th Composite Group B @-@ 29s . The first plutonium core went in a special C @-@ 54 . A joint targeting committee of the Manhattan District and USAAF was established to determine which cities in Japan should be targets , and recommended Kokura , Hiroshima , Niigata and Kyoto . At this point , Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson intervened , announcing that he would be making the targeting decision , and that he would not authorize the bombing of Kyoto on the grounds of its historical and religious significance . Groves therefore asked Arnold to remove Kyoto not just from the list of nuclear targets , but from targets for conventional bombing as well . One of Kyoto 's substitutes was Nagasaki .
= = = Bombings = = =
In May 1945 , the Interim Committee was created to advise on wartime and postwar use of nuclear energy . The committee was chaired by Stimson , with James F. Byrnes , a former US Senator soon to be Secretary of State , as President Harry S. Truman 's personal representative ; Ralph A. Bard , the Under Secretary of the Navy ; William L. Clayton , the Assistant Secretary of State ; Vannevar Bush ; Karl T. Compton ; James B. Conant ; and George L. Harrison , an assistant to Stimson and president of New York Life Insurance Company . The Interim Committee in turn established a scientific panel consisting of Arthur Compton , Fermi , Lawrence and Oppenheimer to advise it on scientific issues . In its presentation to the Interim Committee , the scientific panel offered its opinion not just on the likely physical effects of an atomic bomb , but on its probable military and political impact .
At the Potsdam Conference in Germany , Truman was informed that the Trinity test had been successful . He told Stalin , the leader of the Soviet Union , that the US had a new superweapon , without giving any details . This was the first official communication to the Soviet Union about the bomb , but Stalin already knew about it from spies . With the authorization to use the bomb against Japan already given , no alternatives were considered after the Japanese rejection of the Potsdam Declaration .
On 6 August 1945 , a Boeing B @-@ 29 Superfortress ( Enola Gay ) of the 393d Bombardment Squadron , piloted and commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets , lifted off from North Field , and Little Boy in its bomb bay . Hiroshima , the headquarters of the 2nd General Army and Fifth Division and a port of embarkation , was the primary target of the mission , with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternatives . With Farrell 's permission , weaponeer Captain William S. Parsons completed the bomb assembly in the air to minimize the risks during takeoff . The bomb detonated at an altitude of 1 @,@ 750 feet ( 530 m ) with a blast that was later estimated to be the equivalent of 13 kilotons of TNT . An area of approximately 4 @.@ 7 square miles ( 12 km2 ) was destroyed . Japanese officials determined that 69 % of Hiroshima 's buildings were destroyed and another 6 – 7 % damaged . About 70 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 people , of whom 20 @,@ 000 were Japanese combatants and 20 @,@ 000 were Korean slave laborers , or some 30 % of the population of Hiroshima , were killed immediately , and another 70 @,@ 000 injured .
On the morning of 9 August 1945 , a second B @-@ 29 ( Bockscar ) , piloted by the 393d Bombardment Squadron 's commander , Major Charles W. Sweeney , lifted off with Fat Man on board . This time , Ashworth served as weaponeer and Kokura was the primary target . Sweeney took off with the weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged . When they reached Kokura , they found cloud cover had obscured the city , prohibiting the visual attack required by orders . After three runs over the city , and with fuel running low , they headed for the secondary target , Nagasaki . Ashworth decided that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured , but a last @-@ minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed a visual approach as ordered . The Fat Man was dropped over the city 's industrial valley midway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Mitsubishi @-@ Urakami Ordnance Works in the north . The resulting explosion had a blast yield equivalent to 21 kilotons of TNT , roughly the same as the Trinity blast , but was confined to the Urakami Valley , and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills , resulting in the destruction of about 44 % of the city . The bombing also crippled the city 's industrial production extensively and killed 23 @,@ 200 – 28 @,@ 200 Japanese industrial workers and 150 Japanese soldiers . Overall , an estimated 35 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 people were killed and 60 @,@ 000 injured .
Groves expected to have another atomic bomb ready for use on 19 August , with three more in September and a further three in October . Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied , and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on 11 and 14 August . At Los Alamos , technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core . Although cast , it still needed to be pressed and coated , which would take until 16 August . It could therefore have been ready for use on 19 August . On 10 August , Truman secretly requested that additional atomic bombs not be dropped on Japan without his express authority . Groves suspended the third core 's shipment on his own authority on 13 August .
On 11 August , Groves phoned Warren with orders to organize a survey team to report on the damage and radioactivity at Hiroshima and Nagasaki . A party equipped with portable Geiger counters arrived in Hiroshima on 8 September headed by Farrell and Warren , with Japanese Rear Admiral Masao Tsuzuki , who acted as a translator . They remained in Hiroshima until 14 September and then surveyed Nagasaki from 19 September to 8 October . This and other scientific missions to Japan would provide valuable scientific and historical data .
The necessity of the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki became a subject of controversy among historians . Some questioned whether an " atomic diplomacy " would not have attained the same goals and disputed whether the bombings or the Soviet declaration of war on Japan was decisive . The Franck Report was the most notable effort pushing for a demonstration but was turned down by the Interim Committee 's scientific panel . The Szilárd petition , drafted in July 1945 and signed by dozens of scientists working on the Manhattan Project , was a late attempt at warning President Harry S. Truman about his responsibility in using such weapons .
= = After the war = =
Seeing the work they had not understood produce the Hiroshima and Nagasaki bombs amazed the workers of the Manhattan Project as much as the rest of the world ; newspapers in Oak Ridge announcing the Hiroshima bomb sold for $ 1 ( $ 13 today ) . Although the bombs ' existence was public , secrecy continued , and many workers remained ignorant of their jobs ; one stated in 1946 , " I don 't know what the hell I 'm doing besides looking into a — — — and turning a — — — alongside a — — — . I don 't know anything about it , and there 's nothing to say " . Many residents continued to avoid discussion of " the stuff " in ordinary conversation despite it being the reason for their town 's existence .
In anticipation of the bombings , Groves had Henry DeWolf Smyth prepare a history for public consumption . Atomic Energy for Military Purposes , better known as the " Smyth Report " , was released to the public on 12 August 1945 . Groves and Nichols presented Army – Navy " E " Awards to key contractors , whose involvement had hitherto been secret . Over 20 awards of the Presidential Medal for Merit were made to key contractors and scientists , including Bush and Oppenheimer . Military personnel received the Legion of Merit , including the commander of the Women 's Army Corps detachment , Captain Arlene G. Scheidenhelm .
At Hanford , plutonium production fell off as Reactors B , D and F wore out , " poisoned " by fission products and swelling of the graphite moderator known as the Wigner effect . The swelling damaged the charging tubes where the uranium was irradiated to produce plutonium , rendering them unusable . In order to maintain the supply of polonium for the urchin initiators , production was curtailed and the oldest unit , B pile , was closed down so at least one reactor would be available in the future . Research continued , with DuPont and the Metallurgical Laboratory developing a redox solvent extraction process as an alternative plutonium extraction technique to the bismuth phosphate process , which left unspent uranium in a state from which it could not easily be recovered .
Bomb engineering was carried out by the Z Division , named for its director , Dr. Jerrold R. Zacharias from Los Alamos . Z Division was initially located at Wendover Field but moved to Oxnard Field , New Mexico , in September 1945 to be closer to Los Alamos . This marked the beginning of Sandia Base . Nearby Kirtland Field was used as a B @-@ 29 base for aircraft compatibility and drop tests . By October , all the staff and facilities at Wendover had been transferred to Sandia . As reservist officers were demobilized , they were replaced by about fifty hand @-@ picked regular officers .
Nichols recommended that S @-@ 50 and the Alpha tracks at Y @-@ 12 be closed down . This was done in September . Although performing better than ever , the Alpha tracks could not compete with K @-@ 25 and the new K @-@ 27 , which had commenced operation in January 1946 . In December , the Y @-@ 12 plant was closed , thereby cutting the Tennessee Eastman payroll from 8 @,@ 600 to 1 @,@ 500 and saving $ 2 million a month .
Nowhere was demobilization more of a problem than at Los Alamos , where there was an exodus of talent . Much remained to be done . The bombs used on Hiroshima and Nagasaki were like laboratory pieces ; work would be required to make them simpler , safer and more reliable . Implosion methods needed to be developed for uranium in place of the wasteful gun method , and composite uranium @-@ plutonium cores were needed now that plutonium was in short supply because of the problems with the reactors . However , uncertainty about the future of the laboratory made it hard to induce people to stay . Oppenheimer returned to his job at the University of California and Groves appointed Norris Bradbury as an interim replacement . In fact , Bradbury would remain in the post for the next 25 years . Groves attempted to combat the dissatisfaction caused by the lack of amenities with a construction program that included an improved water supply , three hundred houses , and recreation facilities .
Two Fat Man – type detonations were conducted at Bikini Atoll in July 1946 as part of Operation Crossroads to investigate the effect of nuclear weapons on warships . Able was detonated on 1 July 1946 . The more spectacular Baker was detonated underwater on 25 July 1946 .
After the bombings at Hiroshima and Nagasaki , a number of Manhattan Project physicists founded the Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists , which began as an emergency action undertaken by scientists who saw urgent need for an immediate educational program about atomic weapons . In the face of the destructiveness of the new weapons and in anticipation of the nuclear arms race several project members including Bohr , Bush and Conant expressed the view that it was necessary to reach agreement on international control of nuclear research and atomic weapons . The Baruch Plan , unveiled in a speech to the newly formed United Nations Atomic Energy Commission ( UNAEC ) in June 1946 , proposed the establishment of an international atomic development authority , but was not adopted .
Following a domestic debate over the permanent management of the nuclear program , the United States Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) was created by the Atomic Energy Act of 1946 to take over the functions and assets of the Manhattan Project . It established civilian control over atomic development , and separated the development , production and control of atomic weapons from the military . Military aspects were taken over by the Armed Forces Special Weapons Project ( AFSWP ) . Although the Manhattan Project ceased to exist on 31 December 1946 , the Manhattan District would remain until it too was abolished on 15 August 1947 .
= = Cost = =
The project expenditure through 1 October 1945 was $ 1 @.@ 845 billion , equivalent to less than nine days of wartime spending , and was $ 2 @.@ 191 billion when the AEC assumed control on 1 January 1947 . Total allocation was $ 2 @.@ 4 billion . Over 90 % of the cost was for building plants and producing the fissionable materials , and less than 10 % for development and production of the weapons .
A total of four weapons ( the Trinity gadget , Little Boy , Fat Man , and an unused bomb ) were produced by the end of 1945 , making the average cost per bomb around $ 500 million in 1945 dollars . By comparison , the project 's total cost by the end of 1945 was about 90 % of the total spent on the production of US small arms ( not including ammunition ) and 34 % of the total spent on US tanks during the same period .
= = Legacy = =
The political and cultural impacts of the development of nuclear weapons were profound and far @-@ reaching . William Laurence of the New York Times , the first to use the phrase " Atomic Age " , became the official correspondent for the Manhattan Project in spring 1945 . In 1943 and 1944 he unsuccessfully attempted to persuade the Office of Censorship to permit writing about the explosive potential of uranium , and government officials felt that he had earned the right to report on the biggest secret of the war . Laurence witnessed both the Trinity test and the bombing of Nagasaki and wrote the official press releases prepared for them . He went on to write a series of articles extolling the virtues of the new weapon . His reporting before and after the bombings helped to spur public awareness of the potential of nuclear technology and motivated its development in the United States and the Soviet Union .
The wartime Manhattan Project left a legacy in the form of the network of national laboratories : the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory , Los Alamos National Laboratory , Oak Ridge National Laboratory , Argonne National Laboratory and Ames Laboratory . Two more were established by Groves soon after the war , the Brookhaven National Laboratory at Upton , New York , and the Sandia National Laboratories at Albuquerque , New Mexico . Groves allocated $ 72 million to them for research activities in fiscal year 1946 – 1947 . They would be in the vanguard of the kind of large @-@ scale research that Alvin Weinberg , the director of the Oak Ridge National Laboratory , would call Big Science .
The Naval Research Laboratory had long been interested in the prospect of using nuclear power for warship propulsion , and sought to create its own nuclear project . In May 1946 , Nimitz , now Chief of Naval Operations , decided that the Navy should instead work with the Manhattan Project . A group of naval officers were assigned to Oak Ridge , the most senior of whom was Captain Hyman G. Rickover , who became assistant director there . They immersed themselves in the study of nuclear energy , laying the foundations for a nuclear @-@ powered navy . A similar group of Air Force personnel arrived at Oak Ridge in September 1946 with the aim of developing nuclear aircraft . Their Nuclear Energy for the Propulsion of Aircraft ( NEPA ) project ran into formidable technical difficulties , and was ultimately cancelled .
The ability of the new reactors to create radioactive isotopes in previously unheard @-@ of quantities sparked a revolution in nuclear medicine in the immediate postwar years . Starting in mid @-@ 1946 , Oak Ridge began distributing radioisotopes to hospitals and universities . Most of the orders were for iodine @-@ 131 and phosphorus @-@ 32 , which were used in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer . In addition to medicine , isotopes were also used in biological , industrial and agricultural research .
On handing over control to the Atomic Energy Commission , Groves bid farewell to the people who had worked on the Manhattan Project :
Five years ago , the idea of Atomic Power was only a dream . You have made that dream a reality . You have seized upon the most nebulous of ideas and translated them into actualities . You have built cities where none were known before . You have constructed industrial plants of a magnitude and to a precision heretofore deemed impossible . You built the weapon which ended the War and thereby saved countless American lives . With regard to peacetime applications , you have raised the curtain on vistas of a new world .
In 2014 , the United States Congress passed a law providing for a national park dedicated to the history of the Manhattan Project . The Manhattan Project National Historical Park was established on 10 November 2015 .
= Jane Joseph =
Jane Marian Joseph ( 31 May 1894 – 9 March 1929 ) was an English composer , arranger and music teacher . She was a pupil and later associate of the composer Gustav Holst , and was closely concerned in the organisation and management of various of the music festivals which Holst sponsored . Many of her works were composed for performance at these festivals and similar occasions . Her early death , which prevented the full realisation of her talents , was considered by her contemporaries as a considerable loss to English music .
Holst first observed Joseph 's potential when he was teaching her composition at St Paul 's Girls ' School . She began to act as his amanuensis in 1914 , when he was composing The Planets , her special responsibility being the preparation of the score for the " Neptune " movement . She continued to assist Holst with transcriptions , arrangements and translations , and was his librettist for the choral ballet The Golden Goose . During her short professional life she became an active member of the Society of Women Musicians , was the prime mover behind the first Kensington Musical Competition Festival , and helped to found the Kensington Choral Society . She also taught music at a girls ' school , where Holst 's daughter Imogen was one of her pupils , and became a leading figure in the musical life of Morley College .
Much of Joseph 's compositional oeuvre was never published and has been lost . Of her published works , two early short orchestral pieces , Morris Dance and Bergamask won considerable critical praise , although neither became part of the general orchestral repertory . Two choral works , A Festival Venite and A Hymn for Whitsuntide were admired during her lifetime , but seldom performed thereafter . Her carol " A Little Childe There is Ibore " was thought by Holst to be among the best of its kind . In the eight decades after her death there were no commercial recordings of Joseph 's music , but there have been occasional broadcast performances .
= = Biography = =
= = = Family background and early childhood = = =
Jane Joseph was born on 31 May 1894 at 23 Clanricarde Gardens , in the Notting Hill district of the Borough of Kensington , London , to a prosperous Jewish family . Her father , George Solomon Joseph ( 1844 – 1917 ) , a solicitor in his family 's firm , had married Henrietta , née Franklin ( 1861 – 1938 ) in 1880 . Jane was their fourth child ; the youngest of her three brothers was seven years older than her . George Joseph had a deep interest in music , which he passed on to his children ; two sons , Frank ( 1881 – 1944 ) and Edwin ( 1887 – 1975 ) , became competent string players , while Jane learned piano ( she took her first examination at the age of seven ) and later , double @-@ bass . In time , Frank 's musical children , with Jane and friends , formed the basis of a " Josephs orchestra " that performed concerts at Frank 's home for many years .
= = = St Paul 's Girls ' School and Gustav Holst = = =
In 1909 Joseph won a scholarship to St Paul 's Girls ' School ( SPGS ) in Hammersmith . The school had opened in 1904 , as an offshoot of the long @-@ established St Paul 's School for boys . Its high mistress , Frances Ralph Gray , was a formidable figure with traditional views about female education , who nevertheless provided a lively and varied learning environment in which Joseph excelled . Apart from her academic successes , Joseph played double @-@ bass in the school orchestra , gave an acclaimed piano performance of Bach 's D minor keyboard concerto , began to compose , and won a prize for sight @-@ reading . While at the school she composed " The Carrion Crow " , a song setting which , in 1914 , became her first published work . Outside music she supported the school 's Literary Society , where she presented papers on Charlotte Brontë and Samuel Taylor Coleridge . She also won Honours in the examinations of the Royal Drawing Society .
Among the music teachers at SPGS , most significantly in terms of her musical development , Joseph encountered the emergent composer Gustav Holst , then little known , who taught her composition . After leaving the Royal College of Music in 1898 Holst had earned his living as an organist , and as a trombonist in various orchestras , while awaiting critical recognition as a composer . In 1903 he gave up his orchestral appointments to concentrate on composing , but found that he needed a regular income . He became a music teacher , initially at the James Allen 's Girls ' School in Dulwich ; in 1905 he was recommended to Frances Gray by Adine O 'Neill , a former pupil of Clara Schumann , who taught piano at SPGS . He was first appointed on a part @-@ time basis to teach singing , and later extended his activities to cover the school 's wider music curriculum including conducting and composition . According to the composer Alan Gibbs , Joseph quickly came under Holst 's spell , and adopted his principles as her own . Holst later described her as the best girl pupil he ever had : " From the first she showed an individual attitude of mind and an eagerness to absorb all that was beautiful " .
= = = Student , scribe and teacher , 1913 – 18 = = =
= = = = Girton = = = =
In the autumn of 1913 , at the age of 19 , Joseph began studying Classics at Girton College , Cambridge . At that time , under Cambridge University regulations that were not fully repealed until 1948 , women were ineligible to receive degrees , although they could sit the degree examinations , in Joseph 's case the Classical Tripos . She soon found much in the university 's life to divert her from her regular studies : debating , drama and , above all , music . In her first term she became a double @-@ bass player in the Cambridge University Musical Society orchestra , under its conductor Cyril Rootham . She also sang alto in the society 's choir , and may have participated in a performance of Berlioz 's La damnation de Faust that was praised in the Cambridge Review of 17 June 1914 . During vacations she continued her composition studies under Holst ; in 1916 her " Wassail Song " , a companion piece to " The Carrion Crow " , was published . At Girton she wrote incidental music for a performance of W. B. Yeats 's verse play The Countess Cathleen , in which she acted the part of the First Dragon .
From 1915 Joseph 's association with Holst became closer . Overextended by his teaching duties and other commitments , Holst required assistance in the task of organising his music for publication and performance , and used a group of young women volunteers — his " scribes " — to make fair copies of his scores , write out instrumental or vocal parts , or prepare piano arrangements . In 1915 the composer was working on his largest and best @-@ known work , the orchestral suite The Planets , and invited Joseph , in her vacations , to join his scribes . Among these were Vally Lasker , a piano teacher from SPGS , and Nora Day , who had been a pupil with Joseph at the school and since 1913 had been teaching there . Joseph 's main assignment for The Planets was to copy the " Neptune " movement , of which almost the entire original manuscript is written in her hand . For the rest of her career she remained one of Holst 's most regular amanuenses , and he came to rely on her more than on any other . Her commitments to musical activities at Girton , combined with her work for Holst , had an adverse effect on her formal studies . In the 1916 Classical Tripos examinations she was awarded only a Class III pass , a disappointing result duly noted in her parting testimonial from the college .
= = = = Early career = = = =
When Joseph left Girton , the First World War was at a critical state ; the Battle of the Somme had begun on 1 July 1916 . Joseph wanted to assist the war effort , and after considering work on the land or in a munitions factory , took up part @-@ time welfare work in Islington . In the autumn of 1916 she began teaching at Eothen , a small private school for girls in Caterham , founded and run by the Misses Catharine and Winifred Pye . In 1917 Holst 's ten @-@ year @-@ old daughter Imogen started at the school ; soon , under Joseph 's guidance the young pupil was composing her own music . Joseph extended her own musical activities by joining the orchestra at Morley College , where Holst was the director of music and where her brother Edwin had played the cello before the war . At first she played the double @-@ bass , but later took French horn lessons , possibly from Adolph Borsdorf ; later still , at very short notice , she taught herself the timpani part for a summer concert . By 1918 she was a member of the Morley committee that on 9 March organised and produced an opera burlesque , English Opera as She is Wrote , in which English , Italian , German , French and Russian opera styles were parodied in successive scenes . The performance was a great success and was repeated at several venues . It may have inspired Holst to use parody in his own opera , The Perfect Fool , which he began composing in 1918 . In her spare time Joseph founded and ran a choir for Kensington nannies , which took part in local singing contests as the " Linden Singers " .
Joseph increased her teaching commitments by often deputising for Holst , both at James Allen 's and at SPGS . She also continued in her role of the composer 's amanuensis , and was invited to attend the private premiere of The Planets , on 29 September 1918 at the Queen 's Hall , where Adrian Boult conducted the Queen 's Hall orchestra . She later wrote : " From the moment of Mars ... to the last sound of Neptune , it was a big thing that will last all our lives , I think " . She was able to draw on her classical education at Girton when she helped to translate the apocryphal work The Acts of John from the original Greek , to provide the text for Holst 's Hymn of Jesus ( 1917 ) ; for the same work she prepared a vocal score and an arrangement for piano , strings and organ . She and Holst combined to produce a women 's voices version ( two sopranos and an alto ) of William Byrd 's Mass for Three Voices , and Joseph worked alone to produce an orchestral accompaniment for Samuel Wesley 's Sing Aloud with Gladness . This latter work was prepared for the 1917 Whitsun musical festival , one of an annual series of such festivals that Holst masterminded , first at his home town of Thaxted , in later years at assorted venues including Dulwich , Chichester and Canterbury . Joseph became a key figure in these festivals , as organiser , performer and composer . At Thaxted in 1918 two of her compositions were performed : Hymn for female voices ( now lost ) , and an orchestral piece , Barbara Noel 's Morris , which Joseph wrote to mark her friendship with the daughter of Conrad Noel , Thaxted 's vicar .
The years 1917 and 1918 also brought personal sadness . On 22 October 1917 Joseph 's father died from a heart attack . On 27 May the following year , just after the Whitsun festival , her brother William was killed in action on the western front ; in September , Edwin was severely wounded in the final Allied offensive of the war . In his monograph on Joseph 's life and music , the composer Alan Gibbs writes that " there is no hint in Jane 's letters of the effect these events had on her " . Gibbs quotes Duff Cooper , who wrote of those times : " ... if we wept — as weep we did — we wept in secret " .
= = = Teacher , facilitator and composer , 1918 – 28 = = =
= = = = Postwar years = = = =
In 1919 , seeking to consolidate her musical career , Joseph joined the Society of Women Musicians ( SWM ) , founded in 1911 by the violinist and musicologist Marion Scott and others to promote the interests of women in music . Scott was known to Joseph , having been leader of the Morley orchestra . Joseph became a member of the SWM 's Composers ' Sectional Committee , and occasionally gave lectures to the society on subjects such as " The Necessity of Practical Experience for Composers " , and " The Composer as Pupil " . In the summer of 1919 she took conducting lessons from Adrian Boult , whom she described as " the most chinless man I have ever met " . The purpose of the lessons was to enable her to conduct her orchestral work Bergamask , which was performed at the Coliseum Theatre under a scheme devised by Sir Oswald Stoll to showcase new British music . In that same summer she met Ralph Vaughan Williams , a close friend of Holst . She played him some of her music , probably a piano reduction of Bergamask , and described him as " a very appreciative critic " .
Towards the end of 1918 Holst had asked Joseph to provide a libretto for his opera The Perfect Fool , feeling that she might possess the required light touch that he thought his own writing lacked . It is not clear whether she declined , or whether Holst changed his mind , but he eventually wrote the text himself . Joseph did , however , write the story for a ballet based on Holst 's music The Sneezing Charm ; the ballet , entitled A Magic Hour , was performed at Morley in October 1920 . Meantime , Joseph 's works were being performed at SWM concerts : two songs , probably from her Mirage cycle , in January 1920 , and some of her settings of Walter de la Mare poems in December .
At Eothen , Joseph continued to supervise Imogen Holst 's musical education , aspects of which had earlier been causing Holst some concern . In a letter to his wife dated February 1919 , written when he was serving as YMCA musical organiser for British troops stationed in the Eastern Mediterranean , Holst reported that " I 've had a very kind and wise letter from Jane about Imogen " . Whatever issues had troubled Holst were resolved satisfactorily , and Joseph became Imogen 's theory teacher : " Theory with Jane is ripping " , the young pupil enthused . In the summer term of 1920 , with help from Joseph , Imogen devised and composed a " Dance of Nymphs and Shepherds " which was performed at the school on 9 July . At the beginning of 1921 Imogen started at SPGS ; before becoming a boarder at Bute House ( one of the school 's residences for pupils ) , she stayed in the Joseph family home .
The Whitsun festivals , suspended during Holst 's absence , resumed at Dulwich in 1920 . Joseph 's part in this event is unrecorded , but she made a major contribution to the following year 's festivities , which began beside the Thames at Isleworth and concluded on Whit Monday at SPGS in the gardens of Bute House . For the Monday 's celebrations Joseph devised a presentation of Purcell 's semi @-@ opera from 1690 , Dioclesian . Writing of the occasion after Joseph 's death , Holst recalled that she had woven Purcell 's music and Thomas Betterton 's text , both long neglected , " into a delightful out @-@ door pageant founded on a fairy story , complete with lost princess , dragon and princely hero " . Not satisfied with planning every aspect of the outdoor performance , Joseph prepared an indoors version of the entertainment , should the weather require this . The production was a great success , and was repeated that summer in Hyde Park and , in October 1921 , at the Old Vic theatre . Throughout this considerable organisational task , Holst wrote , " Jane gave the minimum of worry to each person concerned by giving herself the maximum of hard work and forethought " .
= = = = Career zenith = = = =
In November 1921 Joseph organised the Morley forces to perform a large @-@ scale pageant , celebrating the bicentenary of the church of St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields . The text was by Laurence Housman and the music , directed by Holst , was taken from the Morley repertory . In the following year Joseph 's increasing recognition as a composer was confirmed when her Seven Two @-@ Part Songs were performed at a SWM concert that included works by Ethel Smyth and other women composers . Two of Joseph 's works , A Hymn for Whitsuntide and A Festival Venite were introduced during the 1922 Whitsun festival at All Saints ' church , Blackheath , with Holst conducting . After the Venite premiere Joseph wrote appreciatively to Holst : " Do you suppose for one moment that any other conductor takes trouble like that ? If you do , you are quite wrong " . The Venite was performed on 13 June 1923 at the Queen 's Hall , by the Philharmonic Choir under Charles Kennedy Scott ; the Spectator 's critic thought it a " very notable addition to modern British music " . Amidst her compositional and other activities , Joseph found time , in 1922 , to organise the first Kensington Musical Competition Festival , and to orchestrate many of the competition songs . In due course this festival became an important annual event in Kensington ; Vaughan Williams was among the adjudicators . On 12 October 1922 , Vaughan Williams 's 50th birthday , Joseph organised a choir which gave an early @-@ morning surprise performance in the composer 's garden of a song she had written to mark the occasion .
As early as 1919 , Joseph had written to her brother Edwin expressing concern about Holst 's health . When following a physical breakdown in 1923 Holst gave up his duties at Morley College , Joseph wrote him a supportive letter congratulating him on his decision which would enable him to concentrate on composition . The following years were particularly fruitful for Holst , and Joseph assisted in many of the works he produced in the 1924 – 28 period . She helped him prepare the score for his Choral Symphony , for which assistance he presented her with his original draft sketches , as a gesture of gratitude . Together with Lasker and Day she worked to prepare vocal and full scores for the opera At the Boar 's Head , and attended the rehearsals in March 1925 . After the opera 's premiere on 3 April she wrote to Holst with mildly critical comments on some of the singers , though with praise for the conductor , the young Malcolm Sargent . When Holst composed a short choral piece to celebrate the 21st birthday of the Oriana Madrigal Society , Joseph provided words which humorously reflected the conductor Kennedy Scott 's working methods ; the work was greatly appreciated by the choir . In that same year , 1925 , she helped to found the Kensington Choral Society . By this time the Joseph home in Kensington , where Jane lived for her whole life , was becoming a recognised musical gathering @-@ place ; a visitor recalled meeting Vaughan Williams , Boult , and the harpist Sidonie Goossens there , among others .
In 1926 Joseph provided Holst with the libretto for his choral ballet The Golden Goose , based on a story by the Brothers Grimm , and arranged its first performance at the 1926 Whitsun festival , held at the James Allen school . Joseph also assisted Holst and the librettist Steuart Wilson in the production of a second choral ballet , The Morning of the Year — the first work commissioned by the BBC 's newly formed music department — which was performed at the Royal Albert Hall in March
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his own move on Lois , and they ultimately end up marrying and having children ; Peter is horrified by this " alternate timeline " and resolves to go back in time again and set things right .
The episode was written by Mark Hentemann and directed by Dan Povenmire and Chris Robertson . It received mostly positive reviews from critics for its storyline and many cultural references . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 1 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Luke Adams , Jeff Bergman , Adam Carolla , Beth Littleford and Will Sasso , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series .
= = Plot = =
After hearing Quagmire brag about his sexual exploits , Peter feels that he has missed out on enjoying the single lifestyle . Death is summoned to The Drunken Clam on a false alarm ( thinking that Horace had died ) , and decides to grant Peter 's wish by sending him , along with Brian , back to 1984 for one night . He notices his friend Cleveland , in his ' 80s look , who high @-@ fives him around the pool . He then sees 18 @-@ year @-@ old Lois Pewterschmidt walking around the country club pool , taking her high @-@ heeled shoes off and jumping off the diving board into the pool with " Mr. Night " playing in the background , a reference to the movie , Caddyshack . Appearing to others as his 18 @-@ year @-@ old self , Peter cancels his scheduled movie date to see Zapped ! with Lois , instead accepting an invitation from Cleveland to go and party at a bar . Peter enjoys the evening , and ends up making out with actress Molly Ringwald before Death appears to return him to the present .
Back in the present day , Peter discovers that his past actions have had drastic effects on the world : he and Molly have been married for 20 years ; Judd Nelson crashes at their house once or twice a week ; Lois is married to Quagmire ; Al Gore is now President ; Chris , Meg , and Stewie have Quagmire 's chin , nose , and mannerisms ; and Chevy Chase is the host of The Tonight Show . Brian explains to Peter that by missing out on his date with Lois and making out with Molly , he altered the time line . Despite Brian 's objections about leaving the " perfect " world ( in which there are flying cars that run on vegetable oil and Gore has killed Osama bin Laden by strangling him with his bare hands ) , Peter wants to go back to the past so he can undo his mistake . Brian says that this is impossible because Death can only be summoned if someone dies and thanks to Gore 's universal health care , people are living much longer along with a strong , well @-@ funded educational system and zero tolerance gun control that has eliminated street crime . However , when Jane Jetson suddenly falls on the sidewalk and dies , Death arrives and again grants Peter 's wish to return to the past . Back in the past , Peter is determined to accept Lois ' invitation but repeatedly blows his opportunity and ends up repeatedly asking Death for a do @-@ over . When Peter finally gets it right , he forgets a few hours later and parties with Cleveland instead of keeping the date . He asks Death for another chance but Death , fed up with Peter 's continued blunders , tells him that he will have to fix the problem on his own .
When Peter tries to apologize the next day , Lois is still upset with him for missing their date and has decided to go to the country club dance with Quagmire . Later that night , Peter and Brian sneak into the dance to prevent the kiss that caused Lois to fall in love with Quagmire . They get in by crawling through the air vent , but crash through and kill one of the guys playing in the band on the stage , so Brian has to play guitar and sing . Peter tries to convince Lois that they belong together but she stubbornly informs Peter that he had his chance and blew it , and therefore she loves Quagmire now . Peter almost gives up but Brian notices Chris , Stewie , and Meg disappearing from a family picture , indicating that they have fallen off the plane of existence and tells Peter it is his last chance to do something that proves he loves Lois . Peter then demonstrates his passion by punching Quagmire and kissing Lois , showing that he cares deeply for her and wins back her love . He asks her to marry him and she accepts . In honor of this success , Brian and the band play " Never Gonna Give You Up " by Rick Astley . The episode ends with things seemingly back to normal , with the exception of Roger from American Dad ! apparently living with the family .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series regular and future showrunner Mark Hentemann , and directed by Chris Robertson and series regular Dan Povenmire , who left the series after completing the episode , in order to create his own series for the Disney Channel entitled Phineas and Ferb , which has since been nominated for three Emmy Awards . Peter Shin , James Purdum and Chris Robertson acted as supervising director . Series creator Seth MacFarlane , David A. Goodman , Danny Smith , Mark Hentemann , Steve Callaghan and Chris Sheridan acted as executive producers . Alec Sulkin , Wellesley Wild , Alex Borstein and Mike Henry worked as supervising producers . Cherry Chevapravatdumrong and Patrick Meighan worked as executive story editors . The episode 's original premise was based on Cleveland 's divorce from his wife , Loretta , with Cleveland going on to become a hot bachelor in Quahog , causing Peter to become jealous , and desiring to become single again . Due to Warner Bros. ' s ownership of Hanna – Barbera , the scene involving The Jetsons was completely reanimated by Povenmire , including the backgrounds and scenery for the sequence .
Meet the Quagmires , along with four other episodes from the fifth season , and the first seven episodes of the sixth season , were released under the title " Volume 6 " by 20th Century Fox in the United States and Canada on October 21 , 2008 , five months after they had completed broadcast on television . The DVD release also features bonus material including deleted scenes , commentaries , and a ' making of ' featurette .
In addition to the regular cast , the episode featured guest performances by voice actors Luke Adams and Jeff Bergman , actors Adam Carolla and Beth Littleford , and comedian and actor Will Sasso . Recurring guest voices include Alex Breckenridge , voice actors Johnny Brennan and Chris Cox , and writers Mark Hentemann , Alec Sulkin , and John Viener .
= = Cultural references = =
In the opening scene of the episode , Horace the bartender is suddenly knocked unconscious after falling off a ladder , causing Death to appear . After it is discovered that Horace is not actually dead , Death complains that he never likes to be too far from journalist Mike Wallace . Wallace was still alive as of the original airing date .
The Back to the Future trilogy is parodied and referenced throughout the episode , along with many other movies and famous people throughout the 1980s . Other cultural references include how after going back in time , Peter becomes excited about his new prospects in life , and states to Cleveland that he is going to " raise more hell than Hellraiser " from the 1987 horror film Hellraiser . It also depicts Pinhead as weak and ridiculous , stating that the worst he can do is unscrew a salt shaker and trick someone into using it , causing salt to come out all over their food . The first scene where Lois appears at the swimming pool is a reference to a scene from the 1980 film Caddyshack , featuring the song " Mr. Night " by Kenny Loggins . Once Lois appears , she asks Peter if he would like to see the 1982 film Zapped ! . Rejecting her offer , Peter decides to go partying with Cleveland instead and play the video game Menstrual Ms. Pac @-@ Man , in addition to making out with actress Molly Ringwald . While there , Brian gets into a fight , and instructs the bar patron to meet him on top of the World Trade Center to fight him at eight A.M. on September 11 , 2001 . While downstairs in the alternate universe , Peter makes a reference to the Twilight Zone episode , " The Eye of the Beholder . " The joke about the World Trade Center has been edited from current versions of the show accessible on Netflix as of January 2012 . Returning to the present , Peter and Brian decide to watch television , and are shocked to discover that actor Chevy Chase is now the host of The Tonight Show . They also discover that former Vice President Al Gore is now President of the United States , and flying cars running on vegetable oil exist . A parody of the 1962 ABC animated series , Hanna @-@ Barbera 's The Jetsons , is then shown . In the alternate reality , Death refers to the Dick Cheney hunting accident , explaining that the " Chairman of Halliburton " accidentally shot and killed Karl Rove , Antonin Scalia , and Tucker Carlson ( Brian groans that Peter and he can 't change this wonderful future , but Peter flatly says " I don 't know who any of those people are " ) . The main plot of the episode , complete with the scene in which Peter and Brian are in the living room , with Brian explaining to Peter what happened using a chalk board , is a reference to the alternate universe scene in Back to the Future Part II .
In the past once again , Peter suggests to Lois that they see the 1983 film Krull instead . Later , Peter and Cleveland , dressed up as Michael Jackson in the iconic red jacket of his video clip " Thriller , " dance to the Beverly Hills Cop theme . In order to make everything right about the future , Peter and Brian decide to sneak into the prom through a vent . While inside it , Peter recites a line from the 1988 action film Die Hard . The sequence that follows is a parody of the 1985 film Back to the Future . After crashing through the vent to the stage , the band begins playing " Earth Angel " by The Penguins , and , after Peter kisses Lois , Brian sings the 1987 single " Never Gonna Give You Up " by musician Rick Astley . While Brian sings " Never Gonna Give You Up " , Rick Astley 's cousin Marvin calls him to say he 's found the " mediocre , generic sound " that Astley has been looking for , a reference to Back to the Future . In the closing scene of the episode Roger the alien from series creator Seth MacFarlane 's second show American Dad ! suddenly appears in the Griffin family home , inquiring about Pecan Sandies .
= = Reception = =
In a significant improvement over the previous week , the episode was viewed in 9 @.@ 15 million homes in its original airing , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode also acquired a 3 @.@ 2 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic , slightly being edged out by The Simpsons , while significantly winning over American Dad ! , in both rating and total viewership .
Reviews of the episode were mostly positive , noting its ability to " capture some of the appeal from the pre @-@ cancellation days . " Ahsan Haque of IGN praised the episode 's story , writing that it had " a great storyline and the right combination of irrelevant and relevant jokes " , giving the episode an 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 . In another positive review , Brett Love of TV Squad called the episode " solid , " and praised the scenes set in 1984 , and the alternate world . Love went on to state , " The show has lost a little of the luster that it once had , but that 's no reason to count them out . There were enough bright spots to give hope for a return to that old form when season six comes around in the fall . " He graded " Meet the Quagmires " 5 out of 7 .
The episode was voted # 10 on BBC Three 's list of Top Ten Family Guy episodes .
= Tiberius =
Tiberius ( Latin : Tiberius Caesar Dīvī Augustī Fīlius Augustus ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March 37 AD ) was a Roman Emperor from 14 AD to 37 AD . Born Tiberius Claudius Nero , a Claudian , Tiberius was the son of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla . His mother divorced Nero and married Octavian , later known as Augustus , in 39 BC , making him a step @-@ son of Octavian .
Tiberius would later marry Augustus ' daughter ( from his marriage to Scribonia ) , Julia the Elder , and even later be adopted by Augustus , by which act he officially became a Julian , bearing the name Tiberius Julius Caesar . The subsequent emperors after Tiberius would continue this blended dynasty of both families for the following thirty years ; historians have named it the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty . In relations to the other emperors of this dynasty , Tiberius was the stepson of Augustus , grand @-@ uncle of Caligula , paternal uncle of Claudius , and great @-@ grand uncle of Nero .
Tiberius was one of Rome 's greatest generals ; his conquest of Pannonia , Dalmatia , Raetia , and temporarily , parts of Germania , laid the foundations for the northern frontier . But he came to be remembered as a dark , reclusive , and sombre ruler who never really desired to be emperor ; Pliny the Elder called him tristissimus hominum , " the gloomiest of men . "
After the death of Tiberius ’ son Drusus Julius Caesar in 23 AD , he became more reclusive and aloof . In 26 AD Tiberius removed himself from Rome and left administration largely in the hands of his unscrupulous Praetorian Prefects Lucius Aelius Sejanus and Quintus Naevius Sutorius Macro .
Caligula , Tiberius ' grand @-@ nephew and adopted grandson , succeeded Tiberius upon his death .
= = Early life = =
= = = Background = = =
Tiberius was born in Rome on 16 November 42 BC to Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusilla . In 39 BC his mother divorced his biological father and remarried Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus shortly thereafter , while still pregnant with Tiberius Nero 's son . In 38 BC his brother , Nero Claudius Drusus , was born .
Little is recorded of Tiberius 's early life . In 32 BC Tiberius made his first public appearance at the age of nine , delivering the eulogy for his biological father . In 29 BC , both he and his brother Drusus rode in the triumphal chariot along with their adoptive father Octavian in celebration of the defeat of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium .
In 23 BC Emperor Augustus became gravely ill and his possible death threatened to plunge the Roman world into chaos again . Historians generally agree that it is during this time that the question of Augustus ' heir became most acute , and while Augustus had seemed to indicate that Agrippa and Marcellus would carry on his position in the event of his death , the ambiguity of succession became Augustus ' chief problem .
In response , a series of potential heirs seem to have been selected , among them Tiberius and his brother Drusus . In 24 BC at the age of seventeen Tiberius entered politics under Augustus ' direction , receiving the position of quaestor , and was granted the right to stand for election as praetor and consul five years in advance of the age required by law . Similar provisions were made for Drusus .
= = = Civil and military career = = =
Shortly thereafter Tiberius began appearing in court as an advocate , and it is presumably here that his interest in Greek rhetoric began . In 20 BC , Tiberius was sent East under Marcus Agrippa . The Parthians had captured the standards of the legions under the command of Marcus Licinius Crassus ( 53 BC ) ( at the Battle of Carrhae ) , Decidius Saxa ( 40 BC ) , and Marc Antony ( 36 BC ) .
After a year of negotiation , Tiberius led a sizable force into Armenia , presumably with the goal of establishing it as a Roman client @-@ state and ending the threat it posed on the Roman @-@ Parthian border . Augustus was able to reach a compromise whereby the standards were returned , and Armenia remained a neutral territory between the two powers .
After returning from the East in 19 BC , Tiberius was married to Vipsania Agrippina , the daughter of Augustus ’ s close friend and greatest general , Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa . He was appointed to the position of praetor , and sent with his legions to assist his brother Drusus in campaigns in the west . While Drusus focused his forces in Gallia Narbonensis and along the German frontier , Tiberius combated the tribes in the Alps and within Transalpine Gaul , conquering Raetia . In 15 BC he discovered the sources of the Danube , and soon afterwards the bend of the middle course . Returning to Rome in 13 BC , Tiberius was appointed as consul , and around this same time his son , Drusus Julius Caesar , was born .
Agrippa 's death in 12 BC elevated Tiberius and Drusus with respect to the succession . At Augustus ’ request in 11 BC , Tiberius divorced Vipsania and married Julia the Elder , Augustus ' daughter and Agrippa 's widow . This event seems to have been the breaking point for Tiberius ; his new marriage with Julia was never a happy one , and produced only a single child who died in infancy .
Reportedly , Tiberius once ran into Vipsania again , and proceeded to follow her home crying and begging forgiveness ; soon afterwards , Tiberius met with Augustus , and steps were taken to ensure that Tiberius and Vipsania would never meet again . Tiberius continued to be elevated by Augustus , and after Agrippa 's death and his brother Drusus ' death in 9 BC , seemed the clear candidate for succession . As such , in 12 BC he received military commissions in Pannonia and Germania ; both areas highly volatile and of key importance to Augustan policy .
In 6 BC , Tiberius launched a pincer movement against the Marcomanni . Setting out northwest from Carnuntum on the Danube with four legions , Tiberius passed through Quadi territory in order to invade the Marcomanni from the east . Meanwhile , general Gaius Sentius Saturninus would depart east from Moguntiacum on the Rhine with two or three legions , pass through newly annexed Hermunduri territory , and attack the Marcomanni from the west . The campaign was a resounding success , but Tiberius could not subjugate the Marcomanni because he was soon summoned to the Rhine frontier to protect Rome 's new conquests in Germania .
He returned to Rome and was consul for a second time in 7 BC , and in 6 BC was granted tribunician power ( tribunicia potestas ) and control in the East , all of which mirrored positions that Agrippa had previously held . However , despite these successes and despite his advancement , Tiberius was not happy .
= = = Retirement to Rhodes ( 6 BC ) = = =
In 6 BC , on the verge of accepting command in the East and becoming the second most powerful man in Rome , Tiberius suddenly announced his withdrawal from politics and retired to Rhodes . The precise motives for Tiberius 's withdrawal are unclear . Historians have speculated a connection with the fact that Augustus had adopted Julia 's sons by Agrippa Gaius and Lucius , and seemed to be moving them along the same political path that both Tiberius and Drusus had trodden .
Tiberius 's move thus seemed to be an interim solution : he would hold power only until his stepsons would come of age , and then be swept aside . The promiscuous , and very public , behavior of his unhappily married wife , Julia , may have also played a part . Indeed , Tacitus calls it Tiberius ' intima causa , his innermost reason for departing for Rhodes , and seems to ascribe the entire move to a hatred of Julia and a longing for Vipsania . Tiberius had found himself married to a woman he loathed , who publicly humiliated him with nighttime escapades in the Forum , and forbidden to see the woman he had loved .
Whatever Tiberius 's motives , the withdrawal was almost disastrous for Augustus 's succession plans . Gaius and Lucius were still in their early teens , and Augustus , now 57 years old , had no immediate successor . There was no longer a guarantee of a peaceful transfer of power after Augustus 's death , nor a guarantee that his family , and therefore his family 's allies , would continue to hold power should the position of princeps survive .
Somewhat apocryphal stories tell of Augustus pleading with Tiberius to stay , even going so far as to stage a serious illness . Tiberius 's response was to anchor off the shore of Ostia until word came that Augustus had survived , then sailing straightway for Rhodes . Tiberius reportedly regretted his departure and requested to return to Rome several times , but each time Augustus refused his requests .
= = = Heir to Augustus = = =
With Tiberius 's departure , succession rested solely on Augustus ' two young grandsons , Lucius and Gaius Caesar . The situation became more precarious in AD 2 with the death of Lucius . Augustus , with perhaps some pressure from Livia , allowed Tiberius to return to Rome as a private citizen and nothing more . In AD 4 , Gaius was killed in Armenia , and Augustus had no other choice but to turn to Tiberius .
The death of Gaius in AD 4 initiated a flurry of activity in the household of Augustus . Tiberius was adopted as full son and heir and in turn , he was required to adopt his nephew , Germanicus , the son of his brother Drusus and Augustus ' niece Antonia Minor . Along with his adoption , Tiberius received tribunician power as well as a share of Augustus 's maius imperium , something that even Marcus Agrippa may never have had .
In AD 7 , Agrippa Postumus , a younger brother of Gaius and Lucius , was disowned by Augustus and banished to the island of Pianosa , to live in solitary confinement . Thus , when in AD 13 , the powers held by Tiberius were made equal , rather than second , to Augustus 's own powers , he was for all intents and purposes a " co @-@ princeps " with Augustus , and in the event of the latter 's passing , would simply continue to rule without an interregnum or possible upheaval .
However , according to Suetonius , after a two @-@ year stint in Germania , which lasted from 10 − 12 AD , " Tiberius ' returned and celebrated the triumph which he had postponed , accompanied also by his generals , for whom he had obtained the triumphal regalia . And before turning to enter the Capitol , he dismounted from his chariot and fell at the knees of his father , who was presiding over the ceremonies . ” " Since the consuls caused a law to be passed soon after this that he should govern the provinces jointly with Augustus and hold the census with him , he set out for Illyricum on the conclusion of the lustral ceremonies . "
Thus according to Suetonius , these ceremonies and the declaration of his " co @-@ princeps " took place in the year 12 AD , after Tiberius return from Germania . " But he was at once recalled , and finding Augustus in his last illness but still alive , he spent an entire day with him in private . " Augustus died in AD 14 , at the age of 75 . He was buried with all due ceremony and , as had been arranged beforehand , deified , his will read , and Tiberius confirmed as his sole surviving heir .
= = Emperor ( 14 – 37 AD ) = =
= = = Early reign = = =
The Senate convened on 18 September , to validate Tiberius 's position as Princeps and , as it had done with Augustus before , extend the powers of the position to him . These proceedings are fully accounted by Tacitus . Tiberius already had the administrative and political powers of the Princeps , all he lacked were the titles — Augustus , Pater Patriae , and the Civic Crown ( a crown made from laurel and oak , in honor of Augustus having saved the lives of Roman citizens ) .
Tiberius , however , attempted to play the same role as Augustus : that of the reluctant public servant who wants nothing more than to serve the state . This ended up throwing the entire affair into confusion , and rather than humble , he came across as derisive ; rather than seeming to want to serve the state , he seemed obstructive . He cited his age as a reason why he could not act as Princeps , stated he did not wish the position , and then proceeded to ask for only a section of the state . Tiberius finally relented and accepted the powers voted to him , though according to Tacitus and Suetonius he refused to bear the titles Pater Patriae , Imperator , and Augustus , and declined the most solid emblem of the Princeps , the Civic Crown and laurels .
This meeting seems to have set the tone for Tiberius 's entire rule . He seems to have wished for the Senate and the state to simply act without him and his direct orders were rather vague , inspiring debate more on what he actually meant than on passing his legislation . In his first few years , Tiberius seemed to have wanted the Senate to act on its own , rather than as a servant to his will as it had been under Augustus . According to Tacitus , Tiberius derided the Senate as " men fit to be slaves . "
= = = Rise and fall of Germanicus = = =
Problems arose quickly for the new Princeps . The Roman legions posted in Pannonia and in Germania had not been paid the bonuses promised them by Augustus , and after a short period of time mutinied when it was clear that a response from Tiberius was not forthcoming . Germanicus and Tiberius 's son , Drusus Julius Caesar , were dispatched with a small force to quell the uprising and bring the legions back in line .
Rather than simply quell the mutiny however , Germanicus rallied the mutineers and led them on a short campaign across the Rhine into Germanic territory , stating that whatever treasure they could grab would count as their bonus . Germanicus 's forces crossed the Rhine and quickly occupied all of the territory between the Rhine and the Elbe . Additionally , Tacitus records the capture of the Teutoburg forest and the reclaiming of Roman standards lost years before by Publius Quinctilius Varus , when three Roman legions and its auxiliary cohorts had been ambushed by Germanic tribes .
Germanicus had managed to deal a significant blow to Rome 's enemies , quell an uprising of troops , and returned lost standards to Rome , actions that increased the fame and legend of the already very popular Germanicus with the Roman people .
After being recalled from Germania , Germanicus celebrated a triumph in Rome in AD 17 , the first full triumph that the city had seen since Augustus 's own in 29 BC . As a result , in AD 18 Germanicus was granted control over the eastern part of the empire , just as both Agrippa and Tiberius had received before , and was clearly the successor to Tiberius . Germanicus survived a little over a year before dying , accusing Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso , the governor of Syria , of poisoning him .
The Pisones had been longtime supporters of the Claudians , and had allied themselves with the young Octavian after his marriage to Livia , the mother of Tiberius . Germanicus 's death and accusations indicted the new Princeps . Piso was placed on trial and , according to Tacitus , threatened to implicate Tiberius . Whether the governor actually could connect the Princeps to the death of Germanicus is unknown ; rather than continuing to stand trial when it became evident that the Senate was against him , Piso committed suicide .
Tiberius seems to have tired of politics at this point . In AD 22 , he shared his tribunician authority with his son Drusus , and began making yearly excursions to Campania that reportedly became longer and longer every year . In AD 23 , Drusus mysteriously died , and Tiberius seems to have made no effort to elevate a replacement . Finally , in AD 26 , Tiberius retired from Rome altogether to the island of Capri .
= = = Tiberius in Capri , with Sejanus in Rome = = =
Lucius Aelius Sejanus had served the imperial family for almost twenty years when he became Praetorian Prefect in AD 15 . As Tiberius became more embittered with the position of Princeps , he began to depend more and more upon the limited secretariat left to him by Augustus , and specifically upon Sejanus and the Praetorians . In AD 17 or 18 , Tiberius had trimmed the ranks of the Praetorian Guard responsible for the defense of the city , and had moved it from encampments outside of the city walls into the city itself , giving Sejanus access to somewhere between 6000 and 9000 troops .
The death of Drusus elevated Sejanus , at least in Tiberius 's eyes , who thereafter refers to him as his ' Socius Laborum ' ( Partner of my labours ) . Tiberius had statues of Sejanus erected throughout the city , and Sejanus became more and more visible as Tiberius began to withdraw from Rome altogether . Finally , with Tiberius 's withdrawal in AD 26 , Sejanus was left in charge of the entire state mechanism and the city of Rome .
Sejanus 's position was not quite that of successor ; he had requested marriage in AD 25 to Tiberius 's niece , Livilla , though under pressure quickly withdrew the request . While Sejanus 's Praetorians controlled the imperial post , and therefore the information that Tiberius received from Rome and the information Rome received from Tiberius , the presence of Livia seems to have checked his overt power for a time . Her death in AD 29 changed all that .
Sejanus began a series of purge trials of Senators and wealthy equestrians in the city of Rome , removing those capable of opposing his power as well as extending the imperial ( and his own ) treasury . Germanicus 's widow Agrippina the Elder and two of her sons , Nero Caesar and Drusus Caesar were arrested and exiled in AD 30 and later all died in suspicious circumstances . In Sejanus 's purge of Agrippina the Elder and her family , Caligula , Agrippina the Younger , Julia Drusilla , and Julia Livilla were the only survivors .
= = = = Plot by Sejanus against Tiberius = = = =
In 31 , Sejanus held the consulship with Tiberius in absentia , and began his play for power in earnest . Precisely what happened is difficult to determine , but Sejanus seems to have covertly attempted to court those families who were tied to the Julians , and attempted to ingratiate himself with the Julian family line with an eye towards placing himself , as an adopted Julian , in the position of Princeps , or as a possible regent . Livilla was later implicated in this plot , and was revealed to have been Sejanus 's lover for a number of years .
The plot seems to have involved the two of them overthrowing Tiberius , with the support of the Julians , and either assuming the Principate themselves , or serving as regent to the young Tiberius Gemellus or possibly even Gaius Caligula . Those who stood in his way were tried for treason and swiftly dealt with .
In AD 31 Sejanus was summoned to a meeting of the Senate , where a letter from Tiberius was read condemning Sejanus and ordering his immediate execution . Sejanus was tried , and he and several of his colleagues were executed within the week . As commander of the Praetorian Guard , he was replaced by Naevius Sutorius Macro .
Tacitus claims that more treason trials followed and that whereas Tiberius had been hesitant to act at the outset of his reign , now , towards the end of his life , he seemed to do so without compunction . Hardest hit were those families with political ties to the Julians . Even the imperial magistracy was hit , as any and all who had associated with Sejanus or could in some way be tied to his schemes were summarily tried and executed , their properties seized by the state . As Tacitus vividly describes ,
Executions were now a stimulus to his fury , and he ordered the death of all who were lying in prison under accusation of complicity with Sejanus . There lay , singly or in heaps , the unnumbered dead , of every age and sex , the illustrious with the obscure . Kinsfolk and friends were not allowed to be near them , to weep over them , or even to gaze on them too long . Spies were set round them , who noted the sorrow of each mourner and followed the rotting corpses , till they were dragged to the Tiber , where , floating or driven on the bank , no one dared to burn or to touch them .
However , Tacitus ' portrayal of a tyrannical , vengeful emperor has been challenged by several modern historians . The prominent ancient historian Edward Togo Salmon notes in his work , A history of the Roman world from 30 BC to AD 138 :
" In the whole twenty two years of Tiberius ' reign , not more than fifty @-@ two persons were accused of treason , of whom almost half escaped conviction , while the four innocent people to be condemned fell victims to the excessive zeal of the Senate , not to the Emperor 's tyranny " .
While Tiberius was in Capri , rumours abounded as to what exactly he was doing there . Suetonius records the rumours of lurid tales of sexual perversity , including graphic depictions of child molestation , and cruelty , and most of all his paranoia . While heavily sensationalized , Suetonius ' stories at least paint a picture of how Tiberius was perceived by the Roman senatorial class , and what his impact on the Principate was during his 23 years of rule .
= = = Final years = = =
The affair with Sejanus and the final years of treason trials permanently damaged Tiberius ' image and reputation . After Sejanus 's fall , Tiberius ' withdrawal from Rome was complete ; the empire continued to run under the inertia of the bureaucracy established by Augustus , rather than through the leadership of the Princeps . Suetonius records that he became paranoid , and spent a great deal of time brooding over the death of his son . Meanwhile , during this period a short invasion by Parthia , incursions by tribes from Dacia and from across the Rhine by several Germanic tribes occurred .
Little was done to either secure or indicate how his succession was to take place ; the Julians and their supporters had fallen to the wrath of Sejanus , and his own sons and immediate family were dead . Two of the candidates were either Caligula , the sole surviving son of Germanicus , or his own grandson , Tiberius Gemellus . However , only a half @-@ hearted attempt at the end of Tiberius ' life was made to make Caligula a quaestor , and thus give him some credibility as a possible successor , while Gemellus himself was still only a teenager and thus completely unsuitable for some years to come .
= = = = Death ( 37 AD ) = = = =
Tiberius died in Misenum on 15 March AD 37 , in his seventy eighth year . Tacitus records that upon the news of his death the crowd rejoiced , only to become suddenly silent upon hearing that he had recovered , and rejoiced again at the news that Caligula and Macro had smothered him . This is not recorded by other ancient historians apart from Suetonius and is most likely apocryphal , but some historians consider it indicative of how the senatorial class felt towards the Emperor at the time of his death . After his death , the Senate refused to vote him divine honors , and mobs filled the streets yelling " To the Tiber with Tiberius ! " — in reference to a method of disposal reserved for the corpses of criminals . Instead the body of the emperor was cremated and his ashes were quietly laid in the Mausoleum of Augustus , later to be scattered in AD 410 during the Sack of Rome .
In his will , Tiberius had left his powers jointly to Caligula and Tiberius Gemellus . Caligula 's first act on becoming Princeps was to void Tiberius ' will and have Gemellus executed .
Tiberius ' heir Caligula not only spent Tiberius ' fortune of 2 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sesterces but would also begin the chain of events which would bring about the downfall of the Julio @-@ Claudian dynasty in AD 68 .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historiography = = =
Were he to have died prior to AD 23 , he might have been hailed as an exemplary ruler . Despite the overwhelmingly negative characterization left by Roman historians , Tiberius left the imperial treasury with nearly 3 billion sesterces upon his death . Rather than embark on costly campaigns of conquest , he chose to strengthen the existing empire by building additional bases , using diplomacy as well as military threats , and generally refraining from getting drawn into petty squabbles between competing frontier tyrants .
The result was a stronger , more consolidated empire . Of the authors whose texts have survived , only four describe the reign of Tiberius in considerable detail : Tacitus , Suetonius , Cassius Dio and Velleius Paterculus . Fragmentary evidence also remains from Pliny the Elder , Strabo and Seneca the Elder . Tiberius himself wrote an autobiography which Suetonius describes as " brief and sketchy , " but this book has been lost .
= = = = Publius Cornelius Tacitus = = = =
The most detailed account of this period is handed down to us by Tacitus , whose Annals dedicate the first six books entirely to the reign of Tiberius . Tacitus was a Roman senator , born during the reign of Nero in 56 AD , and consul suffect in AD 97 . His text is largely based on the acta senatus ( the minutes of the session of the Senate ) and the acta diurna populi Romani ( a collection of the acts of the government and news of the court and capital ) , as well as speeches by Tiberius himself , and the histories of contemporaries such as Cluvius Rufus , Fabius Rusticus and Pliny the Elder ( all of which are lost ) .
Tacitus ' narrative emphasizes both political and psychological motivation . The characterisation of Tiberius throughout the first six books is mostly negative , and gradually worsens as his rule declines , identifying a clear breaking point with the death of his son Drusus in 23 AD .
The rule of Julio @-@ Claudians is generally described as unjust and ' criminal ' by Tacitus . Even at the outset of his reign , he seems to ascribe many of Tiberius ' virtues merely to hypocrisy . Another major recurring theme concerns the balance of power between the Senate and the Emperors , corruption , and the growing tyranny among the governing classes of Rome . A substantial amount of his account on Tiberius is therefore devoted to the treason trials and persecutions following the revival of the maiestas law under Augustus . Ultimately , Tacitus ' opinion on Tiberius is best illustrated by his conclusion of the sixth book :
His character too had its distinct periods . It was a bright time in his life and reputation , while under Augustus he was a private citizen or held high offices ; a time of reserve and crafty assumption of virtue , as long as Germanicus and Drusus were alive . Again , while his mother lived , he was a compound of good and evil ; he was infamous for his cruelty , though he veiled his debaucheries , while he loved or feared Sejanus . Finally , he plunged into every wickedness and disgrace , when fear and shame being cast off , he simply indulged his own inclinations .
= = = = Suetonius Tranquillus = = = =
Suetonius was an equestrian who held administrative posts during the reigns of Trajan and Hadrian . The Twelve Caesars details a biographical history of the principate from the birth of Julius Caesar to the death of Domitian in AD 96 . Like Tacitus , he drew upon the imperial archives , as well as histories by Aufidius Bassus , Cluvius Rufus , Fabius Rusticus and Augustus ' own letters .
His account is more sensationalist and anecdotal than that of his contemporary . The most famous sections of his biography delve into the numerous alleged debaucheries Tiberius remitted himself to while at Capri . Nevertheless , Suetonius also reserves praise for Tiberius ' actions during his early reign , emphasizing his modesty .
= = = = Velleius Paterculus = = = =
One of the few surviving sources contemporary with the rule of Tiberius comes from Velleius Paterculus , who served under Tiberius for eight years ( from AD 4 ) in Germany and Pannonia as praefect of cavalry and legatus . Paterculus ' Compendium of Roman History spans a period from the fall of Troy to the death of Livia in AD 29 . His text on Tiberius lavishes praise on both the emperor and Sejanus . How much of this is due to genuine admiration or prudence remains an open question , but it has been conjectured that he was put to death in AD 31 as a friend of Sejanus .
= = = Gospels , Jews , and Christians = = =
The Gospels mention that during Tiberius ' reign , Jesus of Nazareth preached and was executed under the authority of Pontius Pilate , the Roman governor of Judaea province . In the Bible , Tiberius is mentioned by name only once , in Luke 3 : 1 , which states that John the Baptist entered on his public ministry in the fifteenth year of his reign . Many references to Caesar ( or the emperor in some other translations ) , without further specification , would seem to refer to Tiberius . Similarly , the " Tribute Penny " referred to in Matthew and Mark is popularly thought to be a silver denarius coin of Tiberius .
During Tiberius ' reign Jews had become more prominent in Rome and Jewish and Gentile followers of Jesus began proselytizing Roman citizens , increasing long @-@ simmering resentments . Tiberius in 19 AD ordered Jews who were of military age to join the Roman Army . Tiberius banished the rest of the Jews from Rome and threatened to enslave them for life if they did not leave the city .
There is considerable debate among historians as to when Christianity was differentiated from Judaism . Most scholars believe that Roman distinction between Jews and Christians took place around 70 AD . Tiberius most likely viewed Christians as a Jewish sect rather than a separate , distinct faith .
= = = Archaeology = = =
The palace of Tiberius at Rome was located on the Palatine Hill , the ruins of which can still be seen today . No major public works were undertaken in the city during his reign , except a temple dedicated to Augustus and the restoration of the theater of Pompey , both of which were not finished until the reign of Caligula . In addition , remnants of Tiberius ' villa at Sperlonga , which includes a grotto where the important Sperlonga sculptures were found in fragments , and the Villa Jovis on top of Capri have been preserved . The estate at Capri is said by Tacitus to have included a total of twelve villas across the island , of which Villa Jovis was the largest .
Tiberius refused to be worshipped as a living god , and allowed only one temple to be built in his honor at Smyrna . The town Tiberias , in modern Israel on the western shore of the Sea of Galilee was named in Tiberius 's honour by Herod Antipas .
= = = In fiction = = =
Tiberius has been represented in fiction , in literature , film and television , and in video games , often as a peripheral character in the central storyline . One such modern representation is in the novel I , Claudius by Robert Graves , and the consequent BBC television series adaptation , where he is portrayed by George Baker . George R. R. Martin , the author of The Song of Ice and Fire series , has stated that central character Stannis Baratheon is partially inspired by Tiberius Caesar , and particularly the portrayal by Baker .
In the 1968 ITV historical drama The Caesars , Tiberius ( by André Morell ) is the central character for much of the series and is portrayed in a much more balanced way than in I , Claudius .
He also appears as a minor character in the 2006 film The Inquiry , in which he is played by Max von Sydow . In addition , Tiberius has prominent roles in Ben @-@ Hur ( played by George Relph in his last starring role ) , and in A.D. ( played by James Mason ) .
Played by Ernest Thesiger , he featured in The Robe ( 1953 ) . He was featured in the 1979 film Caligula , portrayed by Peter O 'Toole . He was an important character in Taylor Caldwell 's 1958 novel , Dear and Glorious Physician , a biography of St Luke the Evangelist , author of the third canonical Gospel .
= = Children and family = =
Tiberius was married two times , with only his first union producing a child who would survive to adulthood :
Vipsania Agrippina , daughter of Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa ( 16 – 11 BC )
Drusus Julius Caesar ( 13 BC – 23 AD )
Julia the Elder , only daughter of Augustus ( 11 – 6 BC )
= = Ancestry = =
( See also Julio @-@ Claudian family tree )
= = = Secondary material = = =
Ehrenberg , V. ; Jones , A.H.M. ( 1955 ) . Documents Illustrating the Reigns of Augustus and Tiberius . Oxford .
Capes , William Wolfe , Roman History , Longmans , Green , and Co . , 1897
Levick , Barbara ( 1999 ) . Tiberius the Politician . Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 21753 @-@ 9 .
Mason , Ernst ( 1960 ) . Tiberius . New York : Ballantine Books . ( Ernst Mason was a pseudonym of science fiction author Frederik Pohl )
Seager , Robin ( 1972 ) . Tiberius . London : Eyre Methuen . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 413 @-@ 27600 @-@ 1 .
Seager , Robin ( 2005 ) . Tiberius . Blackwell Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 4051 @-@ 1529 @-@ 7 .
Shotter , David ( 1992 ) . Tiberius Caesar . London : Routledge . ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @
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with Kingston hooked up on wires that pulled her up and backwards as a wind machine was blown to create the effect of the airlock . Kingston said she " absolutely loved " filming the scene . For the scene in which sand pours out of Amy 's eye as she rubs it , an eye patch containing sand that would be released when Gillan rubbed it was placed over her eye .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Time of Angels " was first broadcast on BBC One on Saturday , 24 April 2010 from 6 : 20 p.m. to 7 : 05 p.m. In the United States it was shown on sister station BBC America on 8 May 2010 . In the UK , preliminary overnight viewing figures showed that 6 @.@ 8 million viewers watched the episode , which made it second for the night behind Britain 's Got Talent . This was also the second highest overnight figure for a fourth episode over the last five series , " The Girl in the Fireplace " taking the top position . When final consolidated ratings were calculated , another 1 @.@ 81 million timeshifted viewers were added , bringing the total up to 8 @.@ 59 million , the highest viewing figure for the series since " The Eleventh Hour " . This made it the fifth most watched programme on BBC One and the 12th most watched across all UK TV channels for the week ending 25 April 2010 . It was also given an Appreciation Index of 87 , the highest for the fifth series so far at its time of broadcast .
A Region 2 DVD and Blu @-@ ray containing " The Time of Angels " together with the following episodes " Flesh and Stone " and " The Vampires of Venice " was released on 5 July 2010 . It was re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Banner incident = = =
During the cliffhanger ending of the first broadcast of " The Time of Angels " , an animated graphic was shown in some regions , showing Graham Norton revealing a banner trailing his show Over the Rainbow . According to the BBC , the overlay graphic was run 20 seconds too early . The BBC apologised after receiving over five thousand complaints . The incident received attention on Twitter , with SFX magazine reporting that it had " caused a minor Twitter earthquake " , citing tweets from Charlie Brooker , Matthew Graham and Simon Pegg . The incident was lampooned on Brooker 's panel game You Have Been Watching , where he described it as " a travesty " . BBC drama writer and co @-@ creator of Life on Mars and Ashes to Ashes Matthew Graham criticised the BBC for " cheapen [ ing ] " itself and mentioned he wrote emails to " a few interested parties " .
Graham Norton himself went on to parody the incident in his own show by placing a similar banner at the bottom of the screen and having a Dalek exterminate his own cartoon caricature .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received widespread acclaim from television critics . Daniel Martin , writing for The Guardian called it " an astonishing achievement " and " absolutely bloody terrifying " . He praised the way Moffat handled River Song 's story , as well as for making it an " intricate romp jammed with ideas that make a truly cinematic piece of drama " . Gavin Fuller 's review for The Daily Telegraph praised the suspense and " the revelation that all the statues were Angels " which he called " genuinely shocking " . Though he commented it " took a while to get going " , once it did he thought it had turned into the " first genuine chiller " of the series . He wrote that the " only real disappointment " was the " inference that the TARDIS doesn 't really have to make its celebrated ' vworp , vworp ' noise on landing " , asking " How can you do that to us long @-@ time fans , Steven Moffat – that sound is part of the warp and weft of the programme ! " .
Patrick Mulkern , writing for the Radio Times , described the episode as " simply superb television " and claimed that " Matt Smith really is shaping up to be the best Doctor since Tom Baker " , praising him for being " simultaneously intense and subtle " . He thought it started out with " arguably the most impressive opener to any Doctor Who yet " and also praised Amy for being " cheerfully free of the emotional baggage that mired her predecessors " so far . Matt Wales of IGN gave the episode a 10 out of 10 rating , calling it " huge , silly , scary , gorgeous , gripping and – most importantly – fun " . Although he wrote it " never quite matched the relentless tension of ' Blink ' " , he commented that it was " flawlessly paced and , when it mattered , genuinely scary " . Unlike Fuller , he praised the TARDIS " vworp vworp " joke , asking " Who could possibly not love the sheer audacity in suggesting the TARDIS 's iconic whirring noise was the result of the Doctor leaving the brakes on for the last 45 years ? "
SFX magazine reviewer Dave Golder gave the episode five out of five stars , praising it for being " superbly paced , the changes in tone happening gradually and organically " . He also commended the directing and sound effects . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave the episode a grade of A- , praising the scary atmosphere and the development of the Weeping Angels . He commented that he was a little " fuzzy " on the Doctor and River Song 's relationship , but he expected that he was supposed to be .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Time of Angels " / " Flesh and Stone " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Michael Tritter =
Detective Michael Tritter is a recurring fictional character in the medical drama series House , portrayed by David Morse . He is the main antagonist of the third season , which ran between 2006 and 2007 . Tritter is a police detective , who tries to get Dr. Gregory House ( Hugh Laurie ) to apologize for leaving him in an examination room with a thermometer in his rectum . After House refuses to apologize , Tritter researches House 's background and discovers his Vicodin addiction . Tritter turns people close to House against him and forces House to go to rehab . When the case ultimately comes to court , the judge sentences House to one night in jail , for contempt of court , and to finish his rehabilitation , telling Tritter that she believes House is not the drug addict he tried to make him out to be .
The character was created as somebody who could go " toe @-@ to @-@ toe " with House . Morse , who had never seen the show before , was unsure if he could portray the character and was not impressed after familiarizing himself with the show . The excited reaction of his friends to the opportunity convinced him to take the role . Initial critical responses to the character were mostly positive , but critics later felt that the seven @-@ episode Tritter story arc became " boring " ; however , Morse was praised for his portrayal and gained an Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series Emmy Award nomination for his appearance in the episode " Finding Judas " . Morse stated in a 2006 TV Guide interview that , although he had discussed it with writers of the show , bringing the character back on the show would be " practically impossible " .
= = Storyline = =
Tritter first appears in the episode " Fools for Love " . His character is a police detective who suffers from a severe irritation in the area of his groin , which he believes to be caused by a sexually transmitted disease , and who becomes a patient of the walk @-@ in clinic . Although House diagnoses Tritter with dry skin , a common side effect of the nicotine gum that Tritter is chewing , Tritter requests that a sample be tested . House declines on the grounds that he has already met this month 's quota for indulging " stubborn idiots " . After Tritter causes House to trip , the doctor feigns acquiescence , but insists he has to take Tritter 's temperature rectally . After inserting the thermometer , House leaves the room , with no intention of returning . Tritter later complains about his treatment to House 's boss , Lisa Cuddy ( Lisa Edelstein ) , saying that he would rather " beat the crap out of " House than sue him ; however , House refuses to apologize . Later that night , Tritter pulls House over for a traffic violation and arrests him after finding Vicodin pills in his pocket .
In the next episode , " Que Será Será " , Tritter searches House 's apartment and finds a large quantity of Vicodin pills and two apparently forged prescriptions that bear the name of House 's friend James Wilson ( Robert Sean Leonard ) . During " Son of Coma Guy " and " Whac @-@ A @-@ Mole " , Tritter pressures Wilson and members of House 's diagnostic team to testify against him , but they all refuse . In " Finding Judas " , Cuddy finds Tritter spending his day off looking through the hospital 's log for evidence against House . She accuses him of not having a life and " personalizing every slight " . Tritter responds that " nobody [ at the hospital ] is innocent " , as everyone allows House to treat patients despite knowing of his Vicodin addiction and that it takes a police detective to uncover what the doctors are deliberately hiding . At the end of the episode , Wilson visits Tritter and indicates his willingness to testify .
In " Merry Little Christmas " , Tritter and Wilson work out a deal to allow House to continue practicing medicine if he pleads guilty and spends two months in rehab . Meanwhile , House uses a dead patient 's name to obtain Oxycodone pills as a Vicodin replacement drug . When he visits Tritter early the next morning to agree to the deal , Tritter says the deal is off , after going through the pharmacy 's log and reading that House signed for a dead man 's drugs .
In the final days leading up to House 's court case , House realizes the severity of the situation and finally apologizes to Tritter ( episode " Words and Deeds " ) . When Tritter refuses to accept the apology , House goes into rehab , putting on a show for Tritter and the judge , but Tritter cites his experiences with addicts as evidence House has not changed . The judge tells Tritter that she does not believe House to be the drug dealer that Tritter tried to show him to be and orders Tritter to move on after House is exonerated due to Cuddy committing perjury . Just before the bailiff escorts House out of the courtroom , Tritter tells him : " Good luck . I hope I 'm wrong about you . "
= = Personality = =
The main antagonist of the third season , Tritter is a " stubborn " , " vengeful " , and extremely determined police detective . According to David Morse , the offensive thermometer incident in " Fools for Love " made it easy for Tritter to stand up to House ; as House 's equal , Tritter " gets who House is on all levels and can really shake his foundation " . Tritter 's experiences with drug addicts color his view of House , and he becomes so obsessed with House that , according to executive producer Katie Jacobs , the story arc turns into " a battle of egos " between them . The character shows a manipulative streak when he forms a plan to coerce each member of House 's team to testify separately in " Finding Judas " . Robert Bianco of USA Today described Tritter as an initially " legitimately , if belligerently , aggrieved adversary " character who later morphs into " some kind of insane supercop , tearing his way through the hospital and the Constitution at will " .
= = Creation and casting = =
The Tritter character was created as someone to go " toe @-@ to @-@ toe " with House . The producers envisioned a character with an inner strength , intelligence , and single @-@ mindedness to match that of House . In 2006 , House creator David Shore contacted actor David Morse , with whom he had previously worked on Hack , for a guest @-@ starring episode arc on the show . According to Ellen Gray of the Philadelphia Daily News , Morse 's earlier portrayals of " scary " cops ( in 16 Blocks and Hack ) helped him clinch the role .
Morse was unfamiliar with the show . After watching several House episodes , he was surprised that the show had a strong audience with " [ such ] a total jerk " as the lead character . It was not until Morse told a few long @-@ time friends about the job offer that their enthusiastic reaction convinced him to take the role . Katie Jacobs , executive producer of House , was impressed by Morse 's performance . In a 2006 TV Guide interview , Morse said that , although he discussed the possibility with House writers , it would be " practically impossible " to get the character to return in any later seasons .
= = Reception = =
Initial responses to the character were mostly positive . Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune declared Tritter the best male villain of the fall of 2006 . Lisa Edelstein , who portrays Lisa Cuddy on House , named David Morse as one of her favorite House guest stars , saying that he did a great job portraying the character . Barbara Barnett from Blog Critics Magazine and Charles McGrath of The New York Times compared Tritter to Inspector Javert of Les Misérables , and Alynda Wheat from Entertainment Weekly stated that Tritter annoyed House more than any other character , surpassing other antagonists such as Amber Volakis ( Anne Dudek ) , Stacy Warner ( Sela Ward ) , and Lucas Douglas ( Michael Weston ) . Variety 's Stuart Levine considered Tritter a " worthy foe " for House .
However , the continued character arc increasingly bored critics . Staci Krause of IGN found the first few episodes of Season 3 , in which House recovers from being shot , more interesting . In a review of " Que Sera Sera " , Entertainment Weekly 's Michelle Kung noted that while David Morse is a fine actor , " his cop is so ridiculously one @-@ note and revenge @-@ bent that his scenes are often just excruciating to sit through " . In a review for " Fools for Love " , Sara Morrison of Television Without Pity doubted that Tritter 's revenge on House was worth his time and aggravation , and later called the Tritter arc an " insane quest for ass @-@ thermometer justice " . The Star @-@ Ledger 's Alan Sepinwall stated that " pitting House against a comedy @-@ impaired cop was both dull and not a fair fight " .
The show 's fans had shown dislike for other antagonists with multi @-@ episode guest @-@ starring arcs , and critics suspected that Tritter 's character would receive similar disdain . The conclusion of the storyline , and Tritter 's departure from the show , were described by USA Today critic Robert Bianco as a Christmas gift for fans of the show . Morse jokingly stated after his departure that various fans had told him of their hate for Tritter after what the character had done to Dr. House .
Morse , however , gained mainly positive responses to his portrayal of Tritter . The Star @-@ Ledger 's Alan Sepinwall called Morse a " superb actor " , and Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune stated that Morse 's " understated performance " made Tritter all the more scary . Zap2it 's Daniel Fienberg regarded Morse as " one of our very best character actors " . Cynthia Littleton of Variety , who already considered Morse 's work in St. Elsewhere Emmy @-@ worthy , was glad that Morse 's submission of the episode " Finding Judas " for a 2007 Emmy Awards consideration was accepted in the category of " Outstanding Guest Actor in a Drama Series " . The award eventually went to John Goodman for Studio 60 on the Sunset Strip .
= Paul Gondjout =
Paul Marie Indjendjet Gondjout ( 4 June 1912 – 1 July 1990 ) was a Gabonese politician and civil servant , and the father of Laure Gondjout , another prominent Gabonese politician . Gondjout was a member of the Mpongwe ethnic group , and served in the French colonial administration from 1928 , and founded the Cercle amical et mutualiste des évolués de Port @-@ Gentil in 1943 . He was a delegate to the French Senate from 1949 to 1958 , and founded the Gabonese Democratic Bloc ( BDG ) . In 1954 , Léon M 'ba joined the party and eventually overthrew Gondjout as leader .
In 1960 , then President M 'ba reshuffled the government without consulting Parliament . When Gondjout filed a motion of censure he was charged with attempting a coup d 'état and sentenced to two years in prison . Following his release , M 'ba appointed him to the largely symbolic post of President of the Economic Council , in part to silence the threat he represented .
Gondjout served as Minister of State during the abortive 1964 Gabon coup d 'état but was acquitted of all charges during his subsequent trial . He lived outside public view from his 1966 acquittal to his death on 1 July 1990 and there is little record of his life during this period .
= = Early life and political career = =
Gondjout was born on 4 June 1912 , to a Mpongwe family . He had a younger brother named Edouard . The elder Gondjout began his service in the French colonial administration in 1928 . In 1943 he founded the Cercle amical et mutualiste des évolués de Port @-@ Gentil ( roughly translated as Mutual Friends for the Evolution of Port @-@ Gentil ) , an organization that enchouraged and utilised the talents of educated Gabonese . With the assistance of Mpongwe businesspeople , In 1945 he established the Gabonese Democratic Party alongside Emile Issembe .
Gondjout was elected to the Senate of France on 24 July 1949 and re @-@ elected on 18 May 1952 — both times as an independent candidate — serving until the end of his term on 7 June 1958 . On 18 December 1953 , he became the father of Laure Gondjout . She would later become a prominent politician as would his son , Vincent de Paul Gondjout , and nephew , Georges Rawiri .
In August 1953 Gondjout 's PDG merged with the Gabonese Mixed Committee to form the Gabonese Democratic Bloc ( BDG ) . Over the course of the following seven years , the party published a newspaper which caught the eye of the aspiring politician Léon M 'ba , whom Gondjout had earlier helped to elect to the Gabonese council of government . The two formed an alliance supported by the Mpongwe business community , the wealthy coastal Fangs ( like M 'ba ) , and the French , which managed to overpower Jean @-@ Hilaire Aubame and fellow members of the Gabonese Democratic and Social Union . Gondjout , the self @-@ appointed secretary of the BDG , decreed M 'ba to be the secretary @-@ general . He and M 'ba both believed that Gabon should not have full political independence , stating shortly before it was obtained :
I affirm my belief that it would be premature now for Gabon to achieve total independence , for this would precipitate it irreparably into anarchy or , what would be even worse , into a sort of neocolonialism .
M 'ba overthrew Gondjout as head of the BDG and Goundjout aligned with Aubame on several issues , such as opposing M 'ba 's amount of power . Nonetheless , when Gabon gained its independence on 17 August 1960 Gondjout was named President of the National Assembly by the new President of Gabon , Leon M 'ba . In November 1960 or 1961 , Gondjout called for a constitutional amendment to allow him more executive power . When M 'ba reshuffled his cabinet without consulting Parliament , Gondjout filed a motion of censure . He supposedly hoped to benefit from a balance of power modified to his own advantage , and to model Gabon after the Western democracies . M 'ba , who did not share these ideas , reacted repressively .
On 16 November , under the pretext of a conspiracy , M 'ba declared a state of emergency , ordering the internment of eight BDG opponents and the dissolution of the National Assembly the day after . Electors were asked to vote again on 12 February 1961 . Gondjout himself was sentenced to two years in prison . He was imprisoned in a remote village under house arrest , where he was supplied , according to U.S. ambassador to Gabon , Charles Darlington , " with all the whisky and beer he [ could ] drink and all the girls he want [ ed ] " . Unable to fulfill his position , it was given to Louis Bigmann . Upon Gondjout 's release , M 'ba appointed him to the mostly symbolic post of President of the Economic Council , in part to silence any threat to M 'ba 's power .
= = 1964 Gabon coup d 'état = =
During the night of 17 February and the early morning of 18 February 1964 , 150 members of the Gabonese military , gendarmerie , and police , headed by Lieutenant Jacques Mombo and Valére Essone , seized the presidential palace . They arrested President of the National Assembly Louis Bigmann , French commanders Claude Haulin and Major Royer , several ministers , and President M 'ba , who was dragged from his bed at gunpoint . On Radio Libreville , the military announced to the Gabonese people that a coup d 'état had taken place , asked for technical assistance , and told the French not to interfere in this matter . M 'ba was forced to broadcast a speech acknowledging his defeat , in which he said , " The D @-@ Day is here , the injustices are beyond measure , these people are patient , but their patience has limits . It came to a boil . "
No blood was shed during the event , and when the Gabonese people did not respond violently the military interpreted this as a sign of approval . Aubame was offered the presidency of the newly formed provisional government . The government was composed of civilian politicians from both the UDSG and BDG , such as Gondjout . During the coup , he served as Minister of State . The coup 's leaders were content at restoring security for the civilians . The small Gabonese army did not intervene ; composed mostly of French officers , they remained in their barracks .
Second Lieutenant Ndo Edou gave instructions to transfer M 'ba to Ndjolé , Aubame 's electoral stronghold . However , due to heavy rain , the deposed president and his captors took shelter in an unknown village . The next morning they decided to take him over the easier road to Lambaréné . Several hours later , they returned to Libreville . The new head of government contacted French ambassador Paul Cousseran , to assure him that the property of foreign nationals would be protected and to request against French military intervention . In Paris , President Charles de Gaulle decided against the plea .
M 'ba was one of France 's most loyal African allies , and during a visit to France in 1961 , declared , " all Gabonese have two fatherlands : France and Gabon . " Moreover , under his regime , Europeans were particularly well treated . The French authorities therefore decided , in accordance with signed Franco @-@ Gabon agreements , to restore the legitimate government . Intervention could not commence without a formal request to the Head of State of Gabon . Since M 'ba was imprisoned , the French contacted the Vice President of Gabon , Paul @-@ Marie Yembit , who had not been arrested . However , he remained unaccounted for ; therefore , they decided to compose a predated letter confirming their intervention , that Yembit would later sign . Less than 24 hours later , French troops stationed in Dakar and Brazzaville landed in Libreville and restored M 'ba to power . During the operation , a French soldier and 15 to 25 Gabonese died .
= = Post coup d 'état = =
Aubame and Gondjout fled Libreville , but were captured sometime before 20 February . In August a trial of the rebels and provisional government was opened in Lambaréné . A " state of precations " was imposed , which decreed that local government keep surveillance on suspected troublemakers and , if necessary , order curfew , and special permits were required to travel through the town . The trial was held in a school building overlooking the Ogooue River , which was near Albert Schweitzer 's hospital . Space at the hearing was limited , so members of the public were disallowed from attending . Permits were required to attend the trial , and family members were restricted to one permit each . Press coverage was limited , and journalists were allowed only if they represented a high @-@ profile news agency . In addition , there were restrictions on the defence of the accused .
During a trial which carried the death sentence as a maximum , the prosecution called 64 separate witnesses . Aubame claimed he had formed his provisional government in a constitutional manner ; at the request of members of the " putschists " . He argued that the French intervention was effectively an illegal act of interference ; a belief shared by both Gondjout and the former education minister , Jean Mare Ekoh . On 9 September , without consulting M 'ba , Leon Auge handed down a verdict acquitting both Ekoh and Gondjout of all charges .
Little is known of Goundjout 's life between his 1966 acquittal and death on 1 July 1990 , in Libreville . He is buried in Libreville near his wife Odette ( d . 2006 ) , a former fashion model . A secondary school has been established in his name .
= Rape during the Bangladesh Liberation War =
During the 1971 Bangladesh war for independence , members of the Pakistani military and supporting Bihari and Bengali Razaker militias from Jamaat e Islami raped between two and four hundred thousand Bangladeshi women in a systematic campaign of genocidal rape . During the war , a fatwa in Pakistan declared that the Bengali ' freedom fighters ' were Hindus and that their women could be taken as the ' booty of war ' . Imams and Muslim religious leaders publicly declared that the Bengali women were ' gonimoter maal ' ( war booty ) and thus they openly supported the rape of Bengali women by the Pakistani Army . The activists and leaders of Islamic parties were also involved in the rapes and abduction of women . Scholars have suggested that rape was used to terrorise both the Bengali @-@ speaking Muslim majority and the Hindu minority of Bangladesh . The rapes caused thousands of pregnancies , births of war babies , abortions , incidents of infanticide and suicide , and , in addition , led to ostracisation of the victims . Recognised as one of the major occurrences of war crimes anywhere , the atrocities ended after surrender of the Pakistani military and supporting Razaker militias . Initially India claimed its support for the Mukti Bahini and later intervention was on humanitarian grounds , but after the UN rejected this argument , India claimed intervention was needed to protect its own security , and it is now widely seen as a humanitarian move . Despite the Pakistani government 's attempts to censor news during the conflict , reports of atrocities filtered out , attracting international media and public attention , and drawing widespread outrage and criticism .
During the war Bengali nationalists also committed mass rape of ethnic Bihari Muslim women , since the Bihari Muslim community supported Pakistan .
In 2009 , almost 40 years after the events of 1971 , a report published by the War Crimes Fact Finding Committee of Bangladesh accused 1 @,@ 597 people of war crimes , including rape . Since 2010 the International Crimes Tribunal ( ICT ) has indicted , tried and sentenced several people to life imprisonment or death for their actions during the conflict .
The stories of the rape victims have been told in movies and literature , and depicted in art .
= = Background = =
Following the partition of India and the creation of Pakistan the East and West wings were not only separated geographically , but also culturally . The authorities of the West viewed the Bengali Muslims in the East as " too Bengali " and their application of Islam as " inferior and impure " , and this made them unreliable . To this extent the West began a strategy to forcibly assimilate the Bengalis culturally . The Bengali @-@ speaking people of East Pakistan were chiefly Muslim , but their numbers were interspersed with a significant Hindu minority . Very few spoke Urdu , which in 1948 had been declared the national language of Pakistan . To express their opposition , activists in East Pakistan founded the Bengali language movement in February 1952 . Earlier , in 1949 , other activists had founded the Awami League as an alternative to the ruling Muslim League in West Pakistan . In the next decade and half , Bengalis became gradually disenchanted with the balance of power in Pakistan , which was under military rule during much of this time ; eventually some began to call for secession . By the late 1960s , a perception had emerged that the people of East Pakistan were second @-@ class citizens . It did not help that General A. A. K. Niazi , head of Pakistani Forces in East Pakistan , called East Pakistan a " low @-@ lying land of low , lying people " .
There had been opposition to military rule in West Pakistan as well . Eventually the military relented , and in December 1970 the first ever elections were held . To the surprise of many , East Pakistan 's Awami League , headed by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman , won a clear majority . The West Pakistani establishment was displeased with the results . In Dacca following the election a general said " Don 't worry , we will not allow these black bastards to rule over us " . Soon President Yahya Khan banned the Awami League and declared martial law in East Pakistan .
With the goal of putting down Bengali nationalism , the Pakistan Army launched Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971 . According to Eric Heinze the Pakistani forces targeted both Hindus and Bengali @-@ speaking Muslims . In the ensuing 1971 Bangladesh genocide , the army caused the deaths of up to 3 million people , created up to 10 million refugees who fled to India , and displaced a further 30 million within East Pakistan .
Rounaq Jahan alleges elements of racism in the Pakistan army , who he says considered the Bengalis " racially inferior — a non @-@ martial and physically weak race " , and has accused the army of using organised rape as a weapon of war . According to the political scientist R J Rummel , the Pakistani army looked upon the Bengalis as " subhuman " and that the Hindus were " as Jews to the Nazis , scum and vermin that best be exterminated " . This racism was then expressed in that the Bengalis , being inferior , must have their gene pool " fixed " through forcible impregnation . Belén Martín Lucas has described the rapes as " ethnically motivated " .
= = Pakistani Army actions = =
The attacks were led by General Tikka Khan , who was the architect of Operation Searchlight and was given the name the " butcher of Bengal " by the Bengalis for his actions . Khan said — when reminded on 27 March 1971 that he was in charge of a majority province — " I will reduce this majority to a minority " . Bina D 'Costa believes an anecdote used by Khan is significant , in that it provides proof of the mass rapes being a deliberate strategy . In Jessore , while speaking with a group of journalists Khan was reported to have said , " Pehle inko Mussalman karo " ( First , make them Muslim ) . D 'Costa argues that this shows that in the highest echelons of the armed forces the Bengalis were perceived as being disloyal Muslims and unpatriotic Pakistanis .
The perpetrators conducted nighttime raids , assaulting women in their villages , often in front of their families , as part of the terror campaign . Victims aged 8 to 75 were also kidnapped and held in special camps where they were repeatedly assaulted . Many of those held in the camps were murdered or committed suicide , with some taking their own lives by using their hair to hang themselves , the soldiers responded to these suicides by cutting the women 's hair off . Time magazine reported on 563 girls who had been kidnapped and held by the military ; all of them were between three and five months pregnant when the military began to release them . Some women were forcibly used as prostitutes . While the Pakistani government estimated the number of rapes in the hundreds , other estimates range between 200 @,@ 000 and 400 @,@ 000 . The Pakistani government had tried to censor reports coming out of the region , but media reports on the atrocities did reach the public worldwide , and gave rise to widespread international public support for the liberation movement .
In what has been described by Jenneke Arens as a deliberate attempt to destroy an ethnic group , many of those assaulted were raped , murdered and then bayoneted in the genitalia . Adam Jones , a political scientist , has said that one of the reasons for the mass rapes was to undermine Bengali society through the " dishonoring " of Bengali women and that some women were raped until they died or were killed following repeated attacks . The Pakistani army also raped Bengali males . The men , when passing through a checkpoint , would be ordered to prove they were circumcised , and this is where the rapes usually happened . The International Commission of Jurists concluded that the atrocities carried out by the Pakistan armed forces " were part of a deliberate policy by a disciplined force " . The writer Mulk Raj Anand said of the Pakistani army actions , " The rapes were so systematic and pervasive that they had to be conscious Army policy , " planned by the West Pakistanis in a deliberate effort to create a new race " or to dilute Bengali nationalism " . Amita Malik , reporting from Bangladesh following the Pakistan armed forces surrender , wrote that one West Pakistani soldier said : " We are going . But we are leaving our Seed behind " .
Not all Pakistani military personnel supported the violence : General Sahabzada Yaqub Khan , who advised the president against military action , and Major Ikram Sehgal both resigned in protest , as did Air Marshal Asghar Khan . Ghaus Bakhsh Bizenjo , a Balochi politician , and Khan Abdul Wali Khan , leader of the National Awami Party , protested over the actions of the armed forces . Those imprisoned for their dissenting views on the violence included Sabihuddin Ghausi and I. A. Rahman , who were both journalists , the Sindhi leader G. M. Syed , the poet Ahmad Salim , Anwar Pirzado , who was a member of the air force , Professor M. R. Hassan , Tahera Mazhar and Imtiaz Ahmed . Malik Ghulam Jilani , who was also arrested , had openly opposed the armed action in the East ; a letter he had written to Yahya Khan was widely publicised . Altaf Hussain Gauhar , the editor of the Dawn newspaper , was also imprisoned . In 2013 Jilani and Faiz Ahmad Faiz , a poet , were honoured by the Bangladeshi government for their actions .
= = = Militias = = =
According to Peter Tomsen , a political scientist , Pakistan 's secret service the Directorate for Inter @-@ Services Intelligence , in conjunction with the political party Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami , formed militias such as Al @-@ Badr ( " the moon " ) and the Al @-@ Shams ( " the sun " ) to conduct operations against the nationalist movement . These militias targeted non @-@ combatants and committed rapes as well as other crimes . Local collaborators known as Razakars also took part in the atrocities . The term has since become a pejorative akin to the western term " Judas " .
Members of the Muslim League , such as Nizam @-@ e @-@ Islam , Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami and Jamiat Ulema Pakistan , who had lost the election , collaborated with the military and acted as an intelligence organisation for them . Members of Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami and some of its leaders collaborated with the Pakistani forces in rapes and targeted killings . The atrocities by Al @-@ Badr and the Al @-@ Shams garnered worldwide attention from news agencies ; accounts of massacres and rapes were widely reported .
= = International reaction = =
There is an academic consensus that the events of the nine @-@ month conflict were a genocide . The atrocities in East Pakistan were the first instances of war rape to attract international media attention , and Sally J. Scholz has written that this was the first genocide to capture the interest of the mass media . The women 's human rights organisation Bangladesh Mahila Parishat took part in the war by publicising the atrocities being carried out by the Pakistani army .
Owing to the scale of the atrocities , US embassy staff had sent telegrams indicating that a genocide was occurring . One , which became known as the Blood telegram , was sent by Archer Blood , the US Consul General in Dhaka , and was signed by him as well as US officials from USAID and USIS who at the time were serving in Dhaka . In it , the signatories denounced American " complicity in Genocide " . In an interview in 1972 , Indira Gandhi , the Indian prime minister , justified the use of military intervention , saying , " Shall we sit and watch their women get raped ? " The events were discussed extensively in the British House of Commons . John Stonehouse proposed a motion supported by a further 200 members of parliament condemning the atrocities being carried out by the Pakistani armed forces . Although this motion was presented twice before parliament , the government did not find time to debate it .
Before the end of the war the international community had begun to provide aid in large quantities to the refugees living in India . Although humanitarian aid was given , there was little support for the war crimes trials which Bangladesh proposed at the end of the war . Critics of the United Nations have used the atrocities of 1971 to argue that military intervention was the only thing to stop the mass murder . Writing to The New York Times , a group of women said in response to women being shunned by family and husbands , " It is unthinkable that innocent wives whose lives were virtually destroyed by war are now being totally destroyed by their own husbands " . International aid was also forthcoming owing to the issue of war rape .
According to Susan Brownmiller , mass rape during wartime is not a new phenomenon . She argues that what was unique to the Bangladesh Liberation War was that the international community , for the first time , recognised that systematic rape could be used as a weapon to terrorise the people .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath of the war , one pressing problem was the very high number of unwanted pregnancies of rape victims . Estimates of the number of pregnancies resulting in births range from 25 @,@ 000 to the Bangladeshi government 's figure of 70 @,@ 000 , while one publication by the Centre for Reproductive Law and Policy gave a total of 250 @,@ 000 . A government @-@ mandated victim relief programme was set up with the support of the World Health Organization and International Planned Parenthood Federation , among whose goals it was to organise abortion facilities to help rape victims terminate unwanted pregnancies . A doctor at a rehabilitation centre in Dhaka reported 170 @,@ 000 abortions of pregnancies caused by the rapes , and the births of 30 @,@ 000 war babies during the first three months of 1972
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The king 's royal consorts were drawn from the ranks of the Siamese : royalty and nobility . Usually there were also the daughters of rulers of tributary states . Royal polygamy ended in practice during the reign of King Rama VI , who refused to keep a polygamous household . It was ended officially by King Rama VII in the early 20th century , when he outlawed the practice for all and took only one consort : Queen Rambhai Barni . By this time the inhabitants of the court had dwindled to only a few and finally disappeared within a few decades afterwards . Historically the Inner Court was a town complete within itself , divided by narrow streets and lawns . It had its own shops , government , schools , warehouses , laws and law courts , all exclusively controlled by women for the royal women . Men on special repair work and doctors were admitted only under the watchful eyes of its female guards . The king 's sons were permitted to live inside until they reached puberty ; after their tonsure ceremonies they were sent outside the palace for further education . There are currently no inhabitants within the Inner Court and the buildings within are not used for any purpose ; nevertheless , the entire court is closed to the public .
The population of the Inner Court varied over different periods , but by all accounts it was large . Each queen consort had her own household of around 200 to 300 women . Her various ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting were usually recruited from noble families ; others were minor princesses who would also have a retinue of servants . Each minor wife or consort ( เจ ้ าจอม ; Chao Chom ) had a fairly large household ; this would increase significantly if she gave birth to the king 's child , as she would be elevated to the rank of consort mother ( เจ ้ าจอมมารดา ; Chao Chom Manda ) . Each royal lady had a separate establishment , the size of which was in proportion to her rank and status in accordance with palace law . Altogether the population of the Inner Court numbered nearly 3 @,@ 000 inhabitants .
The Inner Court was once populated by small low @-@ lying structures surrounded by gardens , lawns and ponds . Over the course of the late 19th century new residential houses were constructed in this space , resulting in overcrowded conditions . Most of the buildings that remain were constructed during the reign of King Rama V in Western styles , mostly Italianate . The residences vary in size and are divided into three categories ; small royal villas or Phra Thamnak ( พระตำหนัก ; rtgs : phra tamnak ) , villas or Thamnak ( ตำหนัก ; rtgs : tamnak ) and houses or Ruen ( เรือน ; rtgs : ruean ) . Each was distributed to the inhabitants in accordance with their rank and stature . The court is surrounded and separated from the rest of the Grand Palace by a second set of walls within , parallel to those that ring around the palace as a whole . These walls are punctuated by a set of gates that connects the Middle the Inner Courts to the outside and to each other ; the entrance through these gates were strictly monitored . The three main building groups in the Middle Court are built so that the residential halls of each are situated to the south and straddled the boundary between the Middle and Inner Court . Thus these residential spaces of the king became the focal point of palace life and the lives of the palace women on the inside . Immediately behind these residential halls are the large royal villas of high @-@ ranking consorts such as Queen Sukhumala Marasri and Queen Savang Vadhana . Surrounding them are smaller villas belonging to other consorts such as those belonging to Princess Consort Dara Rasmi . Finally at the lower end ( the southernmost part ) are the row houses or Tao Teng ( แถวเต ๊ ง ; rtgs : thaeo teng ) for the middle- and low @-@ ranking consorts . These residences also functioned as a de facto secondary layer of surveillance , at the very edges of the Inner Court .
The Inner Court was governed by a series of laws known as the Palace Laws ( กฎมนเทียรบาล , Kot Monthien Ban ; literally ' Palace Maintenance Law ' ) . Some of the laws dated back to the times of the Kingdom of Ayutthaya . Most of them deal with the hierarchy and status of the women , while others deal with their behaviour and conduct . The order and discipline of the inhabitants were enforced by a regiment of all @-@ female guards ( กรมโขลน , Krom Klone ; rtgs : kromma khlon ) . These guards were described by Prince Chula Chakrabongse as " tough looking amazons " . The head of this body was known as the Atibodi Fai Nai ( อธิบดีฝ ่ ายใน ; rtgs : Athibodi Fai Nai ) the directress of the inside , under her command were various officials . These officials had specific responsibilities concerning every facet of life within the Inner Court . These responsibilities included duties concerning : discipline and jails , the maintenance of Buddhist images , the guarding of gates , the inner treasury and expenditure . One of their main duties was to accompany men , once they were admitted into the area , and to remain with them until they left . They controlled the traffic of the court and were drilled like regular soldiers . When any person of importance passed along the streets they ran ahead and cleared the way for them . At night they patrolled the streets with lamps or torches . Misbehaviour or indiscretion on behalf of the wives was punishable by death , for the women and the man . The last such punishment was met out in 1859 to a young nobleman and a minor wife , who were having an affair .
Only the children of the king could be born inside the Inner Court . Every detail of the birth of the royal child was recorded , including the time of birth , which was to be used later by court astrologers to cast his or her horoscope . Ceremonies concerning the birth and the rites of passage of the child was performed within the walls of the Inner Court . The birth of a royal child was first announced by a succession of women who proclaimed the news along the Inner Court 's streets . There were two waiting orchestras , one on the inside made of women and one on the outside of men , who would then carry out the official proclamation with conch shell fanfares . If the child was a prince the Gong of Victory was to be struck three times . The children would live with their respective mothers and be educated in special schools within the court .
Although the women of ' The Inside ' could never have the same level of freedom to those on the outside , life inside the Inner Court was not disagreeable , as life was easier than the outside and most necessities were provided for . The women usually entered the palace as girls and remained inside for the rest of their lives . As girls they would be assigned certain duties as pages ; as they grew older and became wives and mothers they would have a household to look after . During the reign of King Rama IV , the women of the palace were for the first time allowed to leave ; however they were required to obtain permission from the directoress first and were strictly chaperoned . Dr. Malcolm A. Smith , physician to Queen Saovabha Bongsri from 1914 to 1919 , wrote that , " there is no evidence to show that they longed for freedom or were unhappy in their surroundings . Even Mrs. Leonowens , fanatical opponent of polygamy that she was , does not tell us that " . Indeed , Anna Leonowens ' book The English Governess at the Siamese Court , published in 1873 , was set inside the Inner Court .
= = Defensive walls = =
The castellated walls of the Grand Palace were constructed during the reign of King Rama I in 1782 . Later during the reign of King Rama II the Grand Palace and its walls were extended towards the south . Cannon emplacements were replaced with guard houses and were given rhyming names . The northern wall measures 410 metres , the east 510 metres , the south 360 metres and the west 630 metres , a total of 1 @,@ 910 metres ( 6 @,@ 270 ft ) . There are 12 gates in the outer walls . Inside the palace , there were over 22 gates and a labyrinth of inner walls ; however some of these has already been demolished . Around the outer walls there are also 17 small forts . On the eastern wall , facing Sanamchai Road , there are two throne halls .
= = = Phra Thinang Chai Chumpol = = =
The Phra Thinang Chai Chumpol ( พระที ่ นั ่ งไชยชุมพล ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Chai Chumphon ) is located on the north of the eastern wall , opposite the Temple of the Emerald Buddha . The small rectangular pavilion was built on the top of the wall of the palace . The pavilion has a roof of two tiers and is covered with tiles . The exterior is decorated with black lacquer and glass mosaic . The pavilion was built by King Rama IV as a viewing platform , where he could observe royal and religious processions going by along the Sanamchai Road . The pavilion was also used for a time as the main shrine of the Phra Siam Thevathiraj figure , before it was moved to its current shrine in the Phaisan Thaksin Hall .
= = = Phra Thinang Suthaisawan Prasat = = =
Situated on the south eastern wall of the Grand Palace is the Phra Thinang Suthaisawan Prasat ( พระที ่ นั ่ งสุทไธสวรรยปราสาท ) ; the hall sits between the Deva Phitak and Sakdi Chaisit Gates on the eastern wall . It was first built by King Rama I in imitation of the " Phra Thinang Chakrawat Phaichayont " ( พระที ่ นั ่ งจักรวรรดิ ์ ไพชยนต ์ ; rtgs : ' Phra Thi Nang Chakkrawat Phaichayon ) on the walls of the Royal Palace in Ayutthaya . Originally called the Plubpla Sung or high pavilion , it was made entirely of wood and was an open @-@ air structure . During the reign of King Rama III , a new structure was built out of brick and mortar . This new structure was renamed Phra Thinang Sutthasawan ( พระที ่ นั ่ งสุทไธสวรรย ์ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Sutthai Sawan ) . The hall is used by the king to give audiences to the public and view military parades .
The new structure consists of two @-@ stories , the lower in Western style and the top level in Thai design . The central pavilion has a wooden balcony , which is used by the king and royal family for the granting of public audiences . The roof over the central pavilion is topped by a five @-@ tier prasat in Mondop style , decorated in glass mosaic . The hall 's wings stretching from the north to the south , each has nine large windows along the exterior . Later in the reign of King Rama V , the entire structure was refurbished and finally given its present name .
= = = Gates = = =
The Grand Palace has twelve gates ( ประตู , Pratu , literally a door ) , three along each of the four walls . These massive gates are built of brick and mortar and are topped with a Prang style spire . These gates are all painted in white , with gigantic red doors . Each of these outer gates were given rhyming names , starting from the north west in a clockwise direction around .
North wall
Phiman Deves ( ประตูวิมานเทเวศร ์ ; rtgs : Wiman Thewet )
Wiset Chaisri ( ประตูวิเศษไชยศรี ; rtgs : Wiset Chai Si )
Manee Noparat ( ประตูมณีนพรัตน ์ ; rtgs : Mani Noppharat )
East wall
Svasti Sopha ( ประตูสวัสดิโสภา ; rtgs : Sawatdi Sopha )
Deva Phitak ( ประตูเทวาพิทักษ ์ ; rtgs : Thewa Phithak )
Sakdi Chaisit ( ประตูศักดิ ์ ไชยสิทธิ ์ ; rtgs : Sak Chaisit )
South wall
Vichit Banjong ( ประตูวิจิตรบรรจง ; rtgs : Wichit Banchong )
Anongka Raksa ( ประตูอนงคารักษ ์ ; rtgs : Anongkharak )
Phitak Bovorn ( ประตูพิทักษ ์ บวร ; rtgs : Phithak Bowon )
West wall
Suthorn Thisa ( ประตูสุนทรทิศา ; rtgs : Sunthon Thisa )
Deva Phirom ( ประตูเทวาภิรมย ์ ; rtgs : Thewaphirom )
Udom Sudarak ( ประตูอุดมสุดารักษ ์ )
= = = Forts = = =
Along the walls of the Grand Palace there are seventeen forts ( ป ้ อม , Pom ) ; originally there were only ten , with later additions made . These small structures are usually small battlements with cannon placements and watchtower . The forts were also given rhyming names .
North wall
Inthorn Rangsan ( ป ้ อมอินทรรังสรรค ์ ; rtgs : In Rangsan )
Khan Kuenphet ( ป ้ อมขันธ ์ เขื ่ อนเพชร ; rtgs : Khan Khuean Phet )
Padej Dusakorn ( ป ้ อมเผด ็ จดัสกร ; rtgs : Phadet Datsakon ) ( corner fort )
East wall
Sanchorn Jaiwing ( ป ้ อมสัญจรใจวิง ; rtgs : Sanchon Chai Wing )
Sing Kornkan ( ป ้ อมสิงขรขันฑ ์ ; rtgs : Singkhon Khan )
Kayan Yingyut ( ป ้ อมขยันยิงยุทธ ; rtgs : Khayan Ying Yut )
Rithi Rukromrun ( ป ้ อมฤทธิรุดโรมรัน ; rtgs : Ritthi Rut Rom Ran )
Ananda Kiri ( ป ้ อมอนันตคีรี ; rtgs : Ananta Khiri )
Manee Prakarn ( ป ้ อมมณีปราการ ; rtgs : Mani Prakan ) ( corner fort )
South wall
Pisarn Sima ( ป ้ อมพิศาลสีมา ; rtgs : Phisan Sima )
Pupha Suthat ( ป ้ อมภูผาสุทัศน ์ ; rtgs : Phu Pha Suthat ) ( corner fort )
West wall
Suntha Banpot ( ป ้ อมสัตตบรรพต ; rtgs : Satta Banphot )
Solos Sila ( ป ้ อมโสฬสศิลา ; rtgs : Solot Sila )
Maha Santha Loha ( ป ้ อมมหาสัตตโลหะ ; rtgs : Maha Satta Loha )
Thasana Nikorn ( ป ้ อมทัศนนิกร ; rtgs : Thatsana Nikon )
= = Museum of the Emerald Buddha Temple = =
The Museum of the Emerald Buddha Temple ( พิพิธภัณฑ ์ วัดพระศรีรัตนศาสดาราม ) , despite its name , is the main artefacts repository of both the Grand Palace and Temple of the Emerald Buddha complex . The museum is located between the Outer and Middle Court and sits opposite the Phra Thinang Maha Prasat Group . A building was constructed on the present location in 1857 during the reign of King Rama IV as the Royal Mint ( โรงกษาปณ ์ สิทธิการ , Rong Kasarp Sitthikarn ; rtgs : Rong Kasap Sitthikan ) . King Rama V ordered the mint to be enlarged , but not long after this the building was destroyed by fire and needed to be rebuilt .
The two @-@ storied structure is rectangular in plan . The portico has four Ionic columns with fluted stems and cabbage leaf capitals . The front gables of the building have Renaissance style plaster moulding . The lower part of the exterior walls are made of plastered brick . The upper windows have semi @-@ circular French windows , with pilasters on both sides . In 1902 a new royal mint department was constructed outside the palace 's walls and the old mint building was left vacant . The building was then first converted for use as a royal guards barracks and later as a royal guards officer 's club .
In 1982 , on the bicentennial anniversary year of the founding of Bangkok and the building of the Grand Palace , the building was selected as the site of a new museum . It was established at the instigation of Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn to hold certain architectural elements , which had to be replaced ; various artefacts and Buddha images that were donated to the Grand Palace by the general public .
The ground floor of the museum displays a varied selection of artefacts . These included certain architectural elements , which were removed from various buildings within the Grand Palace during different renovations , as well as were the stone Buddha images and Chinese statues . They included many figures from Thai literature , the Ramakien , such as Supanmacha and Hanuman . The stone figures date from the reign of King Rama III , and were later moved to the museum to prevent damage . In the central hall are the bones of white elephants . These elephants were not actually white but have certain special characteristics such as pinkish colouring and cream eyes . The White elephant was an important symbol of kingship ; the more the monarch possessed the greater was his prestige . This belief and veneration of the animal is common to many other South @-@ east Asian cultures .
The upper floor rooms display more artistic and precious objects . In the main hall are two architectural models of the Grand Palace , the first representing the Grand Palace during the reign of King Rama I , and another in the reign of King Rama V. Behind these are numerous Buddha images and commemorative coins . In the doorway leading to the main hall is a small mother @-@ of @-@ pearl seating platform known as Phra Thaen Song Sabai ( พระแท ่ นทรงสบาย ) , which was once located in the Phra Thinang Phiman Rattaya Throne Hall . The platform was used for informal audiences and dates from the time of King Rama I. At the end of the main hall stands the Phra Thaen Manangsila Throne ( พระแท ่ นมนังคศิลาอาสน ์ ; rtgs : Phra Thaen Manangkha Sila At ) , which is believed to date to the Sukhothai Kingdom and was brought back to Bangkok , from Sukhothai , by King Rama IV , when he was still a monk . Against the walls on either side of the hall are four different Buddha images of Javanese style ; they were purchased by King Rama V. The room to the right of the Manangsila Throne displays the various seasonal robes of the Emerald Buddha . To the left of the main hall is an lacquer ware screen depicting the crowning of Shiva , king of the gods . The screen was formerly kept in the Phra Thinang Amarinthara Pisek Maha Prasat ; it was saved from the fire apparently by the hands of King Rama I himself . The rest of the upper floor displays various objets d ′ art ( such as a model of Mount Kailasa ) and more Buddha images .
= Upminster Bridge tube station =
Upminster Bridge is a London Underground station on Upminster Road in the Upminster Bridge neighbourhood of the London Borough of Havering in northeast London , England . The station is on the District line and is the penultimate station on the eastern extremity of that line . The station was opened on 17 December 1934 by the London , Midland and Scottish Railway on the local electrified tracks between Upminster and Barking that were constructed in 1932 . The main station building is of a distinctive polygonal design . It has relatively low usage for a suburban station with approximately 1 million entries and exits during 2011 .
= = History = =
The London , Tilbury and Southend Railway from Fenchurch Street and Barking was constructed through the Upminster Bridge area in 1885 , with stations at Hornchurch and Upminster . The Whitechapel and Bow Railway opened in 1902 and allowed through services of the District Railway to operate to Upminster . The Metropolitan District converted to electric trains in 1905 and services were cut back to East Ham . Delayed by World War I , electrified tracks were extended by the London , Midland and Scottish Railway to Upminster and through services resumed in 1932 . The District Railway was incorporated into London Transport in 1933 , and became known as the District line .
The new tracks built by the London , Midland and Scottish Railway allowed additional intermediate stations to be constructed on the local lines between 1932 and 1935 . Increased local demand was caused by the expansion of the built up area of suburban London during the interwar period . The station at Upminster Bridge opened with platforms on the local electric lines on 17 December 1934 . The station was operated by the London , Midland and Scottish Railway but was only served by District line trains . After nationalisation of the railways in 1948 management of the station passed to British Railways and in 1969 ownership transferred to the London Underground .
= = Design = =
The station consists of a central island platform between the tracks that are elevated on a railway embankment . There are four tracks through the site although there are no platforms for the c2c lines . The full length of the platform is covered by a single station canopy with a central waiting room . The Art Deco red brick ticket office is located below platform level to which it is connected by a subway and stairway . Although similar to the other single @-@ storey station buildings on this part of the route , it is notable for its high atrium roof and polygonal shape . The floor is tiled with a reversed swastika pattern , a popular decorative design at the time the station was constructed . The station is listed as a building of local heritage interest by Havering London Borough Council .
As part of the public – private partnership arrangement for maintenance of the London Underground , the station was refurbished by Metronet during 2005 and 2006 . Works included provision of tactile strips and colour contrasted handrails for the visually impaired , installation of closed @-@ circuit television cameras , passenger help points , new electronic departure information displays on the platforms , a new public address system , and improved lighting . The station does not have step free access from the platforms to the street .
= = Location = =
The station is named after a nearby crossing of the River Ingrebourne . The river was the boundary between the ancient parishes of Hornchurch and Upminster and the station is located on the western Hornchurch side . The station is situated on Upminster Road in the London Borough of Havering and is flanked by a parade of shops . It is situated in a primarily residential area and is near to Havering Sixth Form College and Hornchurch Stadium . London bus routes 248 , 370 and Ensignbus route 26 serve the site of the station , providing connections to Hornchurch , Lakeside , Romford and Upminster . The London Loop key walking route passes outside the station , and it forms the end point of section 22 from Harold Wood and the starting point of section 23 to Rainham . The station is located on the eastern extremity of the District line and is the penultimate station before the terminus at Upminster . Upminster station is 1 @.@ 24 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 77 mi ) to the east of the station and Hornchurch is 1 @.@ 26 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 78 mi ) to the west .
= = Services = =
The station is in London fare zone 6 . The typical off @-@ peak service from the station is twelve District line trains per hour to Upminster and twelve to Earl 's Court , of which six continue to Ealing Broadway and six continue to Richmond . At peak periods the number of trains per hour increases to fifteen and some trains continue from Earl 's Court to Wimbledon . Services towards central London operate from approximately 05 : 00 to 23 : 30 and services to Upminster operate from approximately 06 : 00 to 01 : 30 . The journey time to Upminster is two minutes ; to Barking is approximately 20 minutes , and to Tower Hill is approximately 42 minutes . Since 2006 , the station has been one of the first on the network to operate without a staffed ticket office . Total number of passenger entries and exits at the station during the year is as follows :
During 2011 there were 990 @,@ 000 passenger entries and exits at the station , continuing a trend of growth over the preceding eight years , but lower than neighbouring stations on the route .
= Three @-@ dollar piece =
The three @-@ dollar piece was a gold coin produced by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1854 to 1889 . Authorized by the Act of February 21 , 1853 , the coin was designed by Mint Chief Engraver James B. Longacre . The obverse bears a representation of Lady Liberty wearing a headdress of a Native American princess and the reverse a wreath of corn , wheat , cotton , and tobacco .
In 1851 , Congress had authorized a silver three @-@ cent piece so that postage stamps of that value could be purchased without using the widely disliked copper cents . Two years later , a bill was passed which authorized a three @-@ dollar coin . By some accounts , the coin was created so larger quantities of stamps could be purchased . Longacre , in designing the piece , sought to make it as different as possible from the quarter eagle or $ 2 @.@ 50 piece , striking it on a thinner planchet and using a distinctive design .
Although over 100 @,@ 000 were struck in the first year , the coin saw little use . It circulated somewhat on the West Coast , where gold and silver were used to the exclusion of paper money , but what little place it had in commerce in the East was lost in the economic disruption of the Civil War , and was never regained . The piece was last struck in 1889 , and Congress ended the series the following year . Although many dates were struck in small numbers , the rarest was produced at the San Francisco Mint in 1870 ( 1870 @-@ S ) ; only one is known with certainty to exist .
= = Inception = =
In 1832 , New York Congressman Campbell P. White sought a means of returning American gold coins to circulation — as gold was overvalued with respect to silver by the government , gold coins had been routinely exported since the start of the 19th century . White 's solution was to have the silver dollar and gold eagle struck at full value , but to have smaller gold and silver coins , including a $ 3 piece , which contained less than their face value in metal . Although Congress , in passing the Coinage Act of 1834 , made adjustments to the ratio between gold and silver , it did not authorize a $ 3 coin at that time .
The Act of March 3 , 1845 authorized the first United States postage stamps and set the rate for local prepaid letters at five cents . In the years following , this rate was seen as too high and an impediment to commerce . Accordingly , Congress on March 3 , 1851 authorized both a three @-@ cent stamp and a three @-@ cent silver coin . Kentucky Representative Richard Henry Stanton believed that the need to make change from a silver half dime with large copper cents might defeat the new scheme , writing to Mint Director Robert M. Patterson that " reduced postage [ rates ] depended on a three @-@ cent coin for use in those states where copper does not circulate . " According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , " the main purpose of the new 3 ¢ piece would be to buy postage stamps without using the unpopular , heavy , and often filthy copper cents .
By 1853 , silver was overvalued with respect to gold . This was due to large discoveries of gold , especially in California , and silver was heavily exported . To correct this situation , Secretary of the Treasury Thomas Corwin advocated reducing the precious @-@ metal content of most silver coins to prevent their export . The opposition to the bill was led by Tennessee Representative Andrew Johnson , who believed that Congress had no authority to alter the gold / silver price ratio and , if it did , it should not exercise it . Nevertheless , Congress passed the bill , which became law on February 21 , 1853 . That bill also authorized a three @-@ dollar gold coin ; according to numismatic writer Don Taxay , provision for it had been inserted at the behest of gold interests .
According to Breen , Congress believed the new coin " would be convenient for exchange for rolls or small bags of silver 3 ¢ pieces , and for buying sheets of 3 ¢ stamps — always bypassing use of copper cents " . In 1889 , then @-@ Mint Director James P. Kimball wrote that " it is supposed that the three @-@ dollar piece was designed to be a multiple of the three @-@ cent piece , for the convenience of postal transactions " . Numismatist Walter Hagans in his 2003 article on the three @-@ dollar coin notes and dismisses the postal explanation , writing " the actual reason for the gold $ 3 coin was the abundant supply of gold discovered in California . " Coin dealer and author Q. David Bowers notes that " whether or not the $ 3 denomination was actually necessary or worthwhile has been a matter of debate among numismatists for well over a century . "
= = Preparation and design = =
Much of what is known of the design process for the three @-@ dollar piece is from an August 21 , 1858 , letter from the Mint 's chief engraver , James B. Longacre , the coin 's designer , to the then @-@ Mint director , James Ross Snowden . This letter is apparently in response to some criticism , and in it , Longacre discussed his views on coin design , especially regarding the three @-@ dollar piece . He noted that he was initially perplexed as to what to put on the coin ; the three @-@ dollar piece was the first time he had been allowed to choose a design . Although he had designed the three @-@ cent piece and other issues before Snowden 's directorship , he had been told what to put on those pieces . The coin weighed 64 @.@ 5 grams , and had a fineness of 900 .
Longacre noted that although those in charge of coinage design had usually dictated adaptations of Roman or Greek art , for the three @-@ dollar coin , he was minded to create something truly American :
Why should we in seeking a type for the illustration or symbol of a nation that need not hold itself lower than the Roman virtue or the Science of Greece prefer the barbaric period of a remote and distant people , from which to draw an emblem of nationality : to the aboriginal period of our own land : especially when the latter presents us with a characteristic distinction not less interesting , and more peculiar than that which still casts its chain over the civilized portion of the older continent ? Why not be American from the spring @-@ head within our own domain ? ... From the copper shores of Lake Superior to the silver mountains of Potosi , from the Ojibwa to the Araucanian , the feathered tiara is a characteristic of the primitiveness of our hemisphere as the turban is of the Asiatic .
Representations of America as a female Native American , or Indian princess , dated back to the 16th century ; cartographers would place a native woman , often wearing a feathered headdress , upon their version of the North American continent . This evolved into an image of an Indian queen , then an Indian princess , and although Columbia eventually came to be the favored female embodiment of the United States , the image of the Indian princess survives in the popular view of such figures as Pocahontas and Sacagawea .
Some sources suggest that Longacre may have based the features of Liberty on those of his daughter , Sarah . This story would be more often associated with Longacre 's Indian Head cent , but the features of Liberty on both coins ( and also the Type I gold dollar , the double eagle , and the three @-@ cent nickel piece ) are nearly identical . To help distinguish the new coin from the quarter eagle or $ 2 @.@ 50 piece , Longacre used a thinner planchet , or blank , to make the piece greater in diameter . He also flattened the planchet of the gold dollar to enlarge it , and gave it the same Indian princess design . The reverse originates Longacre 's " agricultural wreath " of corn , tobacco , cotton , and wheat which would also appear on the gold dollar , Flying Eagle cent , and his revised reverse for the Seated Liberty dime and half dime . This blended the produce of the South and North at a time of intersectional tension . Numismatist Walter Hagans deems the wreathed reverse " as uniquely American as is the Indian maiden on the obverse . "
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule stated that " the one area in which Longacre gave free rein to his imagination was in the matter of fancy headdress for his renderings of Liberty . His caps of feathers , his bonnets of freedom , and his starry diadems are a joy to behold . " Nevertheless , Vermeule disliked the figure on the obverse , " the princess of the gold coins is a banknote engraver 's elegant version of folk art of the 1850s . The plumes or feathers are more like the crest of the Prince of Wales than anything that saw the Western frontier , save perhaps on a music hall beauty . "
At the time of the authorization of the three @-@ dollar piece , the Whig administration of Millard Fillmore was still in office , but two weeks later , Fillmore was succeeded by Democrat Franklin Pierce , and Mint Director George N. Eckert yielded his place to Thomas M. Pettit . Longacre submitted two designs to Pettit , and before the latter died on May 31 , 1853 , he selected one of the two ; relief models quickly followed the approval . Longacre 's models , both for the obverse and reverse , did not have lettering on them , as the legends and numbers were to be punched once a reduction was made . This allowed them to be used multiple times for different denominations . As Longacre was busy with the reduced @-@ weight silver coins ordered by Congress in the same act that had authorized the three @-@ dollar piece , work on dies did not begin until 1854 .
= = Production = =
The first three @-@ dollar pieces were 15 proof coins , delivered to the Secretary of the Treasury , James Guthrie , by Mint Director Snowden on April 28 , 1854 , most likely for distribution to legislators . The Philadelphia Mint then began the largest production of three @-@ dollar pieces the denomination would ever see . Chief Coiner Franklin Peale delivered 23 @,@ 140 pieces on May 8 and 29 @,@ 181 pieces four days later . However , after June 8 , there was only one further delivery by Peale , on November 10 , when the last 22 @,@ 740 of the mintage of 138 @,@ 618 were delivered . In addition to the strikings at Philadelphia , there was branch mint production , with 24 @,@ 000 pieces struck at the New Orleans Mint ( 1854 @-@ O ) and 1 @,@ 120 at Dahlonega ( 1854 @-@ D ) . A pair of dies was sent from Philadelphia to the Charlotte Mint on June 1 , but they were not used . A pair was sent to Dahlonega the same day , arriving on June 10 , with gauges and other necessary equipment following on July 15 . The coinage of the 1854 @-@ D took place in August ; the piece is today a rarity as few were put aside and it was not until decades later that mintmarked coins were saved as distinct varieties . Dies were sent to New Orleans in 1855 , 1856 , 1859 , and 1861 , only to remain unused ; no further strikings took place at any of the three southern branch mints .
Beginning in 1855 , the letters of the word " Dollars " were enlarged , following complaints from the public . The same year , coinage began at the San Francisco Mint , where 6 @,@ 600 were struck as opposed to 50 @,@ 555 at Philadelphia . Mintages at Philadelphia declined for the remainder of the decade , to 7 @,@ 036 by 1860 ; pieces were also struck at San Francisco in 1856 , 1857 , and 1860 . In 1859 , early numismatic writer Montroville W. Dickeson wrote of the three @-@ dollar piece , " it is very unpopular , being frequently mistaken for a quarter eagle , and often counted as a five @-@ dollar piece . It is exceedingly annoying to that portion of the human family whose vision is dependent on artificial aid , and we think its retirement would meet with public approbation . " Perhaps a dozen contemporary numismatists collected three @-@ dollar pieces ; those who were serious ordered proof coins from the Mint . Coins in this condition became easier to obtain from Philadelphia as officials responded to the rise in interest in coin collecting which followed the introduction of the Flying Eagle cent in 1857 .
The coins saw some circulation in the East and Midwest , at least until 1861 , when the economic turmoil caused by the American Civil War caused gold and silver to vanish from commerce there . With gold being hoarded , in December 1861 , banks , and subsequently the Treasury , ceased to pay out gold at face value . The three @-@ dollar piece would never return to circulation in the eastern part of the country . On the West Coast , where gold and silver remained in use , the coin continued in commerce , and might be occasionally encountered . The San Francisco Mint issues were most commonly seen there . Despite the failure to circulate , three @-@ dollar pieces continued to be struck at Philadelphia as it was the policy of Mint Director James Pollock that each denomination should be struck every year , whether it circulated or not . Some Philadelphia Mint pieces migrated west in payment for transactions , as only gold and silver was acceptable money on the West Coast . Until the resumption of specie payments at the end of 1878 , gold pieces were only available from the Philadelphia Mint by paying a premium in banknotes . Pieces not sold were stored there .
In 1870 , a set of dies for the three @-@ dollar piece was sent from the Bureau of the Mint 's Engraving Department at the Philadelphia Mint to San Francisco . On May 14 , 1870 , Oscar Hugh La Grange , superintendent of the San Francisco Mint , sent a telegram to Mint Director Pollock , informing him that dies for the one- and three @-@ dollar pieces had been received , but lacked the customary " S " mint mark , and asking for guidance . The dies were , per Pollock 's instructions , returned to Philadelphia , but LaGrange informed Pollock that to secure a three @-@ dollar piece to place in the cornerstone of the new San Francisco Mint building , Coiner J.B. Harmistead had engraved an " S " on the reverse die . It is not certain what became of the piece to be placed in the cornerstone , but Harmistead also struck a piece for himself , which was mounted as jewelry at one time , and the existence of which was not known until 1907 . The only unique regular @-@ issue U.S. gold piece by date and mint mark , it last came on the market in 1982 , when it sold for $ 687 @,@ 500 . Today it forms part of the Harry W. Bass , Jr . Collection in the Money Museum of the American Numismatic Association in Colorado Springs . No other three @-@ dollar pieces were struck at San Francisco in 1870 ; dies were sent there most years between 1861 and 1873 , but , with the exception of 1870 , were not used .
On January 18 , 1873 , Philadelphia Mint Chief Coiner Archibald Loudon Snowden complained that the " 3 " in the date , as struck by the Mint , too closely resembled an " 8 " , especially on the smaller @-@ sized denominations . In response , Pollock ordered Chief Engraver William Barber to re @-@ engrave the date , opening the arms of the " 3 " wider on most denominations , including the three @-@ dollar piece . Both the Closed 3 and Open 3 varieties are extremely rare , though the official mintage of 25 pieces for 1873 is understated , since more specimens than that are known to exist . In 1875 and 1876 , no pieces were struck for circulation , with only pieces in proof condition being made available to collectors . The official mintage is 20 for 1875 and 45 for 1876 , though an unknown number of pieces may have been later illicitly restruck for each date . Numismatic writer R.W. Julian believes that there were no later restrikes , but as proof pieces were not counted until sold , employees substituted common @-@ date pieces when unsold coins were to be melted . These pieces had been made available to the public only as part of a proof set of all gold denominations , at a price of $ 43 ( a premium of $ 1 @.@ 50 over face value ) . Julian suggests that the relatively large mintages of almost 42 @,@ 000 in 1874 and some 82 @,@ 000 in 1878 were struck in anticipation of the resumption of specie payments , but when this finally occurred at the end of 1878 , " there was a loud yawn from the public and the Mint kept most of the pieces on hand , paying them out slowly as stocking stuffers .
= = Final years and termination = =
In the 1880s , despite the return of gold to commerce nationwide with the resumption of specie payments at the end of 1878 , few three @-@ dollar pieces were coined . There was a small speculative boom by the public in putting aside three @-@ dollar pieces ; nevertheless , thousands remained at the Philadelphia Mint . Few were sent to banks ; the coins sold for a small premium when banks had some or when they were purchased from exchange brokers . The coins ' main use was as gifts , or in jewelry . The pieces were struck only at Philadelphia after the 1870 @-@ S rarity , and early numismatist S.H. Chapman noted of the 1879 through 1889 issues , " of the later years of the $ 3 , large numbers were remelted at the Philadelphia Mint . " The Mint apparently favored certain Philadelphia dealers in the distribution of the gold dollar , but the three @-@ dollar piece could be obtained without a premium at the cashier 's window of the Philadelphia Mint . Large numbers of the 1879 three @-@ dollar piece ( mintage 3 @,@ 000 for circulation ) , 1880 ( 1 @,@ 000 ) , and 1881 ( 500 ) were hoarded by early coin collector and dealer Thomas L. Elder , who asked bank tellers to look out for them . Elder could not have obtained them directly from the Mint at the time of issue as he was still a child in 1880 , and did not begin collecting coins until 1887 .
With the rise of collecting interest in the three @-@ dollar piece in the 1880s , unscrupulous employees at the Philadelphia Mint enriched themselves by illicit striking of earlier @-@ date pieces , including the 1873 , 1875 , and 1876 . Bowers , in his sylloge of the Bass Collection , particularly blames these irregularities on Oliver Bosbyshell , chief coiner at Philadelphia from 1876 to 1885 . During that period , quantities of pattern coins , restrikes , and pieces struck in different metals flowed to well @-@ connected collectors and dealers , and Bosbyshell sold a large personal collection of such pieces shortly after leaving office as chief coiner . Although Bosbyshell returned as Philadelphia Mint superintendent from 1889 to 1894 , he does not appear to have resumed his illicit activities .
The relatively large mintage of about 6 @,@ 000 in 1887 was due to a fad sweeping the country whereby men would present their lady friends with a coin with one side ground off and replaced by the woman 's initials . Many wealthy suitors preferred to use a gold coin for this presentation . A larger @-@ than @-@ usual number of proof pieces were struck in 1888 and held by the Mint in anticipation of future trades with collectors for items which the Mint desired for its coin collection . The 1888 piece is the most common proof coin in the series , with an official mintage of 200 pieces .
In 1889 , Mint Director James P. Kimball sent a letter to the House of Representatives Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures urging the abolition of the three @-@ dollar piece . Kimball wrote , " this is a denomination which serves no useful purpose , its present coinage being in fact limited to its production for cabinet [ coin collecting ] purposes . The value of over $ 153 @,@ 000 in three @-@ dollar pieces still on hand at the Mint at Philadelphia can not be disposed of , owing to the unpopularity of this coin as a circulating medium . " The gold dollar and three @-@ dollar piece were not coined after 1889 , and were abolished by Congress on September 26 , 1890 .
In the 1890s , 49 @,@ 087 three @-@ dollar pieces were melted as obsolete at the Philadelphia Mint . Although no list was kept by years , Bowers suggests that many of the pieces were dated 1874 or 1878 ( both years with relatively high mintages ) , or were from the final years of the series . In the 1890s , they typically commanded a premium of 25 or 50 cents at exchange brokers . In the 1920s , three @-@ dollar pieces sold at a premium when other denominations of gold coinage remained at face value . The 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins lists the 1854 as the cheapest three @-@ dollar piece in the lowest listed condition ( Very Fine or MS @-@ 20 ) at $ 825 . An 1855 @-@ S in proof is the record holder in sales price for the denomination , selling at auction in 2011 for $ 1 @,@ 322 @,@ 500 .
In 1934 , Mint Director Nellie Tayloe Ross wrote in her annual report that a total of 539 @,@ 792 three @-@ dollar pieces had been coined , of which 452 @,@ 572 were struck at Philadelphia , 62 @,@ 350 at San Francisco ( not including the 1870 @-@ S ) , 24 @,@ 000 at New Orleans , and 1 @,@ 120 at Dahlonega . According to Breen , three @-@ dollar pieces " represent relics of an interesting but abortive experiment ; today they are among the most highly coveted of American gold coins " . New York coin dealer Norman Stack stated in the 1950s , " All are rare . There is no such thing as a common three @-@ dollar gold piece . "
= Johnson Creek ( Willamette River ) =
Johnson Creek is a 25 @-@ mile ( 40 km ) tributary of the Willamette River in the Portland metropolitan area of the U.S. state of Oregon . Part of the drainage basin of the Columbia River , its watershed consists of 54 square miles ( 140 km2 ) of mostly urban land occupied by about 180 @,@ 000 people as of 2012 . Passing through the cities of Gresham , Portland , and Milwaukie , the creek flows generally west from the foothills of the Cascade Range through sediments deposited by glacial floods on a substrate of basalt . Though polluted , it is free @-@ flowing along its main stem and provides habitat for salmon and other migrating fish .
Prior to European settlement , the watershed was heavily forested and was used by Native Americans of the Chinook band for fishing and hunting . In the 19th century , white settlers cleared much of the land for farming , and the stream is named for one of these newcomers , William Johnson , who in 1846 built a water @-@ powered sawmill along the creek . By the early 20th century , a rail line parallel to the stream encouraged further residential and commercial development . As urban density increased in the floodplain , seasonal floods grew more damaging . In the 1930s the Works Progress Administration of the federal government lined the lower 15 miles ( 24 km ) of Johnson Creek with rock to control the floods . Despite this , the creek flooded 37 times between 1941 and 2006 . Since the 1990s , regional planners have tried to reduce flooding by controlling stormwater runoff , creating stream meanders , reducing erosion , replacing impervious surfaces , and protecting riparian buffers .
The Johnson Creek watershed includes the subwatersheds of Badger Creek , Sunshine Creek , Kelley Creek , Mitchell Creek , Veterans Creek , Crystal Springs Creek , and smaller streams . Parks along the creek and its tributaries include natural areas , a wildlife refuge , a rhododendron garden , a botanical garden , and a 21 @-@ mile ( 34 km ) bicycle and pedestrian rail trail that follows the creek for much of its length .
= = Course = =
Johnson Creek begins near the unincorporated community of Cottrell , in Clackamas County , Oregon , southeast of Gresham in the foothills of the Cascade Range , and flows generally westward about 25 miles ( 40 km ) to its confluence with the Willamette River , a major tributary of the Columbia River . The creek passes through the cities of Gresham , Portland , and Milwaukie and crosses the border between Clackamas County and Multnomah County eight times .
For much of its course , the creek flows at almost right angles to the numbered avenues of southeast Portland and its eastern suburbs . As the creek descends , so do the avenue numbers . The creek begins in uplands in Clackamas County east of Southeast 362nd Avenue and flows swiftly to the west for about 5 miles ( 8 km ) , crisscrossing the border between Clackamas County and Multnomah County 5 times in this upstream stretch , and passing under U.S. Route 26 , the Mount Hood Highway , in Multnomah County at about 20 miles ( 32 km ) from the mouth . Shortly thereafter , it receives Badger Creek and Sunshine Creek from the left and the North Fork of Johnson Creek from the right .
Turning sharply , Johnson Creek flows swiftly northwest for about 3 miles ( 5 km ) , entering Gresham and shortly thereafter passing the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) gauge at Regner Road , 16 @.@ 2 miles ( 26 @.@ 1 km ) from the mouth . Soon the creek enters Main City Park in Gresham , where it again turns sharply and flows slightly south of west . Here the slope flattens , and the stream runs more slowly for the next third of its course . Slightly west of Main City Park , it passes the Gresham Pioneer Cemetery . Just beyond the cemetery , it receives Butler Creek on the left , enters Portland at about 13 miles ( 21 km ) from the mouth , and receives Kelley Creek on the left shortly thereafter . Mitchell Creek , a major tributary of Kelley Creek , enters Kelley Creek about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) south of Johnson Creek . Shortly thereafter , Johnson Creek passes the USGS gauge station at Sycamore , 10 @.@ 2 miles ( 16 @.@ 4 km ) from the mouth , and flows under Cedar Crossing Bridge .
Meandering slowly through the Lents neighborhood of Portland , Johnson Creek receives Veterans Creek , which enters on the left from its headwaters in Happy Valley in Clackamas County . Johnson Creek passes under Interstate 205 , and shortly thereafter begins to flow more swiftly again at Southeast 82nd Avenue , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) from the mouth . It then makes its sixth and seventh county @-@ border crossings , dipping briefly into Clackamas County and back north into Multnomah County , and then runs near the border between Portland and Milwaukie along Johnson Creek Boulevard for about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) . After passing under Oregon Route 99E ( Southeast McLoughlin Boulevard ) in Portland 's Sellwood neighborhood , the creek turns sharply south about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the mouth .
At Southeast 21st Avenue , it receives Crystal Springs Creek , which enters on the right . This tributary , 2 @.@ 7 miles ( 4 @.@ 3 km ) long , begins on the Reed College campus , flows under the Blue Bridge in Reed Canyon , through the Crystal Springs Rhododendron Garden , and generally south to Johnson Creek . From its confluence with Crystal Springs Creek , Johnson Creek flows south about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , crossing the county border for the eighth and final time . After re @-@ entering Clackamas County , it passes the USGS gauge station at Milwaukie , 0 @.@ 7 miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) from the mouth . Shortly thereafter , Johnson Creek empties into the Willamette River 18 @.@ 5 miles ( 29 @.@ 8 km ) above its confluence with the Columbia River , which in turn flows about another 100 miles ( 160 km ) to the Pacific Ocean at Astoria .
= = Watershed = =
= = = Geology and topography = = =
The floodplain of Johnson Creek is a remnant of large glacial floods known as the Missoula Floods that deposited thick sediments between 18 @,@ 000 and 13 @,@ 000 years ago in the Columbia River Basin , including much of the Willamette Valley . Underlying the sediments are substantial thicknesses of basalt lavas from the Columbia River Basalt Group . The lava , exposed mainly in the uplands , has been folded and faulted to form a series of sub @-@ basins , including the Johnson Creek watershed .
The watershed is a roughly rectangular area of about 54 square miles ( 140 km2 ) . The topography of the watershed varies greatly from the high point of about 1 @,@ 100 feet ( 335 m ) above sea level in the Boring Hills near the creek 's source to the low point of 26 feet ( 8 m ) where the creek meets the Willamette River .
Slopes in the watershed range generally between 1 and 25 percent . Mount Scott and Powell Butte rise to about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) and have slopes ranging from 10 to 30 percent . Gresham Butte and Hogan Butte , in Gresham , have the steepest slopes , including a few around 50 percent . The Boring Hills , of volcanic origin , rise more than 800 feet ( 244 m ) higher than the terraces to the north and west . The Kelso Slope , a northwest @-@ sloping dissected surface west of the canyon of the Sandy River , tilts down from about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 m ) above sea level near Sandy to about 400 feet ( 122 m ) above sea level east of Gresham .
Formed by the ancestral Columbia and Willamette Rivers , the terraces north of Johnson Creek are generally underlain by permeable sand and gravel . Three isolated hills — Rocky Butte , Mount Tabor , and Kelly Butte — rise about 200 to 400 feet ( 61 to 122 m ) above the surrounding terraces . Except for Powell Butte , the terrain on the creek 's north side is less steep than on the south side , which includes Mount Scott and the Boring Lava Domes .
The eastern half of the watershed is more open and rural than the urban western half , which consists largely of residential areas with pockets of commerce and industry . An estimated 180 @,@ 000 people lived in the watershed as of 2012 .
= = = Soils = = =
The potential for soil erosion varies throughout the watershed . Erosion is not a big threat in the northwestern part of the watershed , where the land is flat and developed , or in the northeast , dominated by low @-@ erosion soils . In the southeast , soils have a medium risk of erosion , and soils around Powell Butte and the Boring Lava Domes have " an extremely high erodibility factor and are sensitive to ground disturbance " .
The watershed 's soils vary in their permeability and ability to retain water . Clays that do not absorb much water dominate the eastern end of the watershed and the lands south of the creek . Northern areas of the watershed tend to be porous and less prone to rapid runoff .
= = = Hydrology = = =
The watershed can be divided into two hydrologic areas with different infiltration rates . The northern area , comprising about 40 percent of the watershed , consists of the Portland Terraces , and the southern consists of the Boring Hills and the Kelso Slope . Most of the rain that falls on the northern area percolates into the ground , and most of the rain that falls on the southern area runs quickly into the creek or its tributaries . Rain that falls on the north generally has a more gradual , longer @-@ lasting effect , sustaining the base flow of the creek during dry periods .
About 40 percent of the tributaries that originally flowed over the surface of the watershed were piped or relocated during urban development , especially on the north side of the main stem . Generally , the remaining free @-@ flowing tributaries begin south of the main stem and run north ; the major exception is Crystal Springs Creek , which begins as a groundwater discharge and flows south . The other major tributaries are Hogan , Kelley , Butler , Sunshine , and Badger creeks . Crystal Springs and Kelley creeks contribute more flow to the main stem than the other tributaries .
Fill at Foster Road and Southeast 111th Avenue usually prevents stormwater runoff from a 9 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 23 km2 ) area of the watershed in the Lents and Powellhurst @-@ Gilbert neighborhoods from flowing directly into the creek . Instead , runoff is routed to sumps , where it percolates into the ground . Normal drainage patterns have also been altered further downstream in the Sellwood , Eastmoreland , Westmoreland , and Woodstock neighborhoods , where runoff flows into the Portland sewer system instead of into the creek .
= = = Jurisdiction = = =
Six local political jurisdictions overlap with the Johnson Creek watershed . In 2000 , 38 percent of the watershed was in Portland 's city limits , 24 percent in unincorporated Clackamas County , 23 percent in Gresham , 11 percent in unincorporated Multnomah County , 4 percent in Milwaukie , and 0 @.@ 1 percent in Happy Valley . None of the cities lies entirely within the watershed . In 2000 , Johnson Creek and its tributaries drained 53 percent of Gresham , 42 percent of Milwaukie , 19 percent of Happy Valley , and 14 percent of Portland . The watershed covered only 1 @.@ 2 percent of unincorporated Multnomah County and less than 1 percent of unincorporated Clackamas County .
Neighboring watersheds on the east side of the Willamette River include Mount Scott Creek and Kellogg Creek , which flow through Milwaukie and drain directly into the Willamette ; the Clackamas River , which drains the southeast suburbs and empties into the Willamette near Oregon City ; the Sandy River , which drains the eastern suburbs and empties into the Columbia ; and Fairview Creek and the Columbia Slough , which drain north Portland and Gresham , emptying into the Columbia .
Nineteenth @-@ century maps also show numerous springs and small streams flowing into a wetland that covered an area of today 's southeast Portland between Powell Boulevard ( U.S. Route 26 ) and Johnson Creek , a distance of 2 @.@ 25 miles ( 3 @.@ 62 km ) . Though most of the wetland complex has been filled in and built upon , remnants exist at the Crystal Springs Rhododendron Garden on Crystal Springs Creek . Old maps also show two streams flowing into a slough that drained part of the wet
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land . One flowed through the Clinton Street neighborhood , about six city blocks north of Powell Boulevard , and the other drained the Colonial Heights neighborhood , slightly further north near Ladd 's Addition . These streams and most others in this area were diverted into the city sewer system and no longer appear on the surface . A Johnson Creek near Hoyt Arboretum on the west side of the Willamette River in Portland has no relationship to the Johnson Creek on the east side .
= = = Volunteer group = = =
The Johnson Creek Watershed Council ( JCWC ) is a nonprofit group organized in 1995 to protect the creek and its watershed . Its projects involve such things as controlling invasive species , planting native riparian vegetation , improving fish passage , and creating off @-@ channel flood storage . The council is heavily dependent on volunteers . In 2011 alone , more than a thousand volunteers donated 5 @,@ 500 hours of their time to JWCC activities .
= = = Annual report card = = =
In 2015 , Portland 's Bureau of Environmental Services ( BES ) began issuing annual " report cards " for watersheds or fractions thereof that lie within the city . BES assigns grades for each of four categories : hydrology , water quality , habitat , and fish and wildlife . Hydrology grades depend on the amount of pavement and other impervious surfaces in the watershed and to what degree its streams flow freely , not dammed or diverted . Water @-@ quality grades are based on measurements of dissolved oxygen , E @-@ coli bacteria , temperature , suspended solids , and substances such as mercury and phosphorus . Habitat ranking depends on the condition of stream banks and floodplains , riparian zones , tree canopies , and other variables . The fish and wildlife assessment includes birds , fish , and macroinvertebrates . In 2015 , the BES grades for Johnson Creek are hydrology , B + ; water quality , C + ; habitat , C , and fish and wildlife , D + .
= = History = =
Before settlers moved into the basin , it consisted mainly of upland and wetland forests in which Native Americans fished , hunted , and foraged . Evidence suggests that people lived in the northern Oregon Cascade Range as early as 10 @,@ 000 years ago . By 2 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 000 years ago , settlements in the Clackamas River basin , adjacent to the Johnson Creek watershed , had moved to the river 's lower floodplain . The area was the home of the Clackamas Indians , a subgroup of the Chinookan speakers who lived in the Columbia River Valley from Celilo Falls to the Pacific Ocean . The Clackamas lands included the lower Willamette River from Willamette Falls at what became Oregon City to its confluence with the Columbia River and reached into the foothills of the Cascades . When Lewis and Clark visited the area in 1806 , the Clackamas tribe consisted of about 1 @,@ 800 people living in 11 villages . Epidemics of smallpox , malaria , and measles reduced this population to 88 by 1851 , and in 1855 the tribe signed a treaty surrendering its lands , including Johnson Creek .
By the middle of the 19th century , the European American newcomers had begun to remove vegetation , build sawmills , fell trees , fill wetlands , and farm in the fertile soil along Johnson Creek . The creek is named for one of these newcomers , William Johnson , who in 1846 settled in what later became the Lents neighborhood of Portland and operated a water @-@ powered sawmill . In early 1848 Lot Whitcomb , who would later found Milwaukie , filed a donation land claim and built a sawmill near the confluence of Johnson Creek and the Willamette River . In 1886 , plans were made for train tracks along the creek . In 1903 , the Springwater Division Line , also known as the Portland Traction Company Line , the Cazadero Line , and the Bellrose Line , was built along Johnson Creek to provide rail transport for passengers and freight . Sellwood , Eastmoreland , Lents , and Pleasant Valley were among the new communities that grew up along the line . By the 1920s , housing began to replace creekside farms .
= = Floods = =
By removing the original vegetation , rural and urban development of the Johnson Creek watershed induced more rapid storm runoff and expensive floods . As a flood @-@ control measure in the 1930s , the Works Progress Administration of the federal government cleared and lined with rock about 90 percent of the creek between its mouth and Southeast 158th Avenue , about 15 miles ( 24 km ) from the mouth , creating an artificial channel 6 feet ( 2 m ) to 10 feet ( 3 m ) deep and 25 feet ( 8 m ) to 50 feet ( 15 m ) wide . Although substantially altering the stream and its aquatic life , this channel failed to prevent overflows , the largest of which damaged 1 @,@ 200 structures in 1964 .
Precipitation patterns in the Johnson Creek watershed have contributed to frequent high flows and floods along the creek , typically between November and February . Based on records from 1961 to 1990 , Portland 's average annual precipitation , as measured at Portland International Airport along the Columbia River , is about 36 inches ( 910 mm ) . About 21 inches ( 530 mm ) falls from November through February and only about 5 inches ( 130 mm ) from June through September . The airport , at about 30 feet ( 9 m ) above sea level , is at essentially the same elevation as the mouth of Johnson Creek . Annual precipitation at higher elevations in the creek 's upper watershed is much higher , more than 70 inches ( 1 @,@ 800 mm ) .
The floods primarily affect four areas in Portland : Tideman Johnson Natural Area at Southeast 45th Avenue , the area west of Southeast 82nd Avenue ; Lents , and lower Powell Butte . The U.S. National Weather Service defines Johnson Creek 's flood stage , measured at USGS station 14211500 at Sycamore in Portland , as 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) , equivalent to a flow rate ( discharge rate ) of about 1 @,@ 200 cubic feet ( 34 m3 ) per second . The USGS peak streamflow data collected by the stream gauge at that station show that the creek reached or exceeded 1 @,@ 200 cubic feet ( 34 m3 ) per second 37 times between 1941 and 2006 ; that is 37 floods in 65 years . Twenty of those floods exceeded 1 @,@ 500 cubic feet ( 42 m3 ) per second . At least seven of the floods caused major property damage . A more recent overflow occurred in December 2007 , when the creek crested at 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) above flood stage . Between 1978 and 1997 , flood insurance claims totaling an estimated $ 2 million were paid for damage along the creek .
The biggest flood measured at Sycamore , 10 @.@ 2 miles ( 16 @.@ 4 km ) from the mouth of the creek , occurred in 2015 . Exceeding the official flood stage of 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) by more than 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , the creek reached 15 @.@ 33 feet ( 4 @.@ 67 m ) on December 7 of that year . The second highest level , 15 @.@ 30 feet ( 4 @.@ 66 m ) , occurred in November 1996 , followed by the Christmas flood of 1964 on December 22 , when the creek reached 14 @.@ 68 feet ( 4 @.@ 47 m ) at Sycamore .
As of 2008 , the USGS was monitoring Johnson Creek at Regner Road in Gresham , 16 @.@ 3 miles ( 26 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth , and at Milwaukie , 0 @.@ 7 miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) from the mouth , as well as at Sycamore . It also had stream @-@ monitor stations on Kelley Creek and Crystal Springs Creek . The Sycamore station was the oldest , having begun operation in 1941 .
Proposals by agencies such as Metro , the regional government of the Portland metropolitan area , and the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in the 1970s and 1980s to control Johnson Creek flooding were abandoned after groups of residents objected to every proposal . In 1990 , the City of Portland formed the Johnson Creek Corridor Committee from multiple agencies and citizen groups with varied interests related to the watershed . Led by the city 's Bureau of Environmental Services , the combined groups in 2001 produced the Johnson Creek Restoration Plan to reduce flooding , improve water quality , and improve fish and wildlife habitat . Goals varied from section to section along the creek and included controlling storm water runoff , reducing erosion , replacing or mitigating impervious surfaces , and protecting riparian zones . Through 2007 , at least 75 site @-@ specific restoration projects had been carried out in the Johnson Creek Watershed , ranging from the $ 1 @.@ 2 @-@ million Brookside Project , a constructed wetland , to small riparian repair projects . Most involved voluntary citizen participation in all phases , including the long @-@ term management and care of the sites . In late 2012 , the city completed the East Lents Floodplain Project , which restored 70 acres ( 28 ha ) of the natural floodplain to a low @-@ lying area along the creek .
= = Pollution = =
The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) rated Johnson Creek 's water quality between 1986 and 1995 as " very poor " . Monitoring the creek 0 @.@ 2 miles ( 0 @.@ 3 km ) from the mouth , it recorded very high concentrations of nitrates and high concentrations of phosphates . Fecal coliform bacteria , total solids , and biochemical oxygen demand also impaired water quality . These conditions occurred throughout the year , and results for each parameter fell into the " very poor " category . On the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) used by DEQ , water quality scores can vary from 10 ( worst ) to 100 ( ideal ) . The minimal seasonal average for Johnson Creek on this scale was 26 , the second worst in the lower Willamette basin . By comparison , the minimal seasonal average in the nearby Willamette River at the Hawthorne Bridge in downtown Portland was 74 during the same years . Studies suggest that most pollutants of Johnson Creek do not come from point sources but are washed off urban and rural land surfaces during storms .
High temperatures cause problems for aquatic life throughout the watershed . The Oregon standard for maximum temperatures conducive to salmonid rearing in the Willamette Basin is 17 @.@ 8 ° C ( 64 @.@ 0 ° F ) , and data show that the mean maximum summertime temperatures in Johnson Creek exceed this standard . The maximum temperature that Coho salmon can survive for short periods is 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) . Thermographs at several locations on Johnson Creek in 1992 recorded maximum average weekly water temperatures higher than 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) in June , July , and August , and an absolute maximum temperature of 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) .
Studies conducted by DEQ , USGS , the City of Gresham , and other public agencies have identified DDT ( dichloro @-@ diphenyl @-@ trichloroethane ) , dieldrin , polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCB ) , chlordane , and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons ( PAH ) as carcinogenic pollutants of Johnson Creek . The creek has been classified as a " waterbody of concern " by the DEQ because of elevated levels of copper , chromium , and nickel in water and sediments . Generally , metal concentrations increase downstream .
= = Biology = =
= = = Macroinvertebrates and fish = = =
A study conducted in 1999 for the City of Portland by researchers from Portland State University found that Johnson Creek had marginal conditions for macroinvertebrates , an important source of food for fish and other aquatic life . The study compared differences in these life forms and in water chemistry from two urban streams , Johnson Creek and Tryon Creek in southwest Portland , with two nearby rural streams and found that benthic communities in the urban streams were degraded compared to the regional reference creeks .
Most fish species in Johnson Creek tolerate warm water and disturbed conditions . These include red @-@ sided shiners , sculpin , suckers , and speckled dace .
Large populations of salmon inhabited the creek before urban construction altered the watershed and the stream channel , and in the 21st century , the creek and its tributaries still provide habitat for smaller numbers of chinook and coho salmon , steelhead , and coastal cutthroat trout . Steelhead populations in Johnson Creek are within the Lower Columbia River steelhead distinct population segment and listed as threatened ( 2011 ) . Chinook and coho salmon are listed as threatened as part of the Lower Columbia River Evolutionary Significant Unit ( 2011 ) .
= = = Wildlife = = =
Before the area became urban , large mammals including bobcats , black bears , foxes , cougars , wolves , and elk thrived in the area . Common species in the 21st century include crow , robin , starling , song sparrow , Bewick 's wren , house finch , cedar waxwing , violet @-@ green swallow , belted kingfisher , great blue heron , mallard , wood duck , bushtit , black @-@ capped chickadee , raccoon , opossum , nutria , and moles . Less developed areas support black @-@ tailed deer , coyotes , deer mice , voles , bats , western flycatchers , black @-@ headed grosbeaks , orange @-@ crowned warblers , common mergansers , and woodpeckers . Other wildlife in the watershed include beaver , river otter , freshwater mussels , and bald eagles . Johnson Creek and its watershed are home to life forms that , under Oregon law , have been listed as " sensitive " species . These are naturally reproducing native animals that may become threatened or endangered throughout all or any significant part of their range in Oregon . Such animals known to live in the Johnson Creek watershed include long @-@ toed , northwestern , and Columbia salamanders , red @-@ legged frogs , painted turtles , great horned owls , toads , hawks , and coyotes . A plant found on Powell Butte , tall bugbane ( Actaea elata ) , is also listed as a sensitive species .
= = = Vegetation = = =
The watershed lies in the Willamette Valley ecoregion designated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) . It was covered until the mid @-@ 19th century with Oregon ash , red alder , and western redcedar forests and scattered black cottonwood groves in riparian areas . Douglas @-@ fir and Oregon white oak grew in the uplands . About 57 percent of the watershed is covered with plant life , including grass , trees , and all other forms of vegetation . As of 2000 , about 70 percent of the watershed lay within the urban growth boundary . Of the total land area , 57 percent is single @-@ family residential , 12 percent multi @-@ family , 10 percent commercial , 8 percent rural , and 13 percent parks and open space . In 2000 , of about half of the rural agricultural total in the watershed consisted of cultivated crops or pasture while tree farms and ornamental nurseries made up about 30 percent .
Creek restoration projects since the 1990s have reduced the amount of Himalayan blackberry , an invasive species that had come to dominate much of the landscape near the creek . New plantings include native shrubs and trees such as red @-@ osier dogwood , elderberry , Indian plum , and willow . City parks adjacent to Johnson Creek have areas devoted to marsh with shrubs , cattails , and smartweed , forested wetland , riparian woodland , open meadow , and orchard trees .
= = Parks = =
By 1960 , use of the rail line along Johnson Creek had declined and passenger service was discontinued . By 1990 the City of Portland bought much of the corridor . Working with Metro , it created the Springwater Corridor Trail , a 21 @-@ mile ( 34 km ) bicycle and pedestrian rail trail that follows the creek and extends from the Willamette River to Boring . It became part of the 40 Mile Loop , a hiking and biking trail that circles the Portland metropolitan area and intersects with similar trails .
Creekside parks include Johnson Creek Park , about 4 @.@ 5 acres ( 18 @,@ 000 m2 ) of natural areas and paths ; the Crystal Springs Rhododendron Garden , along Crystal Springs Creek ; Tideman Johnson Natural Area , about 7 @.@ 2 acres ( 29 @,@ 000 m2 ) of natural areas and paths ; Leach Botanical Garden , about 16 acres ( 65 @,@ 000 m2 ) , a public garden dedicated to the study of botany and horticulture with an emphasis on plants of the Pacific Northwest ; Beggars Tick Wildlife Refuge , a wetland of 20 acres ( 81 @,@ 000 m2 ) ; Powell Butte Nature Park , about 608 acres ( 2 @.@ 46 km2 ) on an extinct cinder cone volcano , including natural areas and hiking , biking , and equestrian trails ; and Gresham 's Main City Park , about 18 acres ( 73 @,@ 000 m2 ) including sports fields , picnic areas , and trails .
In 2007 Metro bought two parcels of land totaling 102 acres ( 410 @,@ 000 m2 ) for preservation adjacent to Johnson Creek on Clatsop Butte , south of Foster Road near Powell Butte and Portland 's Pleasant Valley neighborhood . The purchases cost $ 10 @.@ 9 million , drawing on bonds approved by a 2006 ballot measure . They were praised by conservationists but questioned by others who thought Metro had paid too much .
= Episode 4 ( Twin Peaks ) =
" Episode 4 " , also known as " The One @-@ Armed Man " , is the fifth episode of the first season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks . The episode was written by Robert Engels , and directed by Tim Hunter . " Episode 4 " features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan , Piper Laurie and Richard Beymer , and introduces series co @-@ creator David Lynch in the role of Gordon Cole .
Hunter 's directing of the episode was inspired by Otto Preminger 's 1945 film Fallen Angel , making use of small sets and long depth of field shots . Engels has identified several 1960s television series — The Wild Wild West , Mayberry R.F.D. and The Fugitive — as being influential to the series as a whole .
First airing on May 3 , 1990 , " Episode 4 " was viewed by approximately 19 percent of the available audience during its broadcast , marking an increase in viewers from the previous week . " Episode 4 " has received positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The small town of Twin Peaks , Washington , has been shocked by the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) and the attempted murder of her friend Ronette Pulaski ( Phoebe Augustine ) . Federal Bureau of Investigation special agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has come to the town to investigate , and initial suspicion has fallen upon Palmer 's boyfriend Bobby Briggs ( Dana Ashbrook ) and the man with whom she was cheating on Briggs , James Hurley ( James Marshall ) . However , other inhabitants of the town have their own suspicions , including the violent , drug @-@ dealing truck driver Leo Johnson ( Eric Da Re ) . Cooper experiences a surreal dream in which a dwarf and a woman resembling Laura reveal the identity of the killer . Laura 's cousin Madeline Ferguson ( Lee ) arrives in town , while Cooper is introduced to the Bookhouse Boys , the town 's secret society .
= = = Events = = =
Sarah Palmer ( Grace Zabriskie ) describes her vision of Killer Bob ( Frank Silva ) to Deputy Andy Brennan ( Harry Goaz ) , while he sketches the man 's face . She also describes a vision of someone taking Laura 's heart necklace ; Donna Hayward ( Lara Flynn Boyle ) winces at this , as she is the one who hid it .
Cooper interviews Laurence Jacoby ( Russ Tamblyn ) , a psychiatrist who had been seeing Laura . Jacoby does not wish to breach his confidentiality agreement , but admits that he struggled to understand Laura 's problems . He also casts suspicion on a man driving a red Corvette — Leo Johnson ( Eric Da Re ) .
Gordon Cole ( David Lynch ) calls Cooper at the sheriff 's station , offering insight into Laura 's autopsy . Brennan brings in his sketch , which Cooper identifies as the man from his dream . He also receives a call from Deputy Hawk ( Michael Horse ) , who has located the one @-@ armed man they believe is somehow involved ; the group find him at a motel . The man , Philip Michael Gerard ( Al Strobel ) is a traveling salesman , who denies any involvement or that he knows BOB .
At the same motel , local businessman Benjamin Horne ( Richard Beymer ) meets with Catherine Martell ( Piper Laurie ) ; the two are having an affair and planning to burn down the town 's sawmill . The mill is owned by Josie Packard ( Joan Chen ) , the widow of Martell 's brother ; Packard is spying on the couple in their motel room . Later , Horne meets with Leo Johnson ( Eric Da Re ) , a violent truck driver , to arrange having the mill destroyed .
Norma Jennings ( Peggy Lipton ) travels to a parole hearing for her husband , Hank ( Chris Mulkey ) . She is uneasy about helping his case as she is seeing Ed Hurley ( Everett McGill ) , but promises him a job at the diner she owns . Meanwhile , Johnson 's wife Shelley is having an affair with Briggs ; she shows him Johnson 's bloodstained shirt . He takes it , promising to rid them of Johnson for good .
Cooper , Truman and Brennan visit a veterinarian connected to Gerard ; they find twine there of the type used to bind Laura . They believe that the bird that clawed her body is one of the animals being treated there , and confiscate the practice 's files in order to locate the owners of birds being treated there . They learn that the scratches have been caused by a myna , and that drug smuggler Jacques Renault ( Walter Olkewicz ) owns one . They raid Renault 's home , interrupting Briggs , who is planting Johnson 's bloodied shirt . He flees , undetected ; however , the shirt is recovered as evidence .
At the RR Diner , Hurley meets Madeline Ferguson ( Lee ) , Laura 's identical cousin ; the two seem instantly smitten . Norma finds out that Hank has been released from prison ; that evening Packard receives a brief phone call from him that leaves her shaken .
= = Production = =
" Episode 4 " was the first of the series to be written by Robert Engels ; Engels returned to pen a number of other episodes across both seasons . The episode was directed by Tim Hunter , who would also go on to helm " Episode 16 " and " Episode 28 " in the second season . Hunter had known series co @-@ creator David Lynch from their time studying together at the American Film Institute . Engels had been brought on board by the other creative force in the series , Mark Frost , who felt that Engels ' sense of humor would be well @-@ suited to the series ' style . Engels found the pace of the series ' writing to be quite fast , noting that Frost and Lynch would outline the plot of an episode in a matter of hours — Engels had previously been used to spending days at a time working on similar amounts of material with writing crews on other programs .
Hunter recalls being pleasantly surprised to learn that Russ Tamblyn and Richard Beymer had been cast as regular characters in the series , having enjoyed the early work of both actors during the 1950s and 1960s . Tamblyn improvised elements of his performance , including a magic trick involving two golf balls , which was something he had learned and wished to include during his role in the episode . The character of Gordon Cole , first played by Lynch in this episode as a voice in a telephone call , was conceived as being hard of hearing ; this was because Lynch liked the idea of delivering his lines in a loud voice , and worked backwards to establish a reason for this . Engels wrote most of Cole 's dialogue over the series , having had experience with his own mother being similarly hard of hearing .
Engels felt that the three largest influences on the series as a whole were the 1960s television series The Wild Wild West , Mayberry R.F.D. and The Fugitive — the inclusion of a one @-@ armed character in Twin Peaks was a direct homage to the latter of these . Engels has also noted that the series would make use of normal , conventional storylines and everyday occurrences as a " familiar " framework , allowing subtle details to seem slightly more unusual against this backdrop — he particularly cites this episode 's parole hearing for Hank Jennings as an example , as it offers nothing out of the ordinary other than the single domino which Jennings is playing with at all times , drawing attention to the item as it is the only thing which seems out of place .
Hunter 's direction in some scenes was inspired by Otto Preminger 's work on the 1945 film noir Fallen Angel . That film featured several scenes shot in tight spaces with a very small mise en scène ; Hunter found himself using several of Preminger 's techniques to make the most out of several of the episode 's smaller sets such as the RR Diner . Several scenes in the episode were also shot using a split diopter lens , allowing for a greater depth of field . For example , a scene featuring Sherilyn Fenn and Richard Beymer talking had the actors at either side of a room ; the split diopter lens allowed for both of them to still be in sharp focus . The episode ends with a shot featuring a Dutch angle ; Hunter was the only director on the series who Frost and Lynch allowed to use this shot , which was otherwise forbidden .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Episode 4 " was first broadcast on the ABC Network on May 3 , 1990 . In its initial airing , it was viewed by 11 @.@ 9 percent of US households , representing 19 percent of the available audience . This marked a slight increase from the previous episode , which had attracted 11 @.@ 3 percent of the population and 18 percent of the available audience . " Episode 4 " was the forty @-@ fourth most watched broadcast on American television that week .
The A.V. Club 's Keith Phipps rated the episode a B , deeming it " a ' normal ' episode for the series " . Phipps praised Al Strobel 's performance , and felt that the episode served to highlight " Cooper 's investigation @-@ by @-@ coincidence technique " , while describing the character of Madeline Ferguson as " an embodiment of this series ' obsession with duality " . Writing for Allrovi , Andrea LeVasseur rated the episode four stars out of five . Television Without Pity 's Daniel J. Blau offered mixed reactions to the episode 's acting ; he found Sheryl Lee , James Marshall and Grace Zabriskie to have been poor , but praised Kyle MacLachlan , Ray Wise and Dana Ashbrook for their performances .
= Only Happy When It Rains =
" Only Happy When It Rains " is a song written and produced by alternative rock group Garbage for the band 's self @-@ titled debut studio album . The song was recorded at the band 's own recording studio , Smart Studios , in Madison , Wisconsin , being mixed twice before its release . The bleak content of the lyrics was intended as a parody of the angst @-@ filled themes present in mid @-@ 1990s alternative rock , as well as a sarcastic reference to Garbage 's own preference for darker themes .
" Only Happy When it Rains " was released as the third single from the campaign for Garbage in both the United Kingdom ( in September 1995 ) and North America ( in February 1996 ) , being issued in three formats vinyl , CD maxi , and cassette . The song received positive reviews , praising the production and Shirley Manson 's singing , and became the band 's breakthrough single , charting strongly on both the UK Singles Chart and Billboard Hot 100 . It also crossed over to pop radio formats , propelling their debut album into the Top 100 of the Billboard 200 for the first time , and the song 's music video , directed by Samuel Bayer , received much airplay on MTV . " Only Happy When it Rains " has gone on to be an enduring work for the group , being featured in the video game Guitar Hero 5 and receiving covers by Richard Cheese , Katerina Graham and Metallica .
= = Composition and recording = =
" Only Happy When It Rains " was written and recorded between March 1994 and May 1995 , with the composition happening in sessions between band members Duke Erikson , Shirley Manson , Steve Marker and Butch Vig in Marker 's basement recording studio , and the recording itself being done at their own Smart Studios in Madison , Wisconsin . Bass on " Only Happy When It Rains " was played by Mike Kashou , and additional percussion by Pauli Ryan . In the latter stages of the album recording , Garbage mixed " Only Happy When It Rains " twice before it was sent for mastering . At the last minute , Vig decided to increase the mix of the guitar tracks louder ; he later claimed that the song still did not sound the way he wanted it to , in his head . The mixing was noted for Manson 's voice being at the same volume level as the instruments , while in mainstream pop the singing is louder than the musical backdrop . The song is written in the key of G # minor , set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 120 beats per minute , and the chord progression is G # m – F # – E – C # m – E – F # in the verses and C # -F # -G # -A in the chorus .
The song 's bleak lyrics were explained by Marker as a mockery of the angsty " wearing your heart on your sleeve thing " themes prevalent in mid @-@ 1990s alternative rock songs , as well as a self @-@ deprecating reference to Garbage 's own dark lyrics , with Manson explaining that the song was " a dig at ourselves because we like records that don 't make us feel very happy , and at this so @-@ called ' alternative ' scene of ' we 're so weird and more wonderful than everybody else ' " . Vig added that " ' Only Happy When It Rains ' was about what happened with grunge and the angst @-@ filled thing which has dominated the American alternative rock scene . With us there 's self @-@ deprecation , we have to poke fun at ourselves because we 're so incredibly obsessive about the songs and the lyrics , which makes us filled with self @-@ loathing , hurhur . " Garbage said they referenced both the title of The Jesus and Mary Chain song " Happy When It Rains " ( 1987 ) and Manson 's own Scottish psyche . Lyrically , Manson described " Only Happy When It Rains " as " about wanting love but knowing life will always get in the way .... yet not being obliterated by that . It 's a song for people that know what it is like to live on the dark side of life . It 's about devotion but a different kind . A devotion to the truth and to freedom ... and to hell with the consequences . "
When " Only Happy When It Rains " was to be remastered in 2007 for Garbage 's greatest hits album Absolute Garbage , the song had to be reverse engineered from a damaged backup DAT due to the analog masters for the debut album being lost , resulting in some discernible differences in the remaster .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon both the release of Garbage , and of " Only Happy When It Rains " as a single , the song received a positive reception from music journalists . In reviews for the single release Patrick Brennan of Hot Press declared " Only Happy When It Rains " his Single of the Fortnight , writing " it 's hugely refreshing to come across a song which celebrates all those sad moments of loneliness that can be so life affirming " , while Billboard 's Larry Flick described the song as " solid all the way through " praising the overall production . A reviewer for Kerrang ! wrote , " A truly inspired single ... Garbage combine a slightly sinister acidic approach with an infectious melodic atmosphere and an alternative punch . The result is awesome , " and a reviewer for Music Week stated that " Shirley Manson 's vocals veer between fuzzy darkness , grinding catchy and crystal brilliance . " Alastair Mabbot , writing for The List , described the song as " Spitting Image 's notion of alternative rock " , In reviews for the debut album , Robert Yates of Q wrote that there was " a nice self @-@ deflating Morrissey touch to [ the song ] " , while Jackie Hinden of Hot Press felt that " Only Happy When It Rains " was " like a Pretenders for the nineties " . Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian described the song as " perversely pretty " , while Leo Finlay of Music Week compared the song to Mazzy Star , and that it " employs the current hip status of country music to devastating effect " . Spin 's Eric Weissard said the song was the only one he hated in Garbage 's debut album , but reacted positively to the intro where " backward guitars produce a chiming solo . " At the end of 1995 , Melody Maker rated " Only Happy When It Rains " the 49th best Song of the Year , writing up : " In a year of sunny Britpop , reservoir supplies of ironic bubblegum pop @-@ noir were dangerously low . This burst of mocking miserablism helped " . The track has been described as Garbage 's signature song , and in 2000 was ranked as 69th in a list of 100 Greatest Pop Songs Of All Time jointly compiled by Rolling Stone and MTV .
= = Single release and chart performance = =
Initially , Mushroom Records had scheduled " Queer " to be the lead single for the UK release of the debut album Garbage , matching the single release strategy internationally . At last minute , it was decided to release " Only Happy When It Rains " upfront of the album , with " Queer " rescheduled to later in 1995 . " Only Happy When It Rains " was quickly picked up by radio , and was C @-@ listed by Radio One , and reached # 47 on the airplay chart . Mushroom issued the single on a limited edition 7 " vinyl , CD and cassette on September 18 , 1995 . All formats were backed with two new tracks specifically recorded for the single ; " Girl Don 't Come " and " Sleep " . After its first week on @-@ sale , " Only Happy When it Rains " debuted on the UK Singles Chart at # 29 . At the end of the month , Garbage made their debut live appearance to perform the single on Top of The Pops , providing momentum for the album Garbage to debut on the album chart at # 12 .
In United States , Almo Sounds first sent " Only Happy When It Rains " to alternative radio at the start of January 1996 , earning much airplay in both college and alternate rock radio stations . The physical single was issued on February 20 in two formats , CD maxi and cassette single , both featuring " Girl Don 't Come " and " Sleep " as b @-@ sides . A single remix of the song was also issued to Top 40 radio on March 26 as the single escalated up the pop charts . Notable live performances of " Only Happy When It Rains " included Garbage 's network television debut on Saturday Night Special on April 27 , and during the 1996 MTV Movie Awards . The song spent twenty weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at # 55 , plus nineteen weeks at the Modern Rock Tracks , peaking at # 16 at the end of May , and peaked at # 54 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart . The single 's success also lead to a sales increase of the band 's debut album , which managed to enter the Billboard 200 chart six months after its release. having sold 238 @,@ 000 units at this point .
In Australia and New Zealand , Garbage 's Australasian record label , White , released " Only Happy When it Rains " as the follow @-@ up to " Stupid Girl " on May 28 , 1996 . The single was issued on CD single and cassette , backed with " Driving Lesson " and a house remix of album track " Dog New Tricks " , both of which had been recorded by the band earlier in the year . On June 16 , 1996 , " Only Happy When it Rains " debuted on the ARIA singles chart and spent nine weeks in the top 100 , peaking at # 80 . A month later , the song debuted at # 42 on the New Zealand singles chart , peaking the following week at 38th .
Across Europe , Mushroom Records international distributor BMG released " Only Happy When It Rains " in two formats , a two @-@ track card sleeve CD single with " Dog New Tricks " , or a four @-@ track maxi single with " Dog New Tricks " , a remix of " Stupid Girl " by Red Snapper and a remix of " Queer " by Danny Saber . Following the band 's performance at the Lowlands Festival , the single was a success in the Netherlands where it spent the month of September 1996 on the charts , peaking at # 36 on the Single Top 100 .
In 1999 , B @-@ side " Girl Don 't Come " was used in the PlayStation game F1 Racing Championship .
= = Music video = =
The promotional video for " Only Happy When It Rains " was filmed in mid @-@ January 1996 in Los Angeles by director Samuel Bayer , simultaneously with the video for single " Stupid Girl " . As Almo Sounds thought " Only Happy When It Rains " would be more successful , its video was given a higher budget than " Stupid Girl " . The video debuted in the United States on February 12 , 1996 , being certified one day later by MTV as a " Buzz clip " , which would guarantee heavy rotation on their network .
The video begins a short prologue sequence with several children dressed in animal costumes playing in an overcast field , before cutting to Garbage upon the commencement of the song . Garbage are located in a litter @-@ strewn warehouse , where the male members of the band destroy vinyl records , videotape and musical instruments as Manson performs to the camera . Some sequences feature Manson performing the song while on her own in dilapidated toilet stalls . The video ends with inter @-@ cut footage of Manson joining the children on the field .
The " Only Happy When It Rains " video was first commercially released - along with out @-@ take footage shot while filming - on VHS and Video @-@ CD on 1996 's Garbage Video . A remastered version of the video was later included on Garbage 's 2007 greatest hits DVD Absolute Garbage and made available as a digital download via online music services the same year .
= = In popular culture = =
= = = Covers = = =
In 2009 , " Only Happy When it Rains " was featured as a playable song in the videogame Guitar Hero 5 . By playing the song in " Career Mode " , a virtual avatar of Shirley Manson could be unlocked for use elsewhere within the game . As one of Garbage 's signature songs , " Only Happy When it Rains " has been covered by a number of artists over the years . In 2000 , comedic musician
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status , and three became major hurricanes . The active season had an abnormally late start ; the first system formed on September 11 , nearly three months after the official beginning date . The season was also short @-@ lived , as all six storms developed in rapid succession . On September 23 , three hurricanes existed simultaneously in the Atlantic basin .
In total , the season resulted in about 63 fatalities and over $ 10 million in damages . The first and last storms of the season were largely insignificant , although the second , fourth , and fifth storms had considerable effects . Two hurricanes struck the United States : a major hurricane that struck Texas and Louisiana in late September , disrupting the Louisiana Maneuvers , and Hurricane Five , which made two landfalls in Florida , the first of which was near Miami at Category 2 intensity , inflicting widespread damage . Another major storm — Hurricane Four — traversed the Caribbean before striking the Nicaragua – Honduras border at Category 4 intensity , leaving 47 men dead at sea .
= = Timeline = =
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm One = = =
The first storm of the 1941 season formed on September 11 in the northern Gulf of Mexico . This was an abnormally late start to an Atlantic hurricane season : only on two other occasions between 1887 and 1941 had no storms developed prior to September 11 . The storm moved slowly in a generally westward direction for the next few days , peaking as a moderate tropical storm with winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) . It then weakened until it made landfall along the northern Texas coast between Galveston and Port Arthur as a tropical depression , where it caused only minor damage . Near 0600 UTC on September 16 , the storm deteriorated into a depression , and dissipated a few hours later .
= = = Hurricane Two = = =
Little more than a day after the first storm of the season dissipated , a tropical depression formed on September 17 in the central Gulf of Mexico about 120 mi ( 190 km ) north of the Yucatán Peninsula . Upon forming , the system began moving generally northward . Early on September 18 , the system developed into a tropical storm more than 300 mi ( 480 km ) to the south @-@ southeast of New Orleans , Louisiana . Over the next three days , the intensifying storm executed a gradual clockwise loop , moving to the south @-@ southeast before turning back to the west . After intensifying to a Category 1 hurricane on September 21 , the storm began assuming a more northwestward course , toward the Texas Gulf Coast . It continued to strengthen into a major hurricane , peaking at 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) late on September 23 . About four hours later , at about 22 UTC , the storm went ashore east of Bay City , Texas , on September 23 . The estimated minimum central pressure fell to as low as 942 millibars ( 27 @.@ 8 inHg ) . It curved towards the northeast , passing just east of Houston , and accelerated as it continued to move inland . The cyclone transitioned into an extratropical storm on September 25 , and was last recorded at 00 UTC on September 27 over northeastern Quebec , near the Torngat Mountains National Park .
Warnings and advisories declared in response to the storm were widely distributed , and approximately 25 @,@ 000 people in the area evacuated their homes . Officials completed various precautionary measures . Wind gusts along the coast reached up to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , and high storm tides were recorded . The hurricane inflicted severe damage ; destruction to property was worth an estimated $ 2 million , with an additional $ 5 million in damage to crops , notably rice and cotton . Overall , the cyclone killed four people . The hurricane affected the southern Louisiana region one week before the Louisiana Maneuvers , a prelude to World War II . Heavy rainfall triggered flooding and swelled rivers , and army vehicles became stuck in the mud as a result . The inclement weather forced hundreds of military aircraft to move inland for shelter .
= = = Hurricane Three = = =
Early on September 18 , squally weather was reported throughout the Atlantic coast of Florida , with indications that a circulation center was present 150 mi ( 240 km ) offshore . It is estimated that a tropical storm had formed at around this time . The cyclone began to intensify as it briefly moved northeastward , before abruptly executing an eastward turn . It attained Category 1 hurricane status on September 19 , and completed a clockwise loop the next day . It then tracked northwestward toward North Carolina , but began to recurve away from land late on September 22 . It weakened into a tropical storm shortly afterward . The system dissipated on September 25 to the south of Nova Scotia . The storm had little or no effect on land , but caused significant delays for North Atlantic shipping . One vessel en route from Curaçao to New York encountered the storm on two separate occasions , recording Force 8 winds on the Beaufort scale both times .
= = = Hurricane Four = = =
On September 23 , a minor area of disturbed weather was observed about 75 mi ( 121 km ) to the northwest of Barbados . It is estimated that it developed into a tropical storm shortly thereafter . Tracking westward , it passed just south of St. Lucia and emerged into the Caribbean Sea . By September 25 , the storm had reached hurricane strength . Still intensifying , the storm continued generally westward and reached its peak at Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . By late September 27 , the hurricane was situated near Cape Gracias a Dios , Honduras , and accelerated as it moved across the northernmost stretch of the country . It maintained hurricane intensity despite moving over mountainous terrain . After briefly entering the Gulf of Honduras , it moved ashore again in Belize , with winds of up to 85 mph ( 137 km / h ) . Gradually weakening , the storm continued inland and weakened to a tropical storm by September 29 . The storm emerged over the Bay of Campeche as a tropical depression and dissipated on September 30 while over water .
Approximately 47 lives were lost at sea due to the hurricane . The SS Ethel Sakel displayed a " sinking " message on September 25 , about 125 mi ( 201 km ) north of Aruba ; she later went down with 20 of her 33 crew members . Two other ships sent out distress signals , one of which capsized , all hands lost . Damage on land was also extensive , and three people drowned at Cape Gracias , which was largely destroyed by the storm . Coastal flooding in the town was severe . Inland , a ship encountered the calm eye of the cyclone , and the barometric pressure aboard fell to 957 mb ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) ; the actual pressure at the coast was believed to have been far lower . In Belize , forests sustained major damage . For example , in the Melinda region , high winds brought down about 10 % of the large pines .
= = = Hurricane Five = = =
Tropical Storm Five was first observed to the north of the Virgin Islands on October 3 . The storm tracked generally westward on October 4 , strengthening to its peak intensity of 120 miles per hour ( 190 km / h ) at 12 UTC the next day . Now a Category 3 hurricane on the modern @-@ day Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , the storm struck Cat Island , causing major damage . However , the rapidly moving storm soon weakened as its track bent more to the northwest . At 00 UTC on October 6 , the eye of the storm passed south of Nassau . Ten hours later , the small hurricane struck the north end of Elliott Key , Florida , and then made a second landfall within the hour on the mainland at Goulds , near Homestead . Winds at landfall reached 100 miles per hour ( 160 km / h ) , and the calm eye was reported over Goulds . After moving across southern Florida , the storm had weakened to a strong tropical storm , but then restrengthened as it curved northwestward over the Gulf of Mexico . At about 09 UTC on October 7 , the storm made another landfall along the Florida Panhandle near Carrabelle with winds of 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Turning toward the north and northeast , it crossed Georgia and South Carolina , and entered the Atlantic Ocean on October 8 . The storm fully dissipated several days later .
Preparations for the storm were extensive ; residents boarded up homes and businesses , while evacuations were recommended in some coastal areas . In the Bahamas , where winds reached 104 miles per hour ( 167 km / h ) , the storm killed three people . The city of Nassau was struck particularly hard , though damage elsewhere in the islands was also severe , with many homes reported destroyed . In Florida , damage was relatively severe , and included the deaths of several people . High winds brought down trees and power lines , and wind @-@ driven salt water damaged vegetation well inland across Dade County , though the storm was characterized by unusually light rainfall . Storm surge in the Everglades region flooded local streets , particularly at Everglades City . As the storm progressed northward , the city of Tallahassee suffered widespread power outages and damage to numerous vehicles . Throughout the state , the hurricane inflicted $ 675 @,@ 000 ( 1941 USD ) in damages . The cyclone later killed one person in Georgia .
= = = Tropical Storm Six = = =
A tropical storm formed on October 15 , and passed through the southern Bahamas . It crossed the Florida Straits , and reached its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on October 20 , after entering the eastern Gulf of Mexico and turning towards the north . It curved northeastward and made landfall at Cedar Key , Florida . After pushing inland , the storm stalled and weakened to a tropical depression on October 21 before dissipating fully the next day .
The storm 's slow forward motion over the state of Florida led to heavy widespread precipitation , locally amounting to 35 in ( 890 mm ) in Trenton , Florida between October 17 and October 22 . Gale @-@ force winds were also reported . Some flood damage occurred throughout the affected locations . An infant was killed following the destruction of a house , possibly related to a tornado spawned by the tropical storm ; the baby 's parents also sustained injuries .
= Extraordinary Merry Christmas =
" Extraordinary Merry Christmas " is the ninth episode and mid @-@ season finale of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the fifty @-@ third overall . Written by Marti Noxon and directed by Matthew Morrison , the episode aired on Fox in the United States on December 13 , 2011 , and features the members of New Directions starring in a black @-@ and @-@ white Christmas television special that is presented within the episode itself .
Nine songs are performed over the course of the episode , eight of which come from the second Glee Christmas soundtrack album , Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album Volume 2 . The episode has the same name as an original song on that album , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " , which was written for Glee by the show 's executive music producer Adam Anders , song producer Peer Åström , and Shelly Peiken . The remaining eight songs are covers , and all nine were released as singles . Reviewers generally praised the music in the episode .
Although reviewers were polarized in their views of the episode as a whole , the special within the episode received mostly favorable comments , though the rest of the episode was deemed light on plot . Some aspects of the framing sequences were criticized , such as Rachel 's excessive demands for Christmas presents despite the fact that she is Jewish . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 13 million American viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was up marginally from the previous episode , " Hold On to Sixteen " .
= = Plot = =
Sue ( Jane Lynch ) recruits the glee club to sing at a homeless shelter where she will be volunteering to distract her from the first Christmas without her sister Jean , who died earlier in the year . Finn ( Cory Monteith ) tells Rachel ( Lea Michele ) that all he wants for Christmas is her . Rachel ( Lea Michele ) replies that he is also all she wants , but gives Finn ( Cory Monteith ) a long list of Christmas present suggestions . Her dialogue , " All I want is what I have coming to me . All I want is my fair share " is a verbatim homage to Sally 's Christmas list scene with Charlie Brown in the Christmas classic , A Charlie Brown Christmas . Just as Charlie Brown is with Sally , Finn is appalled by how much Rachel wants , though she assures him that five of the items are enough . When she later hints that an early gift would not be amiss , he surprises her with the donation of a sow in her name to needy Africans . Rachel is unhappy , reminds Finn that she is a vegan , and recommends that he stick to her list to avoid embarrassment , while pointedly mentioning earrings .
New Directions celebrates the holidays as Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) sings " All I Want For Christmas Is You " . Rory ( Damian McGinty ) dedicates the song " Blue Christmas " to his family ; this is his first Christmas away from them . Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) offers to take Rory home with him to show him a true American Christmas . Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) announces that New Directions has been asked to create a holiday special for the local PBS station , with Artie ( Kevin McHale ) as director . The station manager agrees to Artie 's concept — a black @-@ and @-@ white homage to both Star Wars Holiday Special and the " Judy Garland Christmas Special " , to feature hosts Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Blaine ( Darren Criss ) welcoming their friends for suave banter and happy , cheerful songs . Rory will play Itchy the Holiday Elf and recite " Frosty the Snowman " . Sam points out that " Frosty " does not have a happy ending , and that a little sadness is also part of Christmas . Artie only wants to present the " merry " part and will be rewriting Frosty to fit , so Sam decides not to participate . Sue interrupts a rehearsal for the show to reconfirm that New Directions will be singing at the homeless shelter on Friday , but the special is also set for Friday . Artie asks to reschedule , but Sue says they are already expected and is adamant : it must be Friday night . The club members decide to do the broadcast , and Sue leaves in disgust .
Kurt and Blaine lead off the Glee Holiday Spectacular by performing " Let It Snow " , Rachel and Mercedes arrive and sing " My Favorite Things " with their hosts , Finn and Puck ( Mark Salling ) show up as not @-@ quite @-@ real Star Wars characters and perform " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " , and " Christmas Wrapping " is sung by Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , with backup by Santana ( Naya Rivera ) , Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) , Mike ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and several Cheerios . When Rory as Itchy arrives , the others are dismayed when he says he will not be reading " Frosty the Snowman " ; he instead reads the biblical nativity story from the Gospel according to Luke .
Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Sam are at the homeless shelter with Sue , helping to serve the rapidly disappearing meal , when New Directions arrives , late , with more food and some presents . The glee club sings " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " for the people there . Back at McKinley , Rachel has a change of heart and names Finn 's gift sow " Barbra " . Finn does give her the earrings she wanted , but she ultimately returns them and he returns the iPod she gave him : they donate the money to the Salvation Army kettle manned by Sam and Rory , and stay to help .
= = Production = =
The episode is the directorial debut of Glee star Matthew Morrison , who plays Will Schuester . He announced that he would be directing an episode " during an acoustic set and Q & A at LA 's Grammy Museum for their Spotlight series " in late September 2011 . He ultimately did not direct the eighth episode as originally planned , but this ninth one instead .
It is also the second annual Glee Christmas episode , with nine songs , eight of which come from the second annual Glee Christmas soundtrack album , Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album Volume 2 . The only song that was not included on the album is " My Favorite Things " from the musical The Sound of Music , which was released as a single — as were all the other songs from the episode — and features Michele , Riley , Colfer and Criss . Although Morrison stated in an interview that the episode would include ten songs , one of them , " Santa Baby " , sung by Rivera and previously released on the soundtrack , had to be cut " because the episode was running long " , though a video of it was made available online the week after the episode aired . A scene of Blaine giving a ring to Kurt , shown in promotional photos for the episode , was also cut , and it was reported the night the episode aired that this scene would " be included in the Season 3 DVD " . Instead , a YouTube video containing the scene was tweeted by Ryan Murphy on August 1 , 2012 .
The episode itself has the same name as an original song on that album , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " , which was written for Glee by the show 's executive music producer Adam Anders , song producer Peer Åström , and Shelly Peiken , and is sung on the second Christmas soundtrack album by Michele and Criss , who also perform it in the episode . The episode also includes covers of eight songs , seven of which are from the soundtrack album : Mariah Carey 's " All I Want for Christmas Is You " performed by Riley , Elvis Presley 's " Blue Christmas " sung by McGinty , Joni Mitchell 's " River " performed by Michele , " Let It Snow " sung by Criss and Colfer , " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " performed by Monteith and Salling — but not by Samuel Larsen , who sings the song with them on the album — in the Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band version , The Waitresses ' " Christmas Wrapping " sung by Morris , and the Band Aid fundraiser " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " performed by New Directions . The filming of this last piece , shot on Thanksgiving eve , involved " lots of children " . All proceeds from the cast 's version of " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " will go to the Band Aid Trust Charity .
In an interview with Jimmy Kimmel , Morrison revealed that the episode " features a Christmas special within the episode that 's a throwback and a tribute to the Star Wars Holiday Special and the Judy Garland Christmas Special " , which are " combined in a way " . Lucasfilm Ltd. gave permission for Glee to use the Star Wars character Chewbacca for the sequence ; the actor who currently plays Chewbacca was flown in for a day of filming , though " he doesn 't sing " in the episode .
The episode serves as the mid @-@ season finale . Before the third season started , co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk announced that it would be structured as two " mini @-@ seasons " that mimic school semesters , and this episode ends the fall semester . Filming began on November 10 , 2011 , while the eighth episode , " Hold on to Sixteen " was still shooting ; they continued in parallel through November 21 , 2011 , when episode eight completed filming . " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " completed filming on November 29 , 2011 . Recurring guest stars that appear in the episode are New Directions members Rory Flanagan ( McGinty ) and Sam Evans ( Overstreet ) .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Extraordinary Merry Christmas " was first broadcast on December 13 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It received a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 7 @.@ 13 million American viewers during its initial airing , with an identical rating / share and only marginally higher audience compared to the 7 @.@ 11 million viewers of the previous episode , " Hold On to Sixteen " , which was broadcast on December 6 , 2011 . The episode was broadcast that same evening in Canada , where 1 @.@ 46 million viewers watched the episode , the lowest number of viewers for the third season to that point . It was the thirteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down two slots and over 9 % from the 1 @.@ 61 million viewers who watched " Hold On to Sixteen " the previous week .
Viewership increased in the United Kingdom , though it declined in Australia . In the United Kingdom , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " was watched on Sky1 two days later by 952 @,@ 000 viewers , growing over 9 % from " Hold On to Sixteen " the week before , when 869 @,@ 000 viewers were watching . In Australia , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " was broadcast on February 10 , 2012 . It was watched by 481 @,@ 000 viewers , the lowest of the third season thus far , and Glee was the fifteenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from thirteenth the week before . The viewership was down over 15 % from the previous episode , " Hold On to Sixteen " , which was seen by 567 @,@ 000 viewers .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Critics were polarized in their reactions to the episode , though most seemed to agree that it was , as The Washington Post 's Jen Chaney put it , " heavy on holiday music and exceedingly light on plot " . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal called it a " jumbled mess " and BuddyTV 's John Kubicek a " total mess " , though the latter also characterized it as " absurdly entertaining " . Kevin P. Sullivan of MTV said it was " one of the most confusing episodes of Glee ever " . TV Guide 's reviewing team of Denise Martin and Kate Stanhope described it as " oddly mesmerizing , hilarious and kinda weird , even for Glee " , and Amy Reiter of The Los Angeles Times wrote that " chipper and the sad were in perfect balance and the kitsch factor was high " .
Several reviewers approved of the black @-@ and @-@ white television special that took up half of the episode . Indeed , most of these would rather the episode had consisted entirely of the special : IGN 's Robert Canning regretted that " the good stuff " was bookended with " inconsequential and awkward real world stories " , and Erica Futterman of Rolling Stone " would have preferred " the whole episode to be the show @-@ within @-@ a @-@ show . The Atlantic 's Kevin Fallon called the middle segments " a love letter to the Judy Garland specials it honored " and said it was a " bold move " for a series with mainstream youth appeal , and Rae Votta of Billboard thought the " homage was a shining example of what Glee can do when given the leeway to be strange and different " , and was another who wished it could have run the entire episode . Kubicek , on the other hand , was left cold by the " utterly pointless and plotless Christmas special " , and Flandez called the acting during it " haphazard " . The Huffington Post 's Crystal Bell said it was " just as weird as it sounds " , but she , like Fallon , described the special as a " bold move " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club pointed out that while it was a " pitch @-@ perfect parody " of the Judy Garland and Star Wars specials , the inherent problem is that the originals were " already pretty awful " , so that to be " an accurate parody , Glee has to be awful " .
Rachel 's characterization , especially her Christmas greed even though she is Jewish , was singled out for criticism in many reviews . VanDerWerff wrote that the episode " hinged around Rachel being really excited about what she was going to get for Christmas , even though she 's Jewish " , and her end @-@ of episode shout of " Happy Hanukah " a " last minute patch job " to " stay true to the characters as they were at one time " . Sullivan also discussed her characterization and noted that she was " a character who makes a point of her Jewish heritage often " . He added , " she was basically horrible and played against character the entire episode , so she could eventually realize that she was awful and change her ways . " Bell criticized Rachel 's list of gifts , such as " spray tan and teeth whitening " , as " back to square one " after her nose @-@ job storyline in the second season . Finn 's contribution of a charity pig in Jewish Rachel 's honor was deemed " wrong on at least two levels " by Chaney .
A few reviewers were pleased by the new friendship between Rory and Sam . Kubicek said it was " officially my favorite thing from the entire third season of Glee " , and Bell approved , though she said " the writers don 't know how to use " Rory , and was disappointed that his brotherly relationship with Finn had " fizzled " . VanDerWerff singled out Rory 's reading from the bible , which was , as Canning phrased it , " ripped from A Charlie Brown Christmas " when Linus reads the same passage , as one that " irks " him most , " because it takes a perfectly beautiful little moment from a nearly perfect TV special " and makes it a " cutaway gag " .
Sue 's sudden change of behavior in this episode caused Kubicek to ask when she had become " the moral compass on this show " , and Bell wondered , " how does Ryan Murphy expect us to like a character that continually changes " , given that whenever she seems to go " in a new direction , she heads back to her same glee club @-@ hating ways " . Kubicek also made that point that while " Sam and Quinn seemingly did the right thing by choosing the shelter over the special " , the others did eventually show up , which " muddled " the message .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The reviewers generally praised the music in the episode . Votta wrote that " musically this episode was one of the season 's overall strongest " , though Flandez made reference to the " humdrum holiday songs " . Sullivan pointed out that it was " about the songs and only the songs " , and Kubicek felt it was a " blatant " attempt to sell Christmas albums . Chaney noted that the opening number , " All I Want for Christmas Is You " , " sounded much more vibrant and fresh with Mercedes " on lead , Futterman called it " utterly joyful " , and it was the favorite song of the episode for Martin and Stanhope . Votta declared that " Amber Riley shines throughout the episode , but none more than here where she commands attention " , and Sullivan called it a " nice rendition " that was nevertheless presented with " some incredibly awkward cuts from the original song " .
Entertainment Weekly 's Abby West wrote that " Rory 's crooning take " of " Blue Christmas " was " smooth and lovely " , and gave it a " B + " , and Flandez agreed with the in @-@ show assessment that it was " mournfully beautiful " . Futterman said that the song " perfectly suits his vocals " , but was unimpressed with Rory " standing awkwardly " through the song ; Michael Slezak of TVLine noted the static staging and filming of the number and gave it a " C " , and while Chaney said he sang it " just fine " , she said he " didn 't sell it " , and gave it a " C + " . Rachel 's rendition of " River " also received divergent assessments . Chaney and Slezak both gave it an " A − " : the former remarked that she " knows how to make the emotion in a song soar " , and the latter said " damn if she didn 't sound amazing " , though he pointed out the incongruity of Rachel having just stated after Rory 's song that uptempo and jolly is the way to go , only to sing this song , which is anything but . VanDerWerff agreed that there was " no good reason for Rachel to sing it " , and Flandez called it a " forgettable version " . Futterman 's conclusion was that " it feels a little phoned in and doesn 't emotionally connect " .
The original song for which the episode is named , " Extraordinary Merry Christmas " , received mostly decent marks from reviewers : Slezak gave it a " B " and called it " fun but slight " , and Sullivan said it was " okay , which is high praise for a " Glee " original " . Bell noted that " Blaine and Rachel sound great together " , and Martin and Stanhope also praised their " spirited performances " , though they said the song sounded " very generic " . Kubicek was harsher , and wrote that it was an " embarrassingly awful original song " , but while Votta characterized it as " a weird techno jumble " , she also called it " undeniably catchy " .
The opening number of the black @-@ and @-@ white " special " , " Let It Snow " featuring Blaine and Kurt , garnered the most praise . Slezak gave it an " A " and described it as a " jazzy , uptempo take on the seasonal classic with gorgeous harmonies and retro dancing " , and said it rivaled their Christmas duet from 2010 , " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " . While Vicki Hyman of The Star @-@ Ledger enjoyed the number , she preferred the previous year 's offering ; Flandez called " Let It Snow " an " admirable job " . Futterman characterized it as " both effortless and full of seasonal spirit " , and Votta said it was " a spot @-@ on tribute to male duets of yesteryear with that knowing undercurrent of romance even when it 's not explicit " . Chaney gave it an " A " , but she wondered at the inclusion of the next song , " My Favorite Things " , since it " technically isn 't a holiday song " . The number was also not as well received as many of the others : Bell described it as taking " a turn for the worse " , Hyman noted that it " didn 't do too much for me " , and Kubicek said it " seemed to drag on and on and on with no real purpose " . However , West called it a " wonderful effort " and Slezak wrote that " a little Rodgers and Hammerstein is always welcome at any party " ; both reviewers gave the performance a " B + " .
Finn and Puck 's rendition of " Santa Claus Is Coming to Town " was received tepidly . Votta referred to it as " mildly rocking " , and Slezak and Chaney both gave it a " B − " : the former said it was " fun " but " not deeply exciting " and the latter called it " competent " but " unmemorable " . Martin and Stanhope wrote that it " still packs a cheesy and powerful Christmas punch " ; it was their third favorite number . Their second favorite was the next number , " Christmas Wrapping " , sung by Brittany , which Flandez described as " quite good " and Hyman said " could only have been improved by a little more Mike Chang dancing " . VanDerWerff credited Morris with being " a gifted mimic when singing " though he called the performance " listless " , and Slezak , who gave the song an " A − " , wrote " I was just bummed that the song got cut short before my favorite line : ' A & P has provided me with the world 's smallest turkey . ' "
A number of reviewers had a problem with " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " being set in a homeless shelter ; both Hyman and West called it an " odd choice " , and Slezak said he " struggled " with the location . Chaney called the lyrics " condescending " , and found the juxtaposition of the singers ' smiling faces and the phrase " clanging chimes of doom " to be " weird " . The song itself was given good marks : Hyman called it the episode 's " best performance " because " they each brought something special to it " , and Futterman said that New Directions " channels the emotion of the original for a fitting vocal cap to the night " . Both Slezak and West gave it a " B + " , and the former declared that " they sang the bejeezus out of it " .
= = = Chart history = = =
Of the eight cover versions and one original song that were released as singles , one cover debuted on US and Canadian top 100 charts : " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " debuted in the US at number ninety @-@ two on the Billboard Hot 100 , and at number eighty @-@ five on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 . Glee : The Music , The Christmas Album Volume 2 , which had been released in the US on November 15 , 2011 , was the source of eight of the nine songs — only " My Favorite Things " was not included on that album — and it moved up to number thirteen on the Billboard 200 that same week , its fifth on that chart , having been number nineteen the previous week , though it originally debuted at number six .
= Prehistoric Orkney =
Prehistoric Orkney refers to a period in the human occupation of the Orkney archipelago of Scotland that was the latter part of these islands ' prehistory . The period of prehistory prior to occupation by the genus Homo is part of the geology of Scotland . Although some written records refer to Orkney during the Roman invasions of Scotland , prehistory in northern Scotland does not end until the commencement of the Early Historic Period around AD 600 .
There are numerous important prehistoric remains in Orkney , especially from the Neolithic period , four of which form a World Heritage Site . There are diverse reasons for the abundance of the archaeological record . The sandstone bedrock provides easily workable stone materials and the wind @-@ blown sands have helped preserve several sites . The relative lack of industrialisation and low incidence of ploughing also have helped to preserve these ancient monuments . Local tradition hints at both a fear and veneration of these ancient structures ( perhaps inherited from the Norse period of occupation ) that may have helped to retain their structural integrity .
Prehistory is conventionally divided into a number of shorter periods but differentiating these various eras of human history is a complex task – their boundaries are uncertain and the changes between them are gradual . The Paleolithic lasted until the retreat of the ice , the Mesolithic until the adoption of farming and the Neolithic until metalworking commenced . A number of the sites span long periods of time and in particular the distinctions between the Neolithic and the later periods are not clear cut . The extraordinary wealth of structures from the Neolithic is not matched either by the early periods , for which the evidence of human occupation is sparse or non @-@ existent , or the later Bronze Age which provides a relative dearth of evidence . The subsequent Iron Age supported a return to monumental building , especially of brochs .
Formal excavations were first recorded in the late 18th century and as they proceeded an understanding of the structures involved progressed from little more than folklore to modern archaeological science . The sites discussed are found on the Orkney Mainland unless otherwise stated .
= = Paleolithic = =
No traces have yet been found in Scotland of either a Neanderthal presence or of Homo sapiens during the Pleistocene interglacials . The first indications of humans occur only after the ice retreated in the 11th millennium BC and the current Flandrian interglacial began . Since that time the landscape of Orkney has been altered by both human and natural forces . Initially , sea levels were lower than at present due to the large volume of ice that remained . This meant that the Orkney islands may have been attached to the mainland , as was the present @-@ day island of Great Britain to Continental Europe . Much of the North Sea basin was also dry land until after 4000 BC . This would have made travel to northern Scotland relatively easy for early human settlers . The subsequent isostatic rise of land makes estimating post @-@ glacial coastlines a complex task .
= = Mesolithic = =
The very limited archaeological record provides scant evidence of Mesolithic life in Orkney in particular and Scotland north of Inverness in general . " Lithic scatter " sites at Seatter , South Ettit , Wideford Hill , Valdigar and Loch of Stenness have produced small polished stone tools and chippings . A charred hazelnut shell , recovered during the excavations at Longhowe in Tankerness in 2007 , has been dated to 6820 @-@ 6660 BC . However , there is no evidence to suggest whether or not these sites were in year @-@ round occupation and no Mesolithic burial sites have been uncovered anywhere in Scotland to date .
A recently excavated site on Stronsay has produced a thousand pieces of flint and what may be evidence of a temporary camp . With a tentative dating of 7000 BC or older it may prove to be the oldest settlement site found so far on Orkney .
About 6000 BC the Storegga Slides of the coast of Norway created a tsunami that reached 25 metres ( 82 ft ) above normal high tides in places . Evidence of widespread coastal inundations from a wave 8 metres ( 26 ft ) high has been found as far south as Fife and the impact on shore @-@ dwelling mesolithic societies in Orkney would have been considerable .
= = Neolithic = =
The assemblage of monumental Neolithic structures in Orkney is without parallel in the United Kingdom and on the Orkney Mainland provides an entire landscape of features from this period . During this time , complex new societies came to the fore that were a radical departure from the earlier hunter @-@ gatherers and which were capable of creating substantial structures . The Neolithic in Scotland lasted from approximately 4000 to 2200 BC and Orkney as a whole has nearly 3 @,@ 000 identified Neolithic sites all told . British archaeologists have often interpreted this era as having two distinct phases ; the Earlier Neolithic dominated by regional styles of pottery and architecture followed by a relatively abrupt change into the Later Neolithic characterised by new traditions found throughout the British Isles that incorporate structures on a grander scale . In the Orcadian context , there are definite developments during the Neolithic , but the changes are gradual and tend to build on earlier ideas rather than appearing to form two distinct periods .
The great Orcadian Neolithic monuments were constructed contemporaneously with the emergence of the Ancient Egyptian culture , more than 500 years before the building of the Great Pyramid of Giza and almost a millennium before the sarsen stones of Stonehenge were erected . At one time it was believed that this flowering of culture was essentially peripheral and that its origins were to be found to the south on mainland Great Britain . However , recently discovered evidence shows that Orkney was the starting place for much of the megalithic culture , including styles of architecture and pottery , that developed much later in the southern British Isles .
= = = Early dwellings and chambered cairns = = =
Knap of Howar Neolithic farmstead is probably the oldest preserved house in northern Europe . Situated on the island of Papa Westray ( which may have been combined with nearby Westray in the early Neolithic ) , the farmstead consists of two adjacent rounded rectangular thick @-@ walled buildings with low doorways linked by a passageway . This structure was inhabited for 900 years from 3700 BC but was evidently built on the site of an even older settlement . Unstan ware pottery pieces were found on the site , which was only discovered in the 1920s when this part of the coastline was exposed by gales and tides .
The Barnhouse Settlement is a cluster of at least fifteen buildings , including one that may have been used for communal gatherings , occupied between 3200 @-@ 2950 BC . The design of the houses , which were built above ground level , includes a central hearth , recessed box beds and stone dressers . There is a network of stone drains leading to a common ditch . Pottery of the grooved ware type , flints and stone tools have been found , as well as three flakes of pitchstone thought to have come from the Isle of Arran .
Skara Brae consists of ten clustered houses and is northern Europe 's most complete Neolithic village . Occupied between 3100 – 2500 the houses are similar to those at Barnhouse , but they are linked by common passages and were built into a large midden containing ash , bones , shells , stone and organic waste . Only the roofs , which were probably supported by timber or whalebone , would have been visible from the outside . In each case the stone dressers were erected so that they dominated the view on entering the house through the low doors and there are elaborate carvings of unknown meaning on some of the stones in the houses and passages . A variety of bone beads , pins and pendants and four carved stone balls were also discovered at the site , which was only revealed after a storm in the winter of 1850 ripped away the grass from a covering sand dune . The existing ruins mostly belong to a secondary phase of building with the foundations of the first phase largely hidden from view .
There are two main types of chambered cairn on these islands : the Orkney / Cromarty type with a burial chamber approached through a low passage and usually divided into " stalls " by upright stone slabs , and the Maeshowe type ( see below ) , which is a later development with a cruciform layout and an elongated passage .
The island of Rousay has a substantial number of prehistoric sites ( see also below ) , including fifteen of such tombs , resulting it becoming known as the " Egypt of the north " . Midhowe Chambered Cairn on the western shore of the island is the finest example . The exterior walls of this large stone burial mound survive to well over head @-@ height and the constituent stones are arranged in a herring bone pattern . The original interior chambers were simple in style and dived into two or three stalls , but were later enlarged to include twelve separate compartments set along a 23 metres ( 75 ft ) passageway . There are other substantial tombs at Blackhammer , Taversoe Tuick , and Yarso . Enlargement and elaboration of burial cairns as the Neolithic progressed is a theme found throughout Scotland , and the move from simple and private tombs to larger structures , some with entrances apparently designed for public gatherings may also be linked to the emergence of landscape @-@ scale ceremonial complexes . Other chambered tombs of significance include those at Unstan and Bookan on the Mainland and Holm of Papa Westray .
Links of Noltland , a site on the north coast of the island of Westray has been excavated since the 1980s . In 2009 a lozenge @-@ shaped figurine was discovered , which may have been carved 2500 @-@ 3000 BC and is believed to be the earliest representation of a human face ever found in Scotland . The face has two dots for eyes , heavy brows and an oblong nose and a pattern of hatches on the body could represent clothing . Archaeologist Richard Strachan described it as a find of " astonishing rarity " .
= = = The Heart of Neolithic Orkney = = =
Skara Brae , Maeshowe , the Ring of Brodgar and the Stones of Stenness together form the Heart of Neolithic Orkney UNESCO World Heritage Site in the western part of the Orkney Mainland and which was inscribed in 1999 . This small area has provided a rich archaeological heritage in a location that is relatively remote from both the main centres of population in Scotland and from more densely populated parts of Europe . However , it would be a mistake to imagine that because Orkney is so placed today that this was always so . There is a substantial amount of evidence that suggests that a variety of the smaller islands in the British Isles developed an advanced society in the Neolithic that took several centuries longer to develop on the mainland of Great Britain . It is also clear that whilst the flow of ideas and technologies in Britain has often been from the south to the north , that at this time , it is evident that Orkney played a significant role in the development of British Neolithic culture .
There is also the possibility that tribal differences were part of the Neolithic cultural landscape . Unstan Ware pottery is associated with small settlements like Knap of Howar , and stalled tombs such as Midhowe . Grooved Ware pottery on the other hand tends to be associated with larger ' village ' settlements like Skara Brae and Barnhouse , and with Maes Howe style tombs .
= = = = Maeshowe = = = =
Dating from about 3000 BC , Maeshowe is a large chambered cairn and passage grave . " Howe " as an element in a name , from the Old Norse word haugr meaning mound or barrow , is common throughout Orkney . The grass mound hides a complex of passages and chambers built of carefully crafted slabs of sandstone that in scale and accomplishment has few equals in prehistoric Europe . It is aligned so that the rear wall
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, which serves as incipit for the narrative of the life of Christ .
In the Book of Kells , the Chi Rho monogram has grown to consume the entire page . The letter chi dominates the page with one arm swooping across the majority of the page . The letter rho is snuggled underneath the arms of the chi . Both letters are divided into compartments which are lavishly decorated with knot work and other patterns . The background is likewise awash in a mass of swirling and knotted decoration . Within this mass of decoration are hidden animals and insects . Three angels arise from one of the cross arms of the chi . This miniature is the largest and most lavish extant Chi Rho monogram in any Insular Gospel Books and is the culmination of a tradition that started with the Book of Durrow .
The Book of Kells contains two other full @-@ page miniatures , which illustrate episodes from the Passion story . The text of Matthew is illustrated with a full @-@ page illumination of the Arrest of Christ ( folio 114r ) . Jesus is shown beneath a stylised arcade while being held by two much smaller figures . In the text of Luke , there is a full sized miniature of the Temptation of Christ ( folio 202v ) . Christ is shown from the waist up on top of the Temple . To his right is a crowd of people , perhaps representing his disciples . To his left and below him is a black figure of Satan . Above him hover two angels .
The verso of the folio containing the Arrest of Christ contains a full page of decorated text which begins " Tunc dicit illis " . Facing the miniature of the Temptation is another full page of decorated text ( folio 203r " Iesus autem plenus " ) . In addition to this page , five other full pages also receive elaborate treatment . In Matthew , there is one other full @-@ page treatment ( folio 124r , " Tunc crucifixerant Xpi cum eo duos latrones " ) . In the Gospel of Mark , there are also two pages of decorated text ( folio 183r , " Erat autem hora tercia " , and folio 187v , " [ Et Dominus ] quidem [ Iesus ] postquam " ) . The Gospel of Luke contains two pages of fully decorated text ( folio 188v , " Fuit in diebus Herodis " , and folio 285r , " Una autem sabbati valde " ) . Although these texts do not have miniatures associated with them , it is probable that miniatures were planned to accompany each of these texts and have either been lost or were never completed . There is no surviving full page of text in the Gospel of John other than the Incipit . However , in the other three Gospels , all the full pages of decorated text , except for folio 188c , which begins the Nativity narration , occur within the Passion narrative . However , since the missing folios of John contain the Passion narrative , it is likely that John contained full pages of decorated text that have been lost .
The decoration of the book is not limited to the major pages . Scattered through the text are decorated initials and small figures of animals and humans often twisted and tied into complicated knots . Many significant texts , such as the Pater Noster have decorated initials . The page containing text of the Beatitudes in Matthew ( folio 40v ) has a large miniature along the left margin of the page in which the letter B which begins each line is linked into an ornate chain . The genealogy of Christ found in the Gospel of Luke ( folio 200r ) contains a similar miniature in which the word qui is repeatedly linked along the left margin . Many of the small animals scattered throughout the text serve to mark a " turn @-@ in @-@ the @-@ path " ( that is , a place where a line is finished in a space above or below the original line ) . Many other animals serve to fill spaces left at the end of lines . No two of these designs are the same . No earlier surviving manuscript has this massive amount of decoration .
The decorations are all high quality and often highly complex . In one decoration , which occupies a one @-@ inch square piece of a page , there are 158 complex interlacements of white ribbon with a black border on either side . Some decorations can only be fully seen with magnifying glasses , although lenses of the required power are not known to have been available until hundreds of years after the book 's completion . The complicated knot work and interweaving found in Kells and related manuscripts have many parallels in the metalwork and stone carving of the period . Since their gradual rediscovery from the 19th century on , these designs have also had an enduring popularity . Many of these motifs are used today in popular art including jewellery and tattoos .
= = Purpose = =
The book had a sacramental rather than educational purpose . Such a large , lavish Gospel would have been left on the high altar of the church and removed only for the reading of the Gospel during Mass , with the reader probably reciting from memory more than reading the text . It is significant that the Chronicles of Ulster state the book was stolen from the sacristy , where the vessels and other accoutrements of the Mass were stored , rather than from the monastic library . Its design seems to take this purpose in mind ; that is , the book was produced with appearance taking precedence over practicality . There are numerous uncorrected mistakes in the text . Lines were often completed in a blank space in the line above . The chapter headings that were necessary to make the canon tables usable were not inserted into the margins of the page . In general , nothing was done to disrupt the look of the page : aesthetics were given priority over utility .
= = In film = =
The 2009 animated film The Secret of Kells tells a fictional story of the creation of the Book of Kells by an elderly monk Aidan and his young apprentice Brendan , who struggle to work on the manuscript in the face of destructive Viking raids . It was directed by Tomm Moore and nominated for the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature in 2009 . It was praised for sequences of animation drawing from the illuminated pages .
= Harry Toulmin ( Unitarian minister ) =
Harry Toulmin ( sometimes called Henry Toulmin ) ( April 7 , 1766 – November 11 , 1823 ) was a Unitarian minister and politician . The son of noted Dissenting minister Joshua Toulmin , Toulmin fled his native England for the United States after he and his followers were persecuted for their beliefs . He arrived in Virginia in 1793 , and aided by recommendations from Thomas Jefferson and James Monroe , he was chosen president of Transylvania Seminary ( now Transylvania University ) in Lexington , Kentucky . His Unitarian views , however , offended many of the orthodox Presbyterian members of Transylvania 's board of regents , and Toulmin resigned after two years .
Shortly after his resignation , Toulmin was appointed Secretary of State of Kentucky by Governor James Garrard . He influenced Garrard – a Baptist minister – to adopt some doctrines of Socinianism , for which he was expelled from the local Baptist association , ending his ministry . As Secretary of State , Toulmin endorsed the Kentucky Resolutions and revised the state 's code of laws in conjunction with Attorney General James Blair . After the expiration of his term as Secretary of State in 1804 , Thomas Jefferson appointed him Superior Court Judge for the Tombigbee District of the Mississippi Territory . He was the first U.S. district judge to hold court on Alabama soil . As the highest @-@ ranking authority in the large territory , he tried to prevent residents in his jurisdiction from conducting raids against the Spanish in West Florida and from participating in the Creek War between two rival factions of Creek Indians . When the state of Alabama was formed from part of Toulmin 's district , he helped write the new state 's constitution and was elected to the state legislature . Again , he was asked to compile a digest of the region 's laws , which he completed in 1823 .
Toulmin died in Washington County , Alabama on November 11 , 1823 . Because of his work compiling the laws of several states , later historians called him the " frontier Justinian " . His grandson , Harry Theophilus Toulmin was appointed district judge for the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Alabama by President Grover Cleveland in 1886 . In 2005 , Toulmin was inducted into the Alabama Lawyer 's Hall of Fame , and in December 2009 he was honored with the installation of a plaque in front of the Baldwin County , Alabama , courthouse .
= = Early life and family = =
Toulmin was born April 7 , 1766 , in Taunton , Somersetshire , England . His parents were Joshua Toulmin , a noted Dissenting minister , and his wife Jane ( Smith ) Toulmin . He received little formal education , but frequently read books in his mother 's bookstore and benefited from listening to conversations between his father and other noted ministers such as Joseph Priestley and Theophilus Lindsey . After attending Hoxton Academy and studying under Thomas Barnes and William Hawes , he followed his father into the ministry in 1786 .
During his ministry in England , Toulmin served two Dissenting congregations in Lancashire . From 1786 to 1788 , he was pastor of a church in Monton , and from 1787 to 1793 , he served another congregation at Chowbent Chapel in Atherton . He soon had nearly 1 @,@ 000 followers , Many of his followers supported the French Revolution , attracting the attention of anti @-@ dissenting partisans in England . A group of these partisans once took advantage of Toulmin 's absence to threaten his house , necessitating his swift return to protect his family . Upon arriving , he was able to break up the mob via diplomacy alone .
About 1787 , Toulmin married Ann Tremlett . The couple had nine children , five of whom survived infancy . In 1808 , one of these children , Lucinda Jane , married Colonel Daniel Garrard , the son of James Garrard , the second governor of Kentucky . After the death of Toulmin 's first wife , he married Martha Johnson in 1812 . They had one child together .
= = Resettlement in Kentucky = =
Spurred by the persecution endured by his followers and himself , in 1792 Toulmin published an anonymous pamphlet entitled " Thoughts on Emigration " , containing his thoughts on members of the Dissenter movement relocating to another country . The following year , his congregants raised enough money to send him to the United States to explore the possibility of relocating there . Dr. Priestly gave him letters of introduction to Thomas Jefferson and James Madison to present on his arrival . During his two @-@ month voyage from England to Norfolk , Virginia , Toulmin kept a diary , which was later published under the title The Western Country in 1793 ; Reports on Kentucky and Virginia .
Following his arrival in the United States , Toulmin wrote letters back to England , giving potential immigrants information they would need to know for their journey ; these letters were published in the local Monthly Magazine . The following year , he published A Description of Kentucky , a pamphlet encouraging emigration from Europe to Kentucky .
After seeing Toulmin 's letters of recommendation from Jefferson and Madison , the board of trustees of Transylvania Seminary ( now Transylvania University ) in Lexington , Kentucky , elected him president of the seminary in February 1794 . He was the first president of the seminary who was not a Presbyterian , and his election was effected when the Baptist and more liberal members of the board united against the more conservative Presbyterian members . His Unitarian views offended many of the conservative board members , and at their insistence , the Kentucky General Assembly passed legislation requiring a unanimous vote of the board of regents to re @-@ elect the seminary 's president . Toulmin resigned in protest in April 1796 .
Shortly after Toulmin 's resignation , James Garrard , a Baptist minister who had supported Toulmin as a trustee of Transylvania , was elected governor of Kentucky . At first , Garrard elected to re @-@ appoint sitting Secretary of State James Brown , but when Brown retired in October 1796 , Garrard appointed Toulmin as his replacement . He served in this capacity from 1796 to 1804 , spanning both of Garrard 's consecutive terms as governor . As a result of Garrard 's relationship with Toulmin , he began to accept some tenets of Unitarianism , specifically the doctrines of Socinianism . By 1802 , Garrard and his associate Augustine Eastin had not only adopted these beliefs , but had indoctrinated their Baptist congregations with them as well . The Elkhorn Baptist Association condemned Garrard and Eastin 's beliefs as heretical and tried to persuade the two men to abandon them . When that effort failed , the Association ceased correspondence and association with both men . This event ended Garrard 's ministry and his association with the Baptist church .
As Secretary of State , Toulmin was signatory to the Kentucky Resolutions , the legislature 's official protest of the Alien and Sedition Acts , which he regarded as an " unwarranted government intrusion into free thought , free association , and free speech " . In 1801 , he published The Magistrate 's Assistant , a guide to the state 's magisterial laws . He also promoted public awareness of governmental activity by compiling and publishing the proceedings of the General Assembly as The Public Acts of the General Assembly . Government officials chose Toulmin and state Attorney General James Blair to revise the state 's code of laws . The results of their work – a three @-@ volume tome entitled Review of the Criminal Law of Kentucky – was published in 1806 .
Near the end of Governor Garrard 's term , he appointed Toulmin registrar of the state land office . Toulmin was the first of six candidates that the state senate rejected in a bitter showdown between Garrard and the legislature . The seventh candidate , John Adair was finally confirmed by the senate .
= = Life in Alabama = =
Toulmin supported President Thomas Jefferson 's re @-@ election bid in 1804 . Following his victory , Jefferson appointed Toulmin to succeed Ephraim Kirby as Superior Court Judge for the Tombigbee District of the Mississippi Territory in 1804 . Because Kirby only served six months and never held court in the present @-@ day state of Alabama , Toulmin is regarded as the first U.S. federal judge on Alabama soil .
Toulmin and his family relocated to Fort Stoddert , just north of the border between the United States and the Spanish territory of West Florida . Toulmin 's district was large – by his estimate , 340 miles long and 330 miles wide – and he served as minister , physician , judge , postmaster , and diplomat for the area . He published both the Mississippi Magistrate 's Guide and The Laws of Mississippi in 1807 .
The residents of Tombigbee District objected to Spanish control of Mobile Bay , which prevented them from accessing the Mississippi River and the port of New Orleans . In 1805 , he formally petitioned Congress to intervene , but they did not . Although he personally favored U.S. annexation of West Florida , he defended it as an independent nation until the annexation occurred . In 1807 , he arrested former Vice @-@ President Aaron Burr ; Burr had been accused of conspiring to create an independent state in the Southwest that would belong to neither the U.S. nor Spain . In 1810 , he arrested Reuben Kemper and two other members of a group styled the " Mobile Society " following an unsuccessful attempt to " liberate " Mobile and Pensacola . Toulmin 's actions were seen as supportive of Spain , and a Baldwin County grand jury charged him with acting on behalf of Spain . A congressional investigation cleared him of any wrongdoing in May 1812 . Toulmin was less successful in preventing residents of his district from entering the Creek War between to rival factions of Creek Indians .
In 1817 , Alabama Territory was formed from part of Mississippi Territory . When the state of Alabama was created from part of the Tombigbee District in 1819 , Toulmin was chosen to represent Baldwin County at the state 's constitutional convention in July 1819 . He served on the Committee of Fifteen that drafted the first Constitution of Alabama . The document was influenced by the Kentucky Constitution of 1800 , which contained more democratic provisions than some of the older state constitutions .
After the constitutional convention , he was elected to the Alabama Legislature . In 1821 , his fellow legislators chose him to write a digest of the state 's laws . The final product , Digest of the Laws of the State of Alabama , was published in 1823 . It comprised over 1 @,@ 000 pages and contained the laws of Mississippi and Alabama territories as well as the acts passed by the Alabama Legislature to date .
Toulmin maintained a cotton plantation in Washington County , Alabama . Although he was opposed to slavery when initially arriving in the United States , and he advocated for provisions in the Alabama Constitution that permitted the eventual emancipation of slaves , nevertheless he eventually came to be a slave owner himself . In his will , he provided for one of his slaves to be freed , deeming him " fit for freedom which few negroes are . "
= = Death and legacy = =
Toulmin died on his plantation on November 11 , 1823 . He is presumed to have been buried on his plantation , but the exact location of his grave is unknown . Because of his work in codifying the laws of several states and territories , later literary scholars referred to Toulmin as the " frontier Justinian " , an allusion to Byzantine Emperor Justinian I , who was known for codifying the empire 's laws .
One of Toulmin 's sons became a prominent state legislator in Alabama , and his grandson , Harry Theophilus Toulmin was appointed district judge for the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of Alabama by President Grover Cleveland in 1886 .
The original Judge Toulmin was elected to the Alabama Lawyer 's Hall of Fame in 2005 . A plaque honoring Toulmin was placed in front of the Baldwin County , Alabama , courthouse in December 2009 .
= = Works published by Harry Toulmin = =
Toulmin , Harry ( 1806 ) . The American Attorney 's Pocket Book : Being a Collection from the Best Authorities of Approved Precedents in Conveyancing : Interspersed with Various Legal Provisions from the Statutes of Several of the United States . Mathew Carey .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1806 ) . The American Public Prosecutor 's Assistant : Being a Collection of Precedents in Criminal Prosecutions , More Immediately Founded on the Common Law , and of the Statutes of Kentucky , but Generally Applicable to the Laws of the Several States of America . W. Hunter .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1806 ) . The Clerk 's Magazine and American Conveyancer 's Assistant : Being a Collection Adopted to the United States : of the Most Approved Precedents of Affidavits , Agreements and Covenants [ etc . ] Mathew Carey .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1802 ) . A Collection of All the Public and Permanent Acts of the General Assembly of Kentucky Which are Now in Force . W. Hunter .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1823 ) . A Digest of the Laws of the State of Alabama : containing the statutes and resolutions in force at the end of the General Assembly in January , 1823 : to which is added , an appendix containing the Declaration of Independence , the Constitution of the United States , the Act Authorizing the People of Alabama to Form a Constitution and State Government and the constitution of the State of Alabama : with a copious index . Ginn & Curtis .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1807 ) . The Magistrate 's Assistant : Being an Alphabetical Illustration of Sundry Legal Principles and Usages , Accompanied with a Variety of Necessary Forms : Compiled for the Use of the Justices of the Peace , in the Mississippi Territory . Samuel Terrell .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1817 ) . Petition from the Citizens of the Counties of Clarke , Monroe , Washington , Mobile , and Baldwin , in the Alabama Territory . October 1817 : December 30 , 1817 . Referred to the Select Committee , Appointed on the 17th Instant , on a Memorial of the Mississippi Convention , Relating to an Extension of the Limits of that State . E. De Krafft .
Toulmin , Harry ; James Blair ( 1804 ) . A Review of the Criminal Law of the Commonwealth of Kentucky . W. Hunter .
Toulmin , Harry ( 1807 ) . The Statutes of the Mississippi Territory , Revised and Digested by the Authority of the General Assembly . Samuel Terrell .
= Seabird =
Seabirds ( also known as marine birds ) are birds that are adapted to life within the marine environment . While seabirds vary greatly in lifestyle , behaviour and physiology , they often exhibit striking convergent evolution , as the same environmental problems and feeding niches have resulted in similar adaptations . The first seabirds evolved in the Cretaceous period , and modern seabird families emerged in the Paleogene .
In general , seabirds live longer , breed later and have fewer young than other birds do , but they invest a great deal of time in their young . Most species nest in colonies , which can vary in size from a few dozen birds to millions . Many species are famous for undertaking long annual migrations , crossing the equator or circumnavigating the Earth in some cases . They feed both at the ocean 's surface and below it , and even feed on each other . Seabirds can be highly pelagic , coastal , or in some cases spend a part of the year away from the sea entirely .
Seabirds and humans have a long history together : they have provided food to hunters , guided fishermen to fishing stocks and led sailors to land . Many species are currently threatened by human activities , and conservation efforts are under way .
= = Classification of seabirds = =
There exists no single definition of which groups , families and species are seabirds , and most definitions are in some way arbitrary . In the words of two seabird scientists , " The one common characteristic that all seabirds share is that they feed in saltwater ; but , as seems to be true with any statement in biology , some do not . " However , by convention all of the Sphenisciformes and Procellariiformes , all of the Pelecaniformes except the darters , and some of the Charadriiformes ( the skuas , gulls , terns , auks and skimmers ) are classified as seabirds . The phalaropes are usually included as well , since although they are waders ( " shorebirds " in North America ) , two of the three species are oceanic for nine months of the year , crossing the equator to feed pelagically .
Loons and grebes , which nest on lakes but winter at sea , are usually categorized as water birds , not seabirds . Although there are a number of sea ducks in the family Anatidae that are truly marine in the winter , by convention they are usually excluded from the seabird grouping . Many waders ( or shorebirds ) and herons are also highly marine , living on the sea 's edge ( coast ) , but are also not treated as seabirds .
= = Evolution and fossil record = =
Seabirds , by virtue of living in a geologically depositional environment ( that is , in the sea where sediments are readily laid down ) , are well represented in the fossil record . They are first known to occur in the Cretaceous period , the earliest being the Hesperornithiformes , like Hesperornis regalis , a flightless loon @-@ like seabird that could dive in a fashion similar to grebes and loons ( using its feet to move underwater ) but had a beak filled with sharp teeth .
While Hesperornis is not thought to have left descendants , the earliest modern seabirds also occurred in the Cretaceous , with a species called Tytthostonyx glauconiticus , which seems allied to the Procellariiformes and Pelecaniformes . In the Paleogene the seas were dominated by early Procellariidae , giant penguins and two extinct families , the Pelagornithidae and the Plotopteridae ( a group of large seabirds that looked like the penguins ) . Modern genera began their wide radiation in the Miocene , although the genus Puffinus ( which includes today 's Manx shearwater and sooty shearwater ) might date back to the Oligocene . The highest diversity of seabirds apparently existed during the Late Miocene and the Pliocene . At the end of the latter , the oceanic food web had undergone a period of upheaval due to extinction of considerable numbers of marine species ; subsequently , the spread of marine mammals seems to have prevented seabirds from reaching their erstwhile diversity .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Adaptations to life at sea = = =
Seabirds have made numerous adaptations to living on and feeding in the sea . Wing morphology has been shaped by the niche an individual species or family has evolved , so that looking at a wing 's shape and loading can tell a scientist about its life feeding behaviour . Longer wings and low wing loading are typical of more pelagic species , while diving species have shorter wings . Species such as the wandering albatross , which forage over huge areas of sea , have a reduced capacity for powered flight and are dependent on a type of gliding called dynamic soaring ( where the wind deflected by waves provides lift ) as well as slope soaring . Seabirds also almost always have webbed feet , to aid movement on the surface as well as assisting diving in some species . The Procellariiformes are unusual among birds in having a strong sense of smell , which is used to find widely distributed food in a vast ocean , and possibly to locate their colonies .
Salt glands are used by seabirds to deal with the salt they ingest by drinking and feeding ( particularly on crustaceans ) , and to help them osmoregulate . The excretions from these glands ( which are positioned in the head of the birds , emerging from the nasal cavity ) are almost pure sodium chloride .
With the exception of the cormorants and some terns , and in common with most other birds , all seabirds have waterproof plumage . However , compared to land birds , they have far more feathers protecting their bodies . This dense plumage is better able to protect the bird from getting wet , and cold is kept out by a dense layer of down feathers . The cormorants possess a layer of unique feathers that retain a smaller layer of air ( compared to other diving birds ) but otherwise soak up water . This allows them to swim without fighting the buoyancy that retaining air in the feathers causes , yet retain enough air to prevent the bird losing excessive heat through contact with water .
The plumage of most seabirds is less colourful than that of land birds , restricted in the main to variations of black , white or grey . A few species sport colourful plumes ( such as the tropicbirds and some penguins ) , but most of the colour in seabirds appears in the bills and legs . The plumage of seabirds is thought in many cases to be for camouflage , both defensive ( the colour of US Navy battleships is the same as that of Antarctic prions , and in both cases it reduces visibility at sea ) and aggressive ( the white underside possessed by many seabirds helps hide them from prey below ) .
= = = Diet and feeding = = =
Seabirds evolved to exploit different food resources in the world 's seas and oceans , and to a great extent , their physiology and behaviour have been shaped by their diet . These evolutionary forces have often caused species in different families and even orders to evolve similar strategies and adaptations to the same problems , leading to remarkable convergent evolution , such as that between auks and penguins . There are four basic feeding strategies , or ecological guilds , for feeding at sea : surface feeding , pursuit diving , plunge diving and predation of higher vertebrates ; within these guilds there are multiple variations on the theme .
= = = = Surface feeding = = = =
Many seabirds feed on the ocean 's surface , as the action of marine currents often concentrates food such as krill , forage fish , squid or other prey items within reach of a dipped head .
Surface feeding itself can be broken up into two different approaches , surface feeding while flying ( for example as practiced by gadfly petrels , frigatebirds and storm petrels ) , and surface feeding while swimming ( examples of which are practiced by fulmars , gulls , many of the shearwaters and gadfly petrels ) . Surface feeders in flight include some of the most acrobatic of seabirds , which either snatch morsels from the water ( as do frigate @-@ birds and some terns ) , or " walk " , pattering and hovering on the water 's surface , as some of the storm @-@ petrels do . Many of these do not ever land in the water , and some , such as the frigatebirds , have difficulty getting airborne again should they do so . Another seabird family that does not land while feeding is the skimmer , which has a unique fishing method : flying along the surface with the lower mandible in the water — this shuts automatically when the bill touches something in the water . The skimmer 's bill reflects its unusual lifestyle , with the lower mandible uniquely being longer than the upper one .
Surface feeders that swim often have unique bills as well , adapted for their specific prey. prions have special bills with filters called lamellae to filter out plankton from mouthfuls of water , and many albatrosses and petrels have hooked bills to snatch fast @-@ moving prey . Gulls have more generalised bills that reflect their more opportunistic lifestyle .
= = = = Pursuit diving = = = =
Pursuit diving exerts greater pressures ( both evolutionary and physiological ) on seabirds , but the reward is a greater area in which to feed than is available to surface feeders . Propulsion underwater can be provided by wings ( as used by penguins , auks , diving petrels and some other species of petrel ) or feet ( as used by cormorants , grebes , loons and several types of fish @-@ eating ducks ) . Wing @-@ propelled divers are generally faster than foot @-@ propelled divers . In both cases , the use of wings or feet for diving has limited their utility in other situations : loons and grebes walk with extreme difficulty ( if at all ) , penguins cannot fly , and auks have sacrificed flight efficiency in favour of underwater diving . For example , the razorbill ( an Atlantic auk ) requires 64 % more energy to fly than a petrel of equivalent size . Many shearwaters are intermediate between the two , having longer wings than typical wing @-@ propelled divers but heavier wing loadings than the other surface @-@ feeding procellariids , leaving them capable of diving to considerable depths while still being efficient long @-@ distance travellers . The deepest diving exhibited by shearwaters is found in the short @-@ tailed shearwater , which has been recorded diving below 70 m . Some albatross species are also capable of limited diving , with light @-@ mantled sooty albatrosses holding the record at 12 m . Of all the wing @-@ propelled pursuit divers , the most efficient in the air are the albatrosses , and they are also the poorest divers . This is the dominant guild in polar and subpolar environments , as it is energetically inefficient in warmer waters . With their poor flying ability , many wing @-@ propelled pursuit divers are more limited in their foraging range than other guilds , especially during the breeding season when hungry chicks need regular feeding .
= = = = Plunge diving = = = =
Gannets , boobies , tropicbirds , some terns and brown pelicans all engage in plunge diving , taking fast moving prey by diving into the water from flight . Plunge diving allows birds to use the energy from the momentum of the dive to combat natural buoyancy ( caused by air trapped in plumage ) , and thus uses less energy than the dedicated pursuit divers , allowing them to utilise more widely distributed food resources , for example , in impoverished tropical seas . In general , this is the most specialised method of hunting employed by seabirds ; other non @-@ specialists ( such as gulls and skuas ) may employ it but do so with less skill and from lower heights . In brown pelicans the skills of plunge diving take several years to fully develop — once mature , they can dive from 20 m ( 70 ft ) above the water 's surface , shifting the body before impact to avoid injury . It has been suggested that plunge divers are restricted in their hunting grounds to clear waters that afford a view of their prey from the air , and while they are the dominant guild in the tropics , the link between plunge diving and water clarity is inconclusive . Some plunge divers ( as well as some surface feeders ) are dependent on dolphins and tuna to push shoaling fish up towards the surface .
= = = = Kleptoparasitism , scavenging and predation = = = =
This catch @-@ all category refers to other seabird strategies that involve the next trophic level up . Kleptoparasites are seabirds that make a part of their living stealing food of other seabirds . Most famously , frigatebirds and skuas engage in this behaviour , although gulls , terns and other species will steal food opportunistically . The nocturnal nesting behaviour of some seabirds has been interpreted as arising due to pressure from this aerial piracy . Kleptoparasitism is not thought to play a significant part of the diet of any species , and is instead a supplement to food obtained by hunting . A study of great frigatebirds stealing from masked boobies estimated that the frigatebirds could at most obtain 40 % of the food they needed , and on average obtained only 5 % . Many species of gull will feed on seabird and sea mammal carrion when the opportunity arises , as will giant petrels . Some species of albatross also engage in scavenging : an analysis of regurgitated squid beaks has shown that many of the squid eaten are too large to have been caught alive , and include mid @-@ water species likely to be beyond the reach of albatrosses . Some species will also feed on other seabirds ; for example , gulls , skuas and pelicans will often take eggs , chicks and even small adult seabirds from nesting colonies , while the giant petrels can kill prey up to the size of small penguins and seal pups .
= = = Life history = = =
Seabirds ' life histories are dramatically different from those of land birds . In general , they are K @-@ selected , live much longer ( anywhere between twenty and sixty years ) , delay breeding for longer ( for up to ten years ) , and invest more effort into fewer young . Most species will only have one clutch a year , unless they lose the first ( with a few exceptions , like the Cassin 's auklet ) , and many species ( like the tubenoses and sulids ) , only one egg a year .
Care of young is protracted , extending for as long as six months , among the longest for birds . For example , once common guillemot chicks fledge , they remain with the male parent for several months at sea . The frigatebirds have the longest period of parental care of any bird except a few raptors and the southern ground hornbill , with each chick fledging after four to six months and continued assistance after that for up to fourteen months . Due to the extended period of care , breeding occurs every two years rather than annually for some species . This life @-@ history strategy has probably evolved both in response to the challenges of living at sea ( collecting widely scattered prey items ) , the frequency of breeding failures due to unfavourable marine conditions , and the relative lack of predation compared to that of land @-@ living birds .
Because of the greater investment in raising the young and because foraging for food may occur far from the nest site , in all seabird species except the phalaropes , both parents participate in caring for the young , and pairs are typically at least seasonally monogamous . Many species , such as gulls , auks and penguins , retain the same mate for several seasons , and many petrel species mate for life . Albatrosses and procellariids , which mate for life , take many years to form a pair bond before they breed , and the albatrosses have an elaborate breeding dance that is part of pair @-@ bond formation .
= = = Breeding and colonies = = =
Ninety @-@ five percent of seabirds are colonial , and seabird colonies are among the largest bird colonies in the world , providing one of Earth 's great wildlife spectacles . Colonies of over a million birds have been recorded , both in the tropics ( such as Kiritimati in the Pacific ) and in the polar latitudes ( as in Antarctica ) . Seabird colonies occur exclusively for the purpose of breeding ; non @-@ breeding birds will only collect together outside the breeding season in areas where prey species are densely aggregated .
Seabird colonies are highly variable . Individual nesting sites can be widely spaced , as in an albatross colony , or densely packed as with a murre colony . In most seabird colonies , several different species will nest on the same colony , often exhibiting some niche separation . Seabirds can nest in trees ( if any are available ) , on the ground ( with or without nests ) , on cliffs , in burrows under the ground and in rocky crevices . Competition can be strong both within species and between species , with aggressive species such as sooty terns pushing less dominant species out of the most desirable nesting spaces . The tropical Bonin petrel nests during the winter to avoid competition with the more aggressive wedge @-@ tailed shearwater . When the seasons overlap , the wedge @-@ tailed shearwaters will kill young Bonin petrels in order to use their burrows .
Many seabirds show remarkable site fidelity , returning to the same burrow , nest or site for many years , and they will defend that site from rivals with great vigour . This increases breeding success , provides a place for returning mates to reunite , and reduces the costs of prospecting for a new site . Young adults breeding for the first time usually return to their natal colony , and often nest close to where they hatched . This tendency , known as philopatry , is so strong that a study of Laysan albatrosses found that the average distance between hatching site and the site where a bird established its own territory was 22 m ; another study , this time on Cory 's shearwaters nesting near Corsica , found that of nine out of 61 male chicks that returned to breed at their natal colony bred in the burrow they were raised in , and two actually bred with their own mother .
Colonies are usually situated on islands , cliffs or headlands , which land mammals have difficulty accessing . This is thought to provide protection to seabirds , which are often very clumsy on land . Coloniality often arises in types of bird that do not defend feeding territories ( such as swifts , which have a very variable prey source ) ; this may be a reason why it arises more frequently in seabirds . There are other possible advantages : colonies may act as information centres , where seabirds returning to the sea to forage can find out where prey is by studying returning individuals of the same species . There are disadvantages to colonial life , particularly the spread of disease . Colonies also attract the attention of predators , principally other birds , and many species attend their colonies nocturnally to avoid predation .
= = = Migration = = =
Like many birds , seabirds often migrate after the breeding season . Of these , the trip taken by the Arctic tern is the farthest of any bird , crossing the equator in order to spend the Austral summer in Antarctica . Other species also undertake trans @-@ equatorial trips , both from the north to the south , and from south to north . The population of elegant terns , which nest off Baja California , splits after the breeding season with some birds travelling north to the Central Coast of California and some travelling as far south as Peru and Chile to feed in the Humboldt Current . The sooty shearwater undertakes an annual migration cycle that rivals that of the Arctic tern ; birds that nest in New Zealand and Chile and spend the northern summer feeding in the North Pacific off Japan , Alaska and California , an annual round trip of 40 @,@ 000 statute miles ( 64 @,@ 000 km ) .
Other species also migrate shorter distances away from the breeding sites , their distribution at sea determined by the availability of food . If oceanic conditions are unsuitable , seabirds will emigrate to more productive areas , sometimes permanently if the bird is young . After fledging , juvenile birds often disperse further than adults , and to different areas , so are commonly sighted far from a species ' normal range . Some species , such as the auks , do not have a concerted migration effort , but drift southwards as the winter approaches . Other species , such as some of the storm petrels , diving petrels and cormorants , never disperse at all , staying near their breeding colonies year round .
= = = Away from the sea = = =
While the definition of seabirds suggests that the birds in question spend their lives on the ocean , many seabird families have many species that spend some or even most of their lives inland away from the sea . Most strikingly , many species breed many tens , hundreds or even thousands of miles inland . Some of these species still return to the ocean to feed ; for example , the snow petrel , the nests of which have been found 480 kilometres ( 300 mi ) inland on the Antarctic mainland , are unlikely to find anything to eat around their breeding sites . The marbled murrelet nests inland in old growth forest , seeking huge conifers with large branches to nest on . Other species , such as the California gull , nest and feed inland on lakes , and then move to the coasts in the winter . Some cormorant , pelican , gull and tern species have individuals that never visit the sea at all , spending their lives on lakes , rivers , swamps and , in the case of some of the gulls , cities and agricultural land . In these cases it is thought that these terrestrial or freshwater birds evolved from marine ancestors . Some seabirds , principally those that nest in tundra , as skuas and phalaropes do , will migrate over land as well .
The more marine species , such as petrels , auks and gannets , are more restricted in their habits , but are occasionally seen inland as vagrants . This most commonly happens to young inexperienced birds , but can happen in great numbers to exhausted adults after large storms , an event known as a wreck , where they provide prized sightings for birders .
= = Relationship with humans = =
= = = Seabirds and fisheries = = =
Seabirds have had a long association with both fisheries and sailors , and both have drawn benefits and disadvantages from the relationship .
Fishermen have traditionally used seabirds as indicators of both fish shoals , underwater banks that might indicate fish stocks , and of potential landfall . In fact , the known association of seabirds with land was instrumental in allowing the Polynesians to locate tiny landmasses in the Pacific . Seabirds have provided food for fishermen away from home , as well as bait . Famously , tethered cormorants have been used to catch fish directly . Indirectly , fisheries have also benefited from guano from colonies of seabirds acting as fertilizer for the surrounding seas .
Negative effects on fisheries are mostly restricted to raiding by birds on aquaculture , although long @-@ lining fisheries also have to deal with bait stealing . There have been claims of prey depletion by seabirds of fishery stocks , and while there is some evidence of this , the effects of seabirds are considered smaller than that of marine mammals and predatory fish ( like tuna ) .
Some seabird species have benefited from fisheries , particularly from discarded fish and offal . These discards compose 30 % of the food of seabirds in the North Sea , for example , and compose up to 70 % of the total food of some seabird populations . This can have other impacts ; for example , the spread of the northern fulmar through the United Kingdom is attributed in part to the availability of discards . Discards generally benefit surface feeders , such as gannets and petrels , to the detriment of pursuit divers like penguins .
Fisheries also have negative effects on seabirds , and these effects , particularly on the long @-@ lived and slow @-@ breeding albatrosses , are a source of increasing concern to conservationists . The bycatch of seabirds entangled in nets or hooked on fishing lines has had a big impact on seabird numbers ; for example , an estimated 100 @,@ 000 albatrosses are hooked and drown each year on tuna lines set out by long @-@ line fisheries . Overall , many hundreds of thousands of birds are trapped and killed each year , a source of concern for some of the rarest species ( for example , only about 2 @,@ 000 short @-@ tailed albatrosses are known to still exist ) . Seabirds are also thought to suffer when overfishing occurs .
= = = Exploitation = = =
The hunting of seabirds and the collecting of seabird eggs have contributed to the declines of many species , and the extinction of several , including the great auk and the spectacled cormorant . Seabirds have been hunted for food by coastal peoples throughout history — one of the earliest instances known is in southern Chile , where archaeological excavations in middens has shown hunting of albatrosses , cormorants and shearwaters from 5000 BP . This pressure has led to some species becoming extinct in many places ; in particular , at least 20 species of an original 29 no longer breed on Easter Island . In the 19th century , the hunting of seabirds for fat deposits and feathers for the millinery trade reached industrial levels . Muttonbirding ( harvesting shearwater chicks ) developed as important industries in both New Zealand and Tasmania , and the name of one species , the providence petrel , is derived from its seemingly miraculous arrival on Norfolk Island where it provided a windfall for starving European settlers . In the Falkland Islands , hundreds of thousands of penguins were harvested for their oil each year . Seabird eggs have also long been an important source of food for sailors undertaking long sea voyages , as well as being taken when settlements grow in areas near a colony . Eggers from San Francisco took almost half a million eggs a year from the Farallon Islands in the mid @-@ 19th century , a period in the islands ' history from which the seabird species are still recovering .
Both hunting and egging continue today , although not at the levels that occurred in the past , and generally in a more controlled manner . For example , the Māori of Stewart Island / Rakiura continue to harvest the chicks of the sooty shearwater as they have done for centuries , using traditional methods ( called kaitiakitanga ) to manage the harvest , but now work with the University of Otago in studying the populations . In Greenland , however , uncontrolled hunting is pushing many species into steep decline .
= = = Other threats = = =
Other human factors have led to declines and even extinctions in seabird populations , colonies and species . Of these , perhaps the most serious are introduced species . Seabirds , breeding predominantly on small isolated islands , have lost many predator defence behaviours . Feral cats are capable of taking seabirds as large as albatrosses , and many introduced rodents , such as the Pacific rat , can take eggs hidden in burrows . Introduced goats , cattle , rabbits and other herbivores can lead to problems , particularly when species need vegetation to protect or shade their young . Disturbance of breeding colonies by humans is often a problem as well — visitors , even well @-@ meaning tourists , can flush brooding adults off a colony leaving chicks and eggs vulnerable to predators .
The build @-@ up of toxins and pollutants in seabirds is also a concern . Seabirds , being apex predators , suffered from the ravages of DDT until it was banned ; among other effects , DDT was implicated in embryo development problems and the skewed sex ratio of western gulls in southern California . Oil spills are also a threat to seabird species , as both a toxin and because the feathers of the birds become saturated by the oil , causing them to lose their waterproofing . Oil pollution threatens species with restricted ranges or already depressed populations .
= = = Conservation = = =
The threats faced by seabirds have not gone unnoticed by scientists or the conservation movement . As early as 1903 , U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt was convinced of the need to declare Pelican Island in Florida a National Wildlife Refuge to protect the bird colonies ( including the nesting brown pelicans ) , and in 1909 he protected the Farallon Islands . Today many important seabird colonies are given some measure of protection , from Heron Island in Australia to Triangle Island in British Columbia .
Island restoration techniques , pioneered by New Zealand , enable the removal of exotic invaders from increasingly large islands . Feral cats have been removed from Ascension Island , Arctic foxes from many islands in the Aleutian Islands , and rats from Campbell Island . The removal of these introduced species has led to increases in numbers of species under pressure and even the return of extirpated ones . After the removal of cats from Ascension Island , seabirds began to nest there again for the first time in over a hundred years .
Seabird mortality caused by long @-@ line fisheries can be greatly reduced by techniques such as setting long @-@ line bait at night , dying the bait blue , setting the bait underwater , increasing the amount of weight on lines and by using bird scarers , and their deployment is increasingly required by many national fishing fleets . The international ban on the use of drift nets has also helped reduce the mortality of seabirds and other marine wildlife .
One of the Millennium Projects in the UK was the Scottish Seabird Centre , near the important bird sanctuaries on Bass Rock , Fidra and the surrounding islands . The area is home to huge colonies of gannets , puffins , skuas and other seabirds . The centre allows visitors to watch live video from the islands as well as learn about the threats the birds face and how we can protect them , and has helped to significantly raise the profile of seabird conservation in the UK . Seabird tourism can provide income for coastal communities as well as raise the profile of seabird conservation . For example , the northern royal albatross colony at Taiaroa Head in New Zealand attracts 40 @,@ 000 visitors a year .
The plight of albatross and large seabirds , as well as other marine creatures , being taken as bycatch by long @-@ line fisheries , has been addressed by a large number of non @-@ governmental organizations ( including BirdLife International , the American Bird Conservancy and the Royal Society for the Protection of Birds ) . This led to the Agreement on the Conservation of Albatrosses and Petrels , a legally binding treaty designed to protect these threatened species , which has been ratified by eleven countries as of 2008 ( namely Argentina , Australia , Chile , Ecuador , France , New Zealand , Norway , Peru , South Africa , Spain and the United Kingdom ) .
= = = Role in culture = = =
Many seabirds are little studied and poorly known , due to living far out to sea and breeding in isolated colonies . However , some seabirds , particularly , the albatrosses and gulls , have broken into popular consciousness . The albatrosses have been described as " the most legendary of birds " , and have a variety of myths and legends associated with them , and today it is widely considered unlucky to harm them , although the notion that sailors believed that is a myth that derives from Samuel Taylor Coleridge 's famous poem , " The Rime of the Ancient Mariner " , in which a sailor is punished for killing an albatross by having to wear its corpse around his neck .
Instead of the Cross the AlbatrossAbout my neck was hung
Sailors did , however , consider it unlucky to touch a storm petrel , especially one that has landed on the ship .
Gulls are one of the most commonly seen seabirds , given their use of human @-@ made habitats ( such as cities and dumps ) and their often fearless nature . They therefore also have made it into the popular consciousness – they have been used metaphorically , as in Jonathan Livingston Seagull by Richard Bach , or to denote a closeness to the sea , such as their use in The Lord of the Rings – both in the insignia of Gondor and therefore Númenor ( used in the design of the films ) , and to call Legolas to ( and across ) the sea . Other species have also made an impact ; pelicans have long been associated with mercy and altruism because of an early Western Christian myth that they split open their breast to feed their starving chicks .
= = Seabird families = =
The following are the groups of birds normally classed as seabirds .
Sphenisciformes ( Antarctic and southern waters ; 16 species )
Spheniscidae penguins
Procellariiformes ( Tubenoses : pan @-@ oceanic and pelagic ; 93 species )
Diomedeidae albatrosses
Procellariidae fulmars , prions , shearwaters , gadfly and other petrels
Pelacanoididae diving petrels
Hydrobatidae storm petrels
Pelecaniformes ( Worldwide ; 57 species )
Pelecanidae pelicans
Sulidae gannets and boobies
Phalacrocoracidae cormorants
Fregatidae frigatebirds
Phaethontidae tropicbirds
Charadriiformes ( Worldwide ; 305 species , but only the families listed are classed as seabirds . )
Stercorariida
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, and finished his tenure with the White Sox with a 5 @.@ 40 ERA in five innings pitched . After his final game on May 4 , the White Sox purchased Ed Klieman and sold Groth to the Kansas City Blues , a New York Yankees minor league team , ending his major league career .
= = Return to minor leagues = =
Groth spent the 1949 season with the Kansas City Blues , finishing with a 12 – 9 record , a 4 @.@ 28 ERA , and 162 innings pitched . When the 1950 season began , the New York Yankees had five holdouts ( players who wanted more money and would not sign their contracts ) . Groth was one of them , and was the only minor leaguer to hold out . He eventually signed his contract with Kansas City , and after spring training ended , Groth was sent to the Oakland Oaks of the Pacific Coast League , the Yankees ' AAA minor league affiliate . The Yankees sent Groth to the Oaks to make up for sending over George Earl Toolson last season , who the Oaks had to return because his condition was poor . Groth finished the season with a 7 – 11 record and a 5 @.@ 09 ERA . In January 1951 , the Oaks sold Groth to the Baltimore Orioles of the International League , now a farm team of the Philadelphia Phillies . He struggled in ten appearances , finishing with an ERA of 7 @.@ 58 , and was sent to the Chattanooga Lookouts , the AA minor league team of the Washington Senators . He pitched in 26 games for the Lookouts , finishing with a 3 – 8 record and a 6 @.@ 29 ERA .
For the next five seasons , Groth played for the Oklahoma City Indians of the Texas League . He was sold to Oklahoma City by Baltimore in December 1951 . In his first season with Oklahoma City , he finished with a 15 – 12 record , a 3 @.@ 43 ERA , and 207 innings pitched . The following season , Groth started things off with a victory in an early appearance against the Dallas Eagles where he allowed only four hits . He finished the season with an 8 – 8 record and a 5 @.@ 37 ERA . In 1954 , Groth improved his pitching , finishing the season with a 14 – 11 record and a 3 @.@ 75 ERA . After a 9 – 13 season in 1955 , Groth split time between Oklahoma City and the Tulsa Oilers in 1956 , finishing the season with a combined 9 – 16 record . He ended his professional career after the 1956 season .
= = Later life = =
After retiring from baseball , Groth returned to his hometown of Beaver Falls . He and his family ran Groth 's Nursery , and he worked for Standard Steel until his retirement . He and his wife had three daughters ; Elizabeth , Constance , and Suellen . Groth was inducted into the Beaver County Sports Hall of Fame in 1990 . He also spent time playing in local golf tournaments . Groth died on December 27 , 2004 .
= Cologne War =
The Cologne War ( 1583 – 88 ) devastated the Electorate of Cologne , a historical ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire , within present @-@ day North @-@ Rhine @-@ Westphalia , in Germany . The war occurred within the context of the Protestant Reformation in Germany and the subsequent Counter @-@ Reformation , and concurrently with the Dutch Revolt and the French Wars of Religion .
Also called the Seneschal 's War or the Seneschal Upheaval and occasionally the Sewer War , the conflict tested the principle of ecclesiastical reservation , which had been included in the religious Peace of Augsburg ( 1555 ) . This principle excluded , or " reserved " , the ecclesiastical territories of the Holy Roman Empire from the application of cuius regio , eius religio , or " whose rule , his religion " , as the primary means of determining the religion of a territory . It stipulated instead that if an ecclesiastical prince converted to Protestantism , he would resign from his position rather than force the conversion of his subjects .
In December 1582 , Gebhard Truchsess von Waldburg , the Prince @-@ elector of Cologne , converted to Protestantism . The principle of ecclesiastical reservation required his resignation . Instead , he declared religious parity for his subjects and , in 1583 , married Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben , intending to convert the ecclesiastical principality into a secular , dynastic duchy . A faction in the Cathedral Chapter elected another archbishop , Ernst of Bavaria .
Initially , troops of the competing archbishops of Cologne fought over control of sections of the territory . Several of the barons and counts holding territory with feudal obligations to the Elector also held territory in nearby Dutch provinces ; Westphalia , Liege and the Southern , or Spanish Netherlands . Complexities of enfeoffment and dynastic appanage magnified a localized feud into one including supporters from the Electorate of the Palatinate and Dutch , Scots and English mercenaries on the Protestant side , and Bavarian and papal mercenaries on the Catholic side . In 1586 , the conflict expanded further , with the direct involvement of Spanish troops and Italian mercenaries on the Catholic side , and financial and diplomatic support from Henry III of France and Elizabeth I of England on the Protestant side .
The conflict coincided with the Dutch Revolt , 1568 – 1648 , encouraging the participation of the rebellious Dutch provinces and the Spanish . The successful conclusion of the war consolidated Wittelsbach authority in northwestern German territories and encouraged a Catholic revival on the lower Rhine . Importantly , it also set a precedent for outside intervention in German religious and dynastic conflicts .
= = Background = =
= = = Religious divisions in the Holy Roman Empire = = =
Prior to the 16th century , the Catholic Church had been the sole official Christian faith in the Holy Roman Empire . Martin Luther 's initial agenda called for the reform of the Church 's doctrines and practices , but after his excommunication from the Church his ideas became embodied in an altogether separate religious movement , Lutheranism . Initially dismissed by Holy Roman Emperor Charles V as an inconsequential argument between monks , the idea of a reformation of the Church 's doctrines , considered infallible and sacrosanct by Catholic teaching , accentuated controversy and competition in many of the territories of the Holy Roman Empire and quickly devolved into armed factions that exacerbated existing social , political and territorial grievances . These tensions were embodied in such alliances as the Protestant Schmalkaldic League , through which many of the Lutheran princes agreed to protect each other from encroachment on their territories and local authority ; in retaliation , the princes that remained loyal to the Catholic Church formed the defensive Holy League . By the mid @-@ 1530s , the German @-@ speaking states of the Holy Roman Empire had devolved into armed factions determined by family ties , geographic needs , religious loyalties , and dynastic aspirations . The religious issue both accentuated and masked these secular conflicts .
Princes and clergy alike understood that institutional abuses hindered the practices of the faithful , but they disagreed on the solution to the problem . The Protestants believed a reform of doctrine was needed ( especially regarding the Church 's teachings on justification , indulgences , Purgatory , and the Papacy ) while those that remained Catholic wished to reform the morals of the clergy only , without sacrificing Catholic doctrine . Pope Paul III convened a council to examine the problem in 1537 and instituted several internal , institutional reforms intended to obviate some of the most flagrant prebendary abuses , simony and nepotism ; despite efforts by both the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V and the Roman Pontiff , unification of the two strands of belief foundered on different concepts of " Church " and the principle of justification . Catholics clung to the traditional teaching that the Catholic Church alone is the one true Church , while Protestants insisted that the Church Christ founded was invisible and not tied to any single religious institution on earth . Regarding justification , the Lutherans insisted that it occurred by faith alone , while the Catholics upheld the traditional Catholic doctrine that justification involves both faith and active charity . The Schmalkaldic League called its own ecumenical council in 1537 , and set forward several precepts of faith . When the delegates met in Regensburg in 1540 – 41 , representatives agreed on the doctrine of faith and justification , but could not agree on sacraments , confession , absolution , and the definition of the church . Catholic and Lutheran adherents seemed further apart than ever ; in only a few towns and cities were Lutherans and Catholics able to live together in even a semblance of harmony . By 1548 , political disagreements overlapped with religious issues , making any kind of agreement seem remote .
In 1548 Charles declared an interreligio imperialis ( also known as the Augsburg Interim ) through which he sought to find some common ground for religious peace . This effort alienated both Protestant and Catholic princes and the papacy ; even Charles , whose decree it was , was unhappy with the political and diplomatic dimensions of what amounted to half of a religious settlement . The 1551 – 52 sessions convened by Pope Julius III at the supposedly ecumenical Council of Trent solved none of the larger religious issues but simply restated Catholic teaching and condemned Protestant teaching as heresies .
= = = Overcoming religious division = = =
Clearly , Charles ' interim solution could not continue . He ordered a general Diet in Augsburg at which the various states would discuss the religious problem and its solution . He himself did not attend , and delegated authority to his brother , Ferdinand , to " act and settle " disputes of territory , religion and local power . At the conference , Ferdinand cajoled , persuaded and threatened the various representatives into agreement on three important principles . The principle of cuius regio , eius religio provided for internal religious unity within a state : The religion of the prince became the religion of the state and all its inhabitants . Those inhabitants who could not conform to the prince 's religion were allowed to leave , an innovative idea in the 16th century ; this principle was discussed at length by the various delegates , who finally reached agreement on the specifics of its wording after examining the problem and the proposed solution from every possible angle . The second principle covered the special status of the ecclesiastical states , called the ecclesiastical reservation , or reservatum ecclesiasticum . If the prelate of an ecclesiastic state changed his religion , the men and women living in that state did not have to do so . Instead , the prelate was expected to resign from his post , although this was not spelled out in the agreement . The third principle , known as Ferdinand 's Declaration , exempted knights and some of the cities from the requirement of religious uniformity , if the reformed religion had been practiced there since the mid @-@ 1520s , allowing for a few mixed cities and towns where Catholics and Lutherans had lived together . It also protected the authority of the princely families , the knights and some of the cities to determine what religious uniformity meant in their territories . Ferdinand inserted this at the last minute , on his own authority .
= = = Remaining problems = = =
After 1555 , the Peace of Augsburg became the legitimating legal document governing the co @-@ existence of the Lutheran and Catholic faiths in the German lands of the Holy Roman Empire , and it served to ameliorate many of the tensions between followers of the so @-@ called Old Faith and the followers of Luther , but it had two fundamental flaws . First , Ferdinand had rushed the article on ecclesiastical reservation through the debate ; it had not undergone the scrutiny and discussion that attended the wide @-@ spread acceptance and support of cuius regio , eius religio . Consequently , its wording did not cover all , or even most , potential legal scenarios . The Declaratio Ferdinandei was not debated in plenary session at all ; using his authority to " act and settle , " Ferdinand had added it at the last minute , responding to lobbying by princely families and knights .
While these specific failings came back to haunt the Empire in subsequent decades , perhaps the greatest weakness of the Peace of Augsburg was its failure to take into account the growing diversity of religious expression emerging in the evangelical ( Lutheran ) and Reformed traditions . Other confessions had acquired popular , if not legal , legitimacy in the intervening decades and by 1555 , the reforms proposed by Luther were no longer the only possibilities of religious expression : Anabaptists , such as the Frisian Menno Simons ( 1492 – 1559 ) and his followers ; the followers of John Calvin , who were particularly strong in the southwest and the northwest ; and the followers of Huldrych Zwingli were excluded from considerations and protections under the Peace of Augsburg . According to the Augsburg agreement , their religious beliefs remained heretical .
= = = Charles V 's abdication = = =
In 1556 , amid great pomp , and leaning on the shoulder of one of his favorites ( the 24 @-@ year @-@ old William , Count of Nassau and Orange ) , Charles gave away his lands and his offices . The Spanish empire , which included Spain , the Netherlands , Naples , Milan and Spain 's possessions in the Americas , went to his son , Philip . His brother , Ferdinand , who had negotiated the treaty in the previous year , was already in possession of the Austrian lands and was also the obvious candidate to succeed Charles as Holy Roman Emperor .
Charles ' choices were appropriate . Philip was culturally Spanish : he was born in Valladolid and raised in the Spanish court , his native tongue was Spanish , and he preferred to live in Spain . Ferdinand was familiar with , and to , the other princes of the Holy Roman Empire . Although he too had been born in Spain , he had administered his brother 's affairs in the Empire since 1531 . Some historians maintain Ferdinand had also been touched by the reformed philosophies , and was probably the closest the Holy Roman Empire ever came to a Protestant emperor ; he remained at least nominally a Catholic throughout his life , although reportedly he refused last rites on his deathbed . Other historians maintain that while Ferdinand was a practising Catholic , unlike his brother he considered religion to be outside the political sphere .
Charles ' abdication had far @-@ reaching consequences in imperial diplomatic relations with France and the Netherlands , particularly in his allotment of the Spanish kingdom to Philip . In France , the kings and their ministers grew increasingly uneasy about Habsburg encirclement and sought allies against Habsburg hegemony from among the border German territories ; they were even prepared to ally with some of the Protestant kings . In the Netherlands , Philip 's ascension in Spain raised particular problems ; for the sake of harmony , order , and prosperity , Charles had not oppressed the Reformation too harshly there , and even had tolerated a high level of local autonomy . An ardent Catholic and rigidly autocratic prince , Philip pursued an aggressive political , economic and religious policy toward the Dutch , resulting in their rebellion shortly after he became king . Philip 's militant response meant the occupation of much of the upper provinces by troops of , or hired by , Habsburg Spain and the constant ebb and flow of Spanish men and provisions over the Spanish road from northern Italy , through the Burgundian lands , to and from Flanders .
= = Cause of the war = =
As an ecclesiastical principality of the Holy Roman Empire , the Electorate of Cologne ( German : Kurfürstentum Köln or Kurköln ) included the temporal possessions of the Archbishop of Cologne ( German : Erzbistum Köln ) : the so @-@ called Oberstift ( the southern part of the Electorate ) , the northern section , called the Niederstift , the fiefdom of Vest Recklinghausen and the Duchy of Westphalia , plus several small uncontiguous territories separated from the Electorate by the neighboring Duchies of Cleves , Berg , Julich and Mark . Encircled by the electoral territory , Cologne was part of the archdiocese but not among the Elector 's temporal possessions . The Electorate was ruled by an archbishop prince @-@ elector of the empire . As an archbishop , he was responsible for the spiritual leadership of one the richest sees in the Empire , and entitled to draw on its wealth . As a prince @-@ prelate , he stood in the highest social category of the Empire , with specific and expansive legal , economic , and juridical rights . As an Elector , he was one of the men who elected the Holy Roman Emperor from among a group of imperial candidates .
The Electorate obtained its name from the city , and Cologne had served as the capital of the archbishopric until 1288 . After that , the archbishop and Prince @-@ elector used the smaller cities of Bonn , 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) south of Cologne , and Brühl , 12 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) south of Cologne , on the Rhine River , as his capital and residence ; by 1580 , both his residence and the capital were located in Bonn . Although the city of Cologne obtained its status as a free imperial city in 1478 , the Archbishop of Cologne retained judicial rights in the city ; he acted as a Vogt , or reeve , and reserved the right of blood justice , or Blutgericht ; only he could impose the so @-@ called blood punishments , which included capital punishments , but also physical punishments that drew blood . Regardless of his position as judge , he could not enter the city of Cologne except under special circumstances , and between the city council and the elector @-@ archbishop , a politically and diplomatically precarious and usually adversarial relationship developed over the centuries . ( See also History of Cologne for more details . )
The position of archbishop was usually held by a scion of nobility , and not necessarily a priest ; this widespread practice allowed younger sons of noble houses to find prestigious and financially secure positions without the requirements of priesthood . The archbishop and prince @-@ elector was chosen by the cathedral chapter , the members of which also served as his advisers . As members of a cathedral chapter , they participated in the Mass , or sang the Mass ; in addition , they performed other duties as needed . They were not required to be priests but they could , if they wished , take Holy Orders . As prebendaries , they received stipends from cathedral income ; depending on the location and wealth of the cathedral , this could amount to substantial annual income . In the Electorate , the Chapter included 24 canons of various social ranks ; they each had a place in the choir , based on their rank , which in turn was usually derived from the social standing of their families .
= = = Election of 1577 = = =
When his nephew , Arnold , died without issue , Salentin von Isenburg @-@ Grenzau ( 1532 – 1610 ) resigned from the office of Elector ( September 1577 ) and , in December , married Antonia Wilhelmine d 'Arenburg , sister of Charles d 'Ligne , Prince of Arenberg . Salentin 's resignation required the election of a new archbishop and prince @-@ elector from among the Cathedral Chapter . Two candidates emerged . Gebhard ( 1547 – 1601 ) was the second son of William , Truchsess of Waldburg , known as William the younger , and Johanna von Fürstenberg . He was descended from the Jacobin line of the House of Waldburg ; his uncle was a cardinal , and his family had significant imperial contacts . The second candidate , Ernst of Bavaria ( 1554 – 1612 ) , was the third son of Albert V , Duke of Bavaria . As a member of the powerful House of Wittelsbach , Ernst could marshal support from his extensive family connections throughout the Catholic houses of the empire ; he also had contacts in important canonic establishments at Salzburg , Trier , Würzburg , and Münster that could exert collateral pressure .
Ernst had been a canon at Cologne since 1570 . He had the support of the neighboring Duke of Jülich and several allies within the Cathedral Chapter . Although supported by both the papacy and his influential father , a 1571 effort to secure for him the office of coadjutor of the electorate of Cologne had failed once Salentin had agreed to abide by the Trentine proceedings ; as the coadjutor bishop , Ernst would have been well @-@ positioned to present himself as Salentin 's logical successor . Since then , however , he had advanced in other sees , becoming bishop of Liège , Freising and Hildesheim , important strongholds of Counter @-@ Reformation Catholicism . He was a career cleric , not necessarily qualified to be an archbishop on the basis of his theological erudition , but by his family connections . His membership in several chapters extended the family influence , and his status as a prebendary gave him a portion of revenues from several cathedrals . He had been educated by Jesuits and the papacy considered collaboration with his family as a means to limit the spread of Lutheranism and Calvinism in the northern provinces .
Also a younger son , Gebhard had prepared for an ecclesiastical career with a broad , Humanist education ; apart from his native German , he had learned several languages ( including Latin , Italian , French ) , and studied history and theology . After studying at the universities of Dillingen , Ingolstadt , Perugia , Louvain and elsewhere , he began his ecclesiastical career in 1560 at Augsburg . His conduct at Augsburg caused some scandal ; the bishop , his uncle , petitioned the Duke of Bavaria to remonstrate with him about it , which apparently led to some improvement in his behavior . In 1561 , he became a deacon at Cologne Cathedral ( 1561 – 77 ) , a canon of St. Gereon , the basilica in Cologne ( 1562 – 67 ) , a canon in Strassburg ( 1567 – 1601 ) , in Ellwangen ( 1567 – 83 ) , and in Würzburg ( 1569 – 70 ) . In 1571 , he became deacon of Strassburg Cathedral , a position he held until his death . In 1576 , by papal nomination , he also became provost of the Cathedral in Augsburg . Similar to his opponent , these positions brought him influence and wealth ; they had little to do with his priestly character .
If the election had been left to the papacy , Ernst would have been the choice , but the Pope was not a member of the Cathedral Chapter and Gebhard had the support of several of the Catholic canons , and all the Protestant canons in the Chapter . In December 1577 , he was chosen Elector and Archbishop of Cologne after a spirited contest with the papacy 's candidate , Ernst : Gebhard won the election by two votes . Although it was not required of him , Gebhard agreed to undergo priestly ordination ; he was duly consecrated in March 1578 , and swore to uphold the Council of Trent 's decrees .
= = = Gebhard 's conversion = = =
Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben ( 1551 – 1637 ) was a Protestant canoness at the cloister in Gerresheim , today a district of Düsseldorf . Her family was a cadet line of the old House of Mansfeld which , by the mid @-@ 16th century , had lost much of its affluence , but not its influence . The Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben line retained significant authority in its district ; several of Agnes ' cousins and uncles had signed the Book of Concord , and the family exercised considerable influence in Reformation affairs . She had been raised in Eisleben , the town in which Martin Luther had been born . The family 's estates were located in Saxony , but Agnes ' sister lived in the city of Cologne , married to the Freiherr ( or Baron ) , Peter von Kriechingen . Although a member of the Gerresheim cloister , Agnes was free during her days to go where she wished . Reports differ on how she came to Gebhard 's notice . Some say he saw her on one of her visits to her sister in Cologne . Others claim he noticed her during a religious procession . Regardless , in late 1579 or early 1580 , she attracted Gebhard 's notice . He sought her out , and they started a liaison . Two of her brothers , Ernst and Hoyer Christoph , soon visited Gebhard at the archbishop 's residence and convinced him to marry her . " Gebhard 's Catholic belief , which was by no means based on his innermost conviction , started to waver when he had to decide whether to renounce the bishop 's mitre and stay faithful to the woman he loved , or to renounce his love and remain a member of the church hierarchy . " While he considered this , rumors of his possible conversion flew throughout the Electorate .
The mere possibility of Gebhard 's conversion caused consternation in the Electorate , in the Empire , and in such European states as England and France . Gebhard considered his options , and listened to his advisers , chief among them his brother Karl , Truchsess von Waldburg ( 1548 – 1593 ) , and Adolf , Count von Neuenahr ( 1545 – 1589 ) . His opponents in the Cathedral Chapter enlisted external support from the Wittelsbachs in Bavaria and from the pope . Diplomats shuttled from court to court through the Rhineland , bearing pleas to Gebhard to consider the outcome of a conversion , and how it would destroy the Electorate . These diplomats assured him of support for his cause should he convert and hold the Electorate and threats to destroy him if he did convert . The magistrates of Cologne vehemently opposed any possible conversion and the extension of parity to Protestants in the archdiocese . His Protestant supporters told Gebhard that he could marry the woman and keep the Electorate , converting it into a dynastic duchy . Throughout the Electorate , and on its borders , his supporters and opponents gathered their troops , armed their garrisons , stockpiled foodstuffs , and prepared for war . On 19 December 1582 , Gebhard announced his conversion , from , as he phrased it , the " darkness of the papacy to the Light " of the Word of God .
= = = Implications of his conversion = = =
The conversion of the Archbishop of Cologne to Protestantism triggered religious and political repercussions throughout the Holy Roman Empire . His conversion had widespread implications for the future of the Holy Roman Empire 's electoral process established by the Golden Bull of 1356 . In this process , seven Imperial Electors — the four secular electors of Bohemia , Brandenburg , the Palatinate , and Saxony ; and the three ecclesiastical electors of Mainz , Trier , and Cologne — selected an emperor . The presence of at least three inherently Catholic electors , who collectively governed some of the most prosperous ecclesiastical territories in the Empire , guaranteed the delicate balance of Catholics and Protestants in the voting ; only one other elector needed to vote for a Catholic candidate , ensuring that future emperors would remain in the so @-@ called Old Faith . The possibility of one of those electors shifting to the Protestant side , and of that elector producing an heir to perpetuate this shift , would change the balance in the electoral college in favor of the Protestants .
The conversion of the ecclesiastic see to a dynastic realm ruled by a Protestant prince challenged the principle of ecclesiastical reservation , which was intended to preserve the ecclesiastical electorates from this very possibility . The difficulties of such a conversion had been faced before : Hermann von Wied , a previous prince @-@ elector and archbishop in Cologne , had also converted to Protestantism , but had resigned from his office . Similarly , Gebhard 's predecessor , Salentin von Isenburg @-@ Grenzau had indeed married in 1577 , but had resigned from the office prior to his marriage . Furthermore , the reason for his marriage — to perpetuate his house — differed considerably from Gebhard 's . The House of Waldburg was in no apparent danger of extinction ; Gebhard was one of six brothers , and only one other had chosen an ecclesiastical career . Unlike his abdicating predecessors , when Gebhard converted , he proclaimed the Reformation in the city of Cologne itself , angering Cologne 's Catholic leadership and alienating the Catholic faction in the Cathedral Chapter . Furthermore , Gebhard adhered not to the teachings of Martin Luther , but to those of John Calvin , a form of religious observation not approved by the Augsburg conventions of 1555 . Finally , he made no move to resign from his position as Prince @-@ elector .
Affairs became further complicated when , on 2 February 1583 , also known as Candlemas , Gebhard married Agnes von Mansfeld @-@ Eisleben in a private house in Rosenthal , outside of Bonn . After the ceremony , the couple processed to the Elector 's palace in Bonn , and held a great feast . Unbeknownst to them , while they celebrated their marriage , Frederick , Duke of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg ( 1554 – 1586 ) , who was also a member of the Cathedral Chapter , and his soldiers approached the fortified Kaiserswerth , across the river , and took the castle after a brief fight . When the citizens of Cologne heard the news , there was a great public celebration .
Two days after his marriage , Gebhard invested his brother Karl with the duties of Statthalter ( governor ) and charged him with the rule of Bonn . He and Agnes then traveled to Zweibrücken and from there , to the territory of Dillingen , near Solms @-@ Braunfels , where the Count , a staunch supporter , would help him to raise funds and troops to hold the territory ; Adolf , Count von Neuenahr returned to the Electorate to prepare for its defense .
Gebhard clearly intended to transform an important ecclesiastical territory into a secular , dynastic duchy . This problematic conversion would then bring the principle of cuius regio , eius religio into play in the Electorate . Under this principle , all of Gebhard 's subjects would be required to convert to his faith : his rule , his religion . Furthermore , as a relatively young man , heirs would be expected . Gebhard and his young wife presented the very real possibility of successfully converting a rich , diplomatically important and strategically placed ecclesiastical territory of a prince @-@ prelate into a dynastic territory that carried with it one of the coveted offices of imperial elector .
Pope Gregory XIII excommunicated him in March 1583 , and the Chapter deposed him , by electing in his place the 29 @-@ year @-@ old canon , Ernst of Bavaria , brother of the pious William V , Duke of Bavaria . Ernst 's election ensured the involvement of the powerful House of Wittelsbach in the coming contest .
= = Course of the war = =
The war had three phases . Initially it was a localized feud between supporters of Gebhard and those of the Catholic core of the Cathedral Chapter . With the election of Ernst of Bavaria as a competing archbishop , what had been a local conflict expanded in scale : Ernst 's election guaranteed the military , diplomatic , and financial interest of the Wittelsbach family in the Electorate of Cologne 's local affairs . After the deaths of Louis VI , Elector Palatine in 1583 and William the Silent in 1584 , the conflict shifted gears again , as the two evenly matched combatants sought outside assistance to break the stalemate . Finally , the intervention of Alexander Farnese , Duke of Parma , who had at his command the Spanish Army of Flanders , threw the balance of power in favor of the Catholic side . By 1588 , Spanish forces had pushed Gebhard from the Electorate . In 1588 he took refuge in Strassburg , and the remaining Protestant strongholds of the Electorate fell to Parma 's forces in 1589 .
= = = Cathedral feud = = =
Although Gebhard had gathered some troops around him , he hoped to recruit support from the Lutheran princes . Unfortunately for him , he had converted to another branch of the Reformed faith ; such cautious Lutheran princes as Augustus I , Elector of Saxony , balked at extending their military support to Calvinists and the Elector Palatine was unable to persuade them to join the cause . Gebhard had three primary supporters . His brother , Karl , had married Eleonore , Countess of Hohenzollern ( 1551 – after 1598 ) , and Gebhard could hope that this family alliance with the power @-@ hungry Hohenzollerns would help his cause . Gebhard 's long @-@ time ally and supporter Adolf , Count von Neuenahr was a successful and cunning military commander whose army secured the northern part of the territory . Finally , John Casimir ( 1543 – 1592 ) , the brother of the Elector Palatine , had expressed his support , and made a great show of force in the southern part of the Electorate .
In the first months after Gebhard 's conversion , two competing armies rampaged throughout the southern portion of the Electoral territory in the destruction of the so @-@ called Oberstift . Villages , abbeys and convents and several towns , were plundered and burned , by both sides ; Linz am Rhein and Ahrweiler avoided destruction by swearing loyalty to Salentin . In the summer of 1583 , Gebhard and Agnes took refuge , first at Vest in Vest Recklinghausen , a fief of the Electorate , and then in the Duchy of Westphalia , at Arensberg castle . In both territories , Gebhard set in motion as much of the Reformation as he could , although his soldiers indulged in a bout of iconoclasm and plundering .
Initially , despite a few setbacks , military action seemed to go in Gebhard 's favor , until October , 1583 , when the Elector Palatine died , and Casimir disbanded his army and returned to his brother 's court as guardian for the 10 @-@ year @-@ old duke . In November , 1583 , from his castle Arensberg in Westphalia , he wrote to Francis Walsingham , adviser and spymaster to Queen Elizabeth : " Our needs are pressing , and you [ Walsingham ] and the Queen 's other virtuous counsellors we believe can aid us ; moreover , since God has called us to a knowledge of Himself , we have heard from our counsellors that you love and further the service of God . "
On the same day , Gebhard wrote also to the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Bishop of London , presenting his case : " Verily , the Roman Antichrist moves every stone to oppress us and our churches .... " Two days later , he wrote a more lengthy letter to the Queen : " We therefore humbly pray your Majesty to lend us 10 @,@ 000 angelots , and to send it speedily , that we may preserve our churches this winter from the invasion of the enemy ; for if we lost Bonn , they would be in the greatest danger , while if God permits us to keep it , we hope , by his grace , that Antichrist and his agents will be foiled in their damnable attempts against those who call upon the true God . "
Godesburg , a fortress a few kilometers from the Elector 's capital city of Bonn , was taken by storm in late 1583 after a brutal month @-@ long siege ; when Bavarian cannonades failed to break the bastions , sappers tunneled under the thick walls and blew up the fortifications from below . The Catholic Archbishop 's forces still could not break through the remains of the fortifications , so they crawled through the garderobe sluices ( hence the name , Sewer War ) . Upon taking the fortress , they killed every defender except three , a Captain of the Guard who could prove he was a citizen of Cologne , and the son of an important Cologne politician , the commander and his wife . The five miles of road between Godesberg and Bonn was filled with so many troops , that it looked like a military camp . At the same time , in one of the few set battles of the war , Gebhard 's supporters won at Aalst ( French : Alost ) over the Catholic forces of the Frederick of Saxe @-@ Lauenburg , who had raised his own army and had entered the fray of his own accord a few months earlier .
The Catholics offered Gebhard a great sum of money , which he refused , demanding instead , the restoration of his state . When further negotiations among the Electors and the Emperor at Frankfurt am Main , then at Muhlhausen in Westphalia , failed to reach an agreement settling the dispute , the Pope arranged for the support of several thousand Spanish troops in early 1584 .
= = = Engagement of outside military forces = = =
The election of Ernst of Bavaria expanded the local feud into a more German @-@ wide phenomenon . The pope committed 55 @,@ 000 crowns to pay soldiers to fight for Ernst , and another 40 @,@ 000 directly into the coffers of the new Archbishop . Under the command of his brother , Ernst 's forces pushed their way into Westphalia , threatening Gebhard and Agnes at their stronghold at Arensburg . Gebhard and Agnes escaped to the rebellious provinces of the Netherlands with almost 1000 cavalry , where Prince William gave them a haven in Delft . There , Gebhard solicited the impecunious William for troops and money . After William 's assassination in July 1584 , Gebhard wrote to Queen Elizabeth requesting assistance . Elizabeth responded toward the end of 1585 , directing him to contact Robert Dudley , 1st Earl of Leicester , her deputy with the rebellious Dutch , and recently commissioned as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of her army in the Netherlands . Elizabeth had her own problems with adherents of her cousin Mary , Queen of Scots , and the Spanish .
= = = Stalemate = = =
By late 1585 , although Ernst 's brother had made significant inroads into the Electorate of Cologne , both sides had reached an impasse . Sizable portions of the population subscribed to the Calvinist doctrine ; to support them , Calvinist Switzerland and Strassburg furnished a steady stream of theologians , jurists , books and ideas . The Calvinist barons and counts understood the danger of Spanish intervention : it meant the aggressive introduction of the Counter @-@ Reformation in their territories . France , in the person of Henry III , was equally interested , since the encirclement of France by Habsburgs was cause for concern . Another sizable portion of the electorate 's populace adhered to the old faith , supported by Wittelsbach @-@ funded Jesuits . The supporters of both sides committed atrocities of their own : in the city of Cologne , the mere rumor of Gebhard 's approaching army caused rioters to murder several people suspected of sympathizing with the Protestant cause .
Ernst depended on his brother and the Catholic barons in the Cathedral Chapter to hold the territory he acquired . In 1585 , Munster , Paderborn , and Osnabrück succumbed to Ferdinand 's energetic pursuit in the eastern regions of the electorate , and a short time later , Minden . With their help , Ernst could hold Bonn . Support from the city of Cologne itself was also secure . To oust Gebhard , though , Ernst ultimately had to appeal for aid to Alexander Farnese , Duke of Parma , who commanded Spanish forces in the Netherlands .
Parma was more than willing to help . The Electorate , strategically important to Spain , offered another land route by which to approach the rebellious northern Provinces of the Netherlands . Although the Spanish road from Spain 's holdings on the Mediterranean shores led to its territories in what is today Belgium , it was a long , arduous march , complicated by the provisioning of troops and the potentially hostile populations of the territories through which it passed . An alternative route on the Rhine promised better access to the Habsburg Netherlands . Furthermore , the presence of a Calvinist electorate almost on the Dutch border could delay their efforts to bring the rebellious Dutch back to the Spanish rule and the Catholic confession . Philip II and his generals could be convinced to support Ernst 's cause for such considerations . Indeed , the process of intervention had started earlier . In 1581 , Philip 's forces , paid for by papal gold , had taken Aachen , which Protestants had seized ; by the mid – 1580s , the Duke of Parma 's forces , encouraged by the Wittelsbachs and the Catholics in Cologne , had secured garrisons throughout the northern territories of the Electorate . By 1590 , these garrisons gave Spain access to the northern provinces and Philip felt comfortable enough with his military access to the provinces , and with their isolation from possible support by German Protestants , to direct more of his attention to France , and less to his problems with the Dutch .
On the other side of the feud , to hold the territory , Gebhard needed the full support of his military brother and the very able Neuenahr . To push Ernst out , he needed additional support , which he had requested from Delft and from England . It was clearly in the interests of England and the Dutch to offer assistance ; if the Dutch could not tie up the Spanish army in Flanders , and if that army needed a navy to supply it , Philip could not focus his attention on the English and the French . His own diplomats had sought to present his case as one of pressing concern to all Protestant princes : in November , 1583 , one of his advisers , Dr. Wenceslaus Zuleger , wrote to Francis Walsingham : " I assure you if the Elector of Cologne is not assisted , you will see that the war in the Low Countries will shortly spread over the whole of Germany . " The support Gebhard received , in the form of troops from the Earl of Leicester , and from the Dutch , in the form of the mercenary Martin Schenck , had mixed results . Leicester 's troops , professional and well @-@ led , performed well but their usefulness was limited : Elizabeth 's instructions to help Gebhard had not come with financial support and Leicester had sold his own plate and had exhausted his own personal credit while trying to field an army . Martin Schenck had seen considerable service in Spain 's Army of Flanders , for the French king and for Parma himself . He was a skilled and charismatic soldier , and his men would do anything for him ; reportedly , he could sleep in his saddle , and seemed indomitable in the field . Unfortunately , Schenck was little more than a land @-@ pirate , a free @-@ booter , and rascal , and ultimately he did Gebhard more harm than good , as his behavior in Westphalia and at the Battle of Werl demonstrated .
= = = = Sack of Westphalia = = = =
In late February 1586 , Friedrich Cloedt , whom Gebhard had placed in command of Neuss , and Martin Schenck went to Westphalia at the head of 500 foot and 500 horse . After plundering Vest Recklinghausen , on 1 March they captured Werl through trickery . They loaded a train of wagons with soldiers and covered them with salt . When the wagons of salt were seen outside the city gates , they were immediately admitted , salt being a valued commodity . The " salted soldiers " then over @-@ powered the guard and captured the town . Some of the defenders escaped to the citadel , and could not be dislodged . Claude de Berlaymont , also known as Haultpenne after the name of his castle , collected his own force of 4000 and besieged Schenck and Cloedt in Werl . Attacked from the outside by Haultpenne , and from the inside by the soldiers in the citadel , Schenck and Cloedt broke out of the city with their soldiers on 3 March . Unable to break through the lines , they retreated into the city once more , but several of their soldiers did not make it into the city , and plundered the neighboring villages ; 250 local residents were killed . On 8 March , Schenck and Cloedt loaded their wagons , this time with booty , took 30 magistrates as hostages , and attacked Haultpenne 's force , killing about 500 of them , and losing 200 of their own . Included in the hostages were the Bürgermeister Johann von Pappen and several other high @-@ ranking officials ; although von Pappen died during the retreat , the remaining hostages were released after the payment of a high ransom . Schenck retreated to Venlo and Cloedt returned to the city of Neuss .
= = = Spanish intervention = = =
To some extent , the difficulties both Gebhard and Ernst faced in winning the war were the same the Spanish had in subduing the Dutch Revolt . The protraction of the Spanish and Dutch war — 80 years of bitter fighting interrupted by periodic truces while both sides gathered resources — lay in the kind of war it was : Enemies lived in fortified towns defended by Italian @-@ style bastions , which meant the towns had to be taken and then fortified and maintained . For both Gebhard and Ernst , as for the Spanish commanders in the nearby Lowlands , winning the war meant not only mobilizing enough men to encircle a seemingly endless cycle of enemy artillery fortresses , but also maintaining the army one had and defending all one 's own possessions as they were acquired . The Cologne War , similar to the Dutch Revolt in that respect , was also a war of sieges , not of assembled armies facing one another on the field of battle , nor of maneuver , feint , and parry that characterized wars two centuries earlier and later . These wars required men who could operate the machinery of war , which meant extensive economic resources for soldiers to build and operate the siege works , and a political and military will to keep the machinery of war operating . The Spanish faced another problem , distance , which gave them a distinct interest in intervening in the Cologne affair .
= = = = Razing of Neuss = = = =
Gebhard 's supporter , Adolf von Neuenahr , surrounded Neuss in March 1586 , and persuaded Ernst 's small garrison to capitulate . He refortified and restocked the city and placed young Friedrich Cloedt in command of a garrison of 1600 men , mostly Germans and Dutch soldiers . The town 's fortifications were substantial ; 100 years earlier it had resisted a lengthy siege by Charles the Bold ( 1433 – 1477 ) of Burgundy , and between the fortifications , the natural defenses of rivers , and the garrison , it could withstand all but the most determined assaults . In July 1586 , the Duke of Parma approached and surrounded the city ; by some irony , Agnes ' cousin , Karl von Mansfeld and his troops were a part of the Spanish force assembled against Neuss . Parma had an impressive force at his command ; in addition to Mansfeld 's 2000 troops , he had another 6000 or so foot and Tercios , 2000 well @-@ mounted , experienced Italian , Spanish and German soldiers , and some 45 cannons , which he distributed on the redoubt across the river and on the heights a short distance from the city walls . According to the protocols of war generally accepted in 1586 , Parma requested the capitulation of the city prior to the cannonade . Cloedt declined to capitulate , politely . The next day , being the feast of St. James , and the patron day for the Spanish , the bombardment was not initiated , although mendacious reports circulated in the Spanish camp that the Protestants had roasted two Spanish soldiers alive on the Catholic Holy day , a desecration which fanned their enthusiasm for the impending battle .
The following day , Parma 's artillery pounded at the walls for 30 hours with iron cannonballs weighing 30 – 50 pounds ; in total , his artillery fired more than 2700 rounds . The Spanish made several attempts to storm the city , each repelled by Cloedt 's 1600 soldiers . The ninth assault breached the outer wall . The Spanish and Italian forces entered the town from opposite ends and met in the middle . Cloedt , gravely injured ( his leg was reportedly almost ripped off and he had five other serious wounds ) , had been carried into the town . Parma 's troops discovered Cloedt , being nursed by his wife and his sister . Although Parma was inclined to honor the garrison commander with a soldier 's death by sword , Ernst demanded his immediate execution . The dying man was hanged from the window , with several other officers in his force .
Parma made no effort to restrain his soldiers . On their rampage through the city , Italian and Spanish soldiers slaughtered the rest of the garrison , even the men who tried to surrender . Once their blood @-@ lust was satiated , they began to plunder . Civilians who had taken refuge in the churches were initially ignored , but when the fire started , they were forced into the streets and trapped by the rampaging soldiers . Contemporary accounts refer to children , women , and old men , their clothes smoldering , or in flames , trying to escape the conflagration , only to be trapped by the enraged Spanish ; if they escaped the flames and the Spanish , they were cornered by the enraged Italians . Parma wrote to King Philip that over 4000 lay dead in the ditches ( moats ) . English observers confirmed this report , and elaborated that only eight buildings remained standing .
= = = Siege warfare runs its course = = =
Parma had gone to Neuss prepared for a major assault , and the resources of Spain 's Army of the Netherlands quickly changed the balance in favor of Ernst . In 1586 , Ernst 's allies had secured Vest Recklinghausen , even though they had failed to catch the elusive Schenck , and they had reduced Neuss to a pile of rubble , proving their overwhelming fire @-@ power . In 1587 , they encircled and took the fortified towns in the Oberstift , recapturing Bonn , Godesberg , and Linz am Rhein , and dozens of smaller fortified towns , villages and farmsteads throughout the countryside . Throughout , soldiers from both parties marauded and plundered throughout the countryside , searching either for important officials , booty , or other valuables . On 12 November 1587 , one of Walsingham 's informants wrote , the " soldiers of Vartendonc ( Martin Schenck ) go out daily on excursions , doing very great harm in all places , for they have free passage every where . The other evening they went with 180 horse to above Bonn , between Orchel and Linz ( am Rhein ) , to make prisoner Count Salatin d 'Issemburg ( Salentin von Isenburg ) , but their design did not succeed , as he withdrew into a castle . " In early 1588 , Gebhardt 's supporters once more acquired Bonn ; one of Walsingham 's observers in the Palatinate , in Heidelberg , reported that the Prince of Taxis had been slain outside of Bonn , with 300 Spanish soldiers .
By Spring 1588 , Gebhard had run out of options . In 1583 , he had refused the settlement offered to him after the conferences at Frankfurt and in Westphalia , counting on the support of the other Protestant electors . When their support did not materialize , he pursued diplomatic options with the French , the Dutch , and the English ; these also were of limited help . After the destruction of Neuss in 1586 , and the loss of the most of southern part of the Electorate in 1587 , Rheinberg and its environs were the only territories of the Electorate he could claim , and much of this slipped from his grasp in 1588 . He had exhausted his diplomatic , financial and military possibilities . His health problems ( referred to as Gelenkenschmerz , or joint pain ) prohibited him from riding , which limited his ability to travel . In the spring of 1588 , he relinquished his claim on the Electorate to the protection of Neuenahr and Martin Schenck , and retired to Strassburg . Neuenahr and Schenck continued to fight for him , but the former died in an artillery explosion in 1589 , and the latter was killed at Nijmegen that summer . Without them to defend his claim on the Electorate , Rheinberg , Gebhard 's last outpost in the northern Electorate , fell to Parma 's force in 1589 .
= = Aftermath = =
After Gebhard 's expulsion , Ernst assumed full charge of the Electorate of Cologne . In his later years , a nuncio at Cologne took responsibilities for the financial administration of the archdiocese , and Ernst 's nephew , Ferdinand of Bavaria , was elected to the Cathedral Chapter , the Wittelsbach heir @-@ apparent . When Ernst died in 1612 , the Cathedral Chapter duly elected his nephew to the position and Wittelsbachs held the Electorate until 1761 . Ernst 's victory , both in winning the election in 1583 , and in convincing the assembly of other electors to accept him in 1585 , confirmed him as the new archbishop of Cologne and gave the Wittelsbach family a foothold on the northern Rhine .
Ernst 's rule , and that of his four Wittelsbach successors , strengthened the position of his family in Imperial politics . The victory of the Catholic party further consolidated the Counter @-@ Reformation in the northwest territories of the Holy Roman Empire , especially in the bishoprics of Münster , Paderborn , Osnabrück and Minden , which were bordered by Protestant territories . Once Ernst 's brother or such allies as the Duke of Parma regained control , Jesuits efficiently identified any recalcitrant Protestants and converted them to Catholicism . The Counter @-@ Reformation was thoroughly applied in the lower Rhineland , with the goal that every Protestant , whether Lutheran or Calvinist , would be brought to the Catholic fold . For their efforts , the Spanish acquired important bridgeheads on the Rhine River , securing a land route to the rebellious northern provinces , which helped to extend
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-@ time strategy . Insurrection was the first add @-@ on pack released for StarCraft . Although developed and published by Aztech New Media , it is authorized by Blizzard Entertainment . It was released for the PC on July 31 , 1998 . The expansion 's story focuses on a Confederate colony during the course of the first campaign of StarCraft . As in StarCraft , the player takes control of each race in three separate campaigns . In the first campaign , Terran colonists attempt to defend themselves from the Zerg invasion of the sector as well as from a rising insurgency . The second campaign has the player directing a Protoss task force sent to clear the Zerg infestation of the colony by any means necessary . In the final campaign the player assumes the role of a Zerg cerebrate , whose goal is to crush all opposition on the surface . The expansion contains 30 new campaign missions and over 100 new multiplayer maps , although it does not include new content such as units and graphical terrain tilesets . Insurrection was criticized by reviewers for lacking the quality of the original game and it is not widely available . Although the add @-@ on is authorized by Blizzard Entertainment , they offer no comment on support or availability of the game .
Retribution is the second of the two authorized add @-@ on packs released for StarCraft . The add @-@ on was developed by Stardock and published by WizardWorks Software . It was released for the PC in late 1998 . The game is set during the second campaign in StarCraft , revolving around the acquisition of a crystal of immense power connected to the Xel 'Naga . Divided into three campaigns , the player assumes the roles of a Protoss fleet executor , the commander of a Dominion task force and a Zerg cerebrate , all tasked with retrieving the crystal from a Dominion colony and getting it off the planet as quickly as possible . As with its predecessor , Retribution does not include any new gameplay features beyond its single player campaigns and an abundance of multiplayer levels . The add @-@ on was not well received by reviewers , and instead was regarded as average but at least challenging . Retribution is not widely available , and Blizzard Entertainment offers no comment regarding support or the availability of Retribution despite authorizing the add @-@ on .
StarCraft : Ghost is a tactical stealth game for consoles developed under supervision of Blizzard Entertainment . Announced in 2002 , the game was constantly delayed due to various issues , most notably including a change of development team from Nihilistic Software to Swingin ' Ape Studios in July 2004 . As updates for the game became less frequent and the graphics and game mechanics more outdated , suspicion began to grow that Blizzard would cancel the game . On March 24 , 2006 , Blizzard indefinitely postponed the game 's development . The story of the game is based around Nova , a psychic assassin in the employ of the Terran Dominion . Although frequently used as an example of development hell , Blizzard Entertainment 's Rob Pardo has indicated that he would like the game to be completed in the future , and Blizzard Entertainment refuses to list the game as having been canceled .
On August 23 , 2014 in an interview with Polygon about the cancellation of Blizzard 's next gen MMO Titan Chris Metzen confirmed that StarCraft : Ghost was also cancelled . " It was hard when we canceled Warcraft Adventures . It was hard when we canceled StarCraft : Ghost , " he said . " But it has always resulted in better @-@ quality work . "
= = Development = =
Blizzard Entertainment began planning development on StarCraft in 1995 , shortly after the beginning of development for Diablo . The development was led by Chris Metzen and James Phinney , who also created the game 's fictional universe . Using the Warcraft II : Tides of Darkness game engine as a base , StarCraft made its debut at E3 1996 . The game 's success led to the development of two authorized add @-@ ons , which were both released in 1998 . However , neither of the two add @-@ ons were particularly well received by critics . StarCraft also marked the debut of Blizzard Entertainment 's film department . Previously , cinematic cut scenes were seen as simply gap fillers that often deviated from the game , but with StarCraft and later Brood War introducing high quality cinematics integral to the storyline of the series , Blizzard Entertainment is cited as having changed this perception and became one of the first game companies to raise the standard regarding such cut scenes .
StarCraft 's success also inspired third @-@ party developer Microstar Software to release an unauthorized add @-@ on , entitled Stellar Forces , in May 1998 . Blizzard Entertainment consequently filed a lawsuit against Microstar for selling the add @-@ on , arguing that as the product was unauthorized and created using StarCraft 's level editing software , it was a breach of the end user license agreement .
In November 1998 , Blizzard Entertainment won the court case against Microstar Software . In the settlement , Microstar agreed to pay an undisclosed amount in punitive damages and to destroy all remaining copies of Stellar Forces in its possession , as well as to formally apologize to Blizzard Entertainment .
After the release of the first two add @-@ on packs , Blizzard Entertainment announced the official expansion pack to StarCraft , entitled Brood War . Most of the team at Blizzard Entertainment responsible for StarCraft returned to work on Brood War . Development on Brood War began shortly after StarCraft 's release , and Blizzard Entertainment were assisted by members of Saffire , who were contracted for a variety of tasks consisting of programming and design for levels , visuals and audio effects .
In 2001 , StarCraft : Ghost began development under Nihilistic Software , with the aim of releasing the game for the Xbox , PlayStation 2 and Nintendo GameCube during late 2003 . Unlike previous real @-@ time strategy StarCraft titles , Ghost was to be a tactical third @-@ person action game . Although the press was positive about the video game console direction taken by Ghost , the game was consistently delayed , and during the third quarter of 2004 , Nihilistic Software discontinued their work with the project . Blizzard stated that Nihilistic Software had completed the tasks it had been contracted for and that the game would be delivered on time . The game was never released .
StarCraft II was announced on May 19 , 2007 , nearly a decade after the original , at the Blizzard Worldwide Invitational in Seoul , South Korea . StarCraft II was being developed , under the codename Medusa , for concurrent release on Windows XP , Windows Vista and Mac OS X. Blizzard announced a release date for July 27 , 2010 . Development on the game began in 2003 , shortly after Warcraft III : The Frozen Throne was released .
= = Adaptations = =
= = = Novelizations = = =
The StarCraft series is supported by eight novelizations , with at least two more in the works , all published by Simon & Schuster . At BlizzCon 2007 , Chris Metzen stated that he hoped to novelize the entirety of StarCraft and Brood War into a definitive text @-@ based story . The first novel , StarCraft : Uprising , was written by Micky Neilson , a Blizzard Entertainment employee , and originally released only as an e @-@ book in December 2000 . The novel follows the origins of the character Sarah Kerrigan . The second novel , entitled StarCraft : Liberty 's Crusade , serves as an adaptation of the first campaign of StarCraft , following on a journalist following a number of the key Terran characters in the series . Written by Jeff Grubb and published in March 2001 , it was the first StarCraft novel to be released in paperback . StarCraft : Shadow of the Xel 'Naga , published in July 2001 is the third novel , written by Kevin Anderson under the pseudonym Gabriel Mesta . It serves as a link between StarCraft and Brood War . The fantasy author Tracy Hickman was brought in to write the fourth novel , StarCraft : Speed of Darkness , which was published in June 2002 . Speed of Darkness is written from the viewpoint of a Confederate marine during the early stages of StarCraft . The first four novels , including the e @-@ book Uprising , were later re @-@ released as a single anthology entitled The StarCraft Archive in November 2007 .
A fifth novel entitled StarCraft : Queen of Blades was published in June 2006 . Written by Aaron S. Rosenberg , it is a novelization of the second campaign in StarCraft from the perspective of Jim Raynor . This was followed in November 2006 by StarCraft Ghost : Nova , a book focusing on the early origins of the character of Nova from the postponed StarCraft : Ghost game . Written by Keith R.A. DeCandido , the novel was meant to accompany the release of StarCraft : Ghost , but was continued despite the postponement of the game . In 2007 Christie Golden , an author whose previous work included novels in Blizzard 's Warcraft series , was brought in to write a trilogy entitled the StarCraft : The Dark Templar Saga . The trilogy acts as a link between StarCraft and its sequel StarCraft II . The first installment , Firstborn being published in May 2007 and Shadow Hunters , the second novel , being published in November 2007 . The final part of the trilogy , Twilight was released in June 2009 . I , Mengsk was publish in 2009 , a novel that was written by Graham McNeill which focuses on the origins of the characters in the Mengsk family . Last January 2010 Keith R.A. DeCandido and David Gerrold authored the " StarCraft : Ghost Academy " to elaborate the training of Nova as an espionage agent and in September 2011 , Simon & Schuster published the " StarCraft Ghost : Spectres " as a sequel to the novel " StarCraft Ghost : Nova " . Timothy Zahn will release an unnamed Starcraft novel in 2016 .
In addition to these , Blizzard Entertainment authorized two short stories in Amazing Stories magazine , entitled StarCraft : Revelations and StarCraft : Hybrid . Revelations was authored by series creator Chris Metzen and Sam Moore , a Blizzard employee , and was featured on the cover of the 1999 spring edition with art by Blizzard 's art director Samwise Didier . Hybrid was written by Micky Neilson and again was accompanied by artwork by Didier ; the short story was published in the spring edition of 2000 . At New York Comic @-@ Con in 2008 , TokyoPop announced that they would be producing a number of StarCraft graphic novels . Two series were announced : StarCraft : Frontline , which is a series of short story anthologies that spanned four volumes , and StarCraft : Ghost Academy , which was written by Keith R.A. DeCandido and follows several characters , such as Nova , during their training as the psychic assassins called " ghosts " . There was a Starcraft graphic novel released in 2010 , produced by Wildstorm and DC Comics , which features outlaws working on a last job , the assassination of Jim Raynor .
= = = Merchandise = = =
A number of action figures and collectable statues based upon the characters and units in StarCraft have been produced by ToyCom . A number of model kits , made by Academy Hobby Model Kits , were also produced , displaying 1 / 30 scale versions of the marine and the hydralisk . In addition , Blizzard Entertainment teamed up with Fantasy Flight Games to create a board game based in the StarCraft universe . Blizzard Entertainment also licensed Wizards of the Coast to produce an Alternity based game entitled StarCraft Adventures .
= = Reception and cultural impact = =
The StarCraft series has been a commercial success . After its release , StarCraft became the best @-@ selling PC game for that year , selling over 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . In the next decade , StarCraft sold over 9 @.@ 5 million copies across the globe , with 4 @.@ 5 million of these being sold in South Korea . Since the initial release of StarCraft , Blizzard Entertainment reported that its Battle.net online multiplayer service grew by 800 percent . StarCraft remains one of the most popular online games in the world . After its release , StarCraft rapidly grew in popularity in South Korea , establishing a successful pro @-@ gaming scene . Pro @-@ gamers in South Korea are niche media celebrities and StarCraft games broadcast over three television channels dedicated to gaming . StarCraft has won numerous Game of the Year awards , is often described as one of the best real @-@ time strategy games made , and is widely credited with popularizing the use of distinct and unique sides — as opposed to sides of equal ability and strength — in real @-@ time strategy games .
Although Insurrection and Retribution were not particularly well received , StarCraft : Brood War generally received very positive reviews , with an aggregate GameRankings score of 95 @.@ 00 % . The magazine PC Zone gave Brood War a short but flattering review , describing it as having " definitely been worth the wait " and also drew note to the cinematic cut scenes , stating that they " actually feel like part of the story rather than an afterthought . " IGN stated that Brood War 's enhancements were " enough to enrich the core gameplay without losing the flavor " while GameSpot noted that the expansion was developed with the same level of care as the full game .
The release of StarCraft II : Wings of Liberty performed very well commercially and critically , selling 1 @.@ 8 million copies within the first forty eight hours of release , which breaks the record of best selling strategy game in the history of the gaming industry . It received very positive reviews with an aggregate GameRankings score of 93 % , and was nominated as the " Best PC Game of 2010 " on Gamespot . This success continued with the release of the first expansion pack , StarCraft II : Heart of the Swarm , which had a GameRankings aggregate score of 86 % . The expansion pack sold 1 @.@ 1 million copies within the first two days of its release on March 12 , 2013 , and was the best @-@ selling PC game in that quarter . StarCraft II : Legacy of the Void , the third expansion pack , was similarly well received , having a GameRankings aggregate score of 88 % while selling more than 1 million copies worldwide within the first day of its release .
Since the release of StarCraft II a number of tournaments have been hosted in Korea and elsewhere , such as the GOMTV Global StarCraft II League ( GSL ) .
= Britney and Kevin : Chaotic =
Britney and Kevin : Chaotic is an American reality television series created by Anthony E. Zuiker . Starring American recording artist Britney Spears and her then @-@ husband Kevin Federline , the five @-@ episode series aired on UPN from May 17 to June 14 , 2005 . The series chronicles the couple 's relationship from their courtship , engagement and wedding .
A majority of the footage was originally shot for Spears ' own reality series to document the European leg of The Onyx Hotel Tour in the spring of 2004 . Spears fell and injured her left knee during the shooting of the music video for " Outrageous " , causing the remainder of the tour and the series to be cancelled .
Britney and Kevin : Chaotic was heavily criticized by critics , who considered the series to be career suicide for Spears . Critics noted Spears ' excessive narcissism and criticized the themes of the series as being too explicit . The DVD release of Britney and Kevin : Chaotic included Spears ' first extended play of the same name .
= = Background = =
MTV News announced in April 2004 that Spears was planning a reality television series to document her backstage life during the European leg of The Onyx Hotel Tour . Pitched as OnTourage , footage from the six @-@ week leg was to be compiled into a six @-@ episode series , with each episode selling for about $ 1 million , " much more than most reality programs " . Spears was to narrate and shoot footage of her with her dancers and handlers . The show was planned to be completed " as early as summer " .
On June 8 , Spears was shooting the music video for " Outrageous " in Manhattan , when she fell and injured her left knee . She was taken immediately to a local hospital and underwent arthroscopic surgery the next day . She was forced to remain six weeks with a thigh brace , followed by eight to twelve weeks of rehabilitation , which caused any future concerts to be canceled . As a result , OnTourage was also scrapped .
In July , Spears announced her engagement to American dancer Kevin Federline , whom she had met three months before . As Federline had only recently ended his relationship with actress Shar Jackson , who was pregnant with their second child , this engagement was the subject of extensive media coverage . They held a wedding ceremony on September 18 , 2004 , but were not legally married until three weeks later on October 6 due to a delay finalizing the couple 's prenuptial agreement . In October 2004 , the singer announced she would be taking another career break to start a family .
= = Development = =
After a " fierce bidding war " , on April 5 , 2005 , it was announced that Spears had signed a deal with UPN to air a reality television series documenting her relationship with Federline . The series , which would air in five episodes , was revealed to chronicle the relationship " from the earliest stages of their courtship to their engagement and ultimately , their stroll down the aisle " . In a statement about the series , Spears stated : " From the day that Kevin and I met , there have been constant rumors and inaccurate speculation about our lives together . I feel that last year , the tabloids ran my life , and I am really excited about showing my fans what really happened , rather than all the stories , which have been misconstrued by journalists in the past . As I mentioned before , I am now going to be expressing my personal life through art " .
The series was initially titled Britney and Kevin : Can You Handle Our Truth ? , before its title was changed to Britney and Kevin : Chaotic , with " Can you handle our truth ? " becoming its tagline . A majority of the footage shot for OnTourage was used for Britney and Kevin : Chaotic . According to Spears , the series helped the couple to know each other more , saying : " I didn 't know [ Kevin ] that well , and when I got the camera out , it made me feel better . It 's really weird because it was like all this tension at first . We were so nervous being together . I 'm really shy , and when I had the camera in my hand , it made me feel more outspoken . "
= = Critical response = =
Britney and Kevin : Chaotic was heavily criticized by critics . Taylor Carik of Flak Magazine considered the series an " insult to common sense and decency " , while commenting that " Britney 's ridiculous behavior in Chaotic confirms the obvious transparency of her status as a ' celebrity product ' and the calculated nature of her success " . He also noted that music critics would " easily open the floodgates for new and creative ways to discuss her offense to pop culture 's attempts at meaningfulness " . Aaron Beierle of DVD Talk reviewed the series as an " absolute disaster of the highest order " , while writing that : " [ Britney & Kevin : Chaotic ] is an absolutely watchable and horrifying train wreck of a series " . Slant Magazine writer Ed Gonzalez noted that " the show 's extreme shooting style makes it especially hard to stare at what is — no more no less — a totem to the pop singer 's narcissism " . He stated that the views Spears expresses in the series suggest that she is " someone who believes they 're the only person on the face of the earth " .
Josh Wolk of Entertainment Weekly felt that Britney and Kevin : Chaotic was Spears ' " career suicide by videocam " , commenting , " the truth is not only that she 's vapid , but that she 's self @-@ obsessed to a dangerous degree " . Wolk also noted " many intersecting things wrong on this show and with Britney that I can 't possibly prioritize them " . Laura Fries of Variety perceived the series as " a visual assault of nauseating camera angles , likely to upset even the most desensitized TV viewer " . Hayley Butler of Jam ! gave the final episode of the series a mixed review , saying it " was full of tear @-@ jerking moments " and " the only episode not full of stupid jokes , childish behaviour and Britney 's thoughts on life " , commenting that Spears and Federline wedding scenes " looked to be a very emotional and touching event " . Butler also wondered " if they feel their show served its purpose " .
= = U.S. television ratings = =
The first episode of the series was seen by 3 @.@ 7 million viewers , making it UPN 's most @-@ watched piece of regularly scheduled programming in the 9pm Tuesday timeslot since March 2004 . The second episode garnered 3 million viewers , finishing in eighty @-@ first in its timeslot for the week . The third and fourth episode were viewed by 2 @.@ 5 million viewers each , while the final , aired an hour earlier at 8 : 00pm Eastern Standard Time , drew 2 @.@ 1 million viewers . In one month , Britney and Kevin : Chaotic lost 1 @.@ 6 million viewers .
= = Episodes = =
= = Home media = =
Britney & Kevin : Chaotic ... the DVD & More was released on September 27 , 2005 in the United States . The DVD contains the series ' five episodes , as well as unreleased footage and music videos for " Do Somethin ' " ( 2005 ) and " Someday ( I Will Understand ) " ( 2005 ) . Also included is a photo gallery of the couple 's wedding ceremony . Spears ' first extended play of the same name was included as a bonus CD to the DVD release . The presentation is offered in the aspect ratio of 1 @.@ 33 : 1 . In Japan , the DVD peaked at number forty on the Oricon DVD chart , staying on the chart for 4 weeks .
= Effects of Hurricane Dean in Mexico =
The effects of Hurricane Dean in Mexico were more severe than anywhere else in the storm 's path . Hurricane Dean , the most intense storm of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season , formed in the Atlantic Ocean west of Cape Verde on August 14 , 2007 . The Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane sped through the Caribbean Sea , rapidly intensifying before making landfall on Mexico 's Yucatán Peninsula . Accurate forecasts of the storm 's location and intensity enabled thorough preparations ; nevertheless when the massive storm made landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula as a catastrophic Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale it damaged thousands of homes .
Weakening as it crossed the peninsula , Dean emerged into the Bay of Campeche and re @-@ strengthened before making a second landfall in Veracruz . Although the second landfall did not bring winds as intense as the first , it brought more rainfall and caused devastating landslides in the states of Veracruz and Tabasco . Between the two landfalls , Dean caused MXN $ 2 billion ( US $ 184 million ; 2007 dollars ) of damage and killed 13 people .
= = Preparations = =
= = = First landfall = = =
Forecasters and computer models at the Miami @-@ based National Hurricane Center predicted that Hurricane Dean would impact the Yucatán Peninsula a full 6 days before the storm actually arrived . The hurricane 's stable and well predicted path gave all of the countries in the region ample time to prepare for its arrival . On August 17 , at the request of the Quintana Roo state government , which was expecting their state to suffer a direct hit , the Civil Protection Office of Mexico 's federal Interior Ministry declared a state of emergency for the entire state . This included the towns and cities of Cancún , Playa del Carmen , and Chetumal as well as the islands of Cozumel , Isla Mujeres and Holbox .
On August 18 authorities began evacuating people from parts of Quintana Roo , moving 2 @,@ 500 people from Holbox Island and a further 80 @,@ 000 tourists from elsewhere in the state . Air @-@ evacuations of tourists were stopped when Dean 's outer rainbands closed almost a dozen Cancún and Cozumel airports on the evening of August 20 . The Campeche airport closed shortly thereafter . The state government set up 530 storm shelters in schools and other public buildings , prepared to hold 73 @,@ 000 people . With 20 @,@ 000 food packages ready , the state of Yucatán , Quintana Roo 's neighbor to the northwest , declared a green alert indicating a low but significant level of danger .
World Vision and other international aid agencies prepared blankets , sheets , personal hygiene items and medicines for quick transport to affected areas . The United States pre @-@ positioned a three @-@ person disaster management team into the Yucatán before the storm 's arrival with the intent of helping coordinate disaster management if necessary . The U.S. State Department urged its citizens in Quintana Roo , Yucatán , and Campeche to prepare for the storm and to evacuate if necessary . The department also relocated its non @-@ essential personnel from those states to Mexico City . At 1500 UTC on August 19 a hurricane watch was issued on the Yucatán Peninsula from Chetumal to San Felipe and final preparations were rushed to completion .
= = = Second landfall = = =
On August 20 , warnings for Dean 's second landfall were issued . The coast from Progreso to Ciudad del Carmen was put under a hurricane warning and the coast from Cancún at the tip of the Yucatán Peninsula west to Progreso . At 0300 UCT , August 21 , a tropical storm watch was issued for the coast from Chilitepec to Veracruz , and a hurricane watch was issued from Chilitepec to Tampico , Tamaulipas . As Dean began to cross the Yucatán Peninsula and maintained its structure better than forecasters had expected , these watches and warnings were expanded . At their peak , a hurricane warning covered the area from Campeche , Campeche , to Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz , and a tropical storm warning stretched from Tampico to La Cruz , Tamaulipas .
Residents in Veracruz stocked up on essential supplies , especially food and water , ahead of the storm 's second landfall . At the request of the government of Veracruz , federal Secretary of the Interior Francisco Ramírez Acuña declared a state of emergency for 81 municipalities ahead of Hurricane Dean 's expected landfall in the state . This gave local authorities access to the resources of the Revolving Fund of the National Natural Disaster Fund to take care of the nutrition , health , and shelter their populations should the storm 's damage require it .
Although Dean was still a hurricane and was expected to re @-@ strengthen slightly before making its second landfall , the fact that it had weakened caused some residents to let down their guard . As a result , residents of Veracruz and Campeche were much less prepared for the storm than those on the Yucatán Peninsula .
= = Impact = =
= = = First landfall = = =
The hurricane hit land near Majahual on the Quintana Roo coast of the Yucatán Peninsula at 0830 UTC on August 21 . Wind gusts of 200 mph ( 320 km / h ) were reported . The state 's tourist cities of Cancún and Cozumel were spared the worst of the storm , but it wreaked havoc in the state capital Chetumal , some 40 mi ( 65 km ) south of landfall , causing significant flooding . Communication with the Mayan communities near the landfall location was initially difficult , but the town of Majahual , which had a population of 200 , was " almost flattened " by the storm . Storm surge and high winds severely damaged or destroyed hundreds of buildings and had the strength to crumple steel girders . About 15 @,@ 000 families were left homeless , primarily in small villages around Quintana Roo . At the Costa Maya cruise port , waves tore away portions of the concrete docks and destroyed the boardwalk . The damage made the port unsuitable for cruise ships , effectively freezing the region 's tourism industry until they could be repaired . The hurricane 's winds damaged 2 @.@ 3 million ha ( 5 @.@ 7 million acres ) of jungle , almost all of it in Quintana Roo , Yucatán , and Campeche .
At its first landfall , the bulk of Hurricane Dean 's damage was to agriculture . 12 @,@ 000 producers suffered losses , mostly in the states of Quintana Roo and Yucatán . 30 @,@ 000 ha ( 74 @,@ 000 acre ) of habanero peppers were destroyed , along with 150 @,@ 000 ha ( 370 @,@ 000 acre ) of corn and 60 @,@ 000 ha ( 150 @,@ 000 acre ) of citrus . Extensive damage to fields planted with bananas , avocados , cucumbers , squash , jalapeño peppers , and other crops were also reported on the Yucatán Peninsula .
President Felipe Calderón cut short a visit to Canada to return to Mexico and assess the damage . Hurricane Dean 's Category 5 landfall – the first such landfall in the Atlantic basin in 15 years – took no lives . International organizations , including the United Nations , attributed this to the government 's thorough preparations and forecasters ' ample warning .
= = = Second landfall = = =
The next day , at 1630 UTC on August 22 , Hurricane Dean made a second landfall , this time near the town of Tecolutla , Veracruz , as a Category 2 hurricane . Following the second landfall on the Veracruz coast , Joloapan town saw the Dean ´ s eye , then in a 30 @-@ minute period free clouds and sunny conditions and after that the last strongest eyewall which caused many trees felled and blew roof off ; two rivers in the mountains of the state of Hidalgo overflowed , and rain fell as far west as the Pacific coast . Veracruz Governor Fidel Herrera said there was " a tremendous amount of damage " . Petroleum production was not severely damaged and quickly returned to normal , although its brief interruption was responsible for a 6 % year @-@ on @-@ year decrease in third quarter .
Hurricane Dean , at its second landfall , dropped 4 to 8 in ( 100 to 200 mm ) of rainfall across the western states of Jalisco and Nayarit . This rainfall trigged a mudslide in Jalisco which fell on 10 houses and killed one of the occupants . Landslides in Puebla killed five people , and another was crushed when a wall in his house collapsed . One person in Veracruz was electrocuted after touching a power line while repairing his roof . In Michoacán , as the outer bands of the storm swept over the state , a man sheltering under a tree was struck by lightning . Two women died in Hidalgo when heavy rain collapsed their house 's roof . Another man drowned while trying to cross a rain @-@ swollen river in Tlacolula , Oaxaca . The heavy rains caused dozens of smaller landslides throughout the country , particularly in Veracruz and Tabasco , but most of them caused no fatalities . At least 50 @,@ 000 houses were damaged to varying degrees throughout the country . Although Dean 's rains caused flooding as far inland as Mexico City , where they closed a portion of Puebla @-@ Mexico highway , the damage was concentrated in the states of Quintana Roo and Veracruz .
As with its first landfall , Hurricane Dean damaged crops throughout its impact area . In Puebla it destroyed 135 @,@ 000 ha ( 335 @,@ 000 acre ) of corn and more than 22 @,@ 000 ha ( 54 @,@ 000 acre ) of coffee , while in Veracruz 15 @,@ 000 ha ( 37 @,@ 000 acre ) of various crops were lost . Unlike in Belize and the Eastern Caribbean , the storm spared the sugarcane crop in Veracruz .
Between the hurricane 's two landfalls , Dean affected an estimated 207 @,@ 800 people in the states of Quintana Roo , Campeche , Veracruz , Hildalgo , Puebla and Tabasco . The storm damaged 85 miles ( 140 km ) of power lines and left more than 100 @,@ 000 people without electricity . Landslides , storm tides , and widespread structural damage combined to compromise water sources throughout the country . The extent of the damage was never calculated at a federal level , but hundreds of villages lost access to fresh water in the days following the storm . Hurricane Dean killed 12 people in Mexico but none of the deaths occurred during its first and most powerful landfall on the Yucatán Peninsula . Between the two landfalls the storm caused a total of Mex $ 2 billion ( US $ 184 million ) of damages .
= = Aftermath = =
Post @-@ storm analysis showed that , while less deadly , Dean 's first and more powerful landfall caused significantly more infrastructural damage than its second . Where the landfall occurred at the town of Majahual specifically , and the state of Quintana Roo generally , communities took longer to recover than in the rest of the country . Quintana Roo Governor Félix González Canto reported that although the cleanup in the state capital of Chetumal was completed within three weeks , it took more than six months to fix all of the region 's rural roads . Unable to handle the hurricane 's aftermath , the state government appealed to federal authorities and secured Mex $ 755 million ( US $ 74 @.@ 8 million ) of aid . Combined with the state 's contribution of $ 270 million ( US $ 26 @.@ 7 million ) , a housing @-@ repair fund of over $ 1 @,@ 025 million ( US $ 101 @.@ 5 million ) was established . In the three months immediately following the storm , over 37 @,@ 000 houses were rebuilt or repaired using monies from this fund .
In the days following the hurricane , immediate access to clean water was a priority for international aid agencies working in Mexico . The National Commission of Water spent another $ 25 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 47 million ) of federal funds repairing the damaged infrastructure for irrigation and drinking water .
Carnival Cruise Lines and Royal Caribbean Cruises , the world 's two largest cuise operators , diverted their ships away from the damaged cruise port of Puerto Costa Maya . Their plans originally expected diversions until at least 2009 , but the central government was quick to fund rebuilding of the destroyed concrete piers . By June 2008 they were rebuilt to accommodate even larger ships than before , and ships scheduled stops there for September 2008 .
The federal government was initially lauded for its swift and thorough preparation to which most observers , including the United Nations , attributed Dean 's low death toll . However , after the storm there were several accusations of political motivation in the distribution of aid . Members of President Felipe Calderón 's Partido Accion Nacional ( PAN ) distributed bags of bread , funded by the nation 's disaster relief coffers , carrying the party 's logo . In Veracruz Governor Fidel Herrera was accused by both the PAN and his own Partido Revolucionario Institucional ( PRI ) of using state resources , including hurricane relief , to support the campaigns of PRI candidates .
= Beautiful Heartache =
Beautiful Heartache is a 2009 music album by Russian pianist and singer @-@ songwriter , Oksana Grigorieva , with Mel Gibson as executive producer . Born in Saransk , Russia , Grigorieva studied music in Moscow and Kazan , and at the Royal College of Music in London . She later moved to the U.S. and patented a technique of instructing music notation to children . Grigorieva gained attention as a songwriter in 2006 after a song that she wrote , " Un Dia Llegara " , became popular on the Josh Groban album Awake .
Grigorieva signed with Gibson 's music label , and the two began production on her first music album . She composed all songs on the album . Gibson served as co @-@ writer on the song , " Say My Name , " and recorded four music videos for the album 's release . The album was positively received by the media , including ABC News and Reuters . IndieLondon gave the album a rating of 4 out of 5 .
= = Musician = =
Grigorieva was born in Saransk , Russia . Her parents were music professors . She grew up in Ukraine , and at the age of 15 moved to Moscow to attend university in order to learn piano . She said of her experience of learning music as a child , " Diplomas were everything . It wasn 't unusual for students to play ten hours a day . Our skin would start to crack . We 'd literally have bleeding fingers . " Grigorieva finished conservatoire studies in Kazan , and moved to London where she continued her studies and taught music to others . After studying at the Royal College of Music , she moved to the United States and spent time living in New York and Los Angeles , California . She taught music in the U.S. , and patented a technique of instructing music notation to children . Grigorieva composed and performed music , and produced works for theatre and advertisements . A 2006 song she wrote , " Un Dia Llegara " , became popular on the Josh Groban album , Awake ; this garnered her recognition as a songwriter .
= = Production = =
Grigorieva had signed with Gibson 's music label prior to the album 's release . The music project was made by the film production company Icon Entertainment , owned by Gibson . She wrote all of the songs on the album , and received a credit as producer with Gibson listed as executive producer . Grigorieva explained the choice of title for the album , in an interview with IndieLondon , " Well , one of the tracks on the album is called Beautiful Heartache ... everybody has a heartbreak at some point in their lives . It ’ s how you deal with it that ’ s important . So , I guess I was drawn to that notion for the album title . "
In an interview with The Times , she commented , " I 'm very lucky they offered me the chance to follow my dreams , but also to allow me to produce my own album , which is hardly ever offered to first @-@ time artists . He believes in
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album , " ' Beautiful Heartache ' features a collection of wistful love songs , blending shimmering string arrangements with pop and jazz @-@ influenced arrangements that showcase Grigorieva 's soulful voice . " In a review of the album , Jack Foley of IndieLondon gave it a rating of 4 out of 5 , and observed , " throughout , she displays a keen ear for melody , for honest emotional simplicity and classic values . She ’ s well worth taking the time to check out " . The track from the album co @-@ written with Mel Gibson , " Say My Name " , was not generally well received by music critics , and received negative comments from listeners at the website E ! Online .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Oksana Grigorieva ; , all music composed by Oksana Grigorieva ; " Say My Name " co @-@ written with Mel Gibson .
= = Personnel = =
Composition
Oksana Grigorieva – writing , composition
Mel Gibson – co @-@ writer , " Say My Name "
Accompaniment
Matt Chamberlain – drums
Paul Bushnell – bass
Lyle Workman – guitar
Greg Suran – guitar
Jamie Muhoberac – keyboard
David Campbell – string arrangements and conducting
= Great Reality TV Swindle =
The Great Reality TV Swindle ( also known as Project MS @-@ 2 ) was a con perpetrated in 2002 by Nik Russian , a British man who , at the time , was working at an entry @-@ level position in a branch of the UK book chain Waterstone 's . Russian placed advertisements in major publications that invited people to audition for a year @-@ long reality television programme where they could potentially win a prize of GB £ 100 @,@ 000 . After receiving hundreds of responses , he auditioned some of them on Raven 's Ait in London , then selected 30 successful auditionees to take part , without informing them that no actual programme had been commissioned . Telling them that the show would last for an entire year , Russian instructed the participants to leave their homes , quit their jobs and then meet him in London on 10 June , where they would be divided into teams of ten and set their challenge for the next twelve months .
The challenge was to make £ 1 million in a single year . Realising that they would essentially be making their own prize money , most contestants quit the show within two days . One group stayed together for slightly longer : sleeping on the floor of their cameraman 's flat , they attempted to create their own TV show about themselves . Having also given up his flat and job , Russian was also homeless , and was forced to stay with the contestants he had manipulated . After the programme failed , Russian went into hiding , and was unable to be contacted . He was eventually tracked down by one of his victims to an address in Richmond upon Thames , where he was forced to apologise on camera . As he had not taken any money from his victims , a criminal case against Russian was not pursued — a civil case was also not pursued due to a lack of funds .
= = Background = =
= = = Nik Russian = = =
Nikita " Nik " Russian was born Keith Anthony Gillard in Surrey in 1977 . Raised in Farnham , he legally changed his name to Jack Lister in his early twenties , then changed it again to Nikita Russian . He studied English at Goldsmiths , University of London , but dropped out before the exams . He had set up businesses and written unpublished novels before taking a job working at a branch of Waterstone 's in London — he subsequently decided that he wanted to produce his own reality television programme .
= = = Reality television = = =
Reality TV was a popular genre of television programming in the UK in 2002 . The third series of the UK version of Big Brother — which was showing while Russian 's con took place — attracted audience figures of approximately 5 @.@ 8 million . Most British reality TV programmes at the time centred on a team of people trying to accomplish a specific goal or target . For example , the 2000 series Jailbreak challenged a group to escape from a mock prison , while the 2001 series The Mole gave the contestants the task of discovering which of them was sabotaging their attempts to win money . Most reality TV shows offered a cash reward to successful participants — both Jailbreak and the first series of The Mole offered a prize of £ 100 @,@ 000 .
Several reality TV contestants were able to become celebrities in their own right after raising their profiles on television . Craig Phillips and Brian Dowling , the winners of the first two series of Big Brother , both created successful media careers . Phillips had been featured as a DIY expert on programmes such as BBC 's Trading Up and ITV 's Renovation Street , while Dowling became the UK 's first openly gay children 's TV presenter when he hosted the Saturday morning programme SMTV Live . Ben Fogle , a contestant on the BBC reality series Castaway 2000 , went on to become a television presenter for several programmes , and hosted his own series called Extreme Dreams .
= = Swindle = =
= = = Auditions = = =
In early 2002 , Nik Russian placed advertisements for a year @-@ long television programme in publications such as The Stage and the Evening Standard , which invited " characterful , resourceful and energetic " people to apply for the chance to " raise [ their ] profile " and potentially win £ 100 @,@ 000 . Russian was e @-@ mailed more than a thousand applications and auditioned some of them on the Raven 's Ait island in London . Some had applied simply for the prize money ; others hoped that exposure from the programme could help them to achieve some of their dreams , such as working as a television presenter or launching a fashion label .
The auditionees were told that the show was being created by the production company Nikita Russian Productions ( NRP ) . For the purposes of the auditions , Russian enlisted the help of his friends to take on roles such as psychoanalysts and runners — his girlfriend , whom he had met on a university access course , acted as a psychological assessor , while his friend Mike was a cameraman . The auditionees were then divided into small groups and given practical and psychological tests to complete , such as baking a cake in under an hour without a kitchen or ingredients . From these auditionees , 30 people were selected to star in Russian 's programme , which he had dubbed " Project MS @-@ 2 " .
The winning candidates were informed of their success in an e @-@ mail from NRP and were also sent various contracts to sign and return . They were told that the project would last for a year , so most of them gave up their flats and jobs . The contracts stated that their food , accommodation and leisure money would be provided , and that they were to meet in London on 10 June 2002 for the programme to begin filming . Each contestant was also told to set up a new bank account to which Russian could have access and to arrive without money or credit cards on the launch day .
= = = Launch day = = =
The 30 contestants were divided into three teams of ten named Team 1 , Team 2 and Team 3 , and each group met in a different London location on 10 June , the day of the programme 's launch . To record what each team did , Russian hired unpaid trainee cameramen . Once the teams were assembled , they were given their challenge : in a year , they had to make £ 1 million . Their first task was to find accommodation for themselves for free for a week . The contestants slowly realised that , despite what their contracts had claimed , they would have to find their own food and accommodation , and would essentially be making their own prize money . Some contestants demanded to meet with Russian , who eventually revealed to them that no television channel had actually commissioned his show . Teams 1 and 3 disbanded within two days .
Team 2 remained together for slightly longer — sleeping on the floor of the flat in Dalston that belonged to their cameraman Tim Eagle , they decided to film their own reality TV programme about themselves , and set up a " diary room " to discuss their thoughts about Russian and his show . Having also given up his home and job , Russian had nowhere to stay either , and he too was forced to sleep on Eagle 's floor with Team 2 . On 12 June , Eagle contacted the local news station , London Tonight , and the group locked Russian in the flat , forcing him to speak with the journalists once they had arrived . After their story made the local news , Team 2 stayed together until 14 June before they also split up .
= = Aftermath = =
Having believed that they would be participating in Russian 's television programme for an entire year , most contestants had given up their homes , jobs and partners — most had to find new employment and some were forced to move in with their parents . Russian went into hiding and was unable to be reached by his victims . On 13 June 2002 , Debbie Leigh Driver , one of Russian 's contestants , contacted Caz Gorham and Frances Dickenson of the independent production company Christmas TV & Film and told them about the hoax . Gorham and Dickenson produced a genuine TV programme to document the story of the con and how the participants were now trying to get their lives back together , which was shown on Channel 4 in December 2002 .
Some participants tried to track Russian down to have their questions answered . One contestant , Louise Miles , discovered that Russian 's production company , NRP , did not actually exist and that the woman who had been answering their phone calls was really Russian 's mother , Margaret . Another participant , Daniel Pope , managed to track Russian down to an address in Richmond upon Thames and convinced him to be interviewed by Christmas TV and apologise on camera . As Russian had not actually taken money from his victims , he had not committed a crime , and a civil case was not pursued due to a lack of funds .
= = Media reaction = =
Much of the mainstream media 's reaction to the con was published in December 2002 , around the time that Christmas TV 's documentary was shown on Channel 4 . Although most commentators placed the blame for the swindle on Russian himself by denouncing him as a manipulative con man , others were more sympathetic . Writing for The Daily Mail , Peter Paterson contrasted Russian with Humphry Berkeley , a British politician who committed a similar con in 1948 under the pseudonym H. Rochester Sneath . Paterson observed that , while Berkeley had derived " considerable fun " from his con , Russian had conversely been in a " deep gloom " following his . Similarly , Rupert Smith of The Guardian described Russian as a " tragic figure " .
Some critics placed blame on the contestants ' overly trusting nature and desire for fame , calling them gullible wannabes . Others noted the irony in how the con had , ultimately , put them on television , which Gorham described as " a happy ending " . In another article for The Guardian , Smith remarked : " These are not stupid people . In archive footage from the fake show , they look like any other post @-@ Big @-@ Brother buffoons ; but in the sombre , reflective interviews after the event they come across as likable , wounded individuals . "
Other commentators speculated that Russian 's physical appearance may have helped him perpetrate his con . Critics described him as " beautiful " and " Byronic " , and noted that he " appeared every inch the cocky TV producer he aspired to be " . Some felt that the con represented an indictment on how reality television had altered the public 's notion of celebrity . Paterson called the genre a " Pied Piper call of fleeting TV fame " that had become " as powerful as any religious cult " , while Paul English of The Daily Record noted that the swindle reflected a " fascination with reality TV – and how the draw of being on telly can turn us into gullible fools " . Both of Christmas TV 's producers agreed . Gorham called the con " a fantastic wake @-@ up call for reality TV " ; Dickenson remarked : " I hope [ the swindle ] shows those who may be interested in these programmes that they should be careful . "
= Discovery Expedition =
The British National Antarctic Expedition , 1901 – 04 , generally known as the Discovery Expedition , was the first official British exploration of the Antarctic regions since James Clark Ross 's voyage sixty years earlier . Organized on a large scale under a joint committee of the Royal Society and the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) , the new expedition aimed to carry out scientific research and geographical exploration in what was then largely an untouched continent . It launched the Antarctic careers of many who would become leading figures in the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration , including Robert Falcon Scott who led the expedition , Ernest Shackleton , Edward Wilson , Frank Wild , Tom Crean and William Lashly .
Its scientific results covered extensive ground in biology , zoology , geology , meteorology and magnetism . The expedition discovered the existence of the only snow @-@ free Antarctic valleys , which contain Antarctica 's longest river . Further achievements included the discoveries of the Cape Crozier emperor penguin colony , King Edward VII Land , and the Polar Plateau ( via the western mountains route ) on which the South Pole is located . The expedition did not make a serious attempt on the South Pole itself , with the principal southern journey travelling only as far as the Farthest South mark at a reported 82 ° 17 ′ S.
As a trailbreaker for later ventures , the Discovery Expedition was a landmark in British Antarctic exploration history . After its return home it was celebrated as a success , despite having needed an expensive relief mission to free Discovery and its crew from the ice , and later disputes about the quality of some of its scientific records . It has been asserted that the expedition 's main failure was its inability to master the techniques of efficient polar travel using skis and dogs , a legacy that persisted in British Antarctic expeditions throughout the Heroic Age .
= = Background to the expedition = =
= = = Forerunners = = =
Between 1839 and 1843 Royal Naval Captain James Clark Ross , commanding his two ships HMS Erebus and HMS Terror , completed three voyages to the Antarctic continent . During this time he discovered and explored a new sector of the Antarctic that would provide the field of work for many later British expeditions .
Ross established the general geography of this region , and named many of its features ; the Ross Sea , the Great Ice Barrier ( later renamed the Ross Ice Shelf ) , Ross Island , Cape Adare , Victoria Land , McMurdo Sound , Cape Crozier and the twin volcanoes Mount Erebus and Mount Terror . He returned to the Barrier several times , hoping to penetrate it , but was unable to do so , achieving his Farthest South in a small Barrier inlet at 78 ° 10 ′ , in February 1842 . Ross suspected that land lay to the east of the Barrier , but was unable to confirm this .
After Ross there were no recorded voyages into this sector of the Antarctic for fifty years . Then , in January 1895 , a Norwegian whaling trip made a brief landing at Cape Adare , the northernmost tip of Victoria Land . Four years later Carsten Borchgrevink , who had participated in that landing , took his own expedition to the region , in the Southern Cross . This expedition was financed by a donation of £ 35 @,@ 000 from British publishing magnate Sir George Newnes , on condition that the venture be called the " British Antarctic Expedition " . Borchgrevink landed at Cape Adare in February 1899 , erected a small hut , and spent the 1899 winter there . The following summer he sailed south , landing at Ross 's inlet on the Barrier . A party of three then sledged southward on the Barrier surface , and reached a new Furthest South at 78 ° 50 ′ .
The Discovery Expedition was planned during a surge of international interest in the Antarctic regions at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries . A German expedition under Erich von Drygalski was leaving at about the same time as Discovery , to explore the sector of the continent south of the Indian Ocean . The Swedish explorer Otto Nordenskiöld was leading an expedition to Graham Land , and a French expedition under Jean @-@ Baptiste Charcot was going to the Antarctic Peninsula . Finally , the Scottish scientist William Speirs Bruce was leading a scientific expedition to the Weddell Sea .
= = = Royal Navy , Markham and Scott = = =
Under the influence of John Barrow , Second Secretary to the Admiralty , polar exploration had become the province of the peacetime Royal Navy after the Napoleonic War . Naval interest diminished after the disappearance in 1845 of the Franklin expedition , and the many fruitless searches that followed . After the problems encountered by the 1874 – 76 North Pole expedition led by George Nares , and Nares 's own declaration that the North Pole was " impracticable " , the Admiralty decided that further polar quests would be dangerous , expensive and futile .
However , the Royal Geographical Society 's Secretary ( and later President ) Sir Clements Markham was a former naval man who had served on one of the Franklin relief expeditions in 1851 . He had accompanied Nares for part of the 1874 – 76 expedition , and remained a firm advocate for the navy 's resuming its historic role in polar exploration . An opportunity to further this ambition arose in November 1893 , when the prominent biologist Sir John Murray , who had visited Antarctic waters as a biologist with the Challenger Expedition in the 1870s , addressed the RGS . Murray presented a paper entitled " The Renewal of Antarctic Exploration " , and called for a full @-@ scale expedition for the benefit of British science . This was strongly supported , both by Markham and by the country 's premier scientific body , the Royal Society . A joint committee of the two Societies was established to decide the form which the expedition should take . Markham 's vision of a full @-@ blown naval affair after the style of Ross or Franklin was opposed by sections of the joint committee , but his tenacity was such that the expedition was eventually moulded largely to his wishes . His cousin and biographer later wrote that the expedition was " the creation of his brain , the product of his persistent energy " .
It had long been Markham 's practice to take note of promising young naval officers who might later be suitable for polar responsibilities , should the opportunity arise . He had first observed Midshipman Robert Falcon Scott in 1887 , while the latter was serving with HMS Rover in St Kitts , and had remembered him . Thirteen years later , Scott , by now a Torpedo Lieutenant on HMS Majestic , was looking for a path to career advancement , and a chance meeting with Sir Clements in London led him to apply for the leadership of the expedition . Scott had long been in Markham 's mind , though by no means always his first choice , but other favoured candidates had either become in his view too old , or were no longer available . With Markham 's determined backing , Scott 's appointment was secured by 25 May 1900 , followed swiftly by his promotion to Commander .
= = = Science versus adventure = = =
The command structure of the expedition had still to be settled . Markham had been determined from the beginning that its overall leader should be a naval officer , not a scientist . Scott , writing to Markham after his appointment , reiterated that he " must have complete command of the ship and landing parties " , and insisted on being consulted over all future appointments . However , the Joint Committee had , with Markham 's acquiescence , secured the appointment of John Walter Gregory , Professor of Geology at the University of Melbourne and former assistant geologist at the British Museum , as the expedition 's scientific director . Gregory 's view , endorsed by the Royal Society faction of the Joint Committee , was that the organisation and command of the land party should be in his hands : " ... The Captain would be instructed to give such assistance as required in dredging , tow @-@ netting etc . , to place boats where required at the disposal of the scientific staff . " In the dispute that followed , Markham argued that Scott 's command of the whole expedition must be total and unambiguous , and Scott himself was insistent on this to the point of resignation . Markham 's and Scott 's view prevailed , and Gregory resigned , saying that the scientific work should not be " subordinated to naval adventure " .
This controversy soured relations between the Societies , which lingered after the conclusion of the expedition and was reflected in criticism of the extent and quality of some of the published results . Markham claimed that his insistence on a naval command was primarily a matter of tradition and style , rather than indicating disrespect for science . He had made clear his belief that , on its own , the mere attainment of higher latitude than someone else was " unworthy of support . "
= = Personnel = =
Markham had hoped for a fully @-@ fledged Royal Naval expedition , but was warned by the Admiralty that " the present exigencies of the Naval Service [ would ] prevent them from lending officers ... " However , the Admiralty agreed to release Scott and Charles Royds , and later allowed Michael Barne and Reginald Skelton to join the expedition . The remaining officers were from the Merchant Marine , including Albert Armitage , the second @-@ in @-@ command , who had experience with the Jackson – Harmsworth Arctic expedition , 1894 – 97 , and Ernest Shackleton , designated Third Officer in charge of holds , stores and provisions , and responsible for arranging the entertainments . The Admiralty also released around twenty petty officers and seamen , the rest of the crew being from the merchant service , or from civilian employment . Among the lower deck complement were some who became Antarctic veterans , including Frank Wild , William Lashly , Thomas Crean ( who joined the expedition following the desertion of a seaman in New Zealand ) , Edgar Evans and Ernest Joyce . Although the expedition was not a formal Navy project , Scott proposed to run the expedition on naval lines , and secured the crew 's voluntary agreement to work under the Naval Discipline Act .
The scientific team was inexperienced . Dr George Murray , Gregory 's successor as chief scientist , was due to travel only as far as Australia ( in fact he left the ship at Cape Town ) , using the voyage to train the scientists , but with no part to play in the detailed work of the expedition . The only scientist with previous Antarctic experience was Louis Bernacchi , who had been with Borchgrevink as magnetic observer and meteorologist . The geologist , Hartley Ferrar , was a 22 @-@ year @-@ old recent Cambridge graduate who Markham thought " might be made into a man . " Marine biologist Thomas Vere Hodgson , from Plymouth Museum , was a more mature figure , as was the senior of the two doctors , Reginald Koettlitz , who , at 39 , was the oldest member of the expedition . He , like Armitage , had been with the Jackson – Harmsworth expedition . The junior doctor and zoologist was Edward Wilson , who became close to Scott and provided the qualities of calmness , patience and detachment that the captain reportedly lacked .
= = Organisation and objectives = =
= = = Finance = = =
The total cost of the expedition was estimated at £ 90 @,@ 000 ( 2009 equivalent about £ 7 @.@ 25 million ) , of which £ 45 @,@ 000 was offered by the British Government provided that the two Societies could raise a matching sum . They achieved this , thanks largely to a donation of £ 25 @,@ 000 from wealthy RGS member Llewellyn W. Longstaff . The RGS itself contributed £ 8 @,@ 000 , its largest single contribution to any expedition to that date , and £ 5 @,@ 000 came from Alfred Harmsworth , later Lord Northcliffe , who had earlier financed the Jackson @-@ Harmsworth expedition to the Arctic , 1894 – 97 . The rest was raised from smaller donations . The expedition also benefited from significant commercial sponsorship : Colman 's provided mustard and flour , Cadbury 's gave 3 @,@ 500 lb ( 1 @,@ 600 kg ) of chocolate , Bird 's donated baking and custard powders , Evans , Lescher & Webb provided all the lime juice . Jaeger gave a 40 % discount on special clothing , Bovril supplied beef extract , and others made significant contributions .
= = = Ship = = =
The expedition 's ship was built by the Dundee Shipbuilders Company as a specialist research vessel designed for work in Antarctic waters , and was one of the last three @-@ masted wooden sailing ships built in Britain . The construction cost was £ 34 @,@ 050 ( 2009 = £ 2 @.@ 7 million ) , plus £ 10 @,@ 322 ( £ 830 @,@ 000 ) for the engines , and the final cost after all modifications was £ 51 @,@ 000 ( £ 4 @.@ 1 m ) . The name had historic naval associations , most recently as one of the ships used in the Nares expedition , and certain features of this older vessel were incorporated into the design of the new ship . She was launched by Lady Markham on 21 March 1901 as S.Y. Discovery ( the Royal Research Ship designation was acquired in the 1920s ) .
As she was not a Royal Naval vessel the Admiralty would not allow Discovery to fly the White Ensign . She eventually sailed under the Merchant Shipping Act , flying the RGS house flag and the Blue Ensign and burgee of the Royal Harwich Yacht Club .
= = = Dogs = = =
Scott contacted Fridtjof Nansen in Oslo , whom he trusted more than his own " quarrelling " committee in London , and followed his advice on equipment . Subsequently , Armitage ordered 25 Siberian sledge @-@ dogs via a Scots dog and ski expert based in Archangel , Russia . According to Huntford however , this expert was not invited to join the expedition .
= = = Objectives = = =
The Discovery Expedition , like those of Ross and Borchgrevink before it , was to work in the Ross Sea sector of Antarctica . Other areas of the continent had been considered , but the principle followed was that " in going for the unknown they should start from the known " . The two main objectives of the expedition were summarised in the joint committee 's " Instructions to the Commander " as : " to determine , as far as possible , the nature , condition and extent of that portion of the south polar lands which is included in the scope of your expedition " , and " to make a magnetic survey in the southern regions to the south of the fortieth parallel and to carry out meteorological , oceanographic , geological , biological and physical investigations and researches " . The instructions stipulated that " neither of these objectives was to be sacrificed to the other " .
The instructions concerning the geographical objective became more specific : " The chief points of geographical interest are [ ... ] to explore the ice barrier of Sir James Ross to its eastern extremity ; to discover the land which was believed by Ross to flank the barrier to the eastward , or to ascertain that it does not exist [ ... ] If you should decide to winter in the ice ... your efforts as regards geographical exploration should be directed to [ ... ] an advance to the western mountains , an advance to the south , and an exploration of the volcanic region " .
= = Expedition = =
= = = First years = = =
= = = = Outward journey = = = =
Discovery left Isle of Wight on 6 August 1901 , and arrived in New Zealand via Cape Town on 29 November after a detour below 40 ° S for a magnetic survey . Quail Island in Lyttelton Harbour was used as the quarantine station for the expedition 's dogs . After three weeks of final preparation she was ready for the journey south . On 21 December , as the ship was leaving Lyttelton to the cheers of large crowds , a young able seaman , Charles Bonner , fell to his death from the top of the mainmast , which he had climbed so as to return the crowd 's applause . He was buried at Port Chalmers , two days later .
Discovery then sailed south , arriving at Cape Adare on 9 January 1902 . After a brief landing and examination of the remains of Borchgrevink 's camp , the ship continued southwards along the Victoria Land coast . At McMurdo Sound Discovery turned eastward , touching land again at Cape Crozier where a pre @-@ arranged message point was set up so that relief ships would be able to locate the expedition . She then followed the Barrier to its eastern extremity where , on 30 January , the land predicted by Ross was confirmed , and named King Edward VII Land .
On 4 February , Scott landed on the Barrier and unpacked an observation balloon which he had acquired for aerial surveys . Scott climbed aboard and rapidly ascended to above 600 feet ( 180 m ) in the firmly tethered balloon . Shackleton followed with a second flight . All either could see was unending Barrier surface . Wilson privately thought the flights " perfect madness " .
= = = = Winter Quarters Bay = = = =
Discovery then proceeded westward in search of permanent quarters . On 8 February she entered McMurdo Sound and later that day anchored in a spot near its southern limit which was afterwards christened Winter Quarters Bay . Wilson wrote : " We all realized our extreme good fortune in being led to such a winter quarter as this , safe for the ship , with perfect shelter from all ice pressure . " Stoker Lashly , however , thought it looked " a dreary place . " Work began ashore with the erection of the expedition 's huts on a rocky peninsula designated Hut Point . Scott had decided that the expedition should continue to live and work aboard ship , and he allowed Discovery to be frozen into the sea ice , leaving the main hut to be used as a storeroom and shelter .
Of the entire party , none were skilled skiers and only Bernacchi and Armitage had any experience with dog @-@ sledges . The results of the men 's early efforts to master these techniques were not encouraging , and tended to reinforce Scott 's preference for man @-@ hauling . The dangers of the unfamiliar conditions were confirmed when , on 11 March , a party returning from an attempted journey to Cape Crozier became stranded on an icy slope during a blizzard . In their attempts to find safer ground , one of the group , Able Seaman George Vince , slid over the edge of a cliff and was killed . His body was never recovered ; a cross with a simple inscription , erected in his memory , still stands at the summit of the Hut Point promontory .
During the winter months of May – August the scientists were busy in their laboratories , while elsewhere equipment and stores were prepared for the next season 's work . For relaxation there were amateur theatricals , and educational activities in the form of lectures . A newspaper , the South Polar Times , was edited by Shackleton . Outside pursuits did not cease altogether ; there was football on the ice , and the schedule of magnetic and meteorological observations was maintained . As winter ended , trial sledge runs resumed , to test equipment and rations in advance of the planned southern journey which Scott , Wilson and Shackleton were to undertake . Meanwhile , a party under Royds travelled to Cape Crozier to leave a message at the post there , and discovered an emperor penguin colony . Another group , under Armitage , reconnoitred in the mountains to the west , returning in October with the expedition 's first symptoms of scurvy . Armitage later blamed the outbreak on Scott 's " sentimental objection " to the slaughter of animals for fresh meat . The entire expedition 's diet was quickly revised , and the trouble was thereafter contained .
= = = = Southern journey = = = =
Scott , Wilson and Shackleton left on 2 November 1902 with dogs and supporting parties . Their goal was " to get as far south in a straight line on the Barrier ice as we can , reach the Pole if possible , or find some new land " . The first significant milestone was passed on 11 November , when a supporting party passed Borchgrevink 's Farthest South record of 78 ° 50 ′ . However , the lack of skill with dogs was soon evident , and progress was slow . After the support parties had returned , on 15 November , Scott 's group began relaying their loads ( taking half loads forward , then returning for the other half ) , thus travelling three miles for every mile of southward progress . Mistakes had been made with the dogs ' food , and as the dogs grew weaker , Wilson was forced to kill the weakest as food for the others . The men , too , were struggling , afflicted by snow blindness , frostbite and symptoms of early scurvy , but they continued southwards in line with the mountains to the west . Christmas Day was celebrated with double rations , and a Christmas pudding that Shackleton had kept for the occasion , hidden with his socks . On 30 December 1902 , without having left the Barrier , they reached their Furthest South at 82 ° 17 ′ S. Troubles multiplied on the home journey , as the remaining dogs died and Shackleton collapsed with scurvy . Wilson 's diary entry for 14 January 1903 acknowledged that " we all have slight , though definite symptoms of scurvy " . Scott and Wilson struggled on , with Shackleton , who was unable to pull , walking alongside and occasionally carried on the sledge . The party eventually reached the ship on 3 February 1903 after covering 960 miles ( 1 @,@ 540 km ) including relays , in 93 days ' travel at a daily average of just over 10 miles ( 16 km ) .
= = = Arrival of relief ship = = =
During the southern party 's absence the relief ship Morning arrived , bringing fresh supplies . The expedition 's organisers had assumed that the Discovery would be free from the ice in early 1903 , enabling Scott to carry out further seaborne exploration and survey work before winter set in . It was intended that Discovery would return to New Zealand in March or April , then home to England via the Pacific , continuing its magnetic survey en route . Morning would provide any assistance that Scott might require during this period .
This plan was frustrated , as Discovery remained firmly icebound . Markham had privately anticipated this , and Morning 's captain , William Colbeck , was carrying a secret letter to Scott authorising another year in the ice . This now being inevitable , the relief ship provided an opportunity for some of the party to return home . Among these , against his will , was the convalescent Shackleton , who Scott decided " ought not to risk further hardships in his present state of health " . Stories of a Scott @-@ Shackleton rift date from this point , or from a supposed falling @-@ out during the southern journey which had provoked an angry exchange of words . Some of these details were supplied by Armitage , whose relationship with Scott had broken down and who , after Scott , Wilson and Shackleton were all dead , chose to reveal details which tended to show Scott in a poor light . Other evidence indicates that Scott and Shackleton remained on generally good terms for some while ; Shackleton met the expedition on its return home in 1904 , and later wrote a very cordial letter to Scott .
= = = Second year = = =
After the 1903 winter had passed , Scott prepared for the second main journey of the expedition : an ascent of the western mountains and exploration of the interior of Victoria Land . Armitage 's reconnaissance party of the previous year had pioneered a route up to altitude 8 @,@ 900 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) before returning , but Scott wished to march west from this point , if possible to the location of the South Magnetic Pole . After a false start due to faulty sledges , a party including Scott , Lashly and Edgar Evans set out from Discovery on 26 October 1903 .
Ascending a large glacier , which they named after the party 's geologist Ferrar , they reached a height of 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) before being held in camp for a week by blizzards . This prevented them from reaching the glacier summit until 13 November . They then marched on beyond Armitage 's furthest point , discovered the Polar Plateau and became the first party to travel on it . After the return of geological and supporting parties , Scott , Evans and Lashly continued westward across the featureless plain for another eight days , covering a distance of about 150 miles to reach their most westerly point on 30 November . Having lost their navigational tables in a gale during the glacier ascent , they did not know exactly where they were , and had no landmarks to help them fix a position . The return journey to the Ferrar Glacier was undertaken in conditions which limited them to no more than a mile an hour , with supplies running low and dependent on Scott 's rule of thumb navigation . On the descent of the glacier Scott and Evans survived a potentially fatal fall into a crevasse , before the discovery of a snow @-@ free area or dry valley , a rare Antarctic phenomenon . Lashly described the dry valley as " a splendid place for growing spuds " . The party reached Discovery on 24 December , after a round trip of seven hundred miles covered in 59 days . Their daily average of over 14 miles on this man @-@ hauling journey was significantly better than that achieved with dogs on the previous season 's southern journey , a fact which further strengthened Scott 's prejudices against dogs . Polar historian David Crane calls the western journey " one of the great journeys of polar history " .
Several other journeys were completed during Scott 's absence . Royds and Bernacchi travelled for 31 days on the Barrier in a SE direction , observing its uniformly flat character and making further magnetic readings . Another party had explored the Koettlitz Glacier to the south @-@ west , and Wilson had travelled to Cape Crozier to observe the emperor penguin colony at close quarters .
= = = Second relief expedition = = =
Scott had hoped on his return to find Discovery free from the ice , but she remained held fast . Work had begun with ice saws , but after 12 days ' labour only two short parallel cuts of 450 feet ( 140 m ) had been carved , with the ship still 20 miles ( 32 km ) from open water . On 5 January 1904 the relief ship Morning returned , this time with a second ship , the Terra Nova . Colbeck was carrying firm instructions from the Admiralty that , if Discovery could not be freed by a certain date she was to be abandoned and her complement brought home on the two relief ships . This ultimatum resulted from Markham 's dependence on the Treasury for meeting the costs of this second relief expedition , since the expedition 's coffers were empty . The Admiralty would foot the bill only on their own terms . The deadline agreed between the three captains was 25 February , and it became a race against time for the relief vessels to reach Discovery , still held fast at Hut Point . As a precaution Scott began the transfer of his scientific specimens to the other ships . Explosives were used to break up the ice , and the sawing parties resumed work , but although the relief ships were able to edge closer , by the end of January Discovery remained icebound , two miles ( approx . 3 km ) from the rescuers . On 10 February Scott accepted that he would have to abandon her , but on 14 February most of the ice suddenly broke up , and Morning and Terra Nova were at last able to sail alongside Discovery . A final explosive charge removed the remaining ice on 16 February , and the following day , after a last scare when she became temporarily grounded on a shoal , Discovery began the return journey to New Zealand .
= = Homecoming and Results = =
On its return to Britain the expedition 's reception was initially muted . Markham was present to meet the ship in Portsmouth when Discovery docked there on 10 September 1904 , but no dignitaries greeted the party when it arrived in London a few days later . However , there was considerable public enthusiasm for the expedition , and official recognition followed . Scott was quickly promoted to Captain , and invited to Balmoral Castle to meet King Edward VII , who invested him as a Commander of the Royal Victorian Order ( CVO ) . He also received a cluster of medals and awards from overseas , including the French Légion d 'honneur . Polar Medals and promotions were given to other officers and crew members .
The main geographical results of the expedition were the discovery of King Edward VII Land ; the ascent of the western mountains and the discovery of the Polar Plateau ; the first sledge journey on the plateau ; the Barrier journey to a Furthest South of 82 ° 17 ′ S. The island nature of Ross Island was established , the Transantarctic Mountains were charted to 83 ° S , and the positions and heights of more than 200 individual mountains were calculated . Many other features and landmarks were also identified and named , and there was extensive coastal survey work .
There were also discoveries of major scientific importance . These included the snow @-@ free Dry Valleys in the western mountains , the emperor penguin colony at Cape Crozier , scientific evidence that the Ice Barrier was a floating ice shelf , and a leaf fossil discovered by Ferrar which helped to establish Antarctica 's relation to the Gondwana super @-@ continent . Thousands of geological and biological specimens had been collected and new marine species identified . The location of the South Magnetic Pole had been calculated with reasonable accuracy . On the medical side , Wilson discovered the anti @-@ scorbutic effects of fresh seal meat , which resolved the lethal threat of scurvy to this and subsequent expeditions .
A general endorsement of the scientific results from the navy 's Chief Hydrographer ( and former Scott opponent ) Sir William Wharton was encouraging . However , when the meteorological data were published their accuracy was disputed within the scientific establishment , including by the President of the Physical Society of London , Dr Charles Chree . Scott defended his team 's work , while privately acknowledging that Royds 's paperwork in this field had been " dreadfully slipshod " .
The expedition succeeded in combating incipient scurvy through a fresh seal meat diet , and Scott recommended it for future polar expeditions . This was despite the medical profession being ignorant of the causes of the disease . At that time it was known that a fresh meat diet could provide a cure , but not that lack of fresh meat or other fresh food containing the as yet undiscovered vitamin C was a cause . Thus , fresh seal meat was taken on the southern journey " in case we find ourselves attacked by scurvy " , On his 1907 – 09 Nimrod expedition Shackleton also avoided the disease through careful dietary provision , including extra penguin and seal meat . However , Lieutenant Edward Evans almost died of presumably self @-@ inflicted scurvy during the 1910 – 13 Terra Nova expedition , and scurvy was particularly devastating to Shackleton 's marooned Ross Sea party during 1915 – 16 . It remained a danger until its causes were finally established , some 25 years after the Discovery expedition .
= = Aftermath = =
Scott was given leave from the Navy to write the official expedition account , The Voyage of the Discovery ; this was published in 1905 , and sold well . However , Scott 's account in the book of Shackleton 's breakdown during the southern journey led to disagreement between the two men , particularly over Scott 's version of the extent to which his companion had been carried on the sledge . The implication was that Shackleton 's breakdown had caused the relatively unimpressive southern record .
Scott eventually resumed his naval career , first as an assistant to the Director of Naval Intelligence and then , in August 1906 , as Flag @-@ captain to Rear @-@ Admiral George Egerton on HMS Victorious . He had by this time become a national hero , despite his aversion to the limelight , and the expedition was being presented to the public as a triumph . This euphoria was not conducive to objective analysis , or to thoughtful appraisal of the expedition 's strengths and weaknesses . In particular , the glorification by Scott of man @-@ hauling as something intrinsically more noble than other ice travel techniques led to a general distrust of methods involving ski and dogs , a mindset that was carried forward into later expeditions . This mystified seasoned ice travellers such as Fridtjof Nansen , whose advice on such matters was usually sought , but often set aside .
The Discovery Expedition launched the Antarctic careers of several who became stalwarts or leaders of expeditions in the following fifteen years . Apart from Scott and Shackleton , Frank Wild and Ernest Joyce from the lower deck returned repeatedly to the ice , apparently unable to settle back into normal life . William Lashly and Edgar Evans , Scott 's companions on the 1903 western journey , aligned themselves with their leader 's future plans and became his regular sledging partners . Tom Crean followed both Scott and Shackleton on later expeditions . Lieutenant " Teddy " Evans , first officer on the relief ship Morning , began plans to lead an expedition of his own , before teaming up with Scott in 1910 .
Soon after resuming his naval duties , Scott revealed to the Royal Geographical Society his intention to return to Antarctica , but the information was not at that stage made public . Scott was forestalled by Shackleton , who early in 1907 announced his plans to lead an expedition with the twin objectives of reaching the geographic and magnetic South Poles . Under duress , Shackleton agreed not to work from McMurdo Sound , which Scott was claiming as his own sphere of work . In the event , unable to find a safe landing elsewhere , Shackleton was forced to break this promise . His expedition was highly successful , its southern march ending at 88 ° 23 ′ , less than 100 geographical miles from the South Pole , while its northern party reached the location of the South Magnetic Pole . However , Shackleton 's breach of his undertaking caused a significant break in relations between the two men , with Scott dismissing his former companion as a liar and a rogue .
Scott 's plans gradually came to fruition – a large @-@ scale scientific and geographical expedition with the conquest of the South Pole as its principal objective . Scott was anxious to avoid the amateurism that had been associated with the Discovery Expedition 's scientific work . He appointed Edward Wilson as his chief scientist , and Wilson selected an experienced team . The expedition set off in June 1910 in Terra Nova , one of Discovery 's relief ships . Its programme was complicated by the simultaneous arrival in the Antarctic of Roald Amundsen 's Norwegian expedition . Amundsen 's party reached the South Pole on 14 December 1911 and returned safely . Scott and four companions , including Wilson , arrived at the Pole on 17 January 1912 ; all five perished on the return journey .
= Italian battleship Caio Duilio =
Caio Duilio was an Italian Andrea Doria @-@ class battleship that served in the Regia Marina during World War I and World War II . She was named after the Roman fleet commander Gaius Duilius . Caio Duilio was laid down in February 1912 , launched in April 1913 , and completed in May 1916 . She was initially armed with a main battery of thirteen 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , but a major reconstruction in the late 1930s replaced these with ten 320 mm ( 13 in ) guns . Caio Duilio saw no action during World War I owing to the inactivity of the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet during the conflict . She cruised the Mediterranean in the 1920s and was involved in the Corfu incident in 1923 .
During World War II , she participated in numerous patrols and sorties into the Mediterranean , both to escort Italian convoys to North Africa and in attempts to catch the British Mediterranean Fleet . In November 1940 , the British launched an air raid on Taranto ; Caio Duilio was hit by one torpedo launched by a Fairey Swordfish torpedo bomber , which caused significant damage . Repairs lasted some five months , after which the ship returned to convoy escort duties . A fuel shortage immobilized the bulk of the Italian surface fleet in 1942 , and Caio Duilio remained out of service until the Italian surrender in September 1943 . She was thereafter interned at Malta until 1944 , when the Allies permitted her return to Italian waters . She survived the war , and continued to serve in the post @-@ war Italian navy , primarily as a training ship . Caio Duilio was placed in reserve for a final time in 1953 ; she remained in the Italian navy 's inventory for another three years before she was stricken from the naval register in late 1956 and sold for scrapping the following year .
= = Design = =
Caio Duilio was 176 meters ( 577 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 28 m ( 92 ft ) and a draft of 9 @.@ 4 m ( 31 ft ) . At full combat load , she displaced up to 24 @,@ 715 metric tons ( 24 @,@ 325 long tons ; 27 @,@ 244 short tons ) . She had a crew of 35 officers and 1 @,@ 198 enlisted men . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines , with steam provided by eight oil @-@ fired and twelve coal and oil burning Yarrow boilers . The boilers were trunked into two large funnels . The engines were rated at 30 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 000 kW ) , which provided a top speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . She had a cruising radius of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
The ship was armed with a main battery of thirteen 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) 46 @-@ caliber guns in three triple turrets and two twin turrets . The secondary battery comprised sixteen 152 mm ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) 45 @-@ caliber guns , all mounted in casemates clustered around the forward and aft main battery turrets . Caio Duilio was also armed with thirteen 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) 50 @-@ caliber guns and six 76 @-@ mm anti @-@ aircraft guns . As was customary for capital ships of the period , she was equipped with three submerged 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . She was protected with Krupp cemented steel manufactured by U.S. Steel . The belt armor was 254 mm ( 10 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the main deck was 98 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick . The conning tower and main battery turrets were protected with 280 mm ( 11 in ) worth of armor plating .
= = = Modifications = = =
Caio Duilio was heavily rebuilt in 1937 – 1940 at Genoa . Her forecastle deck was extended further aft , until it reached the mainmast . The stern and bow were rebuilt , increasing the length of the ship to 186 @.@ 9 m ( 613 ft ) , and the displacement grew to 28 @,@ 882 t ( 28 @,@ 426 long tons ; 31 @,@ 837 short tons ) . Her old machinery was replaced with more efficient equipment and her twenty boilers were replaced with eight oil @-@ fired models ; the new power plant was rated at 75 @,@ 000 shp ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) and speed increased to 26 kn ( 48 km / h ; 30 mph ) . The ship 's amidships turret was removed and the remaining guns were bored out to 320 mm ( 13 in ) . Her secondary battery was completely overhauled ; the 152 mm guns were replaced with twelve 135 mm ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) guns in triple turrets amidships . The anti @-@ aircraft battery was significantly improved , to include ten 90 mm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) guns , fifteen 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , and sixteen 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) guns . Later , during World War II , four more 37 mm guns were installed and two of the 20 mm guns were removed . After emerging from the modernization , Caio Duilio 's crew numbered 35 officers and 1 @,@ 450 enlisted men .
= = Service history = =
Caio Duilio was laid down at the Regio Cantieri di Castellammare di Stabia on 24 February 1912 . She was launched on 24 April 1913 , and completed on 10 May 1916 . She saw no action in World War I , given the fact that the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , Italy 's main naval rival , remained in port for the duration of the conflict . In addition , Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and minelayers could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic . The threat from these underwater weapons to his capital ships was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the battle fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Meanwhile , Revel 's battleships would be preserved to confront the Austro @-@ Hungarian battle fleet in the event that it sought a decisive engagement .
As a result , Caio Duilio only went on four patrols during the war , and was operational for a total of 70 hours . She was based at Taranto starting in November 1918 to April 1919 , but during that time , she deployed to Corfu , from 10 November 1918 to 26 January 1919 . On 26 April 1919 , Caio Duilio was sent to Smyrna to help mediate a dispute over ownership of the area . While there , she had a confrontation with the Greek armored cruiser Georgios Averof , but this was defused when the Greeks landed troops to occupy Smyrna . On 9 June , she was relieved by the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleship Roma , allowing her to move to Constantinople .
During her deployment to Turkey , Caio Duilio entered the Black Sea to support the White Russians in the Russian Civil War , from 23 June to 13 July . During this period , she was transferred to the Levant Squadron of the Italian Navy . She returned to Izmir after completing her deployment to the Black Sea , and remained there until 9 September , when she was relieved by the battleship Giulio Cesare . She returned to Taranto on 12 September , and was placed in reserve . Placed back into service in 1920 , Caio Duilio went to Albania on 30 June to support the Italian Army contingent occupying the country , and participated in their withdrawal on 5 September . The following year , she was assigned to the Dodecanese Squadron and cruised in the eastern Mediterranean . She returned to Constantinople as part of an Allied fleet from 27 July to 10 November 1921 .
During the 1923 Corfu incident with Greece , the Italian Navy , including Caio Duilio , was deployed to the island to secure a Greek apology following the murder of Enrico Tellini and four others . Later that year , she escorted the battleship Dante Alighieri on a state visit to Spain . A magazine explosion on 8 April 1925 wrecked the No. 3 turret 's barbette hoist . The ship went into reserve while repairs were effected in La Spezia , which lasted until April 1928 . She underwent refitting at Taranto from 18 March to 15 June 1930 . She again went into reserve on 11 August 1932 until 11 August 1933 , when she was made the flagship of the Commanding Officer , Reserve Fleet . Starting on 19 March 1937 , she was taken to Genoa where an extensive reconstruction began at the Cantieri del Tirreno shipyard . The work was completed on 15 July 1940 , at which point she was recommissioned into the 5th Division of the 1st Squadron , based in Taranto .
Caio Duilio 's first wartime patrol took place on 31 August . She and the rest of the fleet sailed to intercept the British battleship HMS Valiant , which was steaming to Alexandria , and a convoy sailing to Malta . The Italian fleet did not have sufficient aerial reconnaissance , which , along with bad weather , prevented the Italians from locating the British forces . They put back in to Taranto on 1 September . Caio Duilio again put to sea on 7 September , in an attempt to catch the British Force H , but the Italian intelligence was faulty , as Force H was in the process of attacking Dakar . Caio Duilio returned to Taranto , where she remained until early November .
= = = Attack at Taranto = = =
On the night of 10 – 11 November , the British Mediterranean Fleet launched a surprise air raid on the harbor in Taranto . Twenty @-@ one Swordfish torpedo bombers launched from the aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious attacked the Italian fleet in two waves . They scored one hit on Caio Duilio , three hits on Littorio , and one on Conte di Cavour . The torpedo hit Caio Duilio on her starboard side ; it tore an 11 @-@ by @-@ 7 @-@ meter ( 36 by 23 ft ) hole in the hull and flooded the forward main battery magazines . A water tanker and several smaller craft pushed the battleship aground in shallow water to prevent her from sinking in the harbor . Temporary repairs were effected , and in January 1941 , she was refloated and sent to Genoa for permanent repairs , which began on 26 January .
While Caio Duilio was in dock for repairs , the British Force H departed from its normal role as a convoy escort in the western Mediterranean in early February to attack Genoa . Admiral James Somerville 's surface ships fired over a thousand shells at the port , and aircraft of the carrier HMS Ark Royal dropped magnetic mines in the harbor . Five ships were sunk , but Caio Duilio was not hit in the attack . During the attack , Caio Duilio 's anti @-@ aircraft battery fired some 8 @,@ 000 rounds at the British spotter aircraft . Repair work was completed by May , and on 16 May she was back in Taranto in the 1st Squadron .
= = = Later service = = =
Caio Duilio , now the flagship of the Italian fleet , sailed on 29 November to cover an Italian convoy to North Africa . She was escorted by the cruiser Giuseppe Garibaldi and six destroyers . She sailed again on 13 December , to cover the convoy M41 ; the Italian fleet was forced to break off the convoy escort after Vittorio Veneto was torpedoed . Caio Duilio returned to port on the 14th , and departed to cover the convoy M42 two days later . She was stationed south of Messina with three cruisers and four destroyers . During the convoy operation , British forces attacked , resulting in the First Battle of Sirte , but Caio Duilio 's group was too far away to engage the Royal Navy . She returned to Taranto on 19 December . She escorted convoy M43 on 3 – 6 January 1942 , which successfully reached Tripoli unmolested . Convoy T18 followed on 22 – 5 January , and four of the five transports in the convoy reached Tripoli .
Caio Duilio 's next operation was a sortie against the British convoy MW 9 bounded from Alexandria to Malta in February . She departed from Taranto on 14 February with a pair of light cruisers and seven destroyers , but the force could not locate the British ships , and so returned to port . Her mere presence at sea , however , forced the British escort to scuttle the transport Rowallan Castle , previously disabled by German aircraft . On the 21st , she escorted the convoy K7 from Messina and Corfu to Taranto . By this point in 1942 , the Italian fleet began to suffer a severe shortage of fuel , which curtailed its operations . The situation was so bad that Caio Duilio had to be placed in reserve and drained of fuel , in order to keep the escort craft operational . She was at Taranto when Italy surrendered to the Allies in September 1943 , and on 9 September she was taken to Malta , where she was interned with the rest of the Italian fleet .
In June 1944 , the Allies allowed Caio Duilio to return to Italian ports ; she spent the rest of the war in Taranto , Syracuse , and Augusta . She survived the war , and continued to serve in the Italian navy ; she was the fleet flagship from 1 May 1947 until 10 November 1949 , based in Taranto . She was moved to La Spezia in 1953 and removed from active service . Caio Duilio remained there until she was stricken from the naval register on 15 September 1956 . She was sold for scrapping the following year .
= Hawker Siddeley Harrier =
The Hawker Siddeley Harrier , developed in the 1960s , was the first of the Harrier Jump Jet series of aircraft . It was the first operational close @-@ support and reconnaissance fighter aircraft with vertical / short takeoff and landing ( V / STOL ) capabilities and the only truly successful V / STOL design of the many that arose in that era . The Harrier was developed directly from the
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.1127 ( RAF ) , of which the first made its maiden flight on 31 August 1966 . An order for 60 production aircraft , designated as Harrier GR.1 , was received in early 1967 . The aircraft was named for the Harrier , a small bird of prey .
The Harrier GR.1 made its first flight on 28 December 1967 . It officially entered service with the RAF on 18 April 1969 when the Harrier Conversion Unit at RAF Wittering received its first aircraft . The aircraft were built in two factories — one in Kingston upon Thames , southwest London , and the other at Dunsfold Aerodrome , Surrey — and underwent initial testing at Dunsfold . The ski @-@ jump technique for launching Harriers from Royal Navy aircraft carriers was extensively trialled at RNAS Yeovilton from 1977 . Following these tests ski @-@ jumps were added to the flight decks of all RN carriers from 1979 onwards , in preparation for the new variant for the navy , the Sea Harrier .
In the late 1960s the British and American governments held talks on producing Harriers in the United States . Hawker Siddeley and McDonnell Douglas formed a partnership in 1969 in preparation for American production , but Congressman Mendel Rivers and the House Appropriations Committee held that it would be cheaper to produce the AV @-@ 8A on the pre @-@ existing production lines in the United Kingdom — hence all AV @-@ 8A Harriers were purchased from Hawker Siddeley . Improved Harrier versions with better sensors and more powerful engines were developed in later years . The USMC received 102 AV @-@ 8A and 8 TAV @-@ 8A Harriers between 1971 and 1976 .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The Harrier was typically used as a ground attack aircraft , though its manoeuvrability also allows it to effectively engage other aircraft at short ranges . The Harrier is powered by a single Pegasus turbofan engine mounted in the fuselage . The engine is fitted with two air intakes and four vectoring nozzles for directing the thrust generated : two for the bypass flow and two for the jet exhaust . Several small reaction nozzles are also fitted , in the nose , tail and wingtips , for the purpose of balancing during vertical flight . It has two landing gear units on the fuselage and two outrigger landing gear units , one near each wing tip . The Harrier is equipped with four wing and three fuselage pylons for carrying a variety of weapons and external fuel tanks .
The Kestrel and the Harrier were similar in appearance , though approximately 90 per cent of the Kestrel 's airframe was redesigned for the Harrier . The Harrier was powered by the more powerful Pegasus 6 engine ; new air intakes with auxiliary blow @-@ in doors were added to produce the required airflow at low speed . Its wing was modified to increase area and the landing gear was strengthened . Several hardpoints were installed , two under each wing and one underneath the fuselage ; two 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) ADEN cannon gun pods could also be fitted to the underside of the fuselage . The Harrier was outfitted with updated avionics to replace the basic systems used in the Kestrel ; a navigational @-@ attack system incorporating an inertial navigation system , originally for the P.1154 , was installed and information was presented to the pilot by a head @-@ up display and a moving map display .
The Harrier 's VTOL abilities allowed it to be deployed from very small prepared clearings or helipads as well as normal airfields . It was believed that , in a high @-@ intensity conflict , air bases would be vulnerable and likely to be quickly knocked out . The capability to scatter Harrier squadrons to dozens of small " alert pads " on the front lines was highly prized by military strategists and the USMC procured the aircraft because of this ability . Hawker Siddeley noted that STOL operation provided additional benefits over VTOL operation , saving fuel and allowing the aircraft to carry more ordnance .
" I still don 't believe the Harrier . Think of the millions that have been spent on VTO in America and Russia , and quite a bit in Europe , and yet the only vertical take @-@ off aircraft which you can call a success is the Harrier . When I saw the Harrier hovering and flying backwards under control , I reckoned I 'd seen everything . And it 's not difficult to fly . " -Thomas Sopwith
The Harrier , while serving for many decades in various forms , has been criticised on multiple issues ; in particular a high accident rate , though Nordeen notes that several conventional single @-@ engine strike aircraft like the Douglas A @-@ 4 Skyhawk and LTV A @-@ 7 Corsair II had worse accident rates . The Los Angeles Times reported in 2003 that the Harrier " ... has amassed the highest major accident rate of any military plane now in service . Forty @-@ five Marines have died in 148 noncombat accidents " . Colonel Lee Buland of the USMC declared the maintenance of a Harrier to be a " challenge " ; the need to remove the wings before performing most work upon the engine , including engine replacements , meant the Harrier required considerable man @-@ hours in maintenance , more than most aircraft . Buland noted however that the maintenance difficulties were unavoidable in order to create a V / STOL aircraft .
= = = Engine = = =
The Pegasus turbofan jet engine , developed in tandem with the P.1127 then the Harrier , was designed specifically for V / STOL manoeuvring . Bristol Siddeley developed it from their earlier conventional Orpheus turbofan engine as the core with Olympus compressor blades for the fan . The engine 's thrust is directed through the four rotatable nozzles . The engine is equipped for water injection to increase thrust and takeoff performance in hot and high altitude conditions ; in normal V / STOL operations the system would be used in landing vertically with a heavy weapons load . The water injection function had originally been added following the input of US Air Force Colonel Bill Chapman , who worked for the Mutual Weapons Development Team . Water injection was necessary in order to generate maximum thrust , if only for a limited time , and was typically used during landing , especially in high ambient temperatures .
The aircraft was initially powered by the Pegasus 6 engine which was replaced by the more powerful Pegasus 11 during the Harrier GR.1 to GR.3 upgrade process . The primary focus throughout the engine 's development was on achieving high performance with as little weight as possible , tempered by the amount of funding that was available . Following the Harrier 's entry to service the focus switched to improving reliability and extending engine life ; a formal joint US – UK Pegasus Support Program operated for many years and spent a £ 3 @-@ million annual budget to develop engine improvements . Several variants have been released ; the latest is the Pegasus 11 – 61 ( Mk 107 ) , which provides 23 @,@ 800 lbf ( 106 kN ) thrust , more than any previous engine .
= = = Controls and handling = = =
The Harrier has been described by pilots as " unforgiving " . The aircraft is capable of both forward flight ( where it behaves in the manner of a typical fixed @-@ wing aircraft above its stall speed ) , as well as VTOL and STOL manoeuvres ( where the traditional lift and control surfaces are useless ) requiring skills and technical knowledge usually associated with helicopters . Most services demand great aptitude and extensive training for Harrier pilots , as well as experience in piloting both types of aircraft . Trainee pilots are often drawn from highly experienced and skilled helicopter pilots .
In addition to normal flight controls , the Harrier has a lever for controlling the direction of the four vectoring nozzles . It is viewed by senior RAF officers as a significant design success , that to enable and control the aircraft 's vertical flight required only a single lever added in the cockpit . For horizontal flight , the nozzles are directed rearwards by shifting the lever to the forward position ; for short or vertical takeoffs and landings , the lever is pulled back to point the nozzles downwards .
The Harrier has two control elements not found in conventional fixed @-@ wing aircraft : the thrust vector and the reaction control system . The thrust vector refers to the slant of the four engine nozzles and can be set between 0 ° ( horizontal , pointing directly backwards ) and 98 ° ( pointing down and slightly forwards ) . The 90 ° vector is normally deployed for VTOL manoeuvring . The reaction control is achieved by manipulating the control stick and is similar in action to the cyclic control of a helicopter . While irrelevant during forward flight mode , these controls are essential during VTOL and STOL manoeuvres .
The wind direction is a critical factor in VTOL manoeuvres . The procedure for vertical takeoff involves facing the aircraft into the wind . The thrust vector is set to 90 ° and the throttle is brought up to maximum , at which point the aircraft leaves the ground . The throttle is trimmed until a hover state is achieved at the desired altitude . The short @-@ takeoff procedure involves proceeding with normal takeoff and then applying a thrust vector ( less than 90 ° ) at a runway speed below normal takeoff speed ; usually the point of application is around 65 knots ( 120 km / h ) . For lower takeoff speeds the thrust vector is greater . The reaction control system involves a thrusters at key points in the aircraft 's fuselage and nose , also the wingtips . Thrust from the engine can be temporarily syphoned to control and correct the aircraft 's pitch and roll during vertical flight .
Rotating the vectored thrust nozzles into a forward @-@ facing position during normal flight is called vectoring in forward flight , or " VIFFing " . This is a dog @-@ fighting tactic , allowing for more sudden braking and higher turn rates . Braking could cause a chasing aircraft to overshoot and present itself as a target for the Harrier it was chasing , a combat technique formally developed by the USMC for the Harrier in the early 1970s .
= = = Differences between versions = = =
The two largest users of the Harrier were the Royal Air Force and the United States Marine Corps ( USMC ) . The exported model of the aircraft operated by the USMC was designated the AV @-@ 8A Harrier , which was broadly similar to the RAF 's Harrier GR.1. Changes included the removal of all magnesium components , which corroded quickly at sea , and the integration of American radios and Identification Friend or Foe ( IFF ) systems ; furthermore the outer pylons , unlike the RAF aircraft , were designed from delivery to be equipped with self @-@ defence AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder heat @-@ seeking air @-@ to @-@ air missiles . Most of the AV @-@ 8As had been delivered with the more powerful Pegasus engine used in the GR.3 instead of the one used in the earlier GR.1. Two @-@ seat Harriers were operated for training purposes ; the body was stretched and a taller tail fin added . The RAF trained in the T.2 and T.4 versions , while T.4N and T.8 were training versions the Navy 's Sea Harrier , with appropriate fittings . The US and Spain flew the TAV @-@ 8A and TAV @-@ 8S , respectively .
All RAF GR.1s and the initial AV @-@ 8As were fitted with the Ferranti FE541 inertial navigation / attack suite , but these were replaced in the USMC Harriers by a simpler Interface / Weapon Aiming Computer to aid quick turnaround between missions . The Martin @-@ Baker ejection seats were also replaced by the Stencel SEU @-@ 3A in the American aircraft . The RAF had their GR.1 aircraft upgraded to the GR.3 standard , which featured improved sensors , a nose @-@ mounted laser tracker , the integration of electronic countermeasure ( ECM ) systems and a further upgraded Pegasus Mk 103 . The USMC upgraded their AV @-@ 8As to the AV @-@ 8C configuration ; this programme involved the installation of ECM equipment and adding a new inertial navigation system to the aircraft 's avionics . Substantial changes were the Lift Improvement Devices , to increase VTOL performance ; at the same time several airframe components were restored or replaced to extend the life of the aircraft . Spain 's Harriers , designated AV @-@ 8S or VA.1 Matador for the single @-@ seater and TAV @-@ 8S or VAE.1 for the two @-@ seater , were almost identical to USMC Harriers differing only in the radios fitted .
The Royal Navy 's Fleet Air Arm ( FAA ) operated a substantially modified variant of the Harrier , the British Aerospace Sea Harrier . The Sea Harrier was not intended for ground @-@ attack duties and , unlike the standard Harrier , was equipped with radar and Sidewinder missiles for air combat duties and fleet air defence . The Sea Harrier was also fitted with navigational aids for carrier landings , modifications to reduce corrosion and a raised bubble @-@ canopy for greater visibility . The aircraft were later equipped to use AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM beyond @-@ visual @-@ range anti @-@ aircraft missiles and the more advanced Blue Vixen radar for longer range air @-@ to @-@ air combat , as well as Sea Eagle missiles for conducting anti @-@ ship missions .
The McDonnell Douglas AV @-@ 8B Harrier II is the latest Harrier variant , a second @-@ generation series to replace the first generation of Harrier jets already in service ; all the above variants of the Harrier have mainly been retired with the Harrier II taking their place in the RAF , USMC and FAA . In the 1970s the United Kingdom considered two options for replacing their existing Harriers : joining McDonnell Douglas ( MDD ) in developing the BAE Harrier II , or the independent development of a " Big Wing " Harrier . This proposal would have increased the wing area from 200 to 250 square feet ( 19 to 23 m2 ) , allowing for significant increases in weapons load and internal fuel reserves . The option of cooperation with MDD was chosen in 1982 over the more risky isolated approach .
= = Operational history = =
= = = Royal Air Force = = =
The first RAF squadron to be equipped with the Harrier GR.1 , No. 1 Squadron , started to convert to the aircraft at RAF Wittering in April 1969 . An early demonstration of the Harrier 's capabilities was the participation of two aircraft in the Daily Mail Transatlantic Air Race in May 1969 , flying between St Pancras railway station , London and downtown Manhattan with the use of aerial refuelling . The Harrier completed the journey in 6 hours 11 minutes . Two Harrier squadrons were established in 1970 at the RAF 's air base in Wildenrath to be part of its air force in Germany ; another squadron was formed there two years later . In 1977 , these three squadrons were moved forward to the air base at Gütersloh , closer to the prospective front line in the event of an outbreak of a European war . One of the squadrons was disbanded and its aircraft distributed between the other two .
In RAF service , the Harrier was used in close air support ( CAS ) , reconnaissance , and other ground @-@ attack roles . The flexibility of the Harrier led to a long @-@ term heavy deployment in West Germany as a conventional deterrent and potential strike weapon against Soviet aggression ; from camouflaged rough bases the Harrier was expected to launch attacks on advancing armour columns from East Germany . Harriers were also deployed to bases in Norway and Belize , a former British colony . No. 1 Squadron was specifically earmarked for Norwegian operations in the event of war , operating as part of Allied Forces Northern Europe . The Harrier 's capabilities were necessary in the Belize deployment , as it was the only RAF combat aircraft capable of safely operating from the airport 's short runway ; British forces had been stationed in Belize for several years due to tensions over a Guatemalan claim to Belizean territory ; the forces were withdrawn in 1993 , two years after Guatemala recognized the independence of Belize .
In the Falklands War in 1982 , 10 Harrier GR.3s of No. 1 Squadron operated from the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes . As the RAF Harrier GR.3 had not been designed for naval service , the 10 aircraft had to be rapidly modified prior to the departure of the task force . Special sealants against corrosion were applied and a new deck @-@ based inertial guidance aid was devised to allow the RAF Harrier to land on a carrier as easily as the Sea Harrier . Transponders to guide aircraft back to the carriers during night @-@ time operations were also installed , along with flares and chaff dispensers .
As there was little space on the carriers , two requisitioned merchant container ships , Atlantic Conveyor and Atlantic Causeway , were modified with temporary flight decks and used to carry Harriers and helicopters to the South Atlantic . The Harrier GR.3s focused on providing close air support to the ground forces on the Falklands and attacking Argentine positions ; suppressing enemy artillery was often a high priority . Sea Harriers were also used in the war , primarily conducting fleet air defence and combat air patrols against the threat of attacking Argentine fighters . However , both Sea Harriers and Harrier GR.3s were used in ground @-@ attack missions against the main airfield and runway at Stanley .
If most of the Sea Harriers had been lost , the GR.3s would have replaced them in air patrol duties , even though the Harrier GR.3 was not designed for air defence operations ; as such the GR.3s quickly had their outboard weapons pylons modified to take air @-@ to @-@ air Sidewinder missiles . From 10 to 24 May 1982 , prior to British forces landing in the Falklands , a detachment of three GR.3s provided air defence for Ascension Island until three F @-@ 4 Phantom IIs arrived to take on this responsibility . During the Falklands War , the greatest threats to the Harriers were deemed to be surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles ( SAMs ) and small arms fire from the ground . In total , four Harrier GR.3s and six Sea Harriers were lost to ground fire , accidents , or mechanical failure . More than 2 @,@ 000 Harrier sorties were conducted during the conflict — equivalent to six sorties per day per aircraft .
Following the Falklands war , British Aerospace explored the Skyhook , a new technique to operate Harriers from smaller ships . Skyhook would have allowed the launching and landing of Harriers from smaller ships by holding the aircraft in midair by a crane ; secondary cranes were to hold weapons for rapid re @-@ arming . This would potentially have saved fuel and allowed for operations in rougher seas . The system was marketed to foreign customers , and it was speculated that Skyhook could be applied to large submarines such as the Russian Typhoon class , but the system attracted no interest .
The first generation of Harriers did not see further combat with the RAF after the Falklands War , although they continued to serve for years afterwards . As a deterrent against further Argentine invasion attempts , No. 1453 Flight RAF was deployed to the Falkland Islands from August 1983 to June 1985 . However the second generation Harrier IIs saw action in Bosnia , Iraq , and Afghanistan . The first generation Hawker Siddeley airframes were replaced by the improved Harrier II , which had been developed jointly between McDonnell Douglas and British Aerospace .
= = = United States Marine Corps = = =
The United States Marine Corps began showing a significant interest in the aircraft around the time the first RAF Harrier squadron was established in 1969 , and this motivated Hawker Siddeley to further develop the aircraft to encourage a purchase . Although there were concerns in Congress about multiple coinciding projects in the close air support role , the Marine Corps were enthusiastic about the Harrier and managed to overcome efforts to obstruct its procurement .
The AV @-@ 8A entered service with the Marine Corps in 1971 , replacing other aircraft in the Marines ' attack squadrons . The service became interested in performing ship @-@ borne operations with the Harrier . Admiral Elmo Zumwalt promoted the concept of a Sea Control Ship , a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ ton light carrier equipped with Harriers and helicopters , to supplement the larger aircraft carriers of the US Navy . An amphibious assault ship , USS Guam , was converted into the Interim Sea Control Ship and operated as such between 1971 and 1973 with the purpose of studying the limits and possible obstacles for operating such a vessel . Since then the Sea Control Ship concept has been subject to periodic re @-@ examinations and studies , often in the light of budget cuts and questions over the use of supercarriers .
Other exercises were performed to demonstrate the AV @-@ 8A 's suitability for operating from various amphibious assault ships and aircraft carriers , including a deployment of 14 Harriers aboard USS Franklin D. Roosevelt for six months in 1976 . The tests showed , amongst other things , that the Harrier was capable of performing in weather where conventional carrier aircraft could not . In support of naval operations , the USMC devised and studied several methods to further integrate the Harrier . One result was Arapaho , a stand @-@ by system to rapidly convert civilian cargo ships into seagoing platforms for operating and maintaining a handful of Harriers , to be used to augment the number of available ships to deploy upon .
When the reactivation of the Iowa @-@ class battleships was under consideration , a radical design for a battleship @-@ carrier hybrid emerged that would have replaced the ship 's rear turret with a flight deck , complete with a hangar and two ski jumps , for operating several Harriers . However , the USMC considered the need for naval gunfire support to be a greater priority than additional platforms for carrier operations , while the cost and delay associated with such elaborate conversions was significant , and the concept was dropped .
The Marines Corps ' concept for deploying the Harriers in a land @-@ based expeditionary role focused on aggressive speed . Harrier forward bases and light maintenance facilities were to be set up in under 24 hours on any prospective battle area . The forward bases , containing one to four aircraft , were to be located 20 miles ( 32 km ) from the forward edge of battle ( FEBA ) , while a more established permanent airbase would be located around 50 miles ( 80 km ) from the FEBA . The close proximity of forward bases allowed for a far greater sortie rate and reduced fuel consumption .
The AV @-@ 8A 's abilities in air @-@ to @-@ air combat were tested by the Marine Corps by conducting mock dogfights with McDonnell Douglas F @-@ 4 Phantom IIs ; these exercises trained pilots to use the vectoring @-@ in @-@ forward @-@ flight ( VIFF ) capability to outmanoeuvre their opponents and showed that the Harriers could act as effective air @-@ to @-@ air fighters at close range . The success of Harrier operations countered scepticism of V / STOL aircraft , which had been judged to be expensive failures in the past . Marine Corps officers became convinced of the military advantages of the Harrier and pursued extensive development of the aircraft .
Starting in 1979 the USMC began upgrading their AV @-@ 8As to the AV @-@ 8C configuration — the work focused mainly on extending useful service lives and improving VTOL performance . The AV @-@ 8C and the remaining AV @-@ 8A Harriers were retired by 1987 . These were replaced by the Harrier II , designated as the AV @-@ 8B , which was introduced into service in 1985 . The performance of the Harrier in USMC service led to calls for the United States Air Force to procure Harrier IIs in addition to the USMC 's own plans , but these never resulted in Air Force orders . Since the late 1990s , the AV @-@ 8B has been slated to be replaced by the F @-@ 35B variant of the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II , a more modern V / STOL jet aircraft .
Like the next generation AV @-@ 8Bs , nevertheless , the AV @-@ 8A / C Harriers suffered many accidents , with around 40 aircraft lost and some 30 pilots killed during ' 70 and ' 80s .
= = = Other operators = = =
Due to the Harrier 's unique characteristics it attracted a large amount of interest from other nations , often as attempts to make their own V / STOL jets were unsuccessful , such as in the cases of the American XV @-@ 4 Hummingbird and the German VFW VAK 191B . Operations by the USMC aboard USS Nassau in 1981 and by British Harriers and Sea Harriers in the Falklands War proved that the aircraft were highly effective in combat . These operations also demonstrated that " Harrier Carriers " provided a powerful presence at sea without the expense of big deck carriers .
Following the display of Harrier operations from small carriers , the navies of Spain and later Thailand bought the Harrier for use as their main carrier @-@ based fixed @-@ wing aircraft . Spain 's purchase of Harriers was complicated by long @-@ standing political friction between the British and Spanish governments of the era ; even though the Harriers were manufactured in the UK they were sold to Spain with the US acting as an intermediary . During tests in November 1972 , the British pilot John Farley showed that the wooden deck of Daedalus was able to withstand the temperature of the gases generated by the Harrier . Since 1976 , the Spanish Navy operated the AV @-@ 8S Matador from their aircraft carrier Dédalo ( formerly the USS Cabot ) ; the aircraft provided both air defence and strike capabilities for the Spanish fleet . Spain later purchased five Harriers directly from the British government to replace losses .
Hawker Siddeley aggressively marketed the Harrier for export . At one point the company was holding talks with Australia , Brazil , Switzerland , India and Japan . Of these only India became a customer , purchasing the Sea Harrier . At one point China came very close to becoming an operator of the first generation Harrier . Following an overture by the UK in the early 1970s , when relations with the West were warming , China became interested in the aircraft as it sought to modernise its armed forces ; British Prime Minister James Callaghan noted significant hostility from the USSR over the sales bid . The deal was later cancelled by the UK as part of a diplomatic backlash after China invaded Vietnam in 1979 .
The Spanish Navy , Thai Navy , Royal Air Force , and United States Marine Corps have all retired their first @-@ generation Harriers . Spain sold seven single @-@ seat and two twin @-@ seat Harriers to Thailand in 1998 . The Royal Thai Navy 's AV @-@ 8S Matadors were delivered as part of the air wing deployed on the new light aircraft carrier HTMS Chakri Naruebet . The Thai Navy had from the start significant logistical problems keeping the Harriers operational due to a shortage of funds for spare parts and equipment , leaving only a few Harriers serviceable at a time . In 1999 , two years after being delivered , only one airframe was in airworthy condition . Around 2003 , Thailand considered acquiring former Royal Navy Sea Harriers , which were more suitable for maritime operations and better equipped for air defence , to replace their AV @-@ 8S Harriers ; this investigation did not progress to a purchase . The last first @-@ generation Harriers were retired by Thailand in 2006 .
= = Variants = =
Harrier GR.1 , GR.1A , GR.3
Single @-@ seat versions for the RAF . The RAF ordered 118 of the GR.1 / GR.3 series , with the last production aircraft delivery in December 1986 . 122 built .
AV @-@ 8A , AV @-@ 8C Harrier
Single @-@ seat versions for the US Marine Corps . The USMC ordered 102 AV @-@ 8As ( company designation : Harrier Mk . 50 ) . The AV @-@ 8C was an upgrade to the AV @-@ 8A . 110 built .
AV @-@ 8S Matador
Export version of the AV @-@ 8A Harrier for the Spanish Navy , who designated them as VA @-@ 1 Matador . 10 built .
Harrier T.2 , T.2A , T.4 , T.4A
Two @-@ seat training versions for the RAF , with a stretched body and taller tail fin . 25 built .
Harrier T.4N , T.8 , T.60
Two @-@ seat training versions for the Royal Navy and Indian Navy with avionics based on the Sea Harrier .
TAV @-@ 8A Harrier
Two @-@ seat training version for the USMC , powered by a Pegasus Mk 103 .
TAV @-@ 8S Matador
Two @-@ seat training version for the Spanish Navy and later sold to the Royal Thai Navy .
= = Operators = =
Thailand
Royal Thai Navy
India
Indian Navy
Spain
Spanish Navy
United Kingdom
Royal Air Force
Royal Navy
United States
United States Marine Corps
= = Aircraft on display = =
= = = Canada = = =
AV @-@ 8A
158966 - Canada Aviation and Space Museum , Ottawa , Ontario .
= = = Germany = = =
GR.1
XV278 - Luftwaffenmuseum der Bundeswehr , Gatow .
GR.3
XZ998 - Flugausstellung Leo Junior at Hermeskeil .
= = = Poland = = =
GR.3
XW919 - Polish Aviation Museum , Kraków , Poland .
= = = New Zealand = = =
GR.3
XZ129 - Ashburton Aviation Museum , Ashburton , New Zealand .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
GR.1
XV277 - National Museum of Flight , East Fortune .
GR.3
XV744 - Tangmere Military Aviation Museum , Chichester , West Sussex .
XV748 - Yorkshire Air Museum , Elvington .
XV751 - Gatwick Aviation Museum , Surrey .
XV752 - South Yorkshire Aircraft Museum , Doncaster , South Yorkshire .
XV753 - Classic Air Force , St Mawgan , Newquay , Cornwall .
XV779 - RAF Wittering ( Gate Guardian ) .
XZ133 - Imperial War Museum , Duxford .
XZ968 - Muckleburgh Collection , Norfolk .
XZ997 - RAF Museum , Hendon .
ZD667 - Bentwaters Cold War Museum , Suffolk .
Mk.52 G @-@ VTOL
ZA250 - Brooklands Museum , Surrey .
T.2
XW269 - Airworld Aviation Museum Caernarfon Wales
T.4
XW934 - Farnborough Air Sciences Trust , Farnborough , Hampshire .
AV @-@ 8A
159233 - Imperial War Museum North
= = = United States = = =
AV @-@ 8A
158695 - Air Park , Yuma MCAS , Yuma , Arizona .
159239 - San Diego Air and Space Museum , San Diego , California .
158963 - Craven County Regional Airport , Grantham , North Carolina .
158976 - City of Havelock , Havelock , North Carolina .
TAV @-@ 8A
159381 - Oakland Aviation Museum , Oakland , California .
159382 - Pima Air & Space Museum , Tucson , Arizona .
AV @-@ 8C
158387 - Flying Leatherneck Aviation Museum , Marine Corps Air Station Miramar , San Diego , California .
158710 - Quonset Air Museum , North Kingstown , Rhode Island .
158959 - Pacific Coast Air Museum , Santa Rosa , California .
158975 - National Naval Aviation Museum , NAS Pensacola , Pensacola , Florida .
158977 - Museum of Flight , Seattle , Washington .
159232 - Intrepid Sea , Air & Space Museum , New York City , New York .
159238 - Hangar 25 Museum , Webb AFB ( formerly ) , Big Spring , Texas .
159241 - Pima Air & Space Museum , Tucson , Arizona .
159247 - Naval Inventory Control Point ( NAVICP ) Philadelphia , Philadelphia , Pennsylvania .
159249 - United States Naval Museum of Armament and Technology , NCC China Lake ( North ) , Ridgecrest , California .
= = Specifications ( Harrier GR.3 ) = =
Data from Jane 's All The World 's Aircraft 1988 – 89
General characteristics
Crew : One
Length : 46 ft 10 in ( 14 @.@ 27 m )
Wingspan : 25 ft 3 in ( 7 @.@ 70 m )
Height : 11 ft 11 in ( 3 @.@ 63 m )
Wing area : 201 @.@ 1 ft ² ( 18 @.@ 68 m ² )
Empty weight : 13 @,@ 535 lb ( 6 @,@ 140 kg )
Max. takeoff weight : 25 @,@ 200 lb ( 11 @,@ 430 kg )
Powerplant : 1 × Rolls @-@ Royce Pegasus 103 turbofan with four swivelling nozzles , 21 @,@ 500 lbf ( 95 @.@ 6 kN ) Four vertical flight puffer jets use engine bleed air , mounted in the nose , wingtips , and tail .
Performance
Maximum speed : 730 mph ( 635 knots , 1 @,@ 176 km / h ) at sea level
Combat radius : 230 mi ( 200 nmi , 370 km ) lo @-@ lo @-@ lo with 4 @,@ 400 lb ( 2 @,@ 000 kg ) payload
Ferry range : 2 @,@ 129 mi ( 1 @,@ 850 nmi , 3 @,@ 425 km )
Endurance : 1 hr 30 min ( combat air patrol – 115 mi ( 185 km ) from base )
Service ceiling : 51 @,@ 200 ft ( 15 @,@ 600 m )
Time to climb to 40 @,@ 000 ft ( 12 @,@ 200 m ) : 2 min 23 s
Armament
Guns : 2 × 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 18 in ) ADEN cannon pods under the fuselage
Hardpoints : 4 × under @-@ wing & 1 × under @-@ fuselage pylon stations with a capacity of 5 @,@ 000 lb ( 2 @,@ 268 kg ) and provisions to carry combinations of :
Rockets : 4 × Matra rocket pods with 18 × SNEB 68 mm rockets each
Missiles : 2 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinders Air @-@ to @-@ air missiles
Bombs : A variety of unguided iron bombs , BL755 cluster bombs or laser @-@ guided bombs
Others :
1 × Reconnaissance pod
2 × drop tanks for extended range / loitering time
= = Popular culture = =
= New York State Route 104 =
New York State Route 104 ( NY 104 ) is a 182 @.@ 41 @-@ mile ( 293 @.@ 56 km ) long east – west state highway in Upstate New York in the United States . It spans six counties and enters the vicinity of four cities — Niagara Falls , Lockport , Rochester , and Oswego — as it follows a routing largely parallel to that of the southern shoreline of Lake Ontario , along a ridge of the old shoreline of Glacial Lake Iroquois . The western terminus of NY 104 is at an intersection with NY 384 in Niagara Falls , Niagara County , while its eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 13 in the town of Williamstown , Oswego County . The portion of NY 104 between Rochester and the village of Webster east of the city is a limited @-@ access highway known as the Keeler Street Expressway west of NY 590 and the Irondequoit – Wayne County Expressway east of NY 590 ; from Williamson to Oswego , NY 104 is a super two highway .
The majority of Ridge Road and modern NY 104 from the village of Red Creek to the town of Mexico were originally designated as part of Route 30 , an unsigned legislative route , early in the 20th century . All of Ridge Road and its continuation through Oswego to the hamlet of Maple View gained a signed designation by 1926 and became part of U.S. Route 104 ( US 104 ) , a United States Numbered Highway extending from Niagara Falls to Maple View , c . 1935 . US 104 , which never connected to US 4 , its implied parent route , was redesignated as NY 104 c . 1972 . As part of the redesignation , NY 104 was extended east to NY 13 in Williamstown over what had been New York State Route 126 .
Over time , the 104 designation , whether it be US 104 or NY 104 , has been shifted from surface streets to expressways and super twos , particularly from Rochester east to Oswego . The first such realignment occurred in the 1940s in Wayne County and was completed by the realignment of NY 104 onto the Irondequoit – Wayne County Expressway near Webster in the 1980s .
= = Route description = =
= = = Niagara County = = =
NY 104 begins near the Rainbow Bridge at the intersection of First Street and Niagara Street ( NY 384 ) in downtown Niagara Falls . The Seaway Trail crosses over NY 384 and follows NY 104 north on First Street for one block to the Robert Moses State Parkway , where the byway and NY 104 veer onto Main Street . NY 104 follows Main Street through the largely commercial west side of the city and intersects the northern or eastern terminus for both US 62 ( Ferry Avenue and Walnut Avenue ) and US 62 Business ( Pine Avenue ) . North of US 62 Business , the area becomes more residential as NY 104 meets NY 182 southeast of the Whirlpool Rapids Bridge . To the north , the name of NY 104 changes to Lewiston Road as it passes by the south campus of Niagara University . Near the northern extent of the campus , NY 104 intersects the western terminus of NY 31 , here named College Avenue . At the city limits , NY 104 meets the northbound Robert Moses State Parkway by way of a half @-@ interchange . The portion of NY 104 between Third Street and the Lewiston town line is maintained by the city of Niagara Falls , and is the only part of NY 104 that is not maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation .
Now in the town of Lewiston , NY 104 comes within view of the Niagara River gorge and begins to run along its eastern rim . NY 104 meets the northernmost point of NY 61 at the northern campus of Niagara University . Past NY 61 , the route passes by the Niagara Power Visitors Center and over the Robert Moses Niagara Power Plant . On the opposite side of the plant , NY 104 connects with Interstate 190 ( I @-@ 190 ) at exit 25 via Upper Mountain Road and passes under the eastern approach to the Lewiston – Queenston Bridge , which links I @-@ 190 with Ontario 's Highway 405 .
Past I @-@ 190 , NY 104 begins to deviate from the Niagara River . It heads through a small neighborhood situated between the Moses Parkway and NY 104 and intersects the northern end of NY 265 . North of this junction , NY 104 curves northeast to descend the Niagara Escarpment . As it heads downward in elevation , it intersects the western terminus of NY 18 by way of an interchange . As part of the same exit , NY 104 meets the parkway one more time as well as the southern terminus of NY 18F near the village of Lewiston . Here , the Seaway Trail leaves NY 104 to follow NY 18F . East of the exit , NY 104 intersects NY 18 again by way of another interchange .
East of Lewiston village , NY 104 follows Ridge Road through a sparsely populated area of Niagara County . Much of this portion of NY 104 is bordered on its southern end by the Tuscarora Indian Reservation . At the Lewiston hamlet of Dickersonville , the extents of the reservation head south , and development along NY 104 increases slightly . NY 104 meets the northern terminus of NY 429 at the Lewiston – Cambria town line and crosses over NY 425 at Streeters Corners . Just east of this location is an intersection with NY 93 in the community of Molyneaux Corners . The two routes form a concurrency east to Warrens Corners , a hamlet situated on the Cambria – Lockport town line , where NY 93 turns south to serve the city of Lockport .
NY 104 heads northeast through the extreme northwest corner of the town of Lockport to the town line , where it turns eastward to straddle the boundary between the towns of Lockport and Newfane . As it approaches the hamlet of Wrights Corners , the amount of development along NY 104 increases substantially with the level of development peaking at the junction of NY 104 and NY 78 . The two routes join for roughly 0 @.@ 35 miles ( 0 @.@ 56 km ) into the town of Newfane before splitting north of the hamlet . Ridge Road continues northeast through a residential district , which gives way to open fields once more at Ridgewood . NY 104 turns east here , passing through the town of Hartland and intersecting the southern terminus of NY 148 and the northern terminus of NY 271 . The route crosses into Orleans County at a junction with the southern terminus of NY 269 , which straddles the county line .
= = = Orleans and Monroe counties = = =
The route heads northeast through the town of Ridgeway to the hamlet of the same name , where NY 104 meets NY 63 . NY 63 joins NY 104 east along Ridge Road for about 300 yards ( 270 m ) before continuing north toward Lake Ontario . NY 104 , meanwhile , continues through the rural towns of Ridgeway and Gaines to a junction with NY 279 north of Albion . Not far to the east , NY 104 intersects NY 98 , the primary north – south highway through Albion , in the hamlet of Childs . Just past the intersection on the north side of the road are two of the three cobblestone buildings of the Cobblestone Historic District , a National Historic Landmark .
Farther east , Ridge Road enters the town of Murray , where it meets the northern terminus of NY 387 and intersects NY 237 in the hamlet of Murray . The two routes join for just under a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before NY 237 breaks away to the south toward Holley . NY 104 exits Orleans County 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) later in the same fashion as it entered : by intersecting a state highway . After meeting the southern terminus of NY 272 , NY 104 crosses into Monroe County and becomes West Ridge Road as it heads through the town of Clarkson . In the densely populated hamlet of Clarkson Corners , NY 104 intersects NY 19 . The open fields return east of the hamlet , and largely surround Ridge Road as NY 104 intersects NY 260 . NY 104 heads onward into Parma , where it widens to four lanes and has a junction with NY 259 in Parma Corners .
East of Parma Corners , development on NY 104 steadily increases as it heads toward the town of Greece . By the Parma – Greece town line , where NY 104 intersects the southern terminus of NY 261 , Ridge Road is lined with commercial properties of varying size . Continuing east , NY 104 meets the northern terminus of NY 386 . Here , NY 104 widens to a six @-@ lane divided highway . Between NY 386 and NY 390 exit 24 , NY 104 passes by several large shopping malls , the largest of which is The Mall at Greece Ridge at the intersection of NY 104 and Long Pond Road . At NY 390 , NY 104 continues to be a six @-@ lane divided highway as it heads toward Rochester . It enters the city limits upon meeting Mount Read Boulevard at an interchange .
In Rochester , NY 104 passes through an area known as Kodak Park , the large industrial complex owned by Eastman Kodak that occupies an entire neighborhood . In the middle of the complex , NY 104 crosses the Rochester and Southern Railroad and the CSX Transportation @-@ owned Charlotte Running Track and intersects the eastern terminus of NY 18 . Continuing east , NY 104 crosses the Genesee River gorge on the Veterans Memorial Bridge . On the opposite bank , it loses the name West Ridge Road and becomes a limited @-@ access highway known as the Keeler Street Expressway .
North of the first exit with St. Paul Street , Ridge Road resurfaces as East Ridge Road , which parallels the expressway to the north . NY 104 continues through Rochester and Irondequoit , connecting to North Clinton Avenue , Seneca Avenue , Hudson Avenue , Carter Street , Portland Avenue , North Goodman Street and Culver Road by way of interchanges . Between the Goodman Street and Culver Road exits , NY 104 passes the former Medley Centre . East of Culver , NY 104 encounters NY 590 and connects to NY 590 southbound by way of an interchange . East Ridge Road runs through the middle of this interchange , although there are no connections between Ridge and NY 104 . There is also no access from NY 104 eastbound to NY 590 northbound ; eastbound traffic must take Culver Road in order to go north toward Sea Breeze . Just east of the NY 590 interchange , NY 104 becomes the Irondequoit – Wayne County Expressway and crosses the Irondequoit Bay by way of the Irondequoit Bay Bridge . An access road between NY 104 just west of the bridge and NY 590 at Titus Avenue was once planned . Although entrance and exit ramps were built for the connection along NY 104 , the rest of the link was never built , leaving no access from NY 104 westbound to NY 590 northbound and from NY 590 southbound to NY 104 eastbound .
On the other side of the bridge in the town of Webster , NY 104 has exits leading to Bay Road , Five Mile Line Road , Hard Road , and Holt Road prior to entering the village of Webster . Within the village , NY 104 meets NY 250 ( North Avenue ) and Phillips Road by way of interchanges before exiting the village . The expressway loosely parallels the southern edge of the primary Xerox campus to an exit with Salt Road , where it downgrades to a divided highway as it continues east to
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Epirus , the Church of the Parigoritissa ( 1282 – 9 ) is the most complex example , with a domed octagon core and domed ambulatory . Built in the capital of Arta , its external appearance resembles a cubic palace . The upper level narthex and galleries have five domes , with the middle dome of the narthex an open lantern . This Greek @-@ cross octagon design , similar to the earlier example at Daphni , is one of several among the various Byzantine principalities . Another is found in the Hagia Theodoroi at Mistra ( 1290 – 6 ) .
Mistra was ruled from Constantinople after 1262 , then was the suzerain of the Despotate of the Morea from 1348 to 1460 . In Mistra , there are several basilica plan churches with domed galleries that create a five @-@ domed cross @-@ in @-@ square over a ground @-@ level basilica plan . The Aphentiko at Brontochion Monastery was built c . 1310 – 22 and the later church of the Pantanassa Monastery ( 1428 ) is of the same type . The Aphentiko may have been originally planned as a cross @-@ in @-@ square church , but has a blend of longitudinal and central plan components , with an interior divided into nave and aisles like a basilica . The barrel @-@ vaulted nave and cross arms have a dome at their crossing , and the corner bays of the galleries are also domed to form a quincunx pattern . A remodeling of the Metropolis church in Mistra created an additional example . The Pantanassa incorporates Western elements in that domes in its colonnaded porch are hidden externally , and its domes have ribs of rectangular section similar to those of Salerno , Ravello , and Palermo .
In Thessaloniki , a distinctive type of church dome developed in the first two decades of the 14th century . It is characterized by a polygonal drum with rounded colonnettes at the corners , all brick construction , and faces featuring three arches stepped back within one another around a narrow " single @-@ light window " . One of the hallmarks of Thessalonian churches was the plan of a domed naos with a peristoon wrapped around three sides . The churches of Hagios Panteleimon , Hagia Aikaterine , and Hagioi Apostoloi have domes on these ambulatory porticoes . The five domes of the Hagioi Apostoloi , or Church of the Holy Apostles , in Thessaloniki ( c . 1329 ) makes it an example of a five @-@ domed cross @-@ in @-@ square church in the Late Byzantine style , as is the Gračanica monastery , built around 1311 in Serbia . The architect and artisans of the Gračanica monastery church probably came from Thessaloniki and its style reflects Byzantine cultural influence . The church has been said to represent " the culmination of Late Byzantine architectural design . "
= = Influence = =
Constantinople 's cultural influence extended from Sicily to Russia . Armenia , as a border state between the Roman @-@ Byzantine and Sasanian empires , was influenced by both . The exact relationship between Byzantine architecture and that of the Caucasus is unclear . Georgia and Armenia produced many central planned , domed buildings in the 7th century and , after a lull during the Arab invasions , the architecture flourished again in the Middle Byzantine Period . Armenian church domes were initially wooden structures . Etchmiadzin Cathedral ( c . 483 ) originally had a wooden dome covered by a wooden pyramidal roof before this was replaced with stone construction in 618 . Churches with stone domes became the standard type after the 7th century , perhaps benefiting from a possible exodus of stonecutters from Syria , but the long traditions of wooden construction carried over stylistically . Some examples in stone as late as the 12th century are detailed imitations of clearly wooden prototypes . Armenian church building was prolific in the late 6th and 7th centuries and , by the 7th century , the churches tend to be either central plans or combinations of central and longitudinal plans . Domes were supported by either squinches ( which were used in the Sasanian Empire but rarely in the Byzantine ) or pendentives like those of the Byzantine empire , and the combination of domed @-@ cross plan with the hall @-@ church plan could have been influenced by the architecture of Justinian . Domes and cross arms were added to the longitudinal cathedral of Dvin from 608 to 615 and a church in Tekor . Other domed examples include Ptghnavank in Ptghni ( c . 600 ) , a church in T 'alinn ( 662 @-@ 85 ) , and the Cathedral of Mren ( 629 @-@ 40 ) .
In the Balkans , where Byzantine rule weakened in the 7th and 8th centuries , domed architecture may represent Byzantine influence or , in the case of the centrally planned churches of 9th @-@ century Dalmatia , the revival of earlier Roman mausoleum types . An interest in Roman models may have been an expression of the religious maneuvering of the region between the Church of Constantinople and that of Rome . Examples include the Church of Sv . Luka in Kotor , the Church of Sv . Trojce near Split , and the early 9th century Church of Sv . Donat in Zadar . The Church of Sv . Donat , originally domed , may have been built next to a palace and resembles palace churches in the Byzantine tradition . The architectural chronology of the central and eastern Balkans is unsettled during the period of the First Bulgarian Empire , in part because of similarity between Justinian @-@ era churches from the 6th century and what may have been a revival of that style in the late 9th and early 10th centuries under the Christianized Bulgar tsars . Remains of the Round Church in Preslav , a building traditionally associated with the rule Tsar Simeon ( 893 – 927 ) , indicate that it was a domed palace chapel . Its construction features , however , resemble instead 3rd and 4th century Roman mausolea , perhaps due to the association of those structures with the imperial idea .
Byzantine architecture was introduced to the Rus ' people in the 10th century , with churches after the conversion of Prince Vladimir of Kiev being modeled after those of Constantinople , but made of wood . The Russian onion dome was a later development . The earliest architecture of Kiev , the vast majority of which was made of wood , has been lost to fire , but by the 12th century masonry domes on low drums in Kiev and Vladimir @-@ Suzdal were little different than Byzantine domes , although modified toward the " helmet " type with a slight point . The Cathedral of St. Sophia in Kiev ( 1018 – 37 ) was distinctive in having thirteen domes , for Jesus and the twelve Apostles , but they have since been remodeled in the Baroque style and combined with an additional eight domes . The pyramidal arrangement of the domes was a Byzantine characteristic , although , as the largest and perhaps most important 11th century building in the Byzantine tradition , many of the details of this building have disputed origins . Bulbous onion domes on tall drums were a development of northern Russia , perhaps due to the demands of heavy ice and snowfall along with the more rapid innovation permitted by the Novgorod region 's emphasis on wooden architecture . The central dome of the Cathedral of St. Sophia ( 1045 – 62 ) in Novgorod dates from the 12th century and shows a transitional stage . Other churches built around this time are those of St. Nicholas ( 1113 ) , the Nativity of the Virgin ( 1117 ) , and St. George ( 1119 – 30 ) .
In Romanesque Italy , Byzantine influence can most clearly be seen in Venice 's St Mark 's Basilica , from about 1063 , but also in the domed churches of southern Italy , such as Canosa Cathedral ( 1071 ) and the old Cathedral of Molfetta ( c . 1160 ) . In Norman Sicily , architecture was a fusion of Byzantine , Islamic , and Romanesque forms , but the dome of the Palatine Chapel ( 1132 – 43 ) at Palermo was decorated with Byzantine mosaic , as was that of the church of Santa Maria dell 'Ammiraglio ( 1140 's ) . The unusual use of domes on pendentives in a series of seventy Romanesque churches in the Aquitaine region of France strongly suggests a Byzantine influence . St. Mark 's Basilica was modeled on the now @-@ lost Byzantine Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople , and Périgueux Cathedral in Aquitaine ( c . 1120 ) likewise has five domes on pendentives in a Greek cross arrangement . Other examples include the a domed naves of Angoulême Cathedral ( 1105 – 28 ) , Cahors Cathedral ( c . 1100 – 1119 ) , and the Abbey church of Sainte @-@ Marie in Souillac ( c . 1130 ) .
Byzantium 's neighboring Orthodox powers emerged as architectural centers in their own right during the Late Byzantine Period . The Bulgarian churches of Nesebar are similar to those in Constantinople at this time and , following the construction of Gračanica monastery , the architecture of Serbia used the " so @-@ called Athonite plan " , for example at Ravanica ( 1375 – 7 ) . In Romania , Wallachia was influenced by Serbian architecture and Moldavia was more original , such as in the Voroneț Monastery with its small dome . Moscow emerged as the most important center of architecture following the fall of Constantinople in 1453 . The Cathedral of the Assumption ( 1475 – 79 ) , built in the Kremlin to house the icon of Our Lady of Vladimir , was designed in a traditional Russian style by an Italian architect .
Italian Renaissance architecture combined Roman and Romanesque practices with Byzantine structures and decorative elements , such as domes with pendentives over square bays . The Cassinese Congregation used windowed domes in the Byzantine style , and often also in a quincunx arrangement , in their churches built between 1490 and 1546 , such as the Abbey of Santa Giustina . The technique of using wooden tension rings at several levels within domes and drums to resist deformation , frequently said to be a later invention of Filippo Brunelleschi , was common practice in Byzantine architecture . The technique of using double shells for domes , although revived in the Renaissance , originated in Byzantine practice . The dome of the Pantheon , as a symbol of Rome and its monumental past , was particularly celebrated and imitated , although copied only loosely . Studied in detail from the early Renaissance on , it was an explicit point of reference for the dome of St. Peter 's Basilica and inspired the construction of domed rotundas with temple @-@ front porches throughout western architecture into the modern era . Examples include Palladio 's chapel at Maser ( 1579 – 80 ) , Bernini 's church of S. Maria dell 'Assunzione ( 1662 @-@ 4 ) , the Library Rotunda of the University of Virginia ( 1817 – 26 ) , and the church of St. Mary in Malta ( 1833 – 60 ) .
Ottoman architecture adopted the Byzantine dome form and continued to develop it . One type of mosque was modeled after Justinian 's Church of Sergius and Bacchus with a dome over an octagon or hexagon contained within a square , such as the Üç Şerefeli Mosque ( 1437 – 47 ) . The dome and semi @-@ domes of the Hagia Sophia , in particular , were replicated and refined . A " universal mosque design " based upon this development spread throughout the world . The first Ottoman mosque to use a dome and semi @-@ dome nave vaulting scheme like that of Hagia Sophia was the mosque of Beyazit II . Only two others were modeled similarly : Kılıç Ali Pasha Mosque and the Süleymaniye Mosque ( 1550 – 57 ) . Other Ottoman mosques , although superficially similar to Hagia Sophia , have been described as structural criticism 's of it . When Mimar Sinan set out to build a dome larger than that of Hagia Sophia with Selimiye Mosque ( 1569 – 74 ) , he used a more stable octagonal supporting structure . The Selimiye Mosque is of the type originating with the Church of Sergius and Bacchus . Three other Imperial mosques in Istanbul built in this " Classical Style " of Hagia Sophia include four large semi @-@ domes around the central dome , rather than two : Şehzade Camii , Sultan Ahmed I Camii ( completed in 1616 ) , and the last to be built : Yeni Cami ( 1597 – 1663 ) .
A Byzantine revival style of architecture occurred in the 19th and 20th centuries . An early example of the revival style in Russia was the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour ( 1839 – 84 ) , which was approved by the Tsar to be a model for other churches in the empire . The style 's popularity spread through scholarly publications produced after the independence of Greece and the Balkans from the Ottoman Empire . It was used throughout Europe and North America , peaking in popularity between 1890 and 1914 . The Greek Orthodox St Sophia 's Cathedral ( 1877 – 79 ) and Roman Catholic Westminster Cathedral ( begun 1895 ) , both in London , are examples . The throne room of Neuschwanstein Castle ( 1885 – 86 ) was built by King Ludwig II in Bavaria . In the late 19th century , the Hagia Sophia became a widespread model for Greek Orthodox churches . In southeastern Europe , monumental national cathedrals built in the capital cities of formerly Ottoman areas used Neo @-@ Classical or Neo @-@ Byzantine styles . Sofia 's Alexander Nevsky Cathedral and Belgrade 's Church of Saint Sava are examples , and used Hagia Sophia as a model due to their large sizes . Synagogues in the United States were built in a variety of styles , as they had been in Europe ( and often with a mixture of elements from different styles ) , but the Byzantine Revival style was the most popular in the 1920s . Domed examples include The Temple of Cleveland ( 1924 ) , the synagogue of KAM Isaiah Israel ( 1924 ) in Chicago , based upon San Vitale in Ravenna and Hagia Sophia in Istanbul , and the synagogue of Congregation Emanu @-@ El ( 1926 ) in San Francisco .
In the United States , Greek Orthodox churches beginning in the 1950s tended to use a large central dome with a ring of windows at its base evocative of the central dome of Hagia Sophia , rather than more recent or more historically common Byzantine types , such as the Greek @-@ cross @-@ octagon or five @-@ domed quincunx plans . Examples include Annunciation Greek Orthodox Church , completed in 1961 but designed by Frank Lloyd Wright in 1957 , Ascension Greek Orthodox Cathedral of Oakland ( 1960 ) , and Annunciation Greek Orthodox Cathedral in Atlanta ( 1967 ) . The use of a large central dome in American Greek Orthodox churches continued in the 1960s and 1970s before moving toward smaller Middle Byzantine domes , or versions of Early Christian basilicas .
= No. 391 Squadron RAAF =
No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) squadron that operated during the Korean War and its immediate aftermath . It was established in October 1950 as part of No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing , which administered RAAF units deployed in the conflict . Apart from No. 391 Squadron , these included No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron , No. 30 Communications Unit ( redesignated No. 30 Transport Unit in 1951 and No. 36 ( Transport ) Squadron in 1953 ) , and No. 491 ( Maintenance ) Squadron . No. 391 Squadron was headquartered at Iwakuni , Japan , as were No. 91 Wing 's other components with the exception of No. 77 Squadron , which was located on the Korean peninsula . The base squadron was responsible for administrative , logistical , medical , communications and security functions at Iwakuni , and also maintained detachments in South Korea . It included a marine section for harbour patrols and search @-@ and @-@ rescue in the waters off southern Japan . No. 391 Squadron was disbanded at the same time as No. 91 Wing headquarters , in April 1955 .
= = History = =
When the Korean War broke out on 25 June 1950 , No. 77 ( Fighter ) Squadron of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) was based at Iwakuni , Japan . For the previous four years the squadron , equipped with North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs , had served with the British Commonwealth Occupation Force ( BCOF ) . Personnel were preparing to return to Australia when they were placed on standby for action over Korea ; the squadron began flying missions as part of United Nations ( UN ) forces a week later . Following the landing at Inchon and the consequent advance northward of UN troops , No. 77 Squadron relocated to Pohang , South Korea , on 12 October 1950 . It left behind its main support elements at Iwakuni . No. 91 ( Composite ) Wing was established at the base on 20 October and given administrative responsibility for all RAAF units operating during the conflict . This included No. 77 Squadron and three newly formed components : No. 30 Communications Flight ( renamed No. 30 Communications Unit the following month , No. 30 Transport Unit in November 1951 and No. 36 ( Transport ) Squadron in March 1953 ) , No. 491 ( Maintenance ) Squadron , and No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron . Apart from No. 77 Squadron , the wing 's units were all headquartered at Iwakuni .
At the onset of war in Korea , No. 77 Squadron was self @-@ supporting , the largest flying unit in the RAAF . It comprised 299 officers and men , 40 Mustangs , 3 CAC Wirraways , 2 Douglas C @-@ 47 Dakotas and 2 Austers . The added burden of combat operations made this situation untenable after the squadron went into action in Korea , leading to the formation of No. 391 ( Base ) Squadron at Iwakuni , at the same time as No. 91 Wing headquarters . RAAF base squadrons were responsible for administrative , logistical , medical , communications and security functions . Staffed mainly by former No. 77 Squadron members , in the first year of its existence No. 391 Squadron had to try to overcome severe shortages of winter clothing and equipment . Further problems arose when No. 77 Squadron converted to Gloster Meteors between April and July 1951 , as spares for the British @-@ made jet were harder to obtain than for the American Mustang . No longer could No. 391 Squadron source parts from the US Fifth Air Force as it had up till this point . Disposal of the Mustangs and their spares also caused headaches ; the process took two years , causing storage issues . The base squadron faced another challenge in January 1952 , following a controversial change in role for the Meteors , from air @-@ to @-@ air combat to ground attack , which necessitated obtaining supplies of rockets and modification of the aircraft to carry them .
Along with its RAAF responsibilities , No. 391 Squadron supported Australian Army and other UN personnel travelling through Iwakuni . It ran No. 91 Wing 's " Transit Hotel " , which accommodated business people and entertainers , as well as military personnel . The squadron maintained two detachments in South Korea , one at Kimpo Air Base to handle Meteor spares , and another at the RAAF ward of the British Commonwealth Zone Medical Unit in Seoul . Base support staff regularly rotated from Iwakuni to these detachments . No. 391 Squadron 's medical contingent was heavily engaged in the preparation and escort of injured personnel from Korea to Iwakuni and then to other destinations . The unit included a marine craft section equipped with small boats that patrolled harbours in southern Japan used by British and American flying boats , and conducted search @-@ and @-@ rescue operations for UN pilots who ditched at sea . No. 391 Squadron used Japanese technicians as well as Australian , which was unusual at the time ; since the occupation of Japan following its surrender in World War II , Japanese workers had only been employed for menial tasks .
Following the departure for Australia of Nos. 77 and 36 Squadrons between November 1954 and March 1955 , and the disbandment of No. 491 Squadron in December 1954 , No. 391 Squadron disbanded on 30 April 1955 , the same day as No. 91 Wing headquarters .
= Turf War ( The Office ) =
" Turf War " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the eighth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's 175th episode overall . The episode originally aired on NBC on May 3 , 2012 . " Turf War " was written by Warren Lieberstein and Halsted Sullivan , and was directed by Daniel Chun . The episode guest stars Chris Bauer , Andy Buckley , and Dan Castellaneta .
The series — presented as if it were a real documentary — depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania , branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Robert California ( James Spader ) drunkenly shuts down a branch in Binghamton , and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) must outsmart a salesman , Harry Jannerone ( Chris Bauer ) , from the Syracuse branch . Meanwhile , Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) decides to land an important client as a " rogue " and jumpstart his Dunder Mifflin comeback by using his success as leverage with Robert .
" Turf War " received mixed reviews from critics , with many criticizing the show 's decision to recycle elements of the Michael Scott Paper Company fifth season story arc . " Turf War " was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 44 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode ranked third in its timeslot and was also the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night .
= = Plot = =
While " celebrating the finalization of his divorce " , Robert ( James Spader ) drunkenly shuts down the Binghamton branch of Dunder Mifflin . The resulting commotion allows the sales team in Scranton , specifically Jim ( John Krasinski ) and Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) to begin poaching former customers of the closed branch . Harry Jannerone ( Chris Bauer ) , an angry employee from the Syracuse branch of Dunder Mifflin arrives in Scranton to berate Jim and Dwight for taking New York clients even though those particular clients are closer to Scranton than Syracuse . The two argue , dropping the name of a particularly large client , Prestige Direct Sale Solutions , that is up for grabs . Andy ( Ed Helms ) , who is cooking lunch for everyone in the office , overhears the argument and gets an idea : if he can win the client , he might be able to use the account as leverage to get his job as manager back .
Andy rushes to the potential client , a company called Prestige Direct , and impresses the CEO ( Dan Castellaneta ) with his dedication — in addition to his personal phone number , he also gives him a copy of his house key . Meanwhile , Dwight , Jim , and Harry rush to the company in an attempt to win the client , only to hear that the company has gone with Andy . After Andy wins the client , he calls Robert and offers him the client if Robert will re @-@ hire him . Robert is furious at his attempt to blackmail him , and hangs up on Andy . This leads Andy to seek help from David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) , the former Chief Financial Officer of Dunder Mifflin who has become a multi @-@ millionaire . Andy tells David that , despite being in poor shape , Dunder Mifflin could be worth twice its net worth if the company 's management is restructured . This piques David 's interest , who allows Andy to come into his home and talk to him about his business proposal .
Meanwhile , after Nellie Bertram ( Catherine Tate ) reveals to Robert that he sent her a sexually suggestive voicemail , Robert tasks Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) with finding what the voicemail entailed . Initially , Pam tries to trick Nellie into divulging the contents of the message , but this plan is ruined when Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) shows up , claiming that she was Robert 's " back @-@ up plan " in case Pam failed . Finally , Pam steals Nellie 's phone and brings it to Robert and the two listen to the various voice messages . After hearing several which paint a life for Nellie that is sad and lonely — she is unable to adopt a child and she has maxed out her credit cards — Pam relents and tells Robert that she won 't help him anymore . Pam returns Nellie 's phone and the two strike up a conversation . Nellie reveals to Pam her disgust for Robert , saying that he is sexually obsessed . She asks Pam if she wants to hear about Robert 's voicemail , but Pam declines her offer . In the end , Nellie reveals to the camera that she is deeply moved to have a real friend at her work place .
After learning that they 've lost Prestige Direct , Jim , Dwight and Harry retreat outside for a coffee break . They end up having a conversation over what they would do with their lives , if they weren 't working for Dunder Mifflin . Jim jokingly says that he 'd be a beet growing competitor during the national contests while Harry would retire after selling one big item such as an airplane . Before he leaves , Harry says that Robert will be the ruin of the company and says they won 't be working for Dunder Mifflin in six months , leaving a look of concern on Dwight and Jim 's faces .
= = Production = =
" Turf War " was written by Warren Lieberstein and Halsted Sullivan , and was directed by Daniel Chun . The episode marks the tenth appearance of Catherine Tate as Nellie Bertram and her seventh consecutive appearance . She first appeared in the seventh season finale , " Search Committee " as a guest star , but starting with " Tallahassee " she was added to the cast as a recurring character . The episode also features the return of the character David Wallace ( Andy Buckley ) , former CFO of Dunder Mifflin , after his reappearance in " Fundraiser . Chris Bauer guest @-@ starred in this episode as a rival branch manager who believes Dunder Mifflin Scranton is stealing their clients . In addition , Dan Castellaneta guest @-@ starred as the CEO of Prestige Direct Sale Solutions . The Season Eight DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Dwight berating Jim for owning a plethora of baby supplies , Pam and Angela trying to extract information from Nellie , Darryl feeding a mouse he finds in the break room , Erin and Darryl arguing over the name of the mouse , and Harry talking about the " same drama and whack @-@ ados " that work at his branch .
= = Cultural references = =
In an attempt to stall , Robert talks to the camera at lengths about geishas , using bizarre and cryptic metaphors . When Jim and Dwight are trying to outrun Harry , Dwight asks him if his car has a NOS , a reference to the 2001 film The Fast and the Furious . Jim answers in the affirmative , but turns on the windshield wipers , to Dwight 's disdain . When Andy is trying to win over the CEO , he mentions that his wifi password is " eatpraylove " , a reference to the book and movie of the same name .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Turf War " originally aired on NBC in the United States on May 3 , 2012 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 4 @.@ 44 million viewers and received a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 7 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 3 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode marked a 10 % increase from the previous week 's episode , " Fundraiser " . The episode finished third in its time slot , being beaten by Grey 's Anatomy which received a 3 @.@ 3 rating / 9 % share and the CBS drama Person of Interest which received a 2 @.@ 5 rating / 7 % share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode beat the Fox series Touch and The CW drama series The Secret Circle . Despite this , " Turf War " was the highest @-@ rated NBC television episode of the night .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed reviews from critics . Dan Forcella from TV Fanatic gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it four out of five stars . Forcella praised the Jim – Dwight dynamic in the episode and wrote , " Jim and Dwight , and especially the latter , were terrific . " In addition , Forcella positively compared the character growth of Nellie Bertam to Michael Scott , noting " the most heartwarming moment [ was ] her scene with Pam , in which Nellie was so happy to have made a friend , reminded me of so many Michael Scott moments of the past . " Brett Harrison Davinger from The California Literary Review wrote moderately positive of the episode , saying , " Tonight 's episode worked for the most part thanks to the ever reliable Robert California and the usually reliable Jim and Dwight : Partners . " However , he did retroactively criticize season eight for not elaborating on the problems facing Dunder Mifflin until " Turf War " . In addition , he called the premise of Andy seeking Wallace 's help " iffy [ ... ] even if it was predictable " . Jeffrey Hyatt from ScreenCrave wrote , " The immediate , don 't over @-@ analyze opinion here is that ' Turf War ' is a top three episode of season 8 , with a chance of it being number one . " Furthermore , he concluded that the episode " was good , very good , and a nice way to get set for the season / series finale . [ ... ] The Office can still bring it when it wants to . "
Myles McNutt from The A. V. Club wrote a mixed review and gave it a C + . He noted that the episode 's closing scene , wherein Jim , Dwight , and Harry talk about Robert California ruining the company , was an example of a retcon that " the shift to a world with actual consequences is certainly a step in the right direction for the series , and one that slightly elevates ' Turf War ' if not the season as a whole . " However , McNutt was largely critical of the writing , noting that the closure of the Binghamton branch was a " cheap segue " that " render [ ed ] the show 's characters as subservient to the narrative whims of the writers . " He argued — specifically citing the unconcernedness that the Scranton employees showed after hearing that a neighboring branch was shut down — that many of the characters ' motives were not effective because they simply acted as ciphers , through which the larger plots could unfold .
Several reviews were critical of Andy 's paper company development . Many compared it , unfavorably , to the Michael Scott Paper Company fifth season story arc . Dyanamaria Leifsson from TV Equals wrote " Instead [ of Andy making a mention to the Michael Scott Paper Company ] the similarities were ignored and we were expected to treat this as a novel idea . " Craig McQuinn from The Faster Times sardonically wrote " remember how good the Michael Scott Paper Company storyline was ? " a reference to the episode 's reuse of an old and existing story arc . In addition , several reviews criticized the cold opening . California Literary noted that , " The string of good , relatable cold opens ends tonight as Dwight and Gabe engage in a manliest man contest . " Myles McNutt called the scene " just nonsense " .
= New Harmony Toll Bridge =
The New Harmony Toll Bridge , also known as the Harmony Way Bridge , is a now @-@ closed two @-@ lane bridge across the Wabash River that connects Illinois Route 14 with Indiana State Road 66 , which is Church Street in New Harmony , Indiana . The bridge links White County , Illinois with Posey County , Indiana . The four @-@ span bridge is owned by the White County Bridge Commission and was built without federal funds in 1930 by the Big Wabash Bridge Company of Carmi , Illinois . The next bridge across the Wabash about 15 miles ( 24 km ) downstream is the Wabash Memorial Bridge near Mount Vernon , Indiana and the next bridge upstream is for Interstate 64 , which does not allow farm vehicles .
= = Details = =
As originally designed , the bridge is 2 @,@ 579 feet ( .49 of a mile ) long . It has 47 spans and a 20 foot wide concrete roadway .
The bridge is the first highway bridge erected across the lower Wabash River and the oldest remaining bridge in use over the Wabash ’ s length in Illinois and half of Indiana . The original owner was a private company , the Big Wabash Bridge Company of Carmi , Illinois , which was chartered by Congress to build and operate the bridge on May 1 , 1928 . The company contracted with the Nashville Bridge Company of Nashville , Tennessee to build it . The bridge opened on December 21 , 1930 , and 10 @,@ 000 people attended the dedication of the bridge on December 30 , 1930 . In 1941 , Congress created the White County Bridge Commission as a joint Illinois @-@ Indiana agency to purchase the bridge from the Big Wabash Bridge Company for $ 895 @,@ 000 .
About 900 vehicles crossed the bridge each day . The bridge collected an average of $ 30 @,@ 000 in monthly tolls and had $ 22 @,@ 000 in monthly expenses . The bridge was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2007 in part because of its relationship to historic New Harmony , Indiana as well as the bridge 's age . The three @-@ member Commission was established by Congress on April 12 , 1941 , but Congress repealed the statute providing for an appointment mechanism in 1998 . The Commission 's general manager , who is 75 , speculated that the bridge would close if the three current commissioners would resign or die .
In 1951 , the current toll booth on the western edge of the river was constructed by the Electronic Signal Company , to replace an earlier booth on the eastern edge . In 1952 , a tollpayer sued to exercise his right to inspect the books and records of the Commission , but lost his lawsuit and was not allowed access . In 1955 , the General Accounting Office issued a report critical of the Commission and claiming that one commissioner had a conflict of interest . In response , the U.S. Department of Justice filed a suit seeking removal of the Commissioner and recovery of the misapplied funds . However , the courts dismissed the case .
In 1994 , the Commission contracted to apply an epoxy coating on the bridge 's surface , but the coating delaminated and the Commission refused to pay the contractor claiming that the coating had not been applied correctly . After a trial , the Commission lost the lawsuit and paid .
From September 2007 to April 2008 , the bridge to closed to all traffic when cracks appeared in some of the concrete support piers . During the closure , contractors added new pilings to the existing piers and made other required repairs . In 2010 , engineers determined that the bridge required an additional $ 6 million in repairs . The National Bridge Inventory rated the bridge " Structurally Deficient . "
= = Closure = =
On May 21 , 2012 , it was announced that the bridge would close permanently at noon on May 29 , 2012 . White County Bridge Commission member Jim Clark stated , " the cost to make repairs was more than we could imagine . " However , Clark then made the decision to close the bridge immediately after receiving the complete report from a team of nine engineers who inspected the bridge on April 29 . " I knew it was bad , but didn 't know just how bad until I received their full report by email Monday morning , " Clark said . " Once I saw their weight @-@ load calculations , I knew we had to shut it down right away . We couldn 't wait until May 29 . " The thirteen toll booth employees were laid off . As of the closure there are $ 49 @,@ 015 in toll tickets that have not been used . Refunds were given for thirty days from the closure . The closure of the New Harmony Bridge as reported in the Evansville Courier would have a significant impact on farmers in the area and the oil industry . The bridge 's closure increases the distance between New Harmony and Crossville , Illinois by about ten miles .
= Pandora ( Skins ) =
" Pandora " is the fourth episode of the third series of the British teen drama Skins , which first aired on 12 February 2009 on E4 in both Ireland and the United Kingdom . The episode was written by Bryan Elsley and Georgia Lester , and was directed by Simon Massey . The episode focuses on the character of Pandora Moon ( Lisa Backwell ) , who is miserable after her boyfriend , Thomas Tomone ( Merveille Lukeba ) , recently returned to the Democratic Republic of the Congo . She holds a small pyjama party for her friends , but it descends into chaos when uninvited guests arrive and the food is spiked with drugs . Pandora and Effy get into an argument after both girls have sex with James Cook ( Jack O 'Connell ) , but the argument is interrupted when Thomas unexpectedly returns .
" Pandora " was filmed in September 2008 . It featured guest appearances by Sally Phillips and Harry Enfield , as well as real @-@ life partners Morwenna Banks and David Baddiel , who played on @-@ screen lovers . The episode brought in 701 @,@ 000 viewers and was E4 's highest @-@ rated programme of the week . It received generally positive reviews from critics . Harry Enfield and James Fleet who both appear in this episode previously starred together as father and son in the 2000 film Kevin & Perry Go Large .
= = Plot = =
At the house of her friend , Effy Stonem ( Kaya Scodelario ) , Pandora ( Lisa Backwell ) tells Effy 's mother , Anthea ( Morwenna Banks ) , that she misses Thomas , who recently returned to his country of origin , the Democratic Republic of the Congo . Later , Effy 's father , Jim ( Harry Enfield ) , discovers his wife 's infidelity when his boss , Steve ( David Baddiel ) , arrives at the house , declaring his love for Anthea . Effy grows miserable after Jim leaves the family , and Pandora , desperate for some fun , throws a pyjama party . Effy and Katie Fitch ( Megan Prescott ) arrive with Pandora at her house for the party and meet her neurotic mother , Angela ( Sally Phillips ) . Disappointed by the lack of boys , drugs and alcohol because of Angela 's strict supervision , Katie spikes the brownies that they make with MDMA . As Naomi Campbell ( Lily Loveless ) and Katie 's twin sister , Emily ( Kathryn Prescott ) , arrive together , Naomi urges Emily to admit that she is gay , but Emily denies it . All of the girls indulge in the brownies and Pandora is unhappy to see her mother 's behaviour grow increasingly erratic . After Angela is carried into a bedroom to sleep , Pandora locks herself in the bathroom , upset about Thomas 's departure and angry with Effy , who she believes spiked the brownies .
Outside , Cook and JJ Jones ( Ollie Barbieri ) try to sneak into the girls ' party . Cook enters the house through a window , but accidentally locks himself inside a wardrobe . After calling his friend , Freddie Mclair ( Luke Pasqualino ) , for help , JJ goes into the house by himself and sees Emily and Naomi kissing . Katie , too , witnesses the pair kissing , but is interrupted when her footballer boyfriend , Danny Guillermo ( Henry Garrett ) , and dozens of his friends arrive at the house to crash the party . Hiding from the rest of the party , Effy finds Cook , and they have sex in the wardrobe . They fall through the wall into the next room and find a DVD which shows Angela having sex with her older neighbour , Martin ( James Fleet ) . Freddie comes to take JJ home and confronts Effy about leaving Pandora for Cook . As he leaves , so does Effy .
By the time Pandora comes out of the bathroom , Cook is the only person left at the house . Together they play Twister , which was all Pandora had wanted to do , along with learning from her friends about human sexuality . Cook offers to have sex with her , and they spend the night together . Effy visits Pandora the next morning , and sees Cook share a kiss with her as he leaves . Feeling hurt , she confronts Pandora , but to no avail , as Pandora is slightly empowered after losing her virginity . Pandora defiantly tells Effy that Cook , due to his promiscuity and impulsive , carnal behavior , belongs to no one . Effy appears to understand , and makes no rebuttal . Suddenly , Thomas appears and runs up to Pandora , and she sobs in his arms as a thoughtful Effy looks on .
= = Production = =
" Pandora " was filmed in September 2008 in the same production block as the series ' sixth episode , " Naomi " , and the series ' opening title sequence . Lisa Backwell described filming Pandora 's episode as " brilliant " and said that " spending 12 hours everyday [ sic ] in the loopy world of Pandora wearing wacky floral prints and bright yellow trainers is probably the most fun I 've ever had " . Comedian David Baddiel appeared in a brief cameo appearance as the lover of Anthea , who is played by Baddiel 's real @-@ life partner , Morwenna Banks . Kaya Scodelario said that working with Baddiel was " amazing " and that returning to work with her on @-@ screen parents , Banks and Harry Enfield , after the show 's second series was " brilliant " . Pandora and her friends ' rendition of the nursery rhyme " London 's Burning " using kitchen utensils while making brownies was arranged by Fat Segal in homage to Matmos 's 1998 album , Quasi @-@ Objects .
Published in an article for the Daily Mail discussing a rise in bi @-@ curiosity amongst middle class teenage girls , an E4 spokeswoman said of Emily and Naomi 's kiss : " Skins is written by young people who don 't see sexuality as defining who they are . They 're a bit cooler about it than that , so they think of the characters they create as being in love with a person , rather than a boy or a girl . "
= = Music = =
" Dancing On A Wire " by Keygrip
" London 's Burning " by Lisa Backwell , Kaya Scodelario , Megan Prescott and Sally Phillips .
= = Reception = =
" Pandora " brought in 701 @,@ 000 viewers and was E4 's highest @-@ rated programme of the week with an audience share of 4 @.@ 5 percent . Another 165 @,@ 000 viewers watched the episode an hour after its initial broadcast on E4 's timeshift channel , E4 + 1 .
The episode received mostly positive reviews . A critic for PopSugar.com called " Pandora " a " fantastic episode " and was pleased that Pandora 's character " graduated from being random light relief and we got a real insight into her life " . They praised each of the " superb " guest actors , particularly Harry Enfield , David Baddiel and Sally Phillips , who she thought played Angela " brilliantly " . Digital Spy 's Neil Wilkes gave the episode a positive review , describing it as " probably the most outrageous of the series to date " . He wrote that the tension between Effy and Freddie " set things up nicely " for the following episode , which focused on Freddie . The entertainment editor for eurOut.org , a website for European lesbians , thought that the episode included " a lot of confusing straight relationship drama " and felt like she was " stuck in high school hell " . She wrote , however , that the brownie @-@ making scene was " so ridiculous it 's kind of funny " and likened Skins to " Gossip Girl on crack " . Jason Hughes of TV Squad felt that within the ensemble cast " most of these kids were so unlikable " , though he attributed this to the series " show [ ing ] us their weaknesses " . He found Pandora to be more likable , however , believing that her innocence was " more representative of youth than most of the other characters " . One reviewer for lesbian @-@ based website AfterEllen.com called the episode " must @-@ see TV " , while another reviewer expressed disapproval of the use of Katy Perry 's song , " I Kissed a Girl " , in promotional videos for the episode .
= Wanderers F.C. =
Wanderers Football Club is an English amateur football club based in London . Founded as Forest Football Club in 1859 , the club changed its name to Wanderers in 1864 . Comprising mainly former pupils of the leading English public schools , Wanderers was among the dominant teams of the early years of organised football and won the Football Association Challenge Cup ( known in the modern era as the FA Cup ) on five occasions , including defeating Royal Engineers in the first FA Cup final in 1872 .
The club played only friendly matches until the advent of the FA Cup in 1871 , with the rules often differing from match to match as various sets of rules were in use at the time . Even after the formation of The Football Association ( the FA ) in 1863 , of which the club was among the founder members , Wanderers continued to play matches under other rules , but became one of the strongest teams playing by FA rules . They won the FA Cup three times in succession during the late 1870s , a feat which has only been repeated once . Among the players who represented the club were C. W. Alcock , the so @-@ called " father of modern sport " , and A.F. Kinnaird , regarded as the greatest player of his day . In keeping with its name , the club never had a home stadium of its own but played at various locations in London and the surrounding area . By the 1880s the club 's fortunes had declined and it was reduced to playing only an annual match against Harrow School , the alma mater of many of its founders .
The club was reformed in 2009 , reportedly with the endorsement of the descendants of the Alcock family , for the purposes of fundraising for UNICEF UK . Since 2011 , the revived club competes in the Surrey South Eastern Combination .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1859 – 1871 ) = = =
The club was initially formed as Forest Football Club in 1859 by a number of former public school pupils , including C. W. Alcock , who had finished his education at Harrow School in the same year . The other founders were Alcock 's brother , John F. Alcock , J. Pardoe and brothers A. and W. J. Thompson .
For the first two years of the club 's existence , the players organised matches among themselves at Snaresbrook near Epping Forest , possibly on land owned by the Earl of Mornington . Forest 's first match against another club took place on 15 March 1862 , and resulted in a victory over Crystal Palace ( not the modern club of the same name ) . Both this match , and a return fixture between the two teams the following month , involved fifteen players on each team . At the time , the rules of association football had not been codified , and many variants existed , differing in the number of players per team , whether players were permitted to play the ball with their hands , or the method of scoring goals . In 1863 the Forest club was among the founder members of The Football Association ( the FA ) and adopted the rules set down by that body , although they continued to play occasional matches under other sets of rules against clubs not affiliated to the FA .
The following year , the club played its first match under the name Wanderers Football Club , against No Names Club of Kilburn . Alcock had decided , possibly because of the expense the club was incurring by owning its own ground , to turn it into a " wandering " team with no fixed home venue , however it appears that some of the club 's members opposed this idea . For the following season teams operated under both names , with several players appearing for both , and indeed Forest and Wanderers even played each other in one match , but after 1865 there is no record of any further matches under the Forest name . The Wanderers initially fared well , losing only one of their sixteen matches in the 1865 – 66 season , but over the subsequent four seasons the team 's fortunes declined significantly and Alcock also found it increasingly difficult to ensure that eleven of his players actually turned up for a match , with the club often forced to play with fewer than the required number of players or borrow some from their opponents . During this period the club played a number of " home " matches at Battersea Park and Middlesex County Cricket Club 's Lillie Bridge Grounds . Wanderers subsequently made Kennington Oval its semi @-@ permanent home in 1869 . The club played 151 matches at The Oval .
= = = Cup success ( 1872 – 1878 ) = = =
In the 1870 – 71 season , the Wanderers finally turned around their fortunes , losing only five of thirty @-@ seven matches played . For the following season the FA , following a suggestion by Alcock , initiated the Football Association Challenge Cup , a knock @-@ out tournament open to all member clubs . Due to a combination of their opponents withdrawing and an unusual rule in place at the time which allowed both clubs to progress to the next round in the event of a draw , Wanderers only won one game in the four rounds leading up to the final , held at the Kennington Oval on 16 March 1872 . The club beat the Royal Engineers 1 – 0 to become the first ever winners of the cup , the winning goal being scored by Morton Betts , who was playing under the pseudonym " A. H. Chequer " . The following season , under the competition 's original rules , Wanderers , as holders , received a bye all the way to the final . In the final Wanderers beat Oxford University 2 – 0 to retain the cup , thanks in large part to the performance of A. F. Kinnaird . The club was unable to replicate this success over the next two seasons , although the team did manage a club record 16 – 0 victory over Farningham in the first round of the 1874 – 75 FA Cup .
In October 1875 , Wanderers travelled to Scotland for the first time , to play a match against the leading team from north of the border , Queen 's Park . Despite fielding their strongest team , Wanderers were outclassed by the Scots and lost 5 – 0 . The London club gained its revenge four months later , however , when Queen 's Park travelled to London for a re @-@ match and lost 2 – 0 . This was the first match the Glasgow club , which had been formed nine years earlier , had ever lost . Wanderers reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Cup without conceding a goal and then defeated Swifts to set up a final against Old Etonians . The Etonians ' team contained five former Wanderers players , including Kinnaird . After the initial match finished in a 1 – 1 draw , Wanderers won the replay 3 – 0 to win the tournament for the third time .
The following season , with
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itself now has a population ( 2013 ) of about 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 - with suburbs lying outside the city limits it had grown to almost 2 @.@ 1 million in 2013 . The metropolitan area is thus home to 10 percent of the island 's residents . Rural migration to the capital propels this growth ; the city 's population exceeds that of the other five provincial capitals combined .
As the historic capital of Imerina , Antananarivo is centrally located in the homeland of the Merina people , who comprise about 24 percent of the population and are the largest Malagasy ethnic group . The city 's history as the island 's major center for politics , culture and trade has ensured a cosmopolitan mix of ethnic groups from across the island and overseas . Most Antananarivo residents have strong ties to their tanindrazana ( ancestral village ) , where the extended family and typically a family tomb or burial place is located ; many older residents leave the city upon retirement to return to their rural area of origin .
= = = Crime = = =
Despite ongoing efforts by the Ministry of Domestic Security , crime has worsened in Antananarivo since 2009 . Between 1994 and 1998 , the city had an average of eight to twelve police officers for every 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants ; large cities should typically have closer to fifteen . Under the mayorship of Marc Ravalomanana ( 1998 – 2001 ) , street lights were installed or repaired throughout the city to improve night @-@ time safety . He increased the number of police officers on the streets , leading to a drop in crime . As of 2012 , the city lacks a comprehensive strategy for reducing crime . The recent increase in crime and the inadequate response from the CUA has prompted the growth of private security firms in the city .
= = Economy = =
Agriculture is the mainstay of the Malagasy economy . Land is used for the cultivation of rice and other crops , raising of zebu and other livestock , the fabrication of bricks and other traditional livelihoods . In Antananarivo , access to land is guaranteed and protected by law for every resident of the city . The CUA manages requests to lease or purchase land , but demand dramatically outstrips supply and much of the unallocated land fails to meet the requisite criteria for parceling , such as land where floodwater runoff is diverted . Much of this marginal land has been illegally occupied and developed by land @-@ seeking residents , creating shantytown slums in pockets throughout the lower portions of the city . This uncontrolled development poses sanitation and safety risks to residents in these areas .
Industry accounts for around 13 percent of Madagascar 's gross domestic product ( GDP ) and is largely concentrated in Antananarivo . Key industries include soap production , food and tobacco processing , brewing , textiles , and leather manufacturing , providing employment to around 5 @.@ 5 percent of the workforce . The city 's extensive infrastructure and its role as the economic center of the country make it a favorable location for large businesses . Business owners are drivers of growth for the city ; in 2010 , 60 percent of all new buildings in the country were located in Antananarivo , most of which were built for commercial purposes . Unemployment and poverty are also growing , fueled in part by an inadequately skilled and unprofessional workforce and the lack of a comprehensive national strategy for economic development since 2009 . Formal sector job growth has not kept pace with population growth , and many residents earn their livelihood in the informal sector as street vendors and laborers . Under Ravalomanana , construction in the capital increased sharply ; twelve new supermarkets were constructed in two years .
The residents of urban areas — in particular Antananarivo — have been hardest hit by economic downturns and economic policy shifts . The national economic crisis in the mid @-@ 1970s and early 1980s , and the World Bank 's imposition of a structural adjustment program lowered living standards for the average resident of the city . The end of state subsidies , rapid inflation , higher taxes , widespread impoverishment and the decline of the middle class were especially evident in Antananarivo , as was the growing wealth of a tiny political and economic elite in the city . In 2007 , two thirds of Antananarivo residents had access to electricity , while ten percent of households owned a scooter , car or other motor vehicle . Running water was installed in fewer than 25 percent of homes , small restaurants and businesses in 2007 , necessitating the collection of water from household wells or neighborhood pumps and the use of outdoor pit toilets detached from the main building . In 2007 , 60 percent of households were using shared public latrines . Most homes use charcoal for daily cooking ; stocks of charcoal and rice are kept in the kitchen . The average city household spends just under half of its budget on food . Owing to its increasingly high cost , consumption of meat by city residents has sharply declined since the 1970s ; the urban poor eat meat on holidays only once or twice a year .
= = Culture = =
In Antananarivo and throughout the highlands , Merina and Betsileo families practice the famadihana , an ancestor reburial ceremony . This ceremony typically occurs five to seven years after the death of a relative and is celebrated by removing the relative 's lamba @-@ wrapped remains from the family tomb , rewrapping it with fresh silk shrouds and returning it to the tomb . Relatives , friends and neighbors are invited to take part in the music , dancing and feasting that accompanies the event . The famadihana is costly ; many families sacrifice higher living standards to set aside money for the ceremony .
= = = Historic sites and museums = = =
The tangible and intangible cultural heritage of Antananarivo is extensive and highly significant to regional and national populations . The city has numerous monuments , historic buildings , sites of significance and traditions related to the customs and history of the central highlands people . The city skyline is dominated by the Rova of Antananarivo , which was destroyed in a 1995 fire but are undergoing reconstruction . The nearby Andafiavaratra Palace was the home of 19th century Prime Minister Rainilaiarivony and currently contains a museum featuring historic artifacts of the Kingdom of Imerina , including items saved from the fire at the Rova . Downhill from the palaces is Andohalo square , where Merina kings and queens delivered speeches to the public . Tsimbazaza Zoo displays many of the island 's unique animal species and a complete skeleton of the now @-@ extinct elephant bird . Other historic buildings include the Ambatondrafandrana tribunal where Ranavalona I dispensed judgement , the second residence of Rainilaiarivony with its indigenous medicinal plant garden , the recently renovated Soarano railroad station , four late 19th century memorial churches built to commemorate early Malagasy Christian martyrs , the tomb of Prime Minister Rainiharo , and the early 20th century pavilions of the Analakely market . Open air markets include Le Pochard and the artisan market at Andravoahangy . The Museum of Art and Archaeology in the Isoraka neighborhood features exhibits on the history and cultures of Madagascar 's diverse ethnic groups .
= = = Arts = = =
The arts scene in Antananarivo is the largest and most vibrant in the country . Madagascar 's diverse music is reflected in the many concerts , cabarets , dance clubs and other musical venues throughout Antananarivo . In the dry season , outdoor concerts are regularly held in venues including the Antsahamanitra amphitheater and Mahamasina Stadium . Concerts and night clubs are attended mainly by young people of the middle to upper classes who can afford the entrance fees . More affordable are performances of traditional vakindrazana or Malagasy operettas at Isotry Theater and hira gasy at the city 's outdoor cheminots theater or Alliance française ; these performances are more popular with older and rural audiences than among urban youth . Nightlife is the most animated in the ville moyenne neighborhoods of Antaninarenina , Tsaralalana , Behoririka , Mahamasina and Andohalo .
The Palais des Sports in the Mahamasina neighborhood is the country 's only indoor performance space built to international standards . It was built in 1995 by the Government of China ; it regularly hosts concerts , dance and other arts performances , expositions and novelty events like monster truck rallies . The city lacks a dedicated classical music performance space , and concerts by international artists are infrequent . Performances of classical , jazz and other foreign musical genres , modern and contemporary dance , theater and other arts occur at cultural arts centers funded by foreign governments or private entities . Among the best @-@ known of these are the Centre Culturel Albert Camus and Alliance française d 'Antananarivo , both funded by the French government. the Cercle Germano @-@ Malgache , a branch of the Goethe @-@ Institut funded by the German government ; The American Center is funded by the United States government . Antananarivo has two dedicated cinemas , the Rex and the Ritz , both of which were built in the colonial era . These venues do not show international releases but occasionally screen Malagasy films or are used for private events and religious services .
= = = Sports = = =
Rugby Union is considered the national sport of Madagascar . The national rugby team is nicknamed the Makis after the local word for the indigenous ring @-@ tailed lemur . The team trains and plays domestic matches at Maki Stadium in Antananarivo . Constructed in 2012 , the stadium has a capacity of 15 @,@ 000 and houses a gym and administrative offices for the team . It replaces their former home , Malacam Stadium , which had a capacity of approximately 3 @,@ 000 that was regularly exceeded by the number of attendees . Several soccer teams are also based in Antananarivo ; AS Adema Analamanga and Ajesaia are associated with the Analamanga region ; USCA Foot is associated with the CUA and the AS Saint Michel has been affiliated since 1948 with the historic secondary school of the same name . All four teams train and play local games in Mahamasina Municipal Stadium , the largest sporting venue in the country . The men 's basketball teams Challenger and SOE ( Équipe du Stade olympique de l 'Emyrne ) are based in Antananarivo and play in the Palais des Sports at Mahamasina .
= = Government = =
Antananarivo is the capital of Madagascar and the federal governance structures , including the Senate , National Assembly , the Supreme Court and the presidential office are housed there . The main presidential offices are located 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) south of the city . The nationwide move toward decentralization beginning in the mid @-@ 1990s produced several laws , including the Loi no . 94 @-@ 009 of 26 April 1995 and the Decret 96 – 168 of 6 March 1996 , which provided Antananarivo with a distinctive status . They also defined additional governance roles for the city , making it the administrative seat of the Analamanga region , the district of Antananarivo @-@ Renivohitra and the Commune Urbaine d 'Antananarivo ( CUA , Antananarivo city proper ) . The city hosts the diplomatic missions of 21 countries .
The CUA is divided into six numbered arrondissements ( administrative sub @-@ districts ) ; it has historically been administered by an elected mayor and associated staff . Since the 2009 political crisis , in which the former mayor of Antananarivo , Andry Rajoelina , unconstitutionally seized power as head of state , the CUA has been administered by a délégation spéciale ( special delegation ) composed of a president and de facto mayor with the support of two vice presidents , all of whom are appointed by the President . The position of President of the Special Delegation has been held by Ny Havana Andriamanjato since March 2014 .
The mayoral administration of the CUA is empowered to govern the city with de jure autonomy ; a wide range of mechanisms have been established to facilitate governance , although they are of limited effectiveness . An urban master plan guides major policies for city management but personnel within the mayoral office commonly lack the urban planning and management ability to effectively implement the plan in response to long @-@ term and immediate needs . This challenge is compounded by the high turnover rate of mayors and staff that frequently disrupts initiatives begun by previous CUA administrations . A mayor under former president Didier Ratsiraka created " red zones " ; areas where public gathering and protests were prohibited . On 28 June 2001 , Ravalomanana abolished these areas , liberalizing freedom of assembly .
Antananarivo has suffered from debt and mismanagement . The CUA estimated in 2012 that the cost of running the city to international standards would reach US $ 100 million annually , while annual revenues average around $ 12 million . In good years , the CUA is able to reserve $ 1 – 2 million to spend on city improvement projects . By 2008 , the city 's treasury had accumulated 8 @.@ 2 billion Malagasy ariary — approximately US $ 4 @.@ 6 million — in debts under previous mayors . In 2008 , water was cut off at public pumps and there were regular brownouts of city 's street lights because of 3 @.@ 3 million ariary of unpaid debts to the Jirama public utilities company by the City of Antananarivo . In response , then @-@ mayor Rajoelina undertook an audit that identified and sought to address long @-@ standing procedural irregularities and corruption in the city 's administration . The CUA continues to be challenged by a shortage of revenues relative to its expenses caused by the high cost of retaining the large number of CUA personnel , weak structures for managing revenues from public rents and inadequate collection of tax revenues from city residents and businesses .
= = = Twin towns and sister cities = = =
Antananarivo has established sister city agreements with four cities . The city was twinned with Yerevan , Armenia in 1981 . The city is also twinned with Vorkuta , Russia ; Suzhou , China ; and Montreal , Canada . A sister city relationship between Antananarivo and Nice , France , established in 1962 , is not currently active .
= = Education = =
Most of Madagascar 's public and private universities are located in Antananarivo . This includes the country 's oldest higher education institute , the College of Medicine established under the Merina monarchy and the University of Antananarivo , established under the French colonial administration . The city hosts many private pre @-@ primary , primary and secondary schools and the national network of public schools . The city houses a French international school , Lycée Français de Tananarive , as well as an American school , American School of Antananarivo , and a Russian school , the Russian Embassy School in Antananarivo .
The nation 's most prestigious dance school , K 'art Antanimena , is located in Antananarivo . Other major dance schools based in the city include Le Club de Danse de l 'Université Catholique de Madagascar , Club de danse Kera arts 'space à Antanimena and Le Club Mills .
= = Health and sanitation = =
In general , availability and quality of health care is better in Antananarivo than elsewhere in Madagascar , although it remains inadequate across the country relative to that in more developed countries . One of Madagascar 's two medical schools is located in Antananarivo ; most medical technicians and specialists are trained there . Neonatal and antenatal care is significantly better in Antananarivo than elsewhere on the island . Despite the presence of facilities and trained personnel , the high cost of health care places it beyond the reach of most residents of Antananarivo . Pharmaceuticals are imported , making them particularly unaffordable ; traditional herbal medicines remain popular and are readily available in local markets frequented by most of the population .
The large population in Antananarivo and the high density of its residential zones pose challenges to public health , sanitation and access to clean drinking water . Processing and disposal of industrial and residential waste is inadequate . Waste water is often discharged directly into the city 's waterways . Air pollution from vehicle exhausts , residential coal @-@ burning stoves and other sources is worsening . While the city has set up clean water pumps , they remain inadequate and are not distributed according to population density , worsening access in the poorest and most populous parts of the city . Antananarivo is one of the two urban areas in Madagascar where bubonic plague is endemic .
These problems were diminished but not eliminated under the mayoral administration of Marc Ravalomanana , who prioritized sanitation , security and public administration . He obtained funds from international donors to establish garbage collection and disposal systems , restore dilapidated infrastructure such as roads and marketplaces , and replant public gardens . To improve sanitation in the city , he constructed public latrines in densely populated and highly frequented areas .
= = Transport and communications = =
The majority of the city 's residents move about Antananarivo on foot . The CUA sets and enforces rules that govern a system of 2 @,@ 400 franchised private minibuses running on eighty @-@ two numbered routes throughout the city . An additional 2 @,@ 000 minibuses managed by the Ministry of Transportation run along eight lines into the neighboring suburbs . These interlinked bus systems served around 700 @,@ 000 passengers each day . These minibuses often fail to meet safety standards or air quality requirements and are typically overcrowded with passengers and their cargo . Police and gendarmes assist in regulating traffic at peak periods in the morning and evening , or around special events and holidays . Private licensed and unlicensed taxis are common ; most vehicles are older Renaults or Citroens . Newer vehicles congregate near hotels and other locales frequented by foreigners willing or able to pay higher prices for better services .
The city is encircled by a ring road and connected by direct routes nationales ( national highways ) to Mahajanga , Toliara , Antsirabe , Fianarantsoa and Toamasina . Branches and feeder roads from these major highways connect the city to the national road network . Antananarivo is connected by train to Toamasina to the east and Manakara to the southeast via Antsirabe and Fianarantsoa . The city 's principal railway station is centrally located at Soarano at one end of the Avenue de l 'Indépendance . Ivato International Airport is located approximately 15 kilometres ( 9 miles ) from the center of the city , connecting Antananarivoto to all national airports . Ivato is the hub of the national airline Air Madagascar , and is the only airport on the island hosting long @-@ haul carriers . Direct flights connect Antananarivo to cities in South Africa , Europe and Asia .
Government television and radio broadcasting centers , and the headquarters of numerous private stations are located in Antananarivo . Eighty percent of households in Antananarivo own a radio ; the medium is popular across social classes . Stations like Fenon 'ny Merina appeal to Merina listeners of all ages by playing traditional and contemporary music of the highlands region . Youth @-@ oriented stations play a blend of Western artists and Malagasy performers of Western genres , as well as fusion and coastal musical styles . Evangelical broadcasts and daily international and local news are available in Malagasy , French and English . Forty percent of Antananarivo residents own a television receiver . All major Malagasy newspapers are printed in the city and are widely available . Communications services in Antananarivo are the best in the country . Internet and mobile telephone networks are readily available and affordable , although disruptions in service occur periodically . The national postal service is headquartered in Antananarivo , and private international shipping companies like FedEx , DHL Express and United Parcel Service provide services to the city .
= Vought XSO2U =
The Vought XSO2U was an American observation floatplane developed by Vought @-@ Sikorsky for the United States Navy during the late 1930s . Intended to replace the Curtiss SOC Seagull in service as a scout aboard cruisers , it proved superior to the Curtiss SO3C in evaluation , but failed to win a production contract due to Vought 's lack of manufacturing capacity .
= = Design and development = =
In the late 1930s the United States Navy developed a set of specifications for a new scout @-@ observation aircraft to operate from its cruisers in the reconnaissance and gunnery spotting roles . Intended to replace the Curtiss SOC biplane , the requirements included that the aircraft should have folding wings , have a superior range and speed to that of the SOC , and that the new type should be powered by the Ranger V @-@ 770 inline engine .
Designs were submitted in response to the Navy 's specifications by Vought @-@ Sikorsky and Curtiss @-@ Wright . The Vought design , designated Model 403 by the company , was similar to the company 's OS2U Kingfisher , which was then under development to replace the SOC aboard U.S. Navy battleships , but had its monoplane wing moved higher on the fuselage than that of the Kingfisher , and differed in the attachment method used by its single @-@ float landing gear . In addition , the radial engine of the OS2U was replaced by an inline Ranger V @-@ 770 in a squared @-@ off cowling .
Capable of being operated with either the float as a seaplane or with a conventional taildragger undercarriage as a landplane , the XSO2U utilised all @-@ metal construction , with the exception of its control surfaces which were fabric @-@ covered . The wings folded to the rear for storage in a manner similar to that of the Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bomber , .
The aircraft was capable of performing dive bombing , and could be fitted with a single bomb or depth charge on a hardpoint under each wing for the mission , or for anti @-@ submarine warfare . Gun armament consisted of two M2 Browning machine guns , one mounted in a fixed position firing forwards through the propeller using synchronizer gear , while the other was in a flexible position in the observer 's cockpit for rear defense .
= = Operational history = =
Assigned the serial number 1440 , the XSO2U @-@ 1 flew for the first time , as a landplane , in July 1939 ; its first flight as a seaplane took place that December . Flight testing of the SO2U showed that the aircraft lacked directional stability ; the addition of a large ventral fin , connecting the rear of the float to the tail , helped to cure the problem .
The aircraft also suffered from engine problems , however , that were not so easily cured ; the Ranger engine was well known for unreliability , and was particularly prone to overheating problems that were never satisfactoriarly solved . The aircraft 's original XV @-@ 770 @-@ 4 engine was replaced by a XV @-@ 770 @-@ 6 , with a repositioned oil cooler , during flight testing ; despite this , the problems continued .
Despite the engine issues , the SO2U @-@ 1 was considered overall to be superior to the competing Curtiss XSO3C @-@ 1 ; however , Vought 's production capacity was already taken up by manufacture of the OS2U Kingfisher scout and F4U Corsair fighter . As a result , the XSO3C was declared the winner of the contract , and was ordered into production . Named Seagull by the U.S. Navy , and Seamew by the Royal Navy , the SO3C developed a disastrous reputation in service , and was retired before the SOC biplane which it was intended to replace .
Following the end of the flyoff competition , the XSO2U @-@ 1 was used as a general utility aircraft and hack by the Navy , before being supplied to the Ranger Engine Corporation in July 1942 for use in tests of the V @-@ 770 engine . These tests were intended to assist in debugging the engine for the Bell XP @-@ 77 lightweight fighter and Edo XOSE floatplane , but the V @-@ 770 remained troublesome , and after two years of testing the XSO2U was returned to the Navy . Having no further use for the aircraft , the XSO2U @-@ 1 was removed from the Navy 's rolls on 6 July 1944 , being subsequently scrapped .
= = Operators = =
United States
United States Navy
= = Specifications ( XSO2U @-@ 1 ) = =
Data from OS2U Kingfisher in action
General characteristics
Crew : 2 ( pilot and observer )
Length : 36 ft 1 in ( 11 @.@ 00 m )
Wingspan : 38 ft 2 in ( 11 @.@ 63 m )
Height : 15 ft 11 in ( 4 @.@ 85 m )
Wing area : 300 sq ft ( 28 m2 )
Empty weight : 4 @,@ 016 lb ( 1 @,@ 822 kg )
Max takeoff weight : 5 @,@ 624 lb ( 2 @,@ 551 kg )
Fuel capacity : 128 US gallons ( 480 l ; 107 imp gal )
Powerplant : 1 × Ranger XV @-@ 770 inline engine , 450 hp ( 340 kW )
Propellers : 2 @-@ bladed Hamilton Standard constant @-@ speed
Performance
Maximum speed : 190 mph ( 306 km / h ; 165 kn ) at 9 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 700 m )
Service ceiling : 22 @,@ 200 ft ( 6 @,@ 767 m )
Armament
Guns : 2 x M2 Browning machine guns , one fixed forwards @-@ firing , one flexible rear @-@ firing .
Bombs : Two light bombs or depth charges on underwing racks .
= 188th Infantry Brigade ( United States ) =
The 188th Infantry Brigade is an infantry training brigade of the United States Army based at Fort Stewart , Georgia . It is a subordinate unit of the First United States Army , Division East .
Active from 1921 to 1942 as part of the 94th Infantry Division , the brigade was transformed into a reconnaissance troop during and after World War II , supporting the 94th Division as it fought in Europe . Activated again from 1997 — 1999 and again in 2006 , the unit gained responsibility for conducting training for other reserve component army units with a variety of purposes . Today , the unit is responsible for training selected United States Army Reserve and National Guard units East of the Mississippi River .
= = Organization = =
The brigade is subordinate to First Army Division East of the First United States Army , one of several regional training brigades spread throughout the United States .
The brigade consists of seven primary elements . The brigade 's Headquarters and Headquarters Company , along with its Special Troops Battalion , provides support and oversight to the other six battalions in the brigade . The 1st Battalion , 306th Regiment trains primarily infantry units , while the 2nd Battalion , 306th Regiment trains field artillery units . The 1st Battalion , 347th Regiment provides training for combat support units , while the 3rd Battalion , 345th Regiment oversees combat service support units . The 2nd Battalion , 349th Regiment provides support training for the other battalions and large @-@ scale training operations . The 3rd Battalion , 395th Regiment ( recently realigned from First Army Division West ) trains primarily armor / cavalry units .
= = History = =
The 188th Infantry Brigade was first constituted on 24 June 1921 in the organized reserves at Boston , Massachusetts . It was organized with two infantry regiments , the 376th Infantry Regiment and the 419th Infantry Regiment . It was , in turn , assigned to the 94th Infantry Division . From 1921 to 1942 the division remained on the Massachusetts organized reserve rolls , though the unit did not assemble except for regular weekend training . In 1925 , the brigade relocated to Worcester , Massachusetts and in 1940 it moved to Springfield , Massachusetts .
= = = 94th Reconnaissance Troop = = =
The 94th Infantry Division was mobilized for deployment for World War II on 15 September 1942 at Fort Custer , Michigan . During this mobilization the 188th Infantry Brigade went through a series of reorganizations . The 376th Infantry Regiment continued as part of the 94th Infantry Division and the remainder of the 188th Infantry Brigade became the 94th Reconnaissance Troop , still assigned to the 94th Infantry Division .
The 94th Infantry Division , with the troop in tow , landed on Utah Beach on 8 September 1944 , 94 days after D @-@ Day . It and moved into Brittany to assume responsibility for containing some 60 @,@ 000 German troops besieged in the ports of Lorient and Saint @-@ Nazaire . The 94th inflicted over 2 @,@ 700 casualties on the German forces and took 566 prisoners before being relieved on 1 January 1945 .
Moving west , the troop followed the division as it took positions in the Saar @-@ Moselle Triangle , facing the Siegfried Switch Line on 7 January 1945 , and shifted to the offensive on 14 January , seizing Tettingen and Butzdorf that day . The following day , the Nennigberg @-@ Wies area was wrested from the German army , but heavy counterattacks followed and Butzdorf , Berg , and most of Nennig changed hands several times before being finally secured . On 20 January , an unsuccessful battalion attack against Orscholz , eastern terminus of the switch position , cost the division most of two companies . In early February , the division , with troop in tow , took the woods of Campholz and later Sinz .
On 19 February 1945 , the division launched a full @-@ scale attack , storming Munzigen Ridge , the backbone of the Saar @-@ Moselle Triangle , and captured all of its objectives . Moving forward , the 94th Infantry Division , along with the 10th Armored Division , secured the area from Orscholz to the confluence of the Saar and Moselle Rivers by 21 February 1945 . Then , launching an attack across the Saar , it established and expanded a bridgehead . By 2 March 1945 , the division stretched over a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) front , from Hocker Hill on the Saar through Zerf , and Lampaden to Ollmuth . A heavy German attack near Lampaden achieved penetrations , but the line was shortly restored , and on 13 March , spearheading the XX Corps , the 94th broke out of the bridgehead and drove to the Rhine River , reaching it on 21 March . Ludwigshafen was taken on 24 March , with assistance from elements the 12th Armored Division .
The 94th Infantry Division then moved by railroad and motor to the vicinity of Krefeld , Germany , assuming responsibility for containing the west side of the Ruhr pocket from positions along the Rhine on 3 April . With the reduction of the pocket in mid @-@ April , the 94th Infantry Division was assigned military government duties , first in the Krefeld and later in the Düsseldorf areas . Soldiers of the troop participated in this assignment .
The 94th Infantry Division participated in four World War II campaigns on mainland Europe . The 94th Reconnaissance Troop supported the division throughout its push through Europe . Upon the end of fighting in Europe , the 94th Infantry Division began conducting occupation duty in Europe until it returned to the US at the end of 1945 . The Troop was demobilized at Camp Kilmer , New Jersey and deactivated on 7 February 1946 .
The troop was reactivated on 13 February 1947 in Boston , Massachusetts . However , the troop did not see any significant actions during its post war years , still a part of the 94th Infantry Division , which itself was never called on for service . The troop was moved to Cohasset , Massachusetts in 1953 , remaining there for another six years as an inactive reserve unit until 1959 , when it was again disbanded and inactivated .
= = = Training brigade = = =
On 24 October 1997 , the 188th Infantry Brigade was reactivated again in the Active duty force at Fort Stewart , Georgia . It was a reflagging of the 4th Brigade , 87th Division . The brigade was reactivated to provide training support to Reserve Component units in the region .
As of 1998 there were 248 soldiers assigned to the Brigade in five training support battalions and the Brigade Headquarters . At that time , the 188th Infantry Brigade supported the training of over 5 @,@ 000 National Guard and Reserve Component soldiers in infantry , armor , cavalry , aviation , artillery , communications , medical , maintenance , and supply units .
The Brigade was composed entirely of active duty senior noncommissioned officers and officers who conducted training assistance and valuations for a variety of combat arms , combat support and combat service support units . A new building was constructed on Fort Stewart , Georgia for the Brigade and was occupied in August 1997 . The First United States Army , the Brigade 's higher headquarters , also purchased new furniture and computers for the Brigade 's use . In 1999 , the brigade was again reflagged as the 4th Brigade , 87th Division .
= = = Present day = = =
The brigade was reactivated on 1 October 2006 as part of another consolidation of US Army training commands , again at Fort Stewart . The division fell under the command of Division East of the First United States Army . During the consolidation , the brigade was given a larger area of responsibility , supporting the training of over 18 @,@ 000 National Guard and Reserve Component soldiers in infantry , armor , cavalry , aviation , artillery , communications , medical , maintenance , and supply units both at and around the Fort Stewart area . The brigade grew to over 600 soldiers assigned to 6 training support battalions and the Headquarters .
On 15 January 2008 , the brigade received a shoulder sleeve insignia and distinctive unit insignia . Both of these allude to the brigade 's service to the 94th Infantry Division both during peacetime and as the 94th Reconnaissance Troop during and after World War II .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
The brigade has never received a unit decoration from the United States military .
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= Circus ( song ) =
" Circus " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her sixth studio album of the same name ( 2008 ) . It was released on December 2 , 2008 , by Jive Records as the second single from the album . Written by Dr. Luke , Claude Kelly and Benny Blanco , " Circus " is a metaphor for the public 's perception of Spears ' life . After she listened to the track for the first time , she felt inspired to create an album and a tour with a circus theme . " Circus " is an uptempo electropop and dance @-@ pop song with elements of pop rock and " half @-@ rapped " vocals . The song 's lyrics talk about being an entertainer and putting on shows .
" Circus " was well received by contemporary critics , with reviewers complimenting Spears ' confident persona and praising the song 's electronic production . " Circus " was a commercial success , peaking inside the top @-@ ten in Australia , Canada , Denmark , New Zealand , and Sweden , while reaching top @-@ twenty positions in many European countries . In the United States , " Circus " reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on Pop Songs and is her second best @-@ selling digital song in the country , having sold over 3 @.@ 1 million copies .
The music video , directed by Francis Lawrence , was released on December 4 , 2008 . It portrays Spears as the ringmaster of a circus accompanied by different performers , and it is interspersed with scenes of Spears in different circus settings . The video received positive reviews from critics , but was criticized by PETA for featuring " cruelly trained animals " . However , the exhibitors denied these claims . Spears performed the song on Good Morning America on December 2 , 2008 . It was also the opening number of The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) , where she was dressed in a ringleader outfit , designed to represent a metamorphosis . Spears has also performed the song during her residency concert Britney : Piece of Me . The song will appear in Just Dance 2016 .
= = Background = =
" Circus " was written by Dr. Luke , Benny Blanco and Claude Kelly , while produced by Luke and Blanco . Luke and Kelly were initially commissioned to work on a new track for Spears , and entered the studio with no concept prepared , as Kelly explained , " just knowing her style and knowing what she does . " After Luke came up with the music , they based the song on the public 's perception of her life at the time . Spears explained that after listening to " Circus " for the first time , she felt inspired and imagined a story behind it . She also stated , " [ ' Circus ' ] put the whole album together as far as what I wanted my show to be like . You can play with a circus in so many different ways " . " Circus " was recorded at Conway Recording Studios and Chalice Recording Studios in Los Angeles , California , and at Glenwood Place Studio in Burbank , California . Background vocals were provided by Cathy Dennis , Kelly and Myah Marie . Main instrumentation was done by Luke and Blanco . The song was mixed by Serban Ghenea at MixStar Studios in Virginia . " Circus " was announced on October 31 , 2008 , as the second single from the album , and was officially serviced to American radio stations on December 2 , 2008 .
= = Music and lyrics = =
" Circus " is an uptempo electropop and dance @-@ pop song , with a stomp box beat and elements of pop rock . The song opens with the sound of a drum and builds until Spears starts singing , " There 's only two types of people in the world / The ones that entertain and the ones that observe " . Spears delivers confident and " half @-@ rapped " vocals , with the verses having usage of synthesizers . Lyrically , the song talks about being an entertainer and putting on shows . She explains her emotions while performing in lines such as : " I feel the adrenaline moving through my veins / Spotlight on me and I 'm ready to break " . The chorus begins with an electronic sound , while she compares herself , as well as performing to being on the center of a circus ring . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Alfred Publishing , " Circus " is composed in the key of F # minor with 120 beats per minute , however on the album the song is 115 beats per minute . Spears 's vocal range spans from G # 2 to D # 5 . Kelly commented that " Circus " was " a cool way to get people dancing and having fun " , but also have a slight message .
= = Critical reception = =
Nick Levine of Digital Spy described it as " a rampaging monster of a song whose chorus kicks off with a Max Martin @-@ style and Timbaland thump " . Popjustice praised the production of the song , compared it to " Break the Ice " and added , " there 's a lot of stopping and starting , including a built @-@ in MTV @-@ style dance breakdown segment . " Chris Williams of Billboard in its single review appreciated the song for surrounding Spears with " an electronic cyberpop landscape " . In the album review , Ann Donahue of Billboard criticized the lyrics for rehashing the theme of fame and compared it to " Lucky " ( 2000 ) and " Piece of Me " ( 2007 ) . Dave De Sylvia of Sputnikmusic said that while " Womanizer " sounded like a Blackout track , " Circus " is more reflective of the album ’ s general mood . Dan Cairns of The Sunday Times named it one of the standout tracks of the album , along with " If U Seek Amy " and " Mannequin " . Entertainment Weekly writer Chris Willman noted that , despite the album being titled Circus , the title track is " not about the madhouse her life has become but just a brag about her prowess as a whip @-@ cracking sexual ringmaster . "
Poppy Cosyns of The Sun said Spears " reaffirm [ s ] her bad @-@ girl image on the album 's infectious second single " , while BBC Music 's Talia Kraines thought that the singer " loves the attention being shone directly on her as the ' ringleader ' as she sings of adrenaline flowing through her veins when it 's time to put on a show . " Ben Norman of About.com considered the song a " true and triumphant Britney Spears pop song with a pensive underbelly ( the first verse in particular ) and a supremely executed hook . " Jonny Mugwump of The Quietus said , " a paean to her performance adrenalin , [ " Circus " is ] a medium @-@ paced , big power @-@ popper topped with an orbit @-@ esque guitar , " and commented that the song 's lyrics highlight Spears ' uniqueness – " the fuck you attitude . Despite everything , regardless of the personal destruction and undoubted hell she might still be haunted by , within the fictional space of the music , this woman couldn 't give a damn . She rightly taunts the world around her , sounding utterly defiant . There is no place for apology or humble platitudes . " John Murphy of musicOMH also praised its lyrics , describing them as " a confident , and encouraging , return to form . " " Circus " was nominated at the 2009 Teen Choice Awards in the category of Choice Music : Single , but lost to Miley Cyrus 's " The Climb " .
= = Commercial performance = =
On December 20 , 2008 , " Circus " debuted at number three on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 due to digital sales of over 212 @,@ 000 units . It was her first top @-@ ten debut on the chart . On the week of March 7 , 2009 , the song reached number one on the Pop Songs chart and number three on the Hot Dance Club Songs chart . As of March 2015 , " Circus " has sold 3 @.@ 1 million digital downloads in the United States according to Nielsen Soundscan . It is her second best @-@ selling digital single in the country .
In Canada , the track debuted at number two based solely on digital downloads , being blocked from ascending to the top spot by Lady Gaga 's " Poker Face " . On December 8 , 2008 , " Circus " entered the Australian Singles Chart at number fifteen , becoming the " Highest Debut " of the week . On December 22 , 2008 , the song peaked at number six . It was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales over 70 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , " Circus " peaked at number four , and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) for selling over 7 @,@ 500 copies . The song was also successful in Europe , peaking at number twenty two on the European Hot 100 Singles on March 21 , 2009 . " Circus " also reached the top ten in Sweden and the top twenty in Austria , Czech Republic , Finland , Norway , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . According to The Official Charts Company , the song has sold 223 @,@ 000 copies in the United Kingdom and is her thirteenth best selling single in the country . It became the tenth best selling digital single of 2009 , selling 6 million copies worldwide .
= = Music video = =
= = = Development and release = = =
The music video for " Circus " was filmed from October 28 to November 2 , 2008 in Los Angeles , California . It was directed by Francis Lawrence , who previously worked with Spears on the music video for her 2001 single " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . Spears chose Lawrence , since he was the " only person who could capture it , make it really twisted , eccentric and different " . On November 17 , 2008 , an exclusive three @-@ second clip premiered during a promo for her documentary Britney : For the Record . The video was set to be released on December 5 , 2008 on Entertainment Tonight , but it was moved at the last minute to December 4 , 2008 .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with Spears at a vanity , putting Curious on and earrings by Bulgari . She is then seen holding a top hat in front of her face , while doves fly out of another hat . Spears starts singing in the vanity but stands up and puts on a ringmaster jacket . She walks through an aisle while dancing suggestively with several circus dancers . Throughout the video , there are interspersed scenes of different circus performers , including ribbon dancers , contortionists , clowns and a mime on stilts . There are also scenes of Spears singing with the top hat , wearing a nude body stocking in front of a red curtain , with a spotlight on her . This is followed by a group dance scene in the middle of a circus ring , where Spears wears the ringmaster jacket , sequined hot pants and a feathered top hat . In the second verse , she dances with a chair and a whip wearing a nude bra covered in leaves . The video continues with a series of intercut scenes , such as Spears in slow motion in front of a shower of sparks , her surrounded by a pair of lions and in front of an elephant . During the bridge , Spears and her dancers perform a routine in front of flames . In the last chorus , Spears returns to the circus ring , surrounded by two elephants , many more circus performers , dancers and fire breathers . The video ends with Spears in the spotlight , laughing with the top hat over her head .
= = = Reception = = =
Davil Balls of Digital Spy described the music video as being " cheeky , seductive and more than a little bit ridiculous " and said that Spears " delivers some killer dance routines " . Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly compared the dance in the chair with the music video of " Stronger " and added that " best of all , she actually looks animated in this video and appears to be having fun " . James Montgomery of MTV said that after watching the video " you are overcome with the sudden urge to go to the Big Apple Circus . Or pick up some Curious perfume . Or you know , possibly both " . The music video won the category of Best Moves at the MTV Australia Awards 2009 . It was also nominated for four VMAs at the 2009 awards in the categories of Best Art Direction , Best Choreography , Best Cinematography and Best Editing , but lost of all them . It was also nominated for Best Video in the MTV Europe Music Awards 2009 , but lost to Beyoncé 's " Single Ladies " . The video won Best Video of 2009 in Fuse TV , making Spears the only artist to win two years in a row .
On December 9 , 2008 , animal rights organization People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals ( PETA ) issued a press release condemning Spears for using " cruelly trained lions and elephants " and demanding her to " stop using exotic animals in her videos and concerts once and for all " . Spears had previously received criticism from the organization when she used an albino python and a caged tiger during a performance of " I 'm a Slave 4 U " at the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards . Kari Johnson from Have Trunk Will Travel responded , saying , " [ the company ] has never issued a written endorsement , nor does it condone using electrical devices to discipline and control elephants except in situations where elephant or human safety is at risk . [ ... ] The American Humane Association monitors animal action in film and television . A representative was on the set of the Britney Spears ' Circus ' video with our elephants , Tai and Kitty , to ensure their safety and welfare [ ... ] Britney , the director , producers and the entire crew were respectful of the elephants ' needs and comfort and a pleasure to work with . " ....... Circus got a certified in the digital platform VEVO after reach 100 million views on YouTube .
= = Live performances = =
" Circus " was performed on December 2 , 2008 at American morning talk show Good Morning America , along with " Womanizer " . She wore a midriff @-@ baring shirt , leather pants , a ringmaster jacket and a top hat . " Circus " was a major part on The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) , as the opening number of the show . The costumes of the performance were selected to show a metamorphosis . The show began with a video introduction featuring Perez Hilton as Queen Elizabeth I , welcoming the audience to the circus . In the middle of the video , the cylinder screen surrounding the stage started to rise , while Spears appeared on the video and shot Hilton with a crossbow , causing him to fall backwards onto the floor . As the video ended , Spears started to descend from the ceiling on a suspended platform , wearing a cheetah headdress , a ringmaster jacket , black shorts , high @-@ heeled boots and carrying a whip . The headdress represented an animal . When she reached the stage , she took it off to represent both a ringmaster and a lion tamer and " Circus " started . It featured acrobats taking the stage and spinning on giant rings in the air . The performance ended with Spears taking off her ringleader jacket to reveal a Swarovski @-@ crystal corset , representing a slave . She then ran into the center of the main stage , surrounded by jets of smoke , to enter a golden cage and perform " Piece of Me " . People writer Chuck Arnold wrote that Spears , " descending from above in a red ringmaster @-@ meets @-@ dominatrix outfit " to sing the song , " showed that her body was tight , even if her dancing always wasn 't . " James Montgomery of MTV considered both " Circus " and " Radar " performances " great " . Spears included the song on her current residency show in Las Vegas , Britney : Piece of Me . For the performance , Spears appears from the back of the stage , in the center of a fiery ring , resembling a circus showgirl .
= = Track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Britney Spears – lead vocals
Lukasz Gottwald – songwriting , production
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to stress and material used for the fittings . Additionally , major airlines are seeking compensation from Airbus for revenue lost as a result of the cracks and subsequent grounding of fleets . Airbus has switched to a different type of aluminium alloy so aircraft delivered from 2014 onwards should not have this issue .
Airbus is changing about 10 % of all doors , as some leak during flight . One occurrence resulted in dropped oxygen masks and an emergency landing . The switch is expected to cost over € 100 million . Airbus states that safety is sufficient , as the air pressure pushes the door into the frame .
= = Design = =
= = = Overview = = =
The A380 was initially offered in two models , the A380 @-@ 800 and the A380F . The A380 @-@ 800 's original configuration carried 555 passengers in a three @-@ class configuration or 853 passengers ( 538 on the main deck and 315 on the upper deck ) in a single @-@ class economy configuration . Then in May 2007 , Airbus began marketing a configuration with 30 fewer passengers , ( 525 total in three classes ) , traded for 200 nmi ( 370 km ) more range , to better reflect trends in premium class accommodation . The design range for the − 800 model is 8 @,@ 500 nmi ( 15 @,@ 700 km ) ; capable of flying from Hong Kong to New York or from Sydney to Istanbul non @-@ stop . The second model , the A380F freighter , would carry 150 tonnes of cargo with a range of 5 @,@ 600 nmi ( 10 @,@ 400 km ) . The freighter development was put on hold as Airbus prioritised the passenger version and all cargo orders were cancelled . Future variants may include an A380 @-@ 900 stretch seating about 656 passengers ( or up to 960 passengers in an all economy configuration ) and an extended @-@ range version with the same passenger capacity as the A380 @-@ 800 .
= = = Engines = = =
The A380 is available with two types of turbofan engines , the Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 900 ( variants A380 @-@ 841 , − 842 and − 843F ) or the Engine Alliance GP7000 ( A380 @-@ 861 and − 863F ) . The Trent 900 is a derivative of the Trent 800 , and the GP7000 has roots from the GE90 and PW4000 . The Trent 900 core is a scaled version of the Trent 500 , but incorporates the swept fan technology of the stillborn Trent 8104 . The GP7200 has a GE90 @-@ derived core and PW4090 @-@ derived fan and low @-@ pressure turbo @-@ machinery . Noise reduction was an important requirement in the A380 design , and particularly affects engine design . Both engine types allow the aircraft to achieve well under the QC / 2 departure and QC / 0 @.@ 5 arrival noise limits under the Quota Count system set by London Heathrow Airport , which is a key destination for the A380 . The A380 has received an award for its reduced noise . However , field measurements suggest the approach quota allocation for the A380 may be overly generous compared to the older Boeing 747 , but still quieter . Rolls @-@ Royce is supporting CAA in understanding the relatively high A380 / Trent 900 monitored noise levels .
The A380 was initially planned without thrust reversers , incorporating sufficient braking capacity to do without them . However Airbus elected to equip the two inboard engines with thrust reversers in a late stage of development , helping the brakes when the runway is slippery . The two outboard engines do not have reversers , reducing the amount of debris stirred up during landing . The A380 has electrically actuated thrust reversers , giving them better reliability than their pneumatic or hydraulic equivalents , in addition to saving weight .
In 2008 , the A380 demonstrated the viability of a synthetic fuel comprising standard jet fuel with a natural @-@ gas @-@ derived component . On 1 February 2008 , a three @-@ hour test flight operated between Britain and France , with one of the A380 's four engines using a mix of 60 % standard jet kerosene and 40 % gas to liquids ( GTL ) fuel supplied by Shell . The aircraft needed no modifications for the GTL fuel , which was designed to be mixed with normal jet fuel . Sebastien Remy , head of Airbus SAS 's alternative fuel programme , said the GTL used was no cleaner in CO2 terms than standard fuel but contains no sulphur , generating air quality benefits .
The auxiliary power comprises the Auxiliary Power Unit ( APU ) , the electronic control box ( ECB ) , and mounting hardware . The APU in use on the A380 is the PW 980A APU . The APU primarily provides air to power the Analysis Ground Station ( AGS ) on the ground and to start the engines . The AGS is a semi @-@ automatic analysis system of flight data that helps to optimise management of maintenance and reduce costs . The APU also powers electric generators which provide auxiliary electric power to the aircraft .
= = = Wings = = =
The A380 's wing is sized for a maximum takeoff weight ( MTOW ) over 650 tonnes to accommodate these future versions , albeit with some internal strengthening required on the A380F freighter . The optimal wingspan for this weight is about 90 m ( 300 ft ) , but airport restrictions limited it to less than 80 m ( 260 ft ) , lowering aspect ratio to 7 @.@ 8 which reduces fuel efficiency about 10 % and increases operating costs a few percent , given that fuel costs constitute about 50 % of the cost of long @-@ haul airplane operation . The common wing design approach sacrifices fuel efficiency ( due to a weight penalty ) on the A380 @-@ 800 passenger model , but Airbus estimates that the aircraft 's size , coupled with the uses of advanced technology , will provide lower operating costs per passenger than the 747 @-@ 400 and older 747 variants . The A380 also includes wingtip devices similar to those found on the A310 and A320 to reduce induced drag , thereby increasing fuel efficiency and range .
= = = Materials = = =
While most of the fuselage is aluminium , composite materials comprise more than 20 % of the A380 's airframe . Carbon @-@ fibre reinforced plastic , glass @-@ fibre reinforced plastic and quartz @-@ fibre reinforced plastic are used extensively in wings , fuselage sections ( such as the undercarriage and rear end of fuselage ) , tail surfaces , and doors . The A380 is the first commercial airliner to have a central wing box made of carbon fibre reinforced plastic . It is also the first to have a smoothly contoured wing cross section . The wings of other commercial airliners are partitioned span @-@ wise into sections . This flowing , continuous cross section optimises aerodynamic efficiency . Thermoplastics are used in the leading edges of the slats . The hybrid fibre metal laminate material GLARE ( glass laminate aluminium reinforced epoxy ) is used in the upper fuselage and on the stabilisers ' leading edges . This aluminium @-@ glass @-@ fibre laminate is lighter and has better corrosion and impact resistance than conventional aluminium alloys used in aviation . Unlike earlier composite materials , GLARE can be repaired using conventional aluminium repair techniques . The application of GLARE on the A380 has a long history , which shows the complex nature of innovations in the aircraft industry .
Newer weldable aluminium alloys are also used . This enables the widespread use of laser beam welding manufacturing techniques , eliminating rows of rivets and resulting in a lighter , stronger structure . High @-@ strength aluminium ( type 7449 ) reinforced with carbon fibre was used in the wing brackets of the first 120 A380s to reduce weight , but cracks have been discovered and new sets of the more critical brackets will be made of standard aluminium 7010 , increasing weight by 90 kg ( 198 lb ) . Repair costs for earlier aircraft are expected to be around € 500 million ( US $ 629 million ) .
It takes 3 @,@ 600 L ( 950 US gal ) of paint to cover the 3 @,@ 100 m2 ( 33 @,@ 000 sq ft ) exterior of an A380 . The paint is five layers thick and weighs about 650 kg ( 1 @,@ 433 lb ) .
= = = Avionics = = =
The A380 employs an integrated modular avionics ( IMA ) architecture , first used in advanced military aircraft , such as the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 22 Raptor , Lockheed Martin F @-@ 35 Lightning II , and Dassault Rafale . The main IMA systems on the A380 were developed by the Thales Group . Designed and developed by Airbus , Thales and Diehl Aerospace , the IMA suite was first used on the A380 . The suite is a technological innovation , with networked computing modules to support different applications . The data networks use Avionics Full @-@ Duplex Switched Ethernet , an implementation of ARINC 664 . These are switched , full @-@ duplex , star @-@ topology and based on 100baseTX fast @-@ Ethernet . This reduces the amount of wiring required and minimises latency .
Airbus used similar cockpit layout , procedures and handling characteristics to other Airbus aircraft , reducing crew training costs . The A380 has an improved glass cockpit , using fly @-@ by @-@ wire flight controls linked to side @-@ sticks . The cockpit has eight 15 by 20 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 by 7 @.@ 9 in ) liquid crystal displays , all physically identical and interchangeable ; comprising two primary flight displays , two navigation displays , one engine parameter display , one system display and two multi @-@ function displays . The MFDs were introduced on the A380 to provide an easy @-@ to @-@ use interface to the flight management system — replacing three multifunction control and display units . They include QWERTY keyboards and trackballs , interfacing with a graphical " point @-@ and @-@ click " display system .
The Network Systems Server ( NSS ) is the heart of A380 's paperless cockpit ; it eliminates bulky manuals and charts traditionally used . The NSS has enough inbuilt robustness to eliminate onboard backup paper documents . The A380 's network and server system stores data and offers electronic documentation , providing a required equipment list , navigation charts , performance calculations , and an aircraft logbook . This is accessed through the MFDs and controlled via the keyboard interface .
Power @-@ by @-@ wire flight control actuators have been used for the first time in civil aviation to back up primary hydraulic actuators . Also , during certain manoeuvres they augment the primary actuators . They have self @-@ contained hydraulic and electrical power supplies . Electro @-@ hydrostatic actuators ( EHA ) are used in the aileron and elevator , electric and hydraulic motors to drive the slats as well as electrical backup hydrostatic actuators ( EBHA ) for the rudder and some spoilers .
The A380 's 350 bar ( 35 MPa or 5 @,@ 000 psi ) hydraulic system is a significant difference from the typical 210 bar ( 21 MPa or 3 @,@ 000 psi ) hydraulics used on most commercial aircraft since the 1940s . First used in military aircraft , high @-@ pressure hydraulics reduce the weight and size of pipelines , actuators and related components . The 350 bar pressure is generated by eight de @-@ clutchable hydraulic pumps . The hydraulic lines are typically made from titanium ; the system features both fuel- and air @-@ cooled heat exchangers . Self @-@ contained electrically powered hydraulic power packs serve as backups for the primary systems , instead of a secondary hydraulic system , saving weight and reducing maintenance .
The A380 uses four 150 kVA variable @-@ frequency electrical generators , eliminating constant @-@ speed drives and improving reliability . The A380 uses aluminium power cables instead of copper for weight reduction . The electrical power system is fully computerised and many contactors and breakers have been replaced by solid @-@ state devices for better performance and increased reliability .
= = = Passenger provisions = = =
The cabin has features to reduce traveller fatigue such as a quieter interior and higher pressurisation than previous generation of aircraft ; the A380 is pressurised to the equivalent altitude of 1 @,@ 520 m ( 5 @,@ 000 ft ) up to 12 @,@ 000 m ( 39 @,@ 000 ft ) . It has 50 % less cabin noise , 50 % more cabin area and volume , larger windows , bigger overhead bins , and 60 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) extra headroom versus the 747 @-@ 400 . Seating options range from 3 @-@ room 12 m2 ( 130 sq ft ) " residence " in first class to 11 @-@ across in economy . On other aircraft , economy seats range from 41 @.@ 5 cm ( 16 @.@ 3 in ) to 52 @.@ 3 cm ( 20 @.@ 6 in ) in width , A380 economy seats are up to 48 cm ( 19 in ) wide in a 10 @-@ abreast configuration ; compared with the 10 @-@ abreast configuration on the 747 @-@ 400 which typically has seats 44 @.@ 5 cm ( 17 @.@ 5 in ) wide .
The A380 's upper and lower decks are connected by two stairways , fore and aft , wide enough to accommodate two passengers side @-@ by @-@ side ; this cabin arrangement allows multiple seat configurations . The maximum certified carrying capacity is 853 passengers in an all @-@ economy @-@ class layout , Airbus lists the " typical " three @-@ class layout as accommodating 525 passengers , with 10 first , 76 business , and 439 economy class seats . Airline configurations range from Korean Air 's 407 passengers to Emirates ' two @-@ class 615 seats for Copenhagen , and average around 480 – 490 seats . The Air Austral 's proposed 840 passenger layout has not come to fruition . The A380 's interior illumination system uses bulbless LEDs in the cabin , cockpit , and cargo decks . The LEDs in the cabin can be altered to create an ambience simulating daylight , night , or intermediate levels . On the outside of the aircraft , HID lighting is used for brighter illumination .
Airbus 's publicity has stressed the comfort and space of the A380 cabin , and advertised onboard relaxation areas such as bars , beauty salons , duty @-@ free shops , and restaurants . Proposed amenities resembled those installed on earlier airliners , particularly 1970s wide @-@ body jets , which largely gave way to regular seats for more passenger capacity . Airbus has acknowledged that some cabin proposals were unlikely to be installed , and that it was ultimately the airlines ' decision how to configure the interior . Industry analysts suggested that implementing customisation has slowed the production speeds , and raised costs . Due to delivery delays , Singapore Airlines and Air France debuted their seat designs on different aircraft prior to the A380 .
Initial operators typically configured their A380s for three @-@ class service , while adding extra features for passengers in premium cabins . Launch customer Singapore Airlines introduced partly enclosed first class suites on its A380s in 2007 , each featuring a leather seat with a separate bed ; center suites could be joined to create a double bed . A year later , Qantas debuted a new first class seat @-@ bed and a sofa lounge at the front of the upper deck on its A380s , and in 2009 Air France unveiled an upper deck electronic art gallery . In late 2008 , Emirates introduced " shower spas " in first class on its A380s allowing each first class passenger five minutes of hot water , drawing on 2 @.@ 5 tonnes of water although only 60 % of it was used . Emirates , Etihad Airways and Qatar Airways also have a bar lounge and seating area on the upper deck , while Etihad has enclosed areas for two people each . In addition to lounge areas , some A380 operators have installed amenities consistent with other aircraft in their respective fleets , including self @-@ serve snack bars , premium economy sections , and redesigned business class seating . The Hamburg Aircraft Interiors Expo in April 2015 saw the presentation of an 11 @-@ seat row economy cabin for the A380 . Airbus is reacting to a changing economy ; the recession which began in 2008 saw a drop in market percentage of first class and business seats to six percent and an increase in budget economy travelers . Among other causes is the reluctance of employers to pay for executives to travel in First or Business Class . Airbus ' chief of cabin marketing , Ingo Wuggestzer , told Aviation Week and Space Technology that the standard three class cabin no longer reflected market conditions . The 11 seat row on the A380 is accompanied by similar options on other widebodies : nine across on the Airbus A330 and ten across on the A350 .
= = = Integration with infrastructure and regulations = = =
= = = = Ground operations = = = =
In the 1990s , aircraft manufacturers were planning to introduce larger planes than the Boeing 747 . In a common effort of the International Civil Aviation Organization , ICAO , with manufacturers , airports and its member agencies , the " 80 @-@ metre box " was created , the airport gates allowing planes up to 80 m ( 260 ft ) wingspan and length to be accommodated . Airbus designed the A380 according to these guidelines , and to operate safely on Group V runways and taxiways with a 60 metres ( 200 ft ) loadbearing width . The US FAA initially opposed this , then in July 2007 , the FAA and EASA agreed to let the A380 operate on 45 m ( 148 ft ) runways without restrictions . The A380 @-@ 800 is approximately 30 % larger in overall size than the 747 @-@ 400 . Runway lighting and signage may need changes to provide clearance to the wings and avoid blast damage from the engines . Runways , runway shoulders and taxiway shoulders may be required to be stabilised to reduce the likelihood of foreign object damage caused to ( or by ) the outboard engines , which are more than 25 m ( 82 ft ) from the centre line of the aircraft , compared to 21 m ( 69 ft ) for the 747 @-@ 400 , and 747 @-@ 8 .
Airbus measured pavement loads using a 540 @-@ tonne ( 595 short tons ) ballasted test rig , designed to replicate the landing gear of the A380 . The rig was towed over a section of pavement at Airbus ' facilities that had been instrumented with embedded load sensors . It was determined that the pavement of most runways will not need to be reinforced despite the higher weight , as it is distributed on more wheels than in other passenger aircraft with a total of 22 wheels ( that is , its ground pressure is lower ) . The A380 undercarriage consists of four main landing gear legs and one noseleg ( a similar layout to the 747 ) , with the two inboard landing gear legs each supporting six wheels .
The A380 requires service vehicles with lifts capable of reaching the upper deck , as well as tractors capable of handling the A380 's maximum ramp weight . When using two jetway bridges the boarding time is 45 min , and when using an extra jetway to the upper deck it is reduced to 34 min . The A380 has an airport turnaround time of 90 – 110 minutes . In 2008 the A380 test aircraft were used to trial the modifications made to several airports to accommodate the type .
= = = = Takeoff and landing separation = = = =
In 2005 , the ICAO recommended that provisional separation criteria for the A380 on takeoff and landing be substantially greater than for the 747 because preliminary flight test data suggested a stronger wake turbulence . These criteria were in effect while the ICAO 's wake vortex steering group , with representatives from the JAA , Eurocontrol , the FAA , and Airbus , refined its 3 @-@ year study of the issue with additional flight testing . In September 2006 , the working group presented its first conclusions to the ICAO .
In November 2006 , the ICAO issued new interim recommendations . Replacing a blanket 10 nautical miles ( 19 km ) separation for aircraft trailing an A380 during approach , the new distances were 6 nmi ( 11 km ) , 8 nmi ( 15 km ) and 10 nmi ( 19 km ) respectively for non @-@ A380 " Heavy " , " Medium " , and " Light " ICAO aircraft categories . These compared with the 4 nmi ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) , 5 nmi ( 9 @.@ 3 km ) and 6 nmi ( 11 km ) spacing applicable to other " Heavy " aircraft . Another A380 following an A380 should maintain a separation of 4 nmi ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) . On departure behind an A380 , non @-@ A380 " Heavy " aircraft are required to wait two minutes , and " Medium " / " Light " aircraft three minutes for time based operations . The ICAO also recommends that pilots append the term " Super " to the aircraft 's callsign when initiating communication with air traffic control , to distinguish the A380 from " Heavy " aircraft .
In August 2008 , the ICAO issued revised approach separations of 4 nmi ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) for Super ( another A380 ) , 6 nmi ( 11 km ) for Heavy , 7 nmi ( 13 km ) for medium / small , and 8 nmi ( 15 km ) for light . In November 2008 , an incident on a parallel runway during crosswinds made the Australian authorities change procedures for those conditions .
For takeoff , " Light " and " Medium " aircraft must wait 3 minutes behind an A380 takeoff , compared to the standard 2 minutes for takeoffs behind other aircraft types .
Singapore Airlines describe the A380 's landing speed of 130 – 135 kn ( 240 – 250 km / h ) as " impressively slow " .
= = = = Maintenance = = = =
As the A380 fleet grows older , airworthiness authority rules require certain scheduled inspections from approved aircraft tool shops . The increasing fleet size ( to about 286 in 2020 ) cause expected maintenance and modification to cost $ 6 @.@ 8 billion for 2015 @-@ 2020 , of which $ 2 @.@ 1 billion are for engines . Emirates performed its first 3C @-@ check for 55 days in 2014 . During lengthy shop stays , some airlines will use the opportunity to install new interiors .
= = Variants = =
= = = Improved A380 @-@ 800 = = =
In 2010 , Airbus announced a new A380 build standard , incorporating a strengthened airframe structure and a 1 @.@ 5 ° increase in wing twist . Airbus will also offer , as an option , an improved maximum take @-@ off weight , thus providing a better payload / range performance . Maximum take @-@ off weight is increased by 4 t ( 8 @,@ 800 lb ) , to 573 t ( 1 @,@ 263 @,@ 000 lb ) and the range is extended by 100 nautical miles ( 190 km ) ; this is achieved by reducing flight loads , partly from optimising the fly @-@ by @-@ wire control laws . British Airways and Emirates are the first two customers to have received this new option in 2013 . Emirates has asked for an update with new engines for the A380 to be competitive with the 777X around 2020 , and Airbus is studying 11 @-@ abreast seating .
In 2012 Airbus announced another increase in the A380 's maximum take @-@ off weight to 575 t ( 1 @,@ 268 @,@ 000 lb ) , a 6 t hike on the initial A380 variant and 2 t higher than the increased @-@ weight proposal of 2010 . It will stretch the range by some 150 nautical miles ( 280 km ) , taking its capability to around 8 @,@ 350 nautical miles ( 15 @,@ 460 km ) at current payloads . The higher @-@ weight version was offered for introduction to service early in 2013 .
= = = A380 @-@ 900 = = =
In November 2007 Airbus top sales executive and chief operating officer John Leahy confirmed plans for an enlarged variant , the A380 @-@ 900 , with more seating space than the A380 @-@ 800 . This version would have a seating capacity for 650 passengers in standard configuration , and approximately 900 passengers in an economy @-@ only configuration . Airlines that had expressed an interest in the − 900 included Emirates , Virgin Atlantic , Cathay Pacific , Air France , KLM , Lufthansa , Kingfisher Airlines , and leasing company ILFC . In May 2010 , Airbus announced that A380 @-@ 900 development was postponed , until production of the A380 @-@ 800 stabilises .
On 11 December 2014 at the annual Airbus Investor Day forum Airbus CEO controversially announced that " We will one day launch an A380neo and one day launch a stretched A380 " following speculation sparked by Airbus CFO Harald Wilhelm that Airbus could axe the A380 ahead of its time due to softening demand . On 15 June 2015 , John Leahy , Airbus 's chief operating officer for customers , stated Airbus was looking at the A380 @-@ 900 programme again . Airbus 's newest concept is a stretch of the A380 @-@ 800 offering 50 seats more , not 100 as originally envisaged . The stretch would be tied to a potential re @-@ engining of the A380 @-@ 800 . According to FlightGlobal , an A380 @-@ 900 would make better use of the A380 's existing wing .
= = = A380neo = = =
On 19 July 2015 , Airbus CEO Fabrice Brégier stated that the company will build a new version of the A380 featuring new improved wings and new engines . Speculation about the development of a so @-@ called A380neo ( neo for new engine option ) had been going on for a few months after earlier press releases in 2014 , and in 2015 the company was considering whether to end production of the type prior to 2018 or develop a new A380 variant . Later it was revealed that Airbus was looking at both the possibility of a longer A380 in line of the previously planned A380 @-@ 900 and a new engine version , i.e. A380neo . It was also revealed by Brégier that the new variant would be ready to enter service by 2020 . The engine would most likely be one of a variety of all @-@ new options from Rolls @-@ Royce , ranging from derivatives of the A350 's XWB @-@ 84 / 97 to the future Advance project due at around 2020 .
On 3 June 2016 , Emirates President Tim Clark stated that talks between Emirates and Airbus on the A380neo have " lapsed " .
= = = A380F = = =
Airbus originally accepted orders for the freighter version , offering the largest payload capacity of any cargo aircraft in production , exceeded only by the single Antonov An @-@ 225 Mriya in service . An aerospace consultant has estimated that the A380F would have 7 % better payload and better range than the 747 @-@ 8F , but also higher trip costs . However , production has been suspended until the A380 production lines have settled with no firm availability date . In 2015 Airbus removed A380F from the range of freighters on the corporate website .
= = Market = =
In 2006 , industry analysts Philip Lawrence of the Aerospace Research Centre in Bristol and Richard Aboulafia of the consulting Teal Group in Fairfax anticipated 880 and 400 A380 sales respectively by 2025 , whereas Airbus and Boeing estimate 1 @,@ 700 and 700 VLA ( very large aircraft ; those with more than 400 seats ) , respectively . According to Lawrence , parallel to the design of the A380 , Airbus conducted the most extensive and thorough market analysis of commercial aviation ever undertaken , justifying its VLA plans , while according to Aboulafia , the rise of mid @-@ size aircraft and market fragmentation reduced VLAs to niche market status , making such plans unjustified . The two analysts ' market forecasts differed in the incorporation of spoke @-@ hub and point @-@ to @-@ point models . The difference was illustrated in 2014 when British Airways replaced three B777 flights between London and Los Angeles with two A380 , per day .
In contrast , the airline strategy of frequency ( offering multiple flights between the same two cities at different times of day ) typically relies on smaller aircraft . United Airlines told Reuters that it follows this strategy because it offers business travelers more choices . Moreover , United 's Chief Financial Officer observed that the airline 's Boeing 787 Dreamliners operate at a lower trip cost than the A380 . Hence , the A380 " just doesn 't really work for us . " Operators Air France and China Southern have found that the A380 's capacity is too large for some markets ; China Southern has faced mounting losses on A380 operations out of its Guangzhou hub , although Emirates ' Tim Clark sees a large potential for Asian A380 @-@ users , and criticised Airbus ' marketing efforts . In 2013 , Air France withdrew A380 services to Singapore and Montreal and switched to smaller aircraft .
In 2007 , Airbus estimated a demand for 1 @,@ 283 passenger planes in the VLA category for the next 20 years if airport congestion remains at the current level . According to this estimate , demand could reach up to 1 @,@ 771 VLAs if congestion increases . Most of this demand will be due to the urbanisation and rapid economic growth in Asia . The A380 will be used on relatively few routes , between the most saturated airports ; 15 of the world 's 20 biggest airports are saturated . Airbus also estimates a demand for 415 freighters in the category 120 @-@ tonne plus . Boeing , which offers the only competition in that class , the 747 @-@ 8 , estimates the demand for passenger VLAs at 590 and that for freighter VLAs at 370 for the period 2007 – 2026 .
At one time the A380 was considered as a potential replacement for the existing Boeing VC @-@ 25 serving as Air Force One , but in January 2009 EADS declared that they were not going to bid for the contract , as assembling only three planes in the US would not make financial sense .
The break @-@ even for the A380 was initially supposed to be reached by selling 270 units , but due to the delays and the falling exchange rate of the US dollar , it increased to 420 units . In 2010 , EADS CFO Hans Peter Ring said that break @-@ even ( on the aircraft that are delivered ) could be achieved by 2015 , despite the delays ; there should be around 200 deliveries by that time , on current projections . In 2012 , Airbus clarified that in 2015 , production costs to build the aircraft would be less than the sales price . As of March 2010 the average list price of an A380 was US $ 375 @.@ 3 million ( about € 261 million or £ 229 million ) , depending on equipment installed . As of July 2012 this list price was US $ 390 million , but negotiated discounts made the actual prices much lower , and industry experts questioned whether the A380 project would ever pay for itself .
On 11 December 2014 , after slower than expected orders for the aircraft in 2014 , Harald Wilhelm , the company 's Chief Finance Officer , voiced the possibility to end the program in 2018 . His statement was met by protests from customers and a fall in share prices . Airbus responded to the protests by playing down the possibility the A380 would be abandoned , instead emphasizing that enhancing the airplane was a likelier scenario . On 22 December 2014 , CEO Fabrice Brégier ruled out that the cancellation of the A380 program , stating that it will break even in 2015 but also that the A380 was introduced a decade too early . While no longer losing money on each plane sold , Airbus admits that the company will never recoup the $ 25 billion investment it made in the project .
As of mid @-@ 2015 , several airlines have expressed their interest in selling their aircraft , partially coinciding with expiring lease contracts for the aircraft . Several A380 which are in service have been offered for lease to other airlines . The suggestion has prompted concerns on the potential for new sales for Airbus , although these were dismissed by Airbus COO John Leahy stated that " Used A380s do not compete with new A380s " , stating that the second @-@ hand market is more interesting for parties otherwise looking to buy smaller aircraft such as the Boeing 777 .
On 15 June 2015 , Reuters reported that Airbus was discussing a stretched version of the A380 with a half dozen customers . This aircraft , which could also feature new engines , would accommodate an additional fifty passengers . Were this " A380neo " to be built , it would be delivered to customers sometime in 2020 or 2021 . On 9 July 2015 , Business Insider reported that Airbus had filed a patent application for an A380 " combi " which would offer the flexibility of not only carrying both passengers and cargo , but being rapidly reconfigurable to expand or contract the cargo area and passenger area as needed for a given flight .
An A380 's hourly cost is about $ 26 @,@ 000 , or around $ 50 per seat hour , which compares to $ 44 per seat hour for a Boeing 777 @-@ 300ER , and $ 90 per seat hour for a Boeing 747 @-@ 400 as of November 2015 .
= = Orders and deliveries = =
Nineteen customers have ordered the A380 . Total orders for the A380 stand at 319 as of May 2016 . The biggest customer is Emirates , which has ordered or committed to order a total of 142 A380s as of 31 May 2016 . One VIP order was made in 2007 but later cancelled by Airbus . The A380F version totalled 27 orders before they were either cancelled ( 20 ) or converted to A380 @-@ 800 ( 7 ) , following the production delay and the subsequent suspension of the freighter programme .
Delivery takes place in Hamburg for customers from Europe and the Middle East and in Toulouse for customers from the rest of the world . EADS explained that deliveries in 2013 were to be slowed temporarily to accommodate replacement of the wing rib brackets where cracks were detected earlier in the existing fleet .
In hopes of raising the number of orders placed , Airbus announced ' attractable discounts ' to airlines who placed large orders for the A380 . Emirates soon after , ordered 50 aircraft , totalling $ 20 @.@ 75 billion . Airbus gave a $ 2 @.@ 75 billion total discount , equal to $ 55 million in savings per aircraft for Emirates .
Airbus says that some A380s may not be delivered to customers or even built . This decision came when Airbus had not met the ' Accord and Satisfaction ' for three already built aircraft for an undisclosed Japanese airline . " Without referring to any specific airline , I can assure you that we have cases where airlines are in the order backlog but not in the production plan , " chief executive officer Tom Enders said in August 2014 during a conference call to discuss earnings with Bloomberg . " We are watching the situation carefully , and know about the strengths and weaknesses of customers . " Among customers that have ordered superjumbos yet remain undecided about actually taking them is Virgin Atlantic , with six units on the order book . Qantas had also planned to top up its existing fleet by as many as eight airplanes , an expansion that has been thrown into doubt amid a cost @-@ cutting drive . Amedeo , an aircraft lessor that ordered 20 A380s , has yet to find a single client for the jet .
Cumulative orders and deliveries
Data from Airbus through the end of June 2016 .
Orders
Deliveries
= = Operators = =
There were 193 aircraft in service with 13 operators as of 30 June 2016 .
Singapore Airlines first service on 25 October 2007
Emirates first service on 1 August 2008
Qantas first service on 20 October 2008
Air France first service on 20 November 2009
Lufthansa first service on 6 June 2010
Korean Air first service on 17 June 2011
China Southern Airlines first service on 17 October 2011
Malaysia Airlines first service on 1 July 2012
Thai Airways first service on 6 October 2012 .
British Airways first service on 2 August 2013 .
Asiana Airlines first service on 13 June 2014
Qatar Airways first service on 10 October 2014
Etihad Airways first service on 27 December 2014
= = = Notable routes = = =
The shortest regular commercial route that the A380 flies is from Dubai International Airport to Kuwait International Airport ( 861 km or 535 miles great circle distance ) with Emirates , although Air France briefly operated the A380 on the much shorter Paris @-@ Charles de Gaulle to London @-@ Heathrow route ( 344 km or 214 miles ) in mid @-@ 2010 . The longest A380 route — and the second longest non @-@ stop commercial flight in the world — is Qantas ' service from Sydney International Airport to Dallas @-@ Fort Worth International Airport at 13 @,@ 804 kilometres ( 8 @,@ 577 mi ) .
= = Incidents and accidents = =
The A380 has been involved in one aviation occurrence and no hull loss accidents with no fatalities as of January 2016 , according to the Aviation Safety Network .
On 4 November 2010 , Qantas Flight 32 , en route from Singapore Changi Airport to Sydney Airport , suffered an uncontained engine failure , resulting in a series of related problems , and forcing the flight to return to Singapore . There were no injuries to the passengers , crew or people on the ground despite debris falling onto the Indonesian island of Batam . The A380 was damaged sufficiently for the event to be classified as an accident . Qantas subsequently grounded all of its A380s that day subject to an internal investigation taken in conjunction with the engine manufacturer Rolls @-@ Royce plc . A380s powered by Engine Alliance GP7000 were unaffected but operators of Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 900 @-@ powered A380s were affected . Investigators determined that an oil leak , caused by a defective oil supply pipe , led to an engine fire and subsequent uncontained engine failure . Repairs cost an estimated A $ 139 million ( ~ US $ 145M ) . As other Rolls @-@ Royce Trent 900 engines also showed problems with the same oil leak , Rolls @-@ Royce ordered many engines to be changed , including about half of the engines in the Qantas A380 fleet . During the airplane 's repair , cracks were discovered in wing structural fittings which also resulted in mandatory inspections of all A380s and subsequent design changes .
= = Specifications = =
Sources : Airbus A380 specifications
= City Girl ( song ) =
" City Girl " is a song by the Irish alternative rock musician Kevin Shields . It is the second track from the soundtrack to the 2003 film Lost in Translation and was released as a standalone single in June 2003 . Recorded during summer 2002 with Lost in Translation 's music co @-@ ordinator Brian Reitzell , " City Girl " was among the first original material released by Shields since My Bloody Valentine 's second studio album , Loveless ( 1991 ) — on which he was the main composer , musician and producer .
Produced by Shields , " City Girl " has been described as a mid @-@ tempo garage @-@ influenced alternative rock song and since its original release , critics have drawn comparisons between it and songs from Loveless . An accompanying music video for " City Girl " was directed by Sofia Coppola , the director of Lost in Translation . " City Girl " was well received upon its release , and its inclusion on the Lost in Translation soundtrack , and earned Shields nominations for a number of awards ; these include a British Academy of Film and Television Arts ( BAFTA ) award for Best Film Music , an Irish Film and Television Academy ( IFTA ) award for Best Music in a Film and an Online Film Critics Society award for Best Original Score .
= = Origin and recording = =
" City Girl " is one of four songs Kevin Shields composed for Sofia Coppola 's 2003 film , Lost in Translation . Shields became involved with the film 's original score after being contacted by the film 's music co @-@ ordinator Brian Reitzell in Tokyo , Japan . Reitzell and Shields began impromptu jam sessions in London , United Kingdom during summer 2002 , where Shields composed " City Girl " . The duo " adopted a late @-@ night recording schedule " that consisted of them recording between midnight " and seven in the morning " . According to Shields , " it was [ their ] productive time . It 's basically as though the world 's disappeared . "
Describing the song 's origins in an interview with National Public Radio ( NPR ) , Shields said that the writing and recording of " City Girl " was " very simple , in the sense that it was just me teaching Brian the chord structure and Brian just jamming along to it . " The duo recorded an instrumental rehearsal version of the song , after which Shields said there was " no point in rerecording it . " He later wrote lyrics and recorded vocals for the song but emphasised that there was no need for " elaborations [ or ] overdubs . " Shields described this method of recording as a " slapdash approach
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C. Scott 's performance as General Buck Turgidson . The appearance of the stereotypical grey alien found in Hangar 18 is a reference to the Megadeth song of the same name .
Another parodied film is the 1964 thriller Fail @-@ Safe by Sidney Lumet : at the beginning of the third act of the episode , we see scenes of everyday life across Springfield , and one by one , with a " zooming " sound effect , they all freeze @-@ frame in anticipation of the ( supposedly ) imminent nuclear blast ; such was the ending of Fail @-@ Safe . One of the scenes before the supposed nuclear blast shows Maggie picking flowers in a field , with the camera zooming into her eye , and then the minuscule blast occurs . This is a parody of the infamous and controversial Daisy ad used by Lyndon B. Johnson in the 1964 United States presidential election .
The inmate who argues with Sideshow Bob about tabloids and network television has the likeness and Australian accent of Rupert Murdoch .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Sideshow Bob 's Last Gleaming " finished 49th in ratings for the week of November 20 – 26 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 and a 13 % share of the audience . It was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week behind The X @-@ Files , Beverly Hills , 90210 and Melrose Place .
The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote , " Probably the least satisfying of Sideshow Bob 's gleamings - but there 's enough slapstick and satire to keep things ticking along nicely . " Ben Rayner of the Toronto Star listed " Brother From Another Series , " amongst other Sideshow Bob episodes , as one of the best episodes of The Simpsons , writing " forget Frasier , these are Kelsey Grammer 's best roles . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote that " Though it doesn ’ t compete with the best Bob shows , it has more than a few nice moments . " He added that he enjoyed R. Lee Ermey 's guest appearance as well as the jokes about the Fox network . Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when Milhouse was playing in the fighter jet at the air show . The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of B − .
= Epaulette shark =
The epaulette shark ( Hemiscyllium ocellatum ) is a species of longtailed carpet shark , family Hemiscylliidae , found in shallow , tropical waters off Australia and New Guinea ( and possibly elsewhere ) . The common name of this shark comes from the very large , white @-@ margined black spot behind each pectoral fin , which are reminiscent of military epaulettes . A small species usually under 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) long , the epaulette shark has a slender body with a short head and broad , paddle @-@ shaped paired fins . The caudal peduncle ( to which the tail fin is attached ) comprises over half the shark 's length . Adults are light brown above , with scattered darker spots and indistinct saddles .
Epaulette sharks have nocturnal habits and frequent shallow water on coral reefs or in tidal pools . This shark has evolved to cope with the severe night time oxygen depletion ( hypoxia ) in isolated tidal pools by increasing the blood supply to its brain and selectively shutting down non @-@ essential neural functions . It is capable of surviving complete anoxia for an hour without ill effects , and at a much higher temperature than most other hypoxia @-@ tolerant animals . Rather than swim , epaulette sharks often " walk " by wriggling their bodies and pushing with their paired fins . This species feeds on a wide range of small benthic invertebrates and bony fishes . Epaulette sharks are oviparous , with females depositing pairs of egg capsules around every 14 days from August to December . Due to their hardiness and small size , epaulette sharks are popular with both public and home aquaria . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as of Least Concern , as outside of the small aquarium trade it is of little interest to fisheries .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The epaulette shark was originally described as Squalus ocellatus by the French naturalist Pierre Joseph Bonnaterre in the 1788 Tableau encyclopédique et méthodique des trois règnes de la nature . The name was later changed to the currently valid Hemiscyllium ocellatum . The type specimen was a 35 cm ( 14 in ) long immature male caught near Cooktown , Queensland , Australia . Other common names for this species are the itar shark and the blind shark ( also used for Brachaelurus waddi ) . Goto 's 2002 morphological analysis of the carpet sharks showed the genus Hemiscyllium as a polytomy , meaning that the phylogenetic relationships between the epaulette shark and its sister species could not be resolved .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The range of the epaulette shark extends from the southern coast of New Guinea to the northern coast of Australia , as far south as Sydney . The Capricorn @-@ Bunker Group of the Great Barrier Reef contains a particularly large population , with thousands estimated to inhabit the reefs around Heron Island alone . Additionally , there are unsubstantiated reports of this species from Malaysia , Sumatra , and the Solomon Islands . Epaulette sharks are found in shallow water to a maximum depth of 50 m ( 160 ft ) , and are often seen in water barely deep enough to cover their bodies . They prefer tidal pools , coral flats , and stands of staghorn coral .
= = Description = =
The epaulette shark has an elongated body , over half of which is comprised by the slender caudal peduncle . The snout is short and rounded , with the nares placed almost at the tip along with a pair of tiny barbels ; there are grooves running from the nares to the mouth . There are 26 – 35 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 21 – 32 tooth rows in the lower jaw . The teeth are small , with broad bases and triangular cusps . The eyes are oval in shape and elevated , with a large spiracle below each . The five pairs of gill slits are small , with the fourth and fifth very close together .
The pectoral and pelvic fins are broad and rounded and are thickly muscled . The two similarly @-@ sized dorsal fins are placed well back on the body . The anal fin is low and positioned just in front of the caudal fin . The caudal fin has only an upper lobe , which contains a prominent ventral notch near the tip and is angled almost horizontally relative to the body . Adult epaulette sharks are beige to brownish above with many widely spaced brown spots and subtle darker bands . There is a very large black spot ringed in white located behind each pectoral fin ; this pair of spots are the origin of this shark 's common name . Juveniles have alternating light and dark bands over their body and fins , which break up as they mature . Epaulette sharks are typically 70 – 90 cm ( 27 – 35 in ) long ; the maximum reported length is 107 cm ( 42 in ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
As an adaptation for navigating its complex reef environment , the epaulette shark moves by seemingly walking , bending its body from side @-@ to @-@ side and pushing off of the substrate with its paddle @-@ shaped pectoral and pelvic fins . Its gait is similar to that of salamanders , an example of convergent evolution . The shark is capable of swimming , but often prefers to walk along the sandy or coral bottom even when the water is deep enough to allow it to swim freely . The cartilaginous supports of the epaulette shark 's paired fins are reduced and separated when compared to other sharks , allowing them to be rotated for use as limbs . This mode of locomotion even enables the shark to crawl out of the water to access isolated tidal pools . The gait of the epaulette shark is convergently similar to those of tetrapods such as salamanders , suggesting that the movements needed for walking on land may predate , and facilitated the evolution of , the first terrestrial vertebrates . Epaulette sharks are largely nocturnal and are most active in low water . They often hide inside or below coral heads , though it is enough for the head to be covered even if the rest of the body is exposed . Sometimes they perch in the open on sandy flats or atop reefs facing into the current , a form of orientation known as rheotaxis that may improve respiration or predator awareness .
Epaulette sharks are preyed upon by larger fishes such as other sharks . Its coloration provides protective camouflage , while its epaulette is speculated to be an eyespot for distracting or deterring predators . Epaulette sharks are almost all parasitized by the praniza ( parasitic ) larval stage of gnathiid isopods . The larvae feed on blood and mostly attach to the skin around the cloaca and the claspers , though they are also found inside the mouth and on the gills . These parasites cause little damage and are not believed to adversely affect the health of the shark . Other parasites of this species include a species of myxosporean in the genus Kudoa , which infests the skeletal muscles , the hemogregarine protozoan Haemogregarina hemiscyllii , which infects the blood , the ostracod Sheina orri , which attaches to the gills , and the nematode Proleptus australis , which infests the stomach .
= = = Hypoxia tolerance = = =
At night , the shallow reef platforms inhabited by the epaulette shark often become isolated from the ocean by the receding tide . The amount of dissolved oxygen in the pool can drop 80 % or more overnight from the combined respiration of all the organisms within the pool . The epaulette shark has evolved to cope with these hypoxic conditions , being able to survive for over three hours in 5 % of the atmospheric O2 level without losing behavioral responsiveness . In the laboratory , epaulette sharks have survived for an hour without any oxygen at 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , which is also unusual in that most animals capable of tolerating oxygen deprivation do so at low temperatures .
The physiological responses of the epaulette shark to low oxygen are mediated by the nucleoside adenosine . In hypoxic conditions , the heart and ventilation rates drop sharply . The shark 's blood pressure falls by half as the blood vessels dilate to deliver more blood to the brain and heart . Unlike in bony fishes and tetrapods , the blood flow rate remains constant and there is no elevation of blood glucose levels . The brains of sharks only consume a third as much ATP as those of teleosts . The epaulette shark is able to lower this energy demand further by reducing the metabolism of certain areas of its brain , e.g. keeping the sensory nuclei functional while deactivating the motor nuclei . This allows the shark to supply enough ATP to prevent neuron death , while still remaining alert to its environment .
= = = Feeding = = =
The epaulette shark is an opportunistic predator of benthic crustaceans , worms , and small bony fish . Off Heron Island , over 90 % of the epaulette shark 's diet consists of polychaete worms and crabs , with juveniles taking mostly the former and adults mostly the latter . It hunts most actively at dawn and dusk , though feeding can occur at any time during the day . This shark relies mainly on its olfactory and electroreceptive senses to locate hidden prey . It is capable of sucking prey into its mouth by expanding its muscular buccal cavity . While searching for food , the epaulette shark sometimes turns over debris with its snout or thrusts its head into the sand , swallowing food items while expelling the sand grains through its gill slits . Unlike most sharks , the epaulette shark may chew its food for up to 5 – 10 minutes . Its teeth can be depressed to form a flat surface for crushing hard @-@ shelled prey .
= = = Life history = = =
Mating in the epaulette shark takes place from July to December , though in captivity reproduction occurs continuously . Courtship may be initiated by the female following and biting the male . The male then holds onto the pectoral fin of the female with his mouth and lies alongside her , while inserting one of his claspers into her cloaca . Copulation lasts about one and a half minutes . Epaulette sharks readily breed in aquariums , even in tanks as small as 135 gallons , but larger tanks are recommended to allow room for the hatched offspring . This species is oviparous , with females depositing eggs from August to December . The female drops the egg capsules two ( rarely four ) at a time every 14 days , producing a total of 20 – 50 eggs per year . Each egg case measures 10 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) long and 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide . The young emerge after 120 – 130 days , at a length of 14 – 16 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 3 in ) . The growth rate of the young is slow at first but increases to about 5 cm ( 2 in ) per year after three months . Both males and females mature sexually at a length of 54 – 64 cm ( 21 – 25 in ) , corresponding to an age of at least seven years .
= = Human interactions = =
Epaulette sharks are harmless to humans , though if handled they may nip their captors . They are easily observed and handled by beachgoers as they move slowly whilst out of water , and show little fear of humans ; the shark is often injured by these encounters . This species adapts readily to captivity and is displayed by many public aquariums in the United States , Canada , and Australia . In an article for Aquarium Fish Magazine , Scott W. Michael referred to the epaulette shark as " the best shark for the home aquarium . " They will breed in captivity , even in tanks as small as 510 L ( 135 gal ) , though full @-@ grown sharks are best housed in tanks of 680 L ( 180 gal ) or more . They are not compatible with community tanks as they will eat other fish .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the epaulette shark as of Least Concern . This species is common in Australian waters , where it is not captured by either commercial or recreational fisheries , and is minimally affected by collection for the aquarium trade and fishery bycatch . Much of its Australian habitat is encompassed by protected marine parks . Off New Guinea , the epaulette shark has been assessed as Near Threatened , as there it faces habitat degradation , destructive fishing practices , and over @-@ exploitation by artisan fishers .
In 2015 , the behaviour of an Epaulette shark was filmed in detail by the BBC for the first episode of a new documentary series named Shark , released around the 40th anniversary of Jaws . The documentary shows an Epaulette shark 's ability to walk over land , and its hunting behaviours in the ebbing tide .
= Renewable energy in Iceland =
About 85 percent of total primary energy supply in Iceland is derived from domestically produced renewable energy sources .
In 2011 , geothermal energy provided about 65 percent of primary energy , the share of hydropower was 20 percent , and the share of fossil fuels ( mainly oil products for the transport sector ) was 15 percent . In 2013 , Iceland also became a producer of wind energy .
The main use of geothermal energy is for space heating with the heat being distributed to buildings through extensive district @-@ heating systems . About 85 % of all houses in Iceland are heated with geothermal energy .
Renewable energy provides almost 100 percent of electricity production , with about 75 percent coming from hydropower and 25 percent from geothermal power . Most of the hydropower plants are owned by Landsvirkjun ( the National Power Company ) which is the main supplier of electricity in Iceland . In 2011 , the total electricity consumption in Iceland was 17 @,@ 210 GWh .
Iceland is the world ’ s largest green energy producer per capita and largest electricity producer per capita .
= = Geology = =
Iceland 's unique geology allows it to produce renewable energy relatively cheaply , from a variety of sources . Iceland is located on the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge , which makes it one of the most tectonically active places in the world . There are over 200 volcanoes located in Iceland and over 600 hot springs . There are over 20 high @-@ temperature steam fields that are at least 150 ° C [ 300 ° F ] ; many of them reach temperatures of 250 ° C. This is what allows Iceland to harness geothermal energy and these steam fields are used for everything from heating houses to heating swimming pools . Hydropower is harnessed through glacial rivers and waterfalls , which are both plentiful in Iceland .
= = Hydropower = =
The first hydropower plant was built in 1904 by a local entrepreneur . It was located in a small town outside of Reykjavík and produced 9 kW of power . The first municipal hydroelectric plant was built in 1921 , and it could produce 1 MW of power . This plant single @-@ handedly quadrupled the amount of electricity in the country . The 1950s marked the next evolution in hydroelectric plants . Two plants were built on the Sog River , one in 1953 which produced 31 MW , and the other in 1959 which produced 26 @.@ 4 MW . These two plants were the first built for industrial purposes and they were co @-@ owned by the Icelandic government . This process continued in 1965 when the national power company , Landsvirkjun , was founded . It was owned by both the Icelandic government and the municipality of Reykjavík . In 1969 , they built a 210 MW plant on the Þjórsá River that would supply the southeastern area of Iceland with electricity and run an aluminum smelting plant that could produce 33 @,@ 000 tons of aluminum a year .
This trend continued and increases in the production of hydroelectric power are directly related to industrial development . In 2005 , Landsvirkjun produced 7 @,@ 143 GWh of electricity total of which 6 @,@ 676 GWh or 93 % was produced via hydroelectric power plants . Additionally 5 @,@ 193 GWh or 72 % was used for power @-@ intensive industries like aluminum smelting . In 2009 Iceland built its biggest hydroelectric project to date , a 690 MW hydroelectric plant to provide energy for another aluminum smelter — the Kárahnjúkar Hydropower Plant . This project was opposed strongly by environmentalists .
Other hydroelectric power stations in Iceland include : Blöndustöð ( 150 MW ) , Búrfellsstöð ( 270 MW ) , Hrauneyjafosstöð ( 210 MW ) , Laxárstöðvar ( 28 MW ) , Sigöldustöð ( 150 MW ) , Sogsstöðvar ( 89 MW ) , Sultartangastöð ( 120 MW ) , and Vatnsfellsstöð ( 90 MW ) .
Iceland is the first country in the world to create an economy generated through industries fueled by renewable energy , and there is still a large amount of untapped hydroelectric energy in Iceland . In 2002 it was estimated that Iceland only generated 17 % of the total harnessable hydroelectric energy in the country . Iceland ’ s government believes another 30 TWh of hydropower every year could be produced , whilst taking into account the sources that must remain untapped for environmental reasons .
= = Geothermal power = =
For centuries , the people of Iceland have used their hot springs for bathing and washing clothes . The first use of geothermal energy for heating did not come until 1907 when a farmer ran a concrete pipe from a hot spring that led steam into his house . In 1930 , the first pipeline was constructed in Reykjavík , and was used to heat two schools , 60 homes , and the main hospital . It was a 3 km pipeline that ran from one of the hot springs outside the city . In 1943 , the first district heating company was started with the use of geothermal power . An 18 km pipeline ran through the city of Reykjavík and by 1945 it was connected to over 2 @,@ 850 homes .
Currently geothermal power heats 89 % of the houses in Iceland and over 54 % of the primary energy used in Iceland comes from geothermal sources . Geothermal power is used for many things in Iceland . 57 @.@ 4 % of the energy is used for space heat , 25 % is used for electricity , and the remaining amount is used in many miscellaneous areas : swimming pools , fish farms , and greenhouses , for example .
The government of Iceland has played a major role in the advancement of geothermal energy . In the 1940s , the State Electricity Authority was started by the government in order to increase the knowledge of geothermal resources and the utilization of geothermal power in Iceland . It was later changed to the National Energy Authority ( Orkustofnun ) in 1967 . This agency has been very successful and has made it economically viable to use geothermal energy as a source for heating in many different areas throughout the country . Geothermal power has been so successful that the government no longer has to lead the research in this field because it has been taken over by the geothermal industries .
Geothermal power plants in Iceland include Nesjavellir ( 120 MW ) , Reykjanes ( 100 MW ) , Hellisheiði ( 303 MW ) , Krafla ( 60 MW ) , and Svartsengi ( 46 @.@ 5 MW ) power plants . The Svartsengi power plant and the Nesjavellir power plant produce both electricity and hot @-@ water for heating purposes . The move from oil @-@ based heating to geothermal heating saved Iceland an estimated total of US $ 8 @.@ 2 billion from 1970 to 2000 and lowered the release of carbon dioxide emissions by 37 % . The equivalent amount of oil that would have been needed in 2003 to heat Iceland ’ s homes was 646 @,@ 000 tons .
The Icelandic government also believes that there are many more untapped geothermal sources throughout the country , estimating that over 20 TWh per year of unharnessed geothermal energy is available . This is about 3 @.@ 3 % of the 600TWh per year of electricity used in Germany . Combined with the unharnessed feasible hydropower , tapping these sources to their full extent would provide Iceland another 50 TWh of energy per year , all from renewable sources .
Iceland 's abundant geothermal energy has also enabled renewable energy initiatives , such as Carbon Recycling International 's carbon dioxide to methanol fuel process , which could help reduce Iceland 's dependence on fossil fuels .
= = Solar power = =
Iceland has relatively low insolation , due to the latitude , about 20 % less than Paris , and half as much as Madrid , with very little in the winter . Unlike geothermal , solar power is a non @-@ dispatchable renewable energy source - the sun follows a predictable path but the weather is not controllable . This makes both wind power and solar power variable renewable energy ( VRE ) sources . Net metering credits electricity generated during the summer for use during the winter . If net metering nor local energy storage is not available , the largest array that is practical for a consumer to install is that which will generate less than or equal to the amount of electricity used during the sunniest month , a much smaller array .
= = Hydrogen = =
Currently , imported oil fulfils most of Iceland 's remaining energy needs . This cost has caused Iceland to focus on domestic , renewable energy . Bragi Arnason , a local professor , first proposed the idea of using hydrogen as a fuel source in Iceland during the 1970s , which is also when the oil crisis occurred . At that point in time this idea was considered untenable , but in 1999 Icelandic New Energy was established to govern the project of transitioning Iceland into the first hydrogen society by 2050 . This followed a decision in 1998 by the Icelandic Parliament to convert vehicle and fishing fleets to hydrogen produced from renewable energy .
Iceland provides an ideal location to test the viability of hydrogen as a fuel source for the future , since it is a small country of only 320 @,@ 000 people , with over 60 % living in the capital , Reykjavík . The relatively small scale of the infrastructure will make it easier to transition the country from oil to hydrogen . There is also a plentiful supply of natural energy that can be harnessed to produce hydrogen in a renewable way , making it perfect for hydrogen production . Iceland is a participant in international hydrogen fuel research and development programs , and many countries are following the nation 's progress with interest . However , these factors also make Iceland an advantageous market for electric vehicles . Because electric vehicles are four times more efficient , and less expensive than hydrogen vehicles , the country may switch to electric vehicles .
Iceland already converts its surplus electricity into exportable goods and hydrocarbon replacements . In 2002 it produced 2 @,@ 000 tons of hydrogen gas by electrolysis — primarily for the production of ammonia for fertilizer .
ECTOS demonstration project
The first step towards becoming a hydrogen society was the ECTOS demonstration project , which ran from 2001 until August 2005 and was very successful . ECTOS ( Ecological City TranspOrt System ) involved three hydrogen fuel cell buses and one fuel station . Many international companies contributed to the project including Daimler Chrysler , who made the hydrogen fuel cell buses , and Shell which produced the hydrogen fuel station . The European Commission 5th framework programme sponsored the project .
The first hydrogen fuel station in Iceland opened in 2003 in Reykjavík . To avoid transportation difficulties hydrogen is produced on site using electrolysis to break down water into hydrogen and oxygen . All of the energy used to produce the hydrogen comes from Iceland ’ s renewable energies and the full cycle of energy , from the water to the hydrogen in the fuel cells , emits no CO2 .
During the project the researchers studied the efficiency of using hydrogen as a fuel source . They examined the reliability of the fuel and effectiveness of hydrogen as a fuel in buses . They also studied the cost effectiveness of using hydrogen as a fuel source and how the process of introducing hydrogen into the country could be implemented . They examined specific areas like the ease of incorporating fuel stations and producing hydrogen , and the safety precautions involved with distributing and using hydrogen , a very explosive fuel .
HyFLEET : CUTE project
In January 2006 it was decided to continue testing the hydrogen buses as part of the HyFLEET : CUTE project , which spans 10 cities in Europe , China and Australia and which is sponsored by the European Commission 's 6th framework programme . This project studies the long @-@ term effects and most efficient ways of using hydrogen powered buses . The buses are run for longer periods of time and the durability of the fuel cell is compared to the combustion engine , which can theoretically last a lot longer . The project also compares the fuel efficiency of the original buses with new buses from different manufacturers that are supposed to be more fuel efficient .
The project ended in January 2007 , and as a result of the research an improved bus prototype is expected in 2008 . Details of further demonstrations involving private cars and a boat were expected in April 2007 .
Other projects
Iceland has also begun many other projects involving hydrogen .
The EURO @-@ HYPORT project is investigating the feasibility of exporting hydrogen fuel to Europe . Options include transporting the gas through an undersea pipeline or by boat , or exporting electricity generated in Iceland through a submarine cable .
Another project to build a hydrogen @-@ powered H @-@ ship started in February 2004 and is looking at the practicalities of using hydrogen as a fuel for Iceland 's fishing fleet , one of the country 's main industries . The project will identify and try to remove barriers that may prevent marine vehicles from using hydrogen as a fuel , such as problems caused by water and salt . It will also try to identify and remedy weakness within the fuel cell to ensure the protection of marine life . The H @-@ ship project is a major step in the plan for Iceland to become the first country to phase out the use of fossil fuels . Government funding as well as private organizations such as the World Renewable Energy Congress are the primary sponsors of research in this sector .
From hydrogen to electricity
Electric cars with strategically located charging stations make a lot of sense for Iceland , where 75 percent of the country ’ s residents live within 37 miles of the capital city . Hydrogen cars are not expected to be mass @-@ produced anywhere in the world until at least 2015 , and with the first electric cars rolling off production lines in 2010 , it will be faster to introduce electric vehicles . Iceland 's 840 @-@ mile @-@ long ring road could theoretically be covered with just 14 fast @-@ charging stations .
= = Education and research = =
There are several educational institutions that offering education in Renewable Energy in Iceland on university level .
The University of Iceland is a progressive educational and scientific institution , renowned in the global scientific community for its research . It is a state university , situated in Reykjavík , the capital of Iceland . A modern , diversified and rapidly developing institution , the University of Iceland offers opportunities for study and research in almost 300 programmes spanning most fields of science and scholarship : Social Sciences , Health Sciences , Humanities , Sciences and Engineering . Some 9700 students are registered at UI and 1000 full @-@ time employees .
Reykjavik University has the mission to create and communicate knowledge , in order to increase the competitiveness of individuals , firms and society as a whole , while at the same time enhancing the quality of life of their students and staff . The aim is to make Reykjavik University the centre for international research collaborations in Europe and across the Atlantic . The university consists of five academic schools : School of Law , School of Business , School of Health and Education , School of Computer Science and the School of Science and Engineering . Reykjavik University is a community of over 3000 students and over 500 full @-@ time and part @-@ time employees . About half of all instructors at RU are active in Icelandic industry , and about 10 % are guest instructors from overseas .
Keilir , Atlantic center of excellence in Ásbrú next to the Keflavik International Airport , offer a multidisciplinary BSc. programs in energy technology in co @-@ operation with the University of Iceland . The school also runs a state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art research center in energy sciences .
RES - The School for Renewable Energy Science , located in Akureyri North Iceland is offering an intensive and unique interdisciplinary research oriented one @-@ year graduate ( M.Sc. ) programme in Renewable Energy Science . The program is offered in cooperation with University of Iceland and University of Akureyri , as well as in partnership with a number of leading technical universities around the world . In 2009 the school offers four specializations of study : 1 . Geothermal Energy ; 2 . Fuel Cell Systems and Hydrogen ; 3 . Biofuels and Bioenergy ; and 4 . Energy Systems & Policies . RES offers also summer programs and individual courses in the field .
Iceland School of Energy located in Reykjavik , offers MSc . Studies in the field of Renewable Energy Engineering , Policy and Science . The foundation for the ISE was laid in April 2007 when Reykjavik Energy , the University of Iceland and Reykjavik University signed an agreement on establishing an international graduate program on sustainable energy . ISE is an interdisciplinary school in higher education for engineers and scientists , has a focus on global environmental protection and sustainable use of energy resources and creates leading experts in management , design and research in utilization of sustainable energy . The unique expertise of all its founding partners forms an excellent platform for the school to build on .
The largest research institution in renewable energy in the country is University of Iceland which is state university , founded in 1911 and situated in the heart of Reykjavík , the capital of Iceland . As a scientific institution is it renowned in the global scientific community for its research in renewable energy .
Another state university University of Akureyri , located in Akureyri in North Iceland , is also conducting various research in the field of renewable energy .
One of the main tasks of the National Energy Authority of Iceland is to carry out energy research and provide consulting services related to energy development and energy utilization .
Several companies , public and private are conducting extensive research in the field of renewable energy .
Landsvirkjun the national electricity company of the Republic of Iceland , is both in research of hydro and geothermal as well and funding a great deal of research work in the field in the country .
The Icelandic Energy Portal is an independent information source on the Icelandic energy sector .
Iceland Geosurvey ( ÍSOR ) is a public consulting and research institute providing specialist services to the Icelandic power industry , dedicated mainly to geothermal and hydro research .
= 18th Engineer Brigade ( United States ) =
The 18th Engineer Brigade ( Theater Army ) is an engineer brigade of the United States Army . It is currently a subordinate unit of 21st Sustainment Command ( Theater ) and is headquartered at Conn Barracks in Schweinfurt , Germany . Soldiers of the 18th Engineer Brigade provide various supportive duties to other Army units , including construction , engineering , and mechanical work on other Army projects .
The brigade served in Europe during World War II , a fact which was included on its Distinctive Unit Insignia when the 20th Engineer Brigade received one on 10 February 1966 . The four corners of the crenelated square allude to their four campaigns in World War II , Normandy , Northern France , Rhineland and Central Europe .
The 18th Engineer Brigade later deployed to Vietnam , during the Vietnam War , where its battalions saw six years of combat service and supported fourteen campaigns , building infrastructure for both military and civilian projects . The brigade participated in a massive number of road construction projects and airfield constructions , supporting numerous infantry units and operating all over Vietnam . After serving in Vietnam , the brigade became attached to Seventh United States Army . It has since undertaken and completed numerous projects in support of US Army , Europe , and participated in Operation Desert Storm , Operation Enduring Freedom , and Operation Iraqi Freedom .
= = Organization = =
The US Army 's 18th Engineer Brigade is a subordinate unit of 21st Sustainment Command ( Theater ) . The brigade has been assigned to Europe since February 2007 . The brigade is headquartered at Conn Barracks in Schweinfurt , Germany . The brigade 's current commander is Colonel Scott A. Petersen , while its Command Sergeant Major is Lauro F. Obeada .
In addition to Headquarters and Headquarters Company and the 243d Engineer Detachment ( Construction Management ) , which is located in Grafenwhoer , Germany two subordinate engineer battalions are permanently attached : the 15th Engineer Battalion headquartered at Grafenwöhr , Germany , and the 54th Engineer Battalion headquartered at Bamberg , Germany .
= = History = =
= = = World Wars = = =
The lineage of the 18th Engineer Brigade can be traced to 29 July 1921 , when its predecessor , the 347th Engineers ( General Service ) , was constituted as an Organized Reserves unit . The 347th Engineers would not be activated for almost twenty years , until the military buildup after the United States entered World War II . The unit was ordered into active military service on 6 May 1942 at Camp Claiborne , Louisiana .
On 1 August 1942 , the unit was reorganized and re @-@ designated as the 347th Engineer General Services Regiment . The Regiment deployed to England in February 1944 . It entered combat in France on 29 June 1944 and participated in the Normandy , Northern France , Rhineland and Central Europe campaigns of World War II , earning its first Meritorious Unit Commendation . After V @-@ E Day , the regiment remained on occupation duty in Germany until its inactivation on 1 June 1946 .
On 15 June 1947 , the regiment was reactivated in the organized reserves headquartered in Salt Lake , Utah , and remained there until it was again inactivated on 16 March 1949 . On 25 October 1954 , the 347th Engineer General Services Regiment was re @-@ designated the 18th Engineer Brigade for the first time and activated as a Regular Army unit at Fort Leonard Wood , Missouri , where it remained until inactivation on 26 March 1963 .
= = = Vietnam War = = =
The 18th Engineer Brigade was reactivated on 16 July 1965 at Fort Bragg , N.C. and prepared for deployment to Vietnam . The 18th Engineer Brigade entered Vietnam in September 1965 with the responsibility for overseeing all Army Engineering operations in Vietnam until the establishment of the U.S. Army Engineer Command , Vietnam , in late 1966 .
Under the command of Colonel C. Craig Cannon , the Brigade prepared for deployment to Vietnam . The Advance Party of the 18th Engineer Brigade arrived at Saigon 's Tan Son Nhut Air Base on 3 September 1965 . Three days later , Brigadier General Robert R. Ploger assumed command of the Brigade . Within two weeks , the Brigade Headquarters at Tan Son Nhut was fully operational . It had been preceded by the 35th Engineer Group , which built Cam Ranh Bay on a peninsula of sand and in a hostile environment . The brigade assumed responsibility for I Corps and II Corps in the northern part of South Vietnam . The 937th Engineer Group ( Combat ) at Qui Nhơn was assigned to the Brigade in June 1966 .
Its initial activities centered around rapid development of the port facilities , ammunition dumps , base camps and airfields necessary to support the build @-@ up of US combat forces deploying to Vietnam . During the initial construction phases its combat engineer battalions also provided support for search and destroy missions and defensive operations with the 101st Airborne Division near Ninh Hoa and the 4th Infantry Division at Pleiku .
On 18 January 1969 , an ammunition storage area was completed at Cam Ranh Bay . It had taken two years to build this complex , which covered over 191 @,@ 700 square feet ( 17 @,@ 810 m2 ) . English Airfield was completed on 21 March 1969 near Qui Nhơn . The runway was 3 @,@ 600 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) long , 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide , and included a 150 — foot by 150 — foot turn around area .
On 3 May 1969 , Brigadier General John W. Morris assumed command of the Brigade . Soon afterwards , Brigade engineers finished construction of a cold storage warehouse at the Qui Nhơn Support Command , the first of its kind in Vietnam . Construction of the Tandem Switch Building at Vung Chau Mountain was also completed about this time . This 4 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 370 m2 ) building housed almost US $ 1 million of communications equipment . During the summer months of 1969 , Brigade engineers completed the 200 @,@ 000 @-@ barrel ( 32 @,@ 000 m3 ) capacity Air Force tank farm at Cam Ranh Bay , after laying over 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) of pipe to complete the project .
The beginning of 1970 saw the initiation of the 18th Engineers Brigade 's Operation Last Chance , a program of command emphasis and organization for motivation and success of that year 's engineer operations . The goals of the program were to maintain primary missions of the combat support as well as insure the completion of the many projects planned for the 1970 construction operations .
February 1970 saw the completion of a project begun in the summer of the previous year at Qui Nhơn that replaced a temporary floating steel dock with a more permanent structure which could accommodate six ammo barges at once . The port of Qui Nhơn became one of the few supply points where ammunition for the First and Second Military Regions could be handled in bulk quantities simultaneously . Prior to the completion of this new facility , the handling of ammunition there had to take place in other areas , near public housing and fuel storage depots .
On 3 May 1970 , Brigadier General Henry C. Schrader assumed command of the 18th Engineer Brigade . Shortly after this , the most difficult stretch of the roadway that the Brigade had ever undertaken — the 27 @-@ kilometer stretch of National Highway QL @-@ 11 South in the central highlands region known as Tây Nguyên , commonly referred to as the " Good View Pass " , was completed . This road had been carved out from a dangerous mountain pass to a national road in less than one year .
The Lines of Communication Program , which represents the most significant contribution that the 18th Engineer Brigade had made to the economic growth of Vietnam , consisted of about 1 @,@ 500 kilometers of road upgrade from 1967 to 1972 . After a slow start in the beginning of this work , the Brigade finished some 560 kilometers of highway reconstruction , and improvement in 1970 and another 450 kilometers were scheduled for completion in 1971 by Brigade units .
In conjunction with the Brigade efforts on the Lines of Communication Program , 18th Brigade engineers was involved in a program of affiliation with ARVN ( Army of the Republic of Vietnam ) engineers . In addition to continuous training programs which the Brigade established to train ARVN equipment operators , the engineers of the 18th provided technical assistance and logistical support to several projects undertaken by the Vietnamese Army , most notably in the construction of the 3 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) bridge at Tuy Hòa . Upon its completion and opening on 13 February 1971 , this bridge became the longest overpass of its type ever constructed in the Republic of Vietnam . It would be one of 77 such bridges that the Brigade would construct in the country .
In support of the XXIV Corps , the 18th Brigade mounted what was described as the " most ambitious engineering effort in Vietnam " at the end of January 1971 . The Brigade engineers pushed a roadway across the rugged terrain of the northern Quảng Trị Province to the Laotian border and constructed a 3 @,@ 200 @-@ foot ( 980 m ) by 60 @-@ foot ( 18 m ) airfield in little more than a month at Khe Sanh . This construction effort was part of Operation Dewey Canyon II .
On 20 September 1971 the Brigade was inactivated . Over the six years that it served in Vietnam , the 18th Engineer Brigade was involved in 14 of 17 campaigns , earning four Meritorious Unit Commendations .
= = = Post Vietnam = = =
On 21 October 1977 the 18th Engineer Brigade was reactivated at Karlsruhe , Germany . For 15 years , the Brigade served as the principal construction brigade for the United States Army , Europe and 7th Army . During this period , the Brigade performed numerous construction , rehabilitation and renovation missions in military communities and training areas of the 7th Army . These included an extensive range upgrade of the Grafenwohr Major Training Area in the early 1980s and the construction of the Range 23 complex at the Wildflecken Major Training Area in 1989 and 1990 . Additionally , the Brigade was responsible for providing topographic support to the European Theater .
In 1990 and 1991 , during Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm , the 18th Engineer Brigade provided rail and sea deployment support to the VII Corps and , in addition , deployed a Combat Heavy Battalion and Topographic Company to support VII Corps operations in Southwest Asia . In April 1991 , the Brigade Headquarters , along with elements of the 94th Engineer Battalion ( Combat ) ( Heavy ) , deployed to Zakho , Iraq in support of Operation Provide Comfort . While there , the Brigade coordinated all engineer efforts of a Joint and Combined engineer force providing construction and relief support to the Kurdish refugees . The 18th Engineer Brigade was awarded the Joint Meritorious Unit Award for its action during Operation Provide Comfort . As part of the reduction of forces in Europe , the Brigade was inactivated on 15 October 1992 .
= = = Present day = = =
On 18 October 2002 the Vice Chief of Staff of the Army approved the USAREUR and 7th Army Concept Plan to activate the Theater Army Engineer Brigade ( TAEB ) . Today , the 18th Engineer Brigade ( Theater Army ) marks the return to service of the only active duty TAEB . The unit was officially reactivated on 6 June 2004 .
= = = = Operation Enduring Freedom = = = =
The 18th Engineer Brigade was deployed to Afghanistan in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in April 2005 . Its primary areas of operation were in and around Bagram , Kandahar , and Sharana , among other locations . The commander of the Brigade , Colonel Matthew H. Russell issued a memorandum to all soldiers that " preventable accidents " were the largest source of personnel and material losses during the deployment , enforcing a new safety policy throughout the brigade intended to prevent these from occurring .
In 2007 , the 18th Engineer Brigade was reassigned to V Corps , taking the place of the 130th Engineer Brigade , which returned to the United States . Some of the 130th 's units either merged or were reassigned to the 18th Brigade . During this time , the unit participated in road work , construction of Forward Operating Bases , and other activities that enhanced training readiness in and around Campbell Barracks .
= = = = Operation Iraqi Freedom 08 @-@ 10 = = = =
In 2008 , the unit was notified of another upcoming deployment to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . It commands three to five engineer battalions in Multinational Division – North . The battalions support individual Brigade Combat Teams of other units in " Task Force Iron " , a combat group led by the 1st Armored Division . They are working to rebuild Iraqi infrastructure , with the cooperation of Iraqi engineers , including construction of roads , airfields , and land moving . The unit cased its colors on 29 April 2008 , formally signifying the beginning of its deployment to Iraq .
The Brigade spent the first six months of its deployment to Tikrit in central Iraq , working on projects there for Multinational Division @-@ Center under the 10th Mountain Division . On 6 November , the brigade relocated to Kirkuk , unfurling its colors at Forward Operating Base Warrior . The brigade conducted route clearance and construction projects in northern Iraq , while partnered with Iraqi engineers . It replaced the 1st Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division in Kirkuk and will was under the area of responsibility of Multinational Division @-@ North led by the 1st Armored Division . In February 2009 , the brigade again moved , this time to Ninewa Province to focus on construction projects in areas in and around Mosul . It was relieved by 2nd Brigade Combat Team , 1st Cavalry Division . On 17 July 2009 , the brigade handed over responsibility of Mosul to the 130th Engineer Brigade . The brigade subsequently returned to Schwetzingen , Germany after its 15 @-@ month deployment was finished .
= = = = Operation Enduring Freedom = = = =
The Brigade deployed to Afghanistan for its second deployment to the country since 2001 .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= = Notable soldiers = =
Three soldiers from the 18th Engineer Brigade have gone on to serve as Chief of Engineers , the head of the US Army 's Corps of Engineers , this is the highest number to come from a single engineer brigade . These three are Lieutenant Generals Joe N. Ballard , John W. Morris , and Walter K. Wilson , Jr .. In addition to commanding the brigade from 1987 to 1990 , while it was stationed outside of Karlsruhe in Germany , LTG Ballard had also commanded a company in one of the brigade 's subordinate battalions , the 864th Engineer Battalion , during its earlier years in Vietnam .
= Earthsuit =
Earthsuit was a New Orleans @-@ based Christian rock band formed in 1995 . The band consisted of guitarist Dave Rumsey , keyboardist / vocalist Paul Meany , bassist Roy Mitchell , drummer David " Hutch " Hutchison , and vocalist Adam LaClave . Earthsuit 's sound was primarily rock , but also possessed strong hip @-@ hop , electronica , reggae , soul , and experimental elements .
The group recorded several independent EPs and played primarily in their New Orleans area before becoming noticed by Sparrow Records at a concert in 1999 . The ensuing record deal saw the band 's only commercial release , a critically acclaimed album entitled Kaleidoscope Superior , in 2000 . Shortly after , the band left Sparrow and drifted out of the public eye . A final album , entitled The Rise of Modern Simulation was independently released before the group disbanded in 2003 . Many of the band members continue to play together and collaborate in various bands , namely Mutemath and Club of the Sons .
= = Biography = =
Earthsuit began in 1995 as a collaboration between Adam LaClave and Paul Meany , who began composing music together after being introduced at a church in New Orleans . In an interview with Family Christian Stores , Meany explained that a sermon was the inspiration for the band 's name : " ... This man was preaching about how humans are really spirit beings encased in fleshly bodies . The term " earth suit " came up . At the time we liked it , and we took it . " The two regularly performed at Café Joel , a small coffeehouse their church had started where Meany was music director . These performances helped cultivate their unique sound and introduced them to future band member David Rumsey .
In 1997 they released a self @-@ titled EP , which is sometimes called the Headless Clown EP due to its album cover . The record featured an early version of " One Time " ( of which they later made a music video ) as well as portions of live performances where Earthsuit covered Roberta Flack 's " Killing Me Softly " , albeit with re @-@ written lyrics . Rumsey helped produce the EP and played guitar ; however , the official band lineup only comprised LaClave and Meany . Shortly after , Rumsey officially joined along with bassist Roy Mitchell , another Café Joel regular . The band played and ministered in their hometown and did not tour much . In 1998 , the band recorded and released a second EP , entitled Noise for Your Eyes . The EP included a remix of " One Time " and early song demos , which were interspersed with short clips of live performances . Drummer David Hutchison joined the band after they met him through a friend . In 1999 , Earthsuit performed two sets at the Cornerstone Festival , one in a label showcase and the other opening for P.O.D. on the main stage . This garnered the attention of several major Christian labels , and the band subsequently signed to Sparrow Records .
The band began working with Prince producer David Leonard on their debut record , which excited Meany : " [ Sparrow ] loved what we were doing musically , and they wanted to find the producer who would capitalize on that . " Kaleidoscope Superior was released on June 20 , 2000 and elicited positive reviews from critics . It also received a Dove Award nomination and experienced some success on Christian radio stations . Christian rock peers Rebecca St. James and dc Talk members , Kevin Max and Michael Tait , expressed excitement over the record . The same year , Earthsuit embarked on a tour called Festival Con Dios with other Christian bands , such as the Elms , PAX 217 , and Switchfoot . The following year saw the band embark on their " Do You Feel The Distortion " tour with Ill Harmonics and The Benjamin Gate .
Despite critical reception , Kaleidoscope Superior would remain the band 's only commercial release ; they were soon dropped from Sparrow 's lineup due to " creative differences and marketing conundrums " . Earthsuit disappeared from the public eye and began posting on a website about a new independent album . In September 2001 , Hutchison left the band so he could spend more time with his family . Rumors began circling that the band would break up . In 2003 , Earthsuit revealed they were disbanding and released their last record , The Rise of Modern Simulation . The final collection featured six original studio songs and ten bonus tracks , including a live remix of " Against the Grain " , practice sessions of concert material , and covers of various songs . The album could only be purchased on the internet . Meany would later state " most people didn 't care when [ they ] broke up " .
Shortly after Earthsuit 's break up , Meany began working with drummer Darren King in a production team called " The Digitals " . The name later changed to " Math " while the group helped produce music for Christian music stalwart TobyMac . The band recruited guitarist Greg Hill and changed their name to Mutemath . To accommodate new recordings , Meany and producer Tedd T started an independent label named Teleprompt Records . Their first release was an EP titled Reset in September 2004 . Earthsuit alumnus Roy Mitchell joined the venture in 2005 . Teleprompt later signed a distribution deal directly with Warner Bros. Records , allowing Mutemath to release a full @-@ length self @-@ titled album on September 26 , 2006 .
Adam LaClave formed two bands , Macrosick and Club of the Sons . Macrosick has released only an independent CD titled demodisk ; the Hurricane Katrina disaster of 2005 forced the band members to go on hiatus . LaClave then turned his attention towards Club of the Sons with friend and bassist Jonathan Allen . They released an EP called The Roughs in spring 2007 and an album entitled Young Quanta on July 7 , 2009 .
= = Musical style and influences = =
Earthsuit music was primarily rock , but also possessed strong hip @-@ hop , electronica , reggae , soul , and experimental elements . Their sound had sometimes been compared to The Police , while Meany 's rapping had been likened to the Beastie Boys . Adam LaClave stated the differing musical tastes of the band helped cultivate their sound : " Each one of us is really into a lot of different things ... it helps make our sound because you can hear all kinds of things " . Live performances were characterized by sunglasses , futuristic costumes , and energetic showmanship . Many bands have influenced Earthsuit 's style ; the group has performed covers of songs by Basement Jaxx , Black Sheep , Kraftwerk , and The Talking Heads . They have also utilized samples by DJ Shadow and The Verve .
Adam LaClave and Paul Meany were the primary songwriters for Earthsuit . As Christians , the two wrote lyrics that often communicated a Christian message . For example , the song " Said the Sun " is an allegory about God telling Christians to be carriers of light . " Whitehorse " was written to present a different view of the return of Jesus , as LaClave stated in an interview , " Most people , when they hear the term " white horse , " think of the analogy of Jesus coming back ... [ We ] wanted to bring a different meaning to it , because ... He comes to rescue us in our everyday life [ too ] . " The men 's lyrics also reflect experiences they have had . Meany once had a dream that inspired him to write " Gummy Buffalo " ; he found himself in a candy store and squeezed a gummy buffalo whereupon he heard the melody for the song . Christianity Today has proposed the lyrics in " Foreign " may have been inspired by their departure from Sparrow Records . The lyrics read " There 's no place in your world for me / I 've been from sea to shining sea / And I can 't retain your policies , excuse me / If I 'm just hanging around , I 'm foreign . "
= = Discography = =
Earthsuit ( aka The Headless Clown EP ) ( independent , 1997 )
Noise for Your Eyes ( independent , 1998 )
Kaleidoscope Superior ( Sparrow Records , 2000 )
The Rise of Modern Simulation ( independent , 2003 )
= Slashdot =
Slashdot ( sometimes abbreviated as / . ) is a news website that originally billed itself as " News for Nerds . Stuff that Matters " . It features news stories on science and technology that are submitted and evaluated by its users . Each story has a comments section attached to it .
Slashdot was founded in 1997 by Hope College student Rob Malda , also known as " CmdrTaco " , and classmate Jeff Bates , also known as " Hemos " . In 2012 , it was acquired by DHI Group , Inc . ( i.e. , Dice Holdings International , which created the Dice.com website for tech job seekers . )
Summaries of stories and links to news articles are submitted by Slashdot 's own readers , and each story becomes the topic of a threaded discussion among users . Discussion is moderated by a user @-@ based moderation system . Randomly selected moderators are assigned points ( typically 5 ) which they can use to rate a comment . Moderation applies either -1 or + 1 to the current rating , based on whether the comment is perceived as either " normal " , " offtopic " , " insightful " , " redundant " , " interesting " , or " troll " ( among others ) . The site 's comment and moderation system is administered by its own open source content management system , Slash , which is available under the GNU General Public License .
In 2012 , Slashdot had around 3 @.@ 7 million unique visitors per month and received over 5300 comments per day . The site has won more than 20 awards , including People 's Voice Awards in 2000 for " Best Community Site " and " Best News Site " . Occasionally , a story will link to a server causing a large surge of traffic , which can overwhelm some smaller or independent sites . This phenomenon is known as the " Slashdot effect " .
= = History = =
Slashdot was preceded by Rob Malda 's personal website " Chips & Dips " , which , launched in October 1997 , featured a single " rant " each day about something that interested its author – typically something to do with Linux or open source software . At the time , Malda was a student at Hope College in Holland , Michigan , majoring in computer science . The site became " Slashdot " in September 1997 under the slogan " News for Nerds . Stuff that Matters , " and quickly became a hotspot on the Internet for news and information of interest to computer geeks . The name " Slashdot " came from a somewhat " obnoxious parody of a URL " – when Malda registered the domain , he desired to make a name that was " silly and unpronounceable " – try pronouncing out , " h @-@ t @-@ t @-@ p @-@ colon @-@ slash @-@ slash @-@ slashdot @-@ dot @-@ org " .
By June 1998 , the site was seeing as many as 100 @,@ 000 page views per day and advertisers began to take notice . By December 1998 , Slashdot had net revenues of $ 18 @,@ 000 , yet its Internet profile was higher , and revenues were expected to increase . On June 29 , 1999 , the site was sold to Linux megasite Andover.net for $ 1 @.@ 5 million in cash and $ 7 million in Andover stock at the IPO price . Part of the deal was contingent upon the continued employment of Malda and Bates and on the achievement of certain " milestones " . With the acquisition of Slashdot , Andover.net could now advertise itself as " the leading Linux / Open Source destination on the Internet " . Andover.net merged with VA Linux on February 3 , 2000 , which changed its name to SourceForge , Inc. on May 24 , 2007 , and became Geeknet , Inc. on November 4 , 2009 .
Slashdot 's 10,000th article was posted after two and a half years on February 24 , 2000 , and the 100,000th article was posted on December 11 , 2009 after 12 years online . During the first 12 years , the most active story with the most responses posted was the post @-@ 2004 US Presidential Election article " Kerry Concedes Election To Bush " with 5 @,@ 687 posts . This followed the creation of a new article section , politics.slashdot.org , created at the start of the 2004 election on September 7 , 2004 . Many of the most popular stories are political , with " Strike on Iraq " ( March 19 , 2003 ) the second @-@ most @-@ active article and " Barack Obama Wins US Presidency " ( November 5 , 2008 ) the third @-@ most @-@ active . The rest of the 10 most active articles are an article announcing the 2005 London bombings , and several articles about Evolution vs. Intelligent Design , Saddam Hussein 's capture , and Fahrenheit 9 / 11 . Articles about Microsoft and its Windows Operating System are popular . A thread posted in 2002 titled " What 's Keeping You On Windows ? " was the 10th @-@ most @-@ active story , and an article about Windows 2000 / NT4 source @-@ code leaks the most visited article with more than 680 @,@ 000 hits .
Some controversy erupted on March 9 , 2001 after an anonymous user posted the full text of Scientology 's " Operating Thetan Level Three " ( OT III ) document in a comment attached to a Slashdot article . The Church of Scientology demanded that Slashdot remove the document under the Digital Millennium Copyright Act . A week later , in a long article , Slashdot editors explained their decision to remove the page while providing links and information on how to get the document from other sources .
Slashdot Japan was launched on May 28 , 2001 ( although the first article was published April 5 , 2001 ) and is an official offshoot of the US @-@ based Web site . As of January 2010 the site was owned by OSDN @-@ Japan , Inc . , and carried some of the US @-@ based Slashdot articles as well as localized stories .
An external site , New Media Services , has reported the importance of Online Moderation last December 1 , 2011 .
On Valentine 's Day 2002 , founder Rob Malda proposed to longtime girlfriend Kathleen Fent using the front page of Slashdot . They were married on December 8 , 2002 , in Las Vegas , Nevada .
Slashdot implemented a subscription service on March 1 , 2002 . Slashdot 's subscription model works by allowing users to pay a small fee to be able to view pages without banner ads , starting at a rate of $ 5 per 1 @,@ 000 page views – non @-@ subscribers may still view articles and respond to comments , with banner ads in place . On March 6 , 2003 , subscribers were given the ability to see articles 10 to 20 minutes before they are released to the public .
Slashdot altered its threaded discussion forum display software to explicitly show domains for links in articles , as " users made a sport out of tricking unsuspecting readers into visiting [ Goatse.cx ] . "
In observance of April Fools ' Day in 2006 , Slashdot temporarily changed its signature teal color theme to a warm palette of bubblegum pink and changed its masthead from the usual , " News for Nerds " motto to , " OMG ! ! ! Ponies ! ! ! " Editors joked that this was done to increase female readership . In another supposed April Fools ' Day joke , User Achievement tags were introduced on April 1 , 2009 . This system allowed users to be tagged with various achievements , such as " The Tagger " for tagging a story or " Member of the { 1 @,@ 2 @,@ 3 @,@ 4 @,@ 5 } Digit UID Club " for having a Slashdot UID consisting of a certain number of digits . While it was posted on April Fools ' Day to allow for certain joke achievements , the system is real .
Slashdot unveiled its newly redesigned site on June 4 , 2006 , following a CSS Redesign Competition . The winner of the competition was Alex Bendiken , who built on the initial CSS framework of the site . The new site looks similar to the old one but is more polished with more rounded curves , collapsible menus , and updated fonts . On November 9 that same year , Malda wrote that Slashdot attained 16 @,@ 777 @,@ 215 ( or 224 − 1 ) comments , which broke the database for three hours until the administrators fixed the issue .
On January 25 , 2011 , the site launched its third major redesign in its 13 @.@ 5 @-@ year history , which gutted the HTML and CSS , and updated the graphics .
On August 25 , 2011 , Malda resigned as Editor @-@ in @-@ Chief with immediate effect . He did not mention any plans for the future , other than spending more time with his family , catching up on some reading , and possibly writing a book . His final farewell message received over 1 @,@ 400 posts within 24 hours on the site .
On December 7 , 2011 , Slashdot announced that it would start to push what the company described as " sponsored " Ask Slashdot questions .
On March 28 , 2012 , Slashdot launched Slashdot TV . Two months later , in May 2012 , Slashdot launched SlashBI , SlashCloud , and SlashDataCenter , three Websites dedicated to original journalistic content . The Websites proved controversial , with longtime Slashdot users commenting that the original content ran counter to the Website 's longtime focus on user @-@ generated submissions . Nick Kolakowski , the editor of the three Websites , told The Next Web that the Websites were meant to “ meant to complement Slashdot with an added layer of insight into a very specific area of technology , without interfering with Slashdot ’ s longtime focus on tech @-@ community interaction and discussion . ” Despite the debate , articles published on SlashCloud and SlashBI attracted attention from io9 , NPR , Nieman Lab , Vanity Fair , and other publications .
In September 2012 , Slashdot , SourceForge , and Freecode were acquired by online job site Dice.com for $ 20 million , and incorporated into a subsidiary known as Slashdot Media . While initially stating that there were no plans for major changes to Slashdot , in October 2013 , Slashdot launched a " beta " for a significant redesign of the site , which featured a simpler appearance and commenting system . While initially an opt @-@ in beta , the site automatically began migrating selected users to the new design in February 2014 ; the rollout led to a negative response from many longtime users , upset by the added visual complexity , and the removal of features , such as comment viewing , that distinguished Slashdot from other news sites . An organized boycott of the site was held from February 10 to 17 , 2014 . The " beta " site was eventually shelved .
In July 2015 , Dice announced that it planned to sell Slashdot and SourceForge ; in particular , the company stated in a filing that it was unable to " successfully [ leverage ] the Slashdot user base to further Dice 's digital recruitment business " . On January 27 , 2016 , the two sites were sold to the San Diego @-@ based BizX , LLC for an undisclosed amount .
= = Administration = =
= = = Team = = =
It was run by its founder , Rob " CmdrTaco " Malda , from 1998 until 2011 . He shared editorial responsibilities with several other editors including Timothy Lord , Patrick " Scuttlemonkey " McGarry , Jeff " Soulskill " Boehm , Rob " Samzenpus " Rozeboom , and Keith Dawson . Jonathan " cowboyneal " Pater is another popular editor of Slashdot , who came to work for Slashdot as a programmer and systems administrator . His online nickname ( handle ) , CowboyNeal , is inspired by a Grateful Dead tribute to Neal Cassady in their song , " That 's It for the Other One " . He is best known as the target of the usual comic poll option , a tradition started by Chris DiBona .
= = = Slash = = =
Slashdot runs on Slash , a content management system available under the GNU General Public License .
= = = Peer moderation = = =
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the making of our marriage – but in reality it just presaged the end " . Paul Saltzman later published a book of photographs , The Beatles in Rishikesh , showing Lennon deep in thought , and Cynthia 's confused expression . Despite the alienation from Lennon , she later spoke about her time there , saying : " I loved being away from the fans , hordes of people , deadlines , demands and flashing cameras " .
= = = Divorce = = =
During the flight back to England , Lennon got very drunk on Scotch and confessed that he had been involved with other women during their marriage . He went on to detail his liaisons with groupies , friends ( such as Joan Baez , actress Eleanor Bron , journalist Cleave ) and " thousands " of women around the globe . Although not wanting to hear Lennon 's confession , she knew women were attracted to him , " like moths to a flame " . Two weeks later , in May 1968 , Lennon suggested Cynthia take a holiday in Greece with Mardas , Donovan , and two friends , as he would be very busy recording songs for what would become The White Album . She arrived back at Kenwood from Greece earlier than expected , at four o 'clock on 22 May 1968 , to discover Lennon and Ono sitting cross @-@ legged on the floor in matching white robes , staring into each other 's eyes , and then found Ono 's slippers outside the Lennons ' bedroom door . Shocked , she asked Jenny Boyd and Mardas if she could spend the night at their apartment . At the apartment Boyd went straight to bed , but she and Mardas drank more alcohol , with Mardas trying to convince her to run away together . After she had vomited in the bathroom , she collapsed on a bed in the spare bedroom , with Mardas joining her and trying to kiss her until she pushed him away .
Lennon seemed absolutely normal when she returned home the next day , and steadfastly maintained his love for her and their son , saying : " It 's you I love Cyn ... I love you now more than ever before " . Lennon went to New York with McCartney shortly after , but as she was specifically not invited , a trip to Pesaro , in Italy , was arranged with her mother . After an evening with Italian hotelier , Roberto Bassanini , Mardas was waiting at the hotel to break the news that Lennon was planning to sue for divorce on grounds of adultery , seek sole custody of Julian , and " send her back to Hoylake " . She said in 2005 : " The mere fact that ‘ Magic Alex ’ [ Mardas ] arrived in Italy in the middle of the night without any prior knowledge of where I was staying made me extremely suspicious . I was being coerced into making it easy " ... [ for Lennon and Ono ] " to accuse me of doing something that would make them not look so bad . " As Lennon had initiated divorce proceedings , it prompted her to exclaim : " Suing me for divorce ? On what grounds is he suing me ? " When the news of Ono 's pregnancy broke , Cynthia started her own divorce proceedings against Lennon on 22 August 1968 . The financial settlement was hampered by Lennon 's refusing to offer any more than £ 75 @,@ 000 , telling her on the phone that the payment was akin to winning the football pools and that she was not worth any more . The settlement was then raised to £ 100 @,@ 000 , £ 2 @,@ 400 annually , and custody of Julian . Another £ 100 @,@ 000 was put into a trust fund which Julian would inherit when he was 21 . Until that time , his mother would receive the interest payments . Their decree nisi was granted on 8 November 1968 . The trust fund had one codicil , which provided for any further children by Lennon , so when Sean Lennon was born in 1975 , Julian 's inheritance was cut to £ 50 @,@ 000 .
She lived for a few months in a flat Starr owned at 34 Montagu Square , central London , but returned to Kenwood as Lennon and Ono preferred to live there instead , rather than in isolated Weybridge . Lennon and Cynthia had one last short meeting at Kenwood ( with Ono alongside Lennon ) , with Lennon accusing her of having an affair in India , saying she was no " innocent little flower " . McCartney visited her and Julian that year , and on the way to Kenwood he composed a song in his head which later became " Hey Jude " . Talking about their divorce , McCartney later said : " We 'd been very good friends for millions of years and I thought it was a bit much for them suddenly to be personae non gratae and out of my life " . Cynthia recalled , " I was truly surprised when , one afternoon , Paul arrived on his own . I was touched by his obvious concern for our welfare ... On the journey down he composed ' Hey Jude ' in the car . I will never forget Paul 's gesture of care and concern in coming to see us . " She was once asked if Lennon had written any songs about their time together , and answered : " It was too sloppy when you were young to dedicate anything to anybody . Macho Northern men didn 't do that in those days " . In contrast , Lennon said he wrote the 1965 song " Norwegian Wood ( This Bird Has Flown ) " about an affair he was having , but rendered it in " gobbledegook " so Cynthia would not know .
= = Subsequent life = =
On 31 July 1970 , Cynthia married Bassanini , whom she had started dating after parting with Lennon ; the couple divorced in 1973 . She then opened a restaurant in Ruthin , Wales , called Oliver 's Bistro , which also had a B & B above the premises . She enrolled her son into the Ruthin School and he later joined the local Combined Cadet Force . During Lennon 's separation from Ono in 1973 / 74 , his partner at the time , May Pang , actively tried to get Lennon to spend more time with his son , forming a friendship with Lennon 's ex @-@ wife in the process , which continued even after Lennon and Ono were reconciled . A meeting during this period was the last time Cynthia saw John . Previously , Julian had been allowed to visit his father twice a year by himself , but Lennon complained that during his time with Pang his ex @-@ wife also wanted to be present , saying : " She [ Cynthia ] thought she could walk back in ' cos I wasn 't with Yoko ! " After his reconciliation with Ono , he complained again that his son was not being allowed to visit him .
On 1 May 1976 , Cynthia married John Twist , an engineer from Lancashire . She published a memoir during their time together , A Twist of Lennon , in 1978 , telling about her life before and with Lennon , and containing her own illustrations and poetry . Lennon tried to stop the publication of the book after an excerpt was published in a newspaper .
On 9 December 1980 ( UK time ) , whilst staying at Starr 's ex @-@ wife 's home , she received a phone call from Starr , two hours after Lennon had been shot in New York . " The memory of Ringo 's words , the sound of his tearful voice crackling over the transatlantic line , is crystal clear : ' Cynthia , I 'm so sorry , John 's dead ' . I had only one clear thought . My son , our son , [ Julian ] was at home in bed , I had to get back to Ruthin so that I could tell him about his father 's death . "
Cynthia 's memoir gained renewed interest and went to a third printing of 200 @,@ 000 copies in the weeks after Lennon 's death . She and Twist separated in 1981 and were divorced in 1983 . She sold the Bistro and changed her name back to Lennon by deed poll , later commenting about why it was financially necessary : " Do you imagine I would have been awarded a three @-@ year contract to design bedding and textiles [ for Vantona Vyella in 1983 ] with the name Powell ? Neither did they . When it is necessary to earn a living , it is necessary to bite the bullet and take the flack . "
She began a relationship with Liverpudlian chauffeur Jim Christie in 1981 , who became her partner for 17 years as well as her business manager , living in Penrith , Cumbria . She said at the time : " Jim has never felt he 's living in John Lennon 's shadow . He 's four years younger than me and wasn 't really part of that whole Beatles ' scene . " They later lived on the Isle of Man and then Normandy for some years , but separated in 1998 .
She had kept mementos of Lennon for years , but began auctioning them off after his death , including a personally drawn Christmas card from Lennon to her , which fetched £ 8 @,@ 800 at Christie 's in August 1981 . With her finances in an unsteady state – would say in 1999 that " Apart from John , the men I have fallen in love with have never been good at earning a living " – more of her memorabilia of Lennon went up for auction in 1991 , including antiques from Kenwood . She said at the time , " I 've enjoyed these things for 30 years . But it 's time for a change . " Another set of items , including some of Lennon 's drug paraphernalia , brought over $ 60 @,@ 000 for her in 1995 . She later said , " I think in life we collect so much baggage , when you have a clearout , you send it to a car @-@ boot sale , etc . My baggage was in demand and sold at Christie 's . When you have to pay the bills , you 're not proud and you can 't take it with you . "
Over the years she entered some failed business ventures , including in 1988 a perfume named Woman ( after the 1980 John Lennon song ) and , in April 1989 , a restaurant named Lennon 's — at 13 / 14 Upper St. Martin 's Lane , Covent Garden — which had menu items such as Rubber Sole ( a play on the already @-@ punning 1965 Beatles album ) , as well as Sgt. Pepper 's Steak and Penny Lane Pâté . It had a short life as a business venture , as it was considered to be far too expensive . She would later blame some of these efforts on the men in her life encouraging her .
The Beatles ' Hamburg days were the subject of the 1994 film Backbeat , with Jennifer Ehle portraying Cynthia Powell . The film characterises Lennon and Cynthia 's relationship as one that will eventually be doomed by their wanting different things from life , but with Lennon not wanting to hurt her . Cynthia later complained that the film made her out " as a clingy , dim , little girlfriend in a headscarf " . She was portrayed in 2000 television film In His Life : The John Lennon Story by Gillian Kearney ; the negative aspects of John 's treatment towards her were not overlooked . Cynthia was subsequently portrayed in the troubled , Ono @-@ centric 2005 American musical Lennon , with her character – played by Julia Murney – gaining a little more prominence during one of the show 's rewrites . Her life had a more central role in the 2010 BBC Four film Lennon Naked , with Claudie Blakley playing the part . However , her character was absent from the 2009 British film Nowhere Boy , which purported to cover the story of Lennon from 1955 to 1960 but focused on his relationships with his aunt and mother .
In 1995 , Cynthia made her recording début with a rendition of " Those Were the Days " , which as produced by McCartney had been a number one hit for Mary Hopkin in 1968 . It failed to chart . Whilst living in Normandy , an exhibition of her drawings and paintings were displayed at Portobello Road 's KDK Gallery in 1999 . By the 1990s she was appearing at some Beatles conventions , but appeared ambivalent about the practice . At times she maintained she was moving on with her life and putting her Beatles past behind her and at other times seemed to embrace continued interest in that past as inevitable . The Daily Telegraph said in a 1999 profile , " In essence , she is a suburban woman who – almost in spite of herself – got caught up with one of the most extraordinary men of modern times . More than 30 years since her marriage to John Lennon ended , she is as entangled as ever . "
= = Later years and death = =
In 2002 , she married Noel Charles , a Barbadian night club owner . In September 2005 , she published a new biography , John , re @-@ examining her life with Lennon and the years afterwards , including the events following his death . Michel Faber , writing in The Guardian , said of the book : " John is Cynthia 's attempt to prove how much more she was worth . In theory , the disclosures of Lennon 's loyal partner from 1958 to 1968 cannot fail to be valuable . On the page , the potential withers " . In 2006 , she and her son attended the Las Vegas premiere of the Cirque du Soleil production of Love , which marked a rare public appearance with Ono . In 2009 , she and her son opened an exhibition of memorabilia at The Beatles Story exhibition in Liverpool , and she and Pattie Boyd staged a first @-@ ever joint appearance at the opening of the Cafesjian Center for the Arts in Yerevan , Armenia . On 30 September 2010 , Julian opened his " Timeless " exhibition of photographs at the Morrison Hotel Gallery in New York . In attendance were Cynthia , Julian , Ono , Sean , and Pang , which was the first time all five had been in the same room together .
The John Lennon Peace Monument was unveiled by Cynthia and Julian at a ceremony in Chavasse Park , Liverpool , on 9 October 2010 to celebrate what would have been Lennon ’ s 70th birthday . Cynthia lived with her husband , Noel , on the island of Majorca in Spain until his death on 11 March 2013 .
She died on 1 April 2015 at her home in Majorca , Spain , at the age of 75 after a short struggle with cancer , with her son Julian Lennon by her side . Public messages of condolence were made by McCartney and Starr , with the former saying " She was a lovely lady who I 've known since our early days together in Liverpool . She was a good mother to Julian and will be missed by us all ... " and the latter " Peace and love to Julian Lennon God bless Cynthia " . Ono also issued a statement , emphasizing the position she held in common : " Being a single parent of a strong and intelligent boy is never easy . Cynthia and I understood each other in that way , wishing well for our sons and their future . " Beatles biographer Hunter Davies , who had spent considerable time with her and John in the 1960s while researching his book , remembered her as " a lovely woman ... She was totally different from John in that she was quiet , reserved and calm . "
= Maryland Terrapins football =
The Maryland Terrapins football team represents the University of Maryland , College Park in the sport of American football . The Terrapins compete in the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and the Big Ten Conference . The Terrapins joined the Big Ten Conference on July 1 , 2014 , following 62 years in the Atlantic Coast Conference as a founding member . The Terrapins are currently coached by D.J. Durkin . Since 1950 , the Terrapins have played their home games at Maryland Stadium in College Park , Maryland with occasional home games from time to time in Baltimore , Maryland , making them one of two FBS football teams in the Baltimore – Washington metropolitan area ( Navy Midshipmen ) and the closest Football Bowl Subdivision team to Washington , DC . The team 's official colors of red , white , black , and gold have been in use in some combination since the 1920s and are taken from Maryland 's state flag , and the Terrapins nickname — often abbreviated as " Terps " — was adopted in 1933 after a turtle species native to the state . Maryland shares storied rivalries with Virginia and West Virginia .
The program 's achievements have included one NCAA @-@ recognized national championship , nine ACC championships , two Southern Conference championships , eleven consensus All @-@ Americans , several Hall of Fame inductees , and twenty @-@ four bowl game appearances . Maryland possesses the third @-@ most ACC championships with nine , which places them behind Clemson and Florida State with 15 each . Many former Terrapins players and coaches have gone on to careers in professional football including 16 first @-@ round NFL Draft picks .
= = History = =
= = = Early history ( 1892 – 1946 ) = = =
In 1892 , the school then known as the Maryland Agricultural College fielded its first officially sanctioned college football team . They went scoreless in all three of that season 's games , but the following year , posted a perfect record of 6 – 0 . For the first two decades of the program , the team primarily competed against local universities and high schools due to the prohibitive nature of long @-@ distance travel at the time .
In 1911 , Harry C. " Curley " Byrd became head coach and held that position for more than two decades until he was named the university president . In 1921 , Maryland joined the Southern Conference where it remained for thirty years . Between 1935 and 1946 , the school had several coaches that achieved fame elsewhere : Frank Dobson , a former assistant coach under John Heisman ; Clark Shaughnessy , architect of Stanford 's undefeated 1940 turnaround ; and Paul " Bear " Bryant , who later became the long @-@ time Alabama head coach . Bryant resigned after one season when a player he had suspended was reinstated by President Byrd .
= = = Jim Tatum ( 1947 – 1955 ) = = =
Jim Tatum was hired in 1947 , after a brief stint at Oklahoma where he had led the Sooners to a conference championship in his only season there . He was Maryland 's sixth head coach in eight years , but Tatum stayed for nine seasons and became the school 's most successful head coach in modern history . During his tenure , he led Maryland to two national championships ( one retroactive ) , three conference championships , three perfect seasons , six top @-@ 20 final rankings , and five bowl game appearances . Seven of his players were named first @-@ team All @-@ Americans , including five consensus All @-@ Americans . Under Tatum , Maryland finished every season with a winning record .
After the 1947 season , the Terrapins participated in their first bowl game , the 1948 Gator Bowl , in which they tied Georgia , 20 – 20 . NCAA season @-@ scoring leader Lu Gambino recorded all three Maryland touchdowns . In 1949 , Maryland again played in the Gator Bowl , where they defeated 20th @-@ ranked Missouri , 20 – 7 . The Terrapins finished the season ranked 14th by the Associated Press . Maryland 's current home field , Maryland Stadium , was constructed in 1950 , and named in honor of former coach and contemporary Maryland president Curly Byrd . Maryland started the 1950 season ranked 15th and defeated Navy , 35 – 21 , in the Byrd Stadium dedication game .
The Terrapins won the 1951 Southern Conference co @-@ championship alongside the Virginia Military Institute . Their perfect season culminated with an upset over first @-@ ranked Tennessee in the 1952 Sugar Bowl . At the time , however , the wire services released their final rankings before the bowl games , and Maryland finished third in the Associated Press Poll . Several selectors , including analyst Jeff Sagarin , have retroactively credited Maryland with the national championship . In 1953 , Maryland and six other schools split from the Southern Conference to form the Atlantic Coast Conference . That year , Maryland shut @-@ out two 11th @-@ ranked teams : Mississippi , 38 – 0 , and Alabama , 21 – 0 , won the ACC co @-@ championship alongside Duke , and were named the national champions as the only undefeated and untied team in the nation . The Terrapins were defeated by fourth @-@ ranked Oklahoma in the Orange Bowl . After the 1955 season , Tatum resigned to return to North Carolina , where he soon died of Rocky Mountain spotted fever .
= = = Tommy Mont ( 1956 – 1958 ) = = =
After Tatum resigned to coach at his own alma mater , North Carolina , Tommy Mont was appointed as his replacement . In his first season , Maryland was riddled with injuries and posted a disappointing 2 – 7 – 1 record . Mont had great difficulty recruiting to the same standard that his predecessor had , but managed to secure Rod Breedlove , a highly touted guard prospect . Breedlove later went on to play eight years in the NFL and made a Pro Bowl appearance .
In 1957 , the Terrapins improved to a 5 – 5 record . The highlight of the season was a game featuring Jim Tatum 's return to College Park , Maryland . On October 19 , at Byrd Stadium , Maryland met the North Carolina team led by their former head coach . The game also had in attendance Queen Elizabeth II who had expressed a wish to see her first game of American football . The Tar Heels were ranked 6th in the nation and possessed a 3 – 1 record . The Terrapins , on the other hand , were 1 – 3 . In the first quarter , Maryland halfback Howard Dare fumbled and North Carolina linebacker Jack Lineberger recovered the ball on the Terrapins ' 44 @-@ yard line . North Carolina was subsequently forced to punt , but recovered it at the Maryland 35 . On the ensuing possession , Tar Heel halfback Daley Goff rushed 11 yards for a touchdown . In the third quarter , Maryland gained excellent field position when Goff received a bad punt snap and the Terps took over on the Carolina 38 @-@ yard line . Maryland quarterback Bob Rusevlyan later scored on a one @-@ yard sneak . In the fourth quarter , halfback Ted Kershner broke away for an 81 @-@ yard touchdown run . Fullback Jim Joyce capped a 67 @-@ yard drive with a 13 @-@ yard rush for a score . With a final result of 21 – 7 , the Maryland players carried Mont to the Queen and Prince Philip 's box . Mont said it was a day that " I will revel in for the rest of my life . "
In 1958 , however , Maryland again backslided with a 4 – 6 record and Mont subsequently resigned .
= = = Tom Nugent ( 1959 @-@ 1965 ) = = =
At the first practice before the 1959 season , new Terps head football coach Tom Nugent addressed his team , " Hi , I 'm Tom Nugent and I hate West Virginia . " The Mountaineers were Maryland 's first opponent of the season , and Nugent guided the Terrapins to a 27 – 7 victory in that game .
In 1961 , Nugent 's Maryland team became the first college football program in the nation to put players ' names on the back of their jerseys . That season , he led the Terrapins to the best season of his tenure and finished with a 7 – 3 record . The Terrapins also defeated seventh @-@ ranked Syracuse , 22 – 21 .
Nugent amassed a 36 – 34 record during his tenure at Maryland . He remained the last Maryland coach to win his inaugural game with the team until Ralph Friedgen matched that feat in 2001 .
Under Nugent , in 1962 , Maryland integrated its football team after Darryl Hill caught the eye of Maryland assistant coach Lee Corso. who had been encouraged by Nugent to find a black athlete to play for his team . Hill became not only the first African @-@ American football player at Maryland but the first in the Atlantic Coast Conference and at any college or university in " the old South . "
= = = Lou Saban ( 1966 ) = = =
In a surprising move , Lou Saban unexpectedly resigned as head coach of the AFL 's Buffalo Bills in January 1966 to the head football coach position at Maryland . He said he was leaving because " there can be little left to conquer in professional football " . His record at Buffalo was 36 – 17 – 3 . Saban , however , only stayed at Maryland for one season in which the team posted a 4 – 6 record , as he departed back to the AFL to become head coach of the Denver Broncos .
= = = Bob Ward ( 1967 @-@ 1968 ) = = =
In 1967 , Bob Ward returned to his alma mater to take the head coaching position . Before the season , 12 players failed to academically qualify to play on the team . During that first season , the team lost all nine of their games for the first time in the modern era . Ward 's second year saw slight improvement , recording eight losses but with wins over North Carolina and South Carolina . However , many of his players were growing increasingly disgruntled with his coaching style .
In March 1969 , Maryland athletic director Jim Kehoe called a meeting among 120 players , Ward , his assistants , and a three @-@ man committee . Thirty @-@ one of those players told Ward that they no longer wished to play for the Terrapins and accused him of using intimidation tactics , including verbal and physical abuse . Ward listened to the player 's grievances , but did not respond at the time . Two days later , he resigned as head coach . Later that year , Sports Illustrated interviewed Ward , and he said :
" I won 't go into all the specifics , but it wasn 't the good players who started it . It was the guys who couldn 't fight their way out of a paper bag , guys who sat on the bench and couldn 't take it and a couple of pip @-@ squeak cub newspaper guys who don 't know what football 's all about ... He gets on the campus newspaper and all of a sudden he 's got power he never thought of having . "
The Diamondback , the university 's student newspaper , had criticized Ward for moving the team into one dormitory , which forced some other students out . Ward stated that the move was done on the advice of Kehoe — which Kehoe denied — and with the intent of focusing the players on their studies and building camaraderie . Ward and his assistants monitored the players ' academic performance , enforced class attendance , and placed curfews on perceived troublemakers . Ward stated that , in his first year , only two of his players failed out of the school that he claimed had a history of poor athlete academics . He complained that he was a scapegoat and that there had been poor communication between him and Kehoe . In fact , Penn State head coach Joe Paterno was concerned with the situation surrounding Ward 's resignation and sent a letter to the American Football Coaches Association demanding an investigation . Paterno said :
" I don 't know who 's right or wrong , but ... I don 't think it 's a good thing for a squad to fire a coach . As an association , we ought to know what happened . If a university fired an English professor because his class didn 't like the way he was doing things , I know darn well that the American Association of University Professors would want to know what happened . "
= = = Roy Lester ( 1969 @-@ 1971 ) = = =
In 1969 , Roy Lester was hired as Maryland 's fourth head coach in five years .
Lester had previously twice applied for the Maryland head coach position , but didn 't get it . The Daytona Beach Morning Journal speculated that Lester 's undisclosed salary probably matched that of Ward : $ 20 @,@ 000 .
Lester reintroduced the split @-@ T formation at Maryland , which Jim Tatum had used to great effect there in the 1950s .
Lester 's philosophy was explained by the Maryland sports information director Jack Zane : " the pass should open up the defense for the running game . " In the sixth game of his first season , Maryland 's starting quarterback , junior Dennis O 'Hara , was injured in a loss at South Carolina , and was replaced by sophomore Jeff Shugars .
In the season 's penultimate game , Maryland lost to Penn State , 48 – 0 . Penn State halfback Lydell Mitchell had been recruited by Lester and originally intended to go to Maryland before he opted for Penn State instead . Lester was bothered by a similar situation with fullback Franco Harris , whose high school coach was a friend of Lester 's . Lester attributed Maryland 's football woes to the turnover at head coach and lack of depth because of recruitment shortcomings . Maryland won the finale against Virginia to finish the season with a 3 – 7 record .
In 1970 , Lester 's Terrapins finished with a 2 – 9 record . After an upset loss in the season opener against Villanova , 21 – 3 , Lester shuffled the roster . He switched the positions of eight players , which included Tom Miller from fullback to linebacker.The season prior , Miller had gained 629 yards , the second @-@ most ever by a Maryland sophomore .
After losing their first five games , Maryland beat South Carolina on Homecoming weekend , 21 – 15 , which prompted Maryland fans to tear down the goalposts in celebration.In the 25 @-@ mile per hour winds , the Terrapins capitalized on the Gamecocks ' poor punting game , which included one blocked punt .
Two weeks later , Maryland was beaten by Clemson , which scored 21 points in the fourth quarter to win , 24 – 11 .
With the loss , Maryland slid to a 1 – 7 record , and Lester said he was giving serious consideration to stepping down before the next season . He said , " If I 'm not doing the proper job I 'm willing to relinquish the job . I took this loss very personally . "
In 1971 , some observers considered Maryland , which returned 37 lettermen , to be the dark horse in the Atlantic Coast Conference ( ACC ) . Lester said he expected a winning season and that " a lot of people may be surprised . "
However , the Terrapins dropped the season opener to underdog Villanova once again , 28 – 13.Star @-@ News called it the most stunning of five upsets in the ACC teams ' opening weekend , rating it ahead of NC State 's loss to Kent State , Virginia 's loss to Navy , South Carolina 's win against Georgia Tech , and Duke 's win against Florida.Maryland won the following week against NC State , but then dropped five straight before beating the Virginia Military Institute on Homecoming . Maryland closed the season with losses to Penn State , Clemson , and Virginia to again finish with a 2 – 9 record.Lester was fired at the conclusion of the 1971 season . Athletic director Jim Kehoe cited Maryland 's worst record in the ACC for two consecutive years and stated his goal of making Maryland a " nationally ranked caliber " team .
Kehoe also said , " financial factors are a serious consideration , " and that home game attendance had fallen to its lowest point , which threatened the financial well @-@ being of the athletic department . Lester was replaced by Jerry Claiborne , who later went on to considerable success in the position .
In September 1973 , Maryland All @-@ American guard Paul Vellano , then playing under Claiborne , said of the past coaches ' difficulties : " A lot of the kids said that Ward was a good coach but that he had a lot of bad apples . Lester was a high school coach and nobody had ever heard of him . I can 't understand it . We had nine freshman who were All @-@ Americans my first year here under Lester . Maybe if they had let him stay he could have done the job .
One of Lester 's lasting contributions was the recruitment of future Maryland and NFL star Randy White .
At the end of his tenure , Lester had a combined collegiate coaching record of 7 – 25 .
= = = Jerry Claiborne ( 1972 – 1981 ) = = =
In 1972 , Jerry Claiborne took over as head coach of the Terrapins , which had only nine wins in the past five years . In his first season , Maryland improved to 5 – 5 – 1 , and the following year , they reached their first bowl game in almost two decades . The team steadily improved until his fifth season , 1976 , when they finished the regular season with an 11 – 0 record , their first perfect mark since Tatum 's 1955 squad . Boomer Esiason later described Claiborne 's coaching style as " vanilla " , and said his strategy was " run right , run left , run up the middle , punt , and play good defense . " He went on to say , " But , there 's no question he made me a tougher player . . . We 'd do drills where the quarterback had to take on a linebacker . It was like he had a sign on our back , ' Hit us , we 're stupid ' . It made you a tougher player . "
In 1974 , Maryland had a preseason rank of 14th and later beat 17th @-@ ranked NC State to win the ACC championship . The Terrapins were defeated by 20th @-@ ranked Tennessee in the Liberty Bowl and finished the season ranked 13th . In 1975 , Maryland again won the ACC and defeated 13th @-@ ranked Florida in the Gator Bowl to finish 13th in the nation . That season , the Terrapins led the ACC in total offense with 375 @.@ 2 yards per game . Maryland started 1976 ranked 12th , and quarterback Mark Manges led them to eleven consecutive wins to secure their third straight ACC championship . Maryland 's loss to sixth @-@ ranked Houston in the Cotton Bowl Classic , 30 – 21 , ended any hopes for a national championship .
In 1978 , Maryland beat 20th @-@ ranked NC State and finished with a ranking of 20th . The game that pitted 11th @-@ ranked Maryland against 12th @-@ ranked Clemson has been described as one of the most exciting games of the era . The " big @-@ play caravan " ultimately saw Clemson triumph , 28 – 24 . From 1974 to 1978 , Claiborne and the Terrapins secured five consecutive bowl game berths and three consecutive ACC championships . Maryland made it to a sixth bowl game in 1980 . After the 1981 season , Claiborne left the program for his alma mater , Kentucky , and was replaced by Bobby Ross , an assistant coach for the Kansas City Chiefs .
= = = Bobby Ross ( 1982 – 1986 ) = = =
In a surprising choice , former Maryland assistant coach and Citadel head coach Bobby Ross , who was not a big name at the time , was selected as head coach in 1982 . In contrast to Claiborne 's style , Ross implemented a high @-@ powered offense . He replaced the I @-@ veer triple option with an NFL @-@ style offense that emphasized dropback passes , bootlegs , and play action passes . This change in tactics and strategy enabled starting quarterback Boomer Esiason the opportunity to excel to a degree not seen under Claiborne the season prior . Esiason said , " Ross has an uncanny knack of putting players in a position to not only succeed , but to overachieve . . . If he didn 't show up at Maryland , I don 't know what would have happened to me . I don 't know if I would have turned into the player I was and played in the NFL . " In the following years , several Maryland quarterbacks went on to careers in the National Football League ( NFL ) , and the school was nicknamed " Quarterback U " as a result .
In Ross 's inaugural season , Maryland defeated 10th @-@ ranked North Carolina , and then edged Miami before their most important conference game of the season against the 1981 national champions , the Clemson Tigers . Between 1974 and 1988 , either Clemson or Maryland won the ACC title all but three years . Clemson had lost to the 1980 national champions , seventh @-@ ranked Georgia , 13 – 7 , and tied Boston College , 17 – 17 , after the opposing quarterback , Doug Flutie , led a comeback . Clemson was therefore unable to defend their NCAA championship , but either Clemson or Maryland , with perfect conference records , would secure the ACC title . Thus , decades before the official ACC Championship Game , 1982 saw a rare de facto title match . Clemson scored first , then pulled away 14 – 7 before half . In the second half , a favorable wind twice yielded Maryland excellent field position , Esiason threw for two rapid @-@ fire touchdowns and a two @-@ point conversion , and the defense held Clemson at bay . However , the Terrapins also turned the ball over five times in the second half and lost , 24 – 22 . With the win , Clemson won the ACC and Maryland finished second . Immediately after the game , the NCAA announced its investigation into Clemson recruiting had found improprieties . As a result , the Tigers were denied a bowl game and television coverage in the following season . The ACC instituted further punishment , making Clemson ineligible for a conference title for the next two years . Maryland finished 1982 ranked 20th after losing to ninth @-@ ranked Washington in the Aloha Bowl . In 1983 , Maryland lost to third @-@ ranked Auburn and 20th @-@ ranked West Virginia , but beat 17th @-@ ranked Pittsburgh and third @-@ ranked North Carolina . Clemson and Maryland once more met with perfect ACC records , and Maryland again lost , this time blown out , 52 – 27 . Despite the loss , Maryland was awarded the conference championship because of the sanctions against Clemson .
In 1984 , Maryland defeated the defending national champions , sixth @-@ ranked Miami , in what was then the biggest comeback in college football history and judged by some as the most exciting . At half time , Maryland trailed Miami , 31 – 0 . Back @-@ up quarterback Frank Reich replaced Stan Gelbaugh and proceeded to throw four touchdown passes , and capitalizing on Miami errors , the Terrapins won , 42 – 40 . The recovery from the 31 @-@ point halftime deficit stood as the greatest college football comeback for the next 22 years , until the record was finally broken by Michigan State against Northwestern . Reich later repeated the feat in his
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to included Franc Jeu , Perce @-@ Neige , and Le Petit Monde . Two of the comics he created for Franc Jeu were also published in albums . By 1947 , all these magazines had disappeared .
Defining for his career was the invitation he got in 1944 from the people of Standaard Boekhandel , a chain of libraries who were also active as publishers . They were interested in his work and wanted to publish some books . Vandersteen presented them with the first designs for a daily comic strip , but they put that on hold and first ordered four juvenile books from Vandersteen . These were published in 1945 and 1946 in Dutch and French ( by Casterman ) .
On 30 March 1945 , the daily comic strip Rikki en Wiske started to appear in the newspaper De Nieuwe Standaard , after a positive review by the young illustrator Marc Sleen . It was an immediate success , and the first story ran uninterrupted until 15 December 1945 . Vandersteen though was disappointed to see the editor had renamed the strip Rikki en Wiske instead of his suggestion Suske en Wiske , and also felt that Rikki too closely resembled Tintin .
The next story , Rikki disappeared , and the long series of adventures of Suske en Wiske began with the story Op het eiland Amoras , achieving success beyond the author 's expectations . The first album appeared in 1946 . This story introduced most of the recurring figures and means of transport through space and time , and set the framework for the complete series . Already in 1946 , it was also published in the Dutch newspaper De Stem .
On 22 December 1945 , three days after the start of Suske en Wiske op het eiland Amoras , appeared the first page of De Familie Snoek ( The Family Snoek ) , a weekly series of gags revolving around a contemporary Flemish family . It lasted for 11 albums .
Apart from these two long lasting newspaper comic strips , Vandersteen made a number of other comics in these years . Most important was his work for Ons Volkske , the youth supplement of the weekly magazine Ons Volk , which from the end of 1945 on became an independent comic magazine . Marc Sleen was editor @-@ in @-@ chief and filled most pages together with Vandersteen . Vandersteen created a number of realistic stories of about 20 pages each , where he developed his own style after starting very much as a follower of Harold Foster . In his usual more caricatural style , he created in August 1946 the recurring gagstrip De Vrolijke Bengels ( The Happy Rascals ) . More adult comics appeared in the magazine Ons Volk .
In 1947 , two publishers started a legal battle for the right to the names of the newspapers and magazines . Vandersteen , caught in the middle , worked a while for both , but eventually switched to the new owners of De Standaard . He continued to work for Ons Volkske , which was now renamed ' t Kapoentje for a few more months . The publishers of De Standaard also continued the album series of Suske en Wiske , which started modestly with one album in 1946 and one in 1947 . By 1947 , seven albums were available , and the first ones were already reprinted . The first albums of De Familie Snoek had also appeared by then . Supported by large publicity campaigns , they sold very well : the first Snoek album was in its third impression by 1948 . The popularity of Vandersteen , and the impact comics had in Flanders , is attested by the 25 @,@ 000 readers who switched to the Standaard at the same time as Vandersteen did .
Vandersteen worked the rest of his life for De Standaard , but contributed also to the other publications of the publisher : Ons Volkske , a new newspaper supplement continuing the name of the older magazine , and Het Nieuwsblad , the more popular newspaper of the group . Vandersteen made illustrations and comics when needed . For Ons Volk , which also reappeared , he made realistic stories until 1951 .
Vandersteen was now at the height of his productivity as a solo artist . Apart from his work for De Standaard and Het Nieuwsblad , he contributed to Ons Volk and Ons Volkske , he made a special Suske en Wiske story for het Parochieblad ( a weekly Christian newspaper ) , and he started to contribute to Kuifje journal ( Tintin magazine ) that published Hergé . The magazine was very popular in Wallonia , but struggled in Flanders , where The Adventures of Tintin was not yet as well known . A popular Flemish author would give the sales a boost , while it could mean the breakthrough on the French language market for Vandersteen . However , Hergé , as editor @-@ in @-@ chief , set a very high quality standard for his magazine , and Vandersteen had to improve and stylize his drawings , and had to remove the more Flemish , popular aspects of his comics . Vandersteen obliged , and the stories of Suske en Wiske he created for Kuifje are now considered the best of his career , with the first one , Het Spaanse Spook ( The Spanish Ghost ) , which started on 16 September 1948 , as his masterpiece . It was because of his work for Kuifje that Hergé nicknamed Vandersteen " The Brueghel of the Comic Strip " .
= = = 1950s = = =
Vandersteen could no longer handle the work load on his own . In 1949 , he hired his first collaborator , François @-@ Joseph Herman . Herman stayed with Vandersteen only three years , but his tenure was the start of the large Studio Vandersteen , which has continued the series . He was followed by Karel Boumans in 1952 , who was an anonymous contributor until 1959 . He worked mainly for De grappen van Lambik , a Suske en Wiske spin @-@ off Vandersteen created for the weekly newspaper De Bond , which ran from 24 January 1954 on . But he also inked many Suske en Wiske comics , including those in Tintin . Vandersteen devoted himself more and more towards the storytelling and the initial pencil drawing , which he considered the artistic process , while the inking was more of a craft .
The years from 1949 to 1953 are often considered the highlight of Vandersteen 's career , when he combined large production with consistent high quality in his stories , the jokes , the many characters , and the graphical aspects , in which the charming quirkiness of the early years was balanced with the more rigorous ligne claire of Hergé . Many of these stories were loosely based on popular classics , ranging from Alexandre Dumas over Buffalo Bill to Richard Wagner 's Der Ring des Nibelungen , with as culmination his comic in two parts of the legend of Till Eulenspiegel , made for Kuifje .
Vandersteen spent a lot more time at documentation from this point on . While the early comics were mostly filled by his imagination and visited imaginary countries or stayed close to home , he now started travelling to visit locations for new comics . Visits to Bruges , Monaco and Venice were the inspiration for three stories in Kuifje
In 1953 , when Tijl Uilenspiegel was finished , Vandersteen created a new comical strip for Kuifje . ' t Prinske told the humorous adventures of a young prince in a fictional country . It lasted until 1959 and ran for some 300 comics .
In 1951 , Vandersteen encountered Karel Verschuere , a young unemployed artist . Vandersteen hired him , and Verschuere soon became his mayor artist for the realistic series . His first series was Judi , a retelling of the Old Testament in four albums , which first appeared in Ons Volkske . The series was not very successful , and Verschuere later finished a fifth part on his own . Verschuere also contributed to the second part of Tijl Uilenspiegel , just like Bob de Moor and Tibet did , but his main contribution to the output of Vandersteen was his work on Bessy , a Western series inspired by the success of Lassie , which started in 1952 in the Walloon newspaper La Libre Belgique . The series appeared under the pseudonym WiRel , a combination of Willy and Karel , indicating the importance of Verschueren 's work . He continued working with Vandersteen until 1967 , helping with many of the realistic series Vandersteen created in these years , including Karl May , Biggles and especially De Rode Ridder .
The success of Bessy , which from 1953 on also appeared in Dutch , led to the creation of the Studio Vandersteen , acknowledging , albeit mostly anonymously , that many of the comics were no longer made by Willy Vandersteen on his own . Together with the publications in Kuifje , it made Vandersteen a popular artist in Wallonia as well , and all Bessy and Suske en Wiske comics were published by Erasme in French .
= = = 1960s = = =
In 1966 , Vandersteen finally moved back from Brussels , where he had lived at different locations since World War II , towards Antwerp , and more precisely Kalmthout , a rural village to the north of Antwerp . There , next to his villa , he created the location for his main Studio .
The Bessy comics were also published in Felix , a German comic magazine by Bastei Verlag . From 1965 on , they wanted to publish a complete new story every month , a rhythm they increased to twice a month in 1966 . Unable to produce so fast , Vandersteen had to expand his Studio considerably . Led by Karel Verschuere , a team of some ten young artists mass @-@ produced the comics , which were of considerable lower quality . The most important of these artists were Frank Sels and Edgar Gastmans , while many stories were produced by Daniël Janssens . When in late 1967 Verschuere quit , and at the same time Bastei increased the rhythm again , now to one complete comic a week , the Studio was disbanded and Sels and Gastmans started to work on a free lance basis . The next year , they decided to go behind Vandersteen 's back and to sell directly to the Germans . Vandersteen then had to reorganize the Bessy Studio and hired Jeff Broeckx . The Studio continued until 1985 , with artists like Patrick van Lierde , Ronald Van Riet , Eugeen Goossens , and Walter Laureyssens . It produced more than 900 Bessy @-@ comics .
Bastei Verlag , enamoured by the success of Bessy , asked Vandersteen to provide a second weekly series . With the popularity of superheroes , especially Batman , in Belgium and Germpany in these years , Vandersteen proposed a spinoff series of Suske en Wiske , based on Jerom , the strongman of the series . Called Wastl in German , 173 stories were produced between 1968 and 1972 , with a publication that reached 150 @,@ 000 copies at its summit . The best of these stories were published in Dutch as well , just like it was done with the later Bessy 's , but the weakness of the stories ended the series after only four years .
The main artists in the Studio Vandersteen in the 1960s and later were Karel Verschuere , Frank Sels , Eduard De Rop , Eugeen Goossens , Karel Biddeloo and Paul Geerts . Eduard De Rop joined the Studio in 1959 , after Karel Boumans departed , and stayed for over thirty years . He worked mostly on minor series like Jerom and Pats , but contributed to almost all series , including Suske en Wiske . One of his main contributions was the early adventures of De Rode Ridder . De Rode Ridder was in 1946 created by writer Leopold Vermeiren , and published in books since 1954 , with illustrations by Karel Verschuere . The success led to the creation of a comics series as well , with as main contributors Verschuere , Eduard De Rop , and Vandersteen 's son Bob . De Rode Ridder became the third main success story of Vandersteen , and is now the longest running series behind Suske en Wiske . Karel Verschuere was replaced by Frank Sels in 1963 .
Karel Verschuere also started the series Karl May , based on the famous books , in 1962 . The contributions of Vandersteen to this and similar series like Biggles was minimal and consisted mainly of supervision and some first sketches . Frank Sels continued the series between 1963 and 1966 .
Vandersteen had to deliver a number of pages each week for the newspaper supplement Pats , increased to 16 pages in 1965 . Eduard De Rop revived De Familie Snoek with a new series of gags for a few years , and other series like Karl May were published here as well . The place of Karl May in the main newspaper was taken by Biggles , yet another realistic series started by Verschuere in 1965 .
When Frank Sels left the Studio in 1967 , Karel Biddeloo took over most of the realistic series of Vandersteen . He made Karl May from 1967 until 1969 , when the Bessy @-@ studio took over the job . He also took over Biggles , which ended in 1969 , when it was replaced by the jungle series Safari , inspired by Daktari . At the start of the series , Vandersteen did most of the creative work , but after a few albums he left most of the work to Biddeloo . The series ended in 1974 . Biddeloo then devoted most of his time to De Rode Ridder , where he started inking the stories by Vandersteen in 1967 and took completely over in 1969 , when Vandersteen lost his interest . He continued working on it until his death in 2004 .
= = = 1970s = = =
Paul Geerts joined the Studio in 1968 , where he at first worked as an artist on the German Jerom comics . Already in 1969 , he replaced De Rop as the main inker for Suske en Wiske . Geerts also drew Vandersteens attention when he proposed a few scenario 's for Jerom , and in 1971 he made his first story for Suske en Wiske . From 1972 on , he became the main creator of the flagship series Suske en Wiske , which he continued until the late 1990s . De Rop and Goossens again became the main inkers , with Geerts responsible for the stories and the pencil art . In these years , Suske en Wiske reached its peak popularity , and the older stories now were republished in colours in the main series . In 1975 and 1976 , the Dutch television broadcast six puppet movies with new Suske en Wiske stories . They were very successful and sales of new albums reached over 200 @,@ 000 copies . The merchandising business boomed as well , and commercial comics were one of the main new jobs for the Studio .
The Studio was mainly established with the artists that joined in the 1960s , but two new artists were Erik De Rop and Robert Merhottein , who became the only artist to leave Studio Vandersteen and start his own successful series .
Vandersteen , liberated of the work on the daily comic , started on a comic series based on one of the novels he had read as a youth : Robert en Bertrand , the story of two Flemish tramps at the fin de siècle . The series debuted in De Standaard in 1972 . The series was the first in a long time to renew the enthusiasm of Vandersteen , and the graphical quality and the stories were a lot better than most of the Studio production of the time .
For the newspaper supplement Pats , he also created the title series in 1974 , but he left most of the work to Merhottein . The series changed its name to Tits in 1977 after a lawsuit , and disappeared in 1986 .
In 1976 , Vandersteen 's wife Paula died . He remarried on 25 June 1977 with Anne @-@ Marie Vankerkhoven . Vandersteen , now a celebrated artist with complete TV shows made about him , both in the Netherlands and in Belgium , continued to work on his comics . The same year 1977 gave him a coveted Alfred award from the Angoulême International Comics Festival for the best scenario , for the Robert en Bertrand story De stakingbreker ( The Strike Breaker ) , while in 1978 a Suske en Wiske statue was unveiled in the Antwerp Zoo .
= = = 1980s = = =
The next decade was one of mixed successes . Some of the minor or less successful series ended : Robert en Bertrand , a critical but never a commercial success , folded in 1993 , 8 years after Vandersteen had stopped writing the stories . Jerom and Bessy both were restyled but disappeared a few years later in 1988 and 1993 . Pats , later renamed Tits , already disappeared in 1986 .
Suske en Wiske meanwhile was a steady success , and although the sales have dropped from the peaks of the 1970s continues to be one of the most popular Flemish comics .
Willy Vandersteen created one last new series in 1985 : De Geuzen , a historical , humoristic comic set in Flanders in the sixteenth century . Similar in theme to the thirty years older Tijl Uilenspiegel , the comic combined many of Vandersteen 's passions , including the art of Pieter Brueghel the Elder . It contained his most mature , developed characters , compared to the often one @-@ dimensional characters of his earlier series , and reached a graphical level that approached his work for Kuifje . The comics were not prepublished and were mostly created by Vandersteen alone , which ensured the quality but also decreased the publication rhythm . Only ten albums appeared , and the series ended with the death of Vandersteen .
= = = Death = = =
Willy Vandersteen died on 28 August 1990 , weakened by a long disease . He continued working until shortly before his death , and his Studio still continues , with Suske en Wiske and De Rode Ridder as main series .
= = Themes and influences in the work of Vandersteen = =
Willy Vandersteen used a wild variety of themes and influences in his work from early on . He made fairytales , historic series , westerns , but also science fiction and many contemporary comics . While some series like De Familie Snoek and Bessy stuck very close to their origin ( an everyday Flemish contemporary family for the former , and a pioneer family in the American Old West in the latter ) , others were more loose . De Rode Ridder , the story of a medieval knight , wandered from Arthurian tales over the crusades until the explorations of the fifteenth and sixteenth century , thereby spanning some ten centuries , and later ( when Vandersteen was less involved in the series ) brought in many elements of sword and sorcery and fantasy .
Suske and Wiske is a contemporary series , but many stories used the plot device of time travelling , either by a machine or by some poetic device . This enabled stories to evolve in a myriad of periods , often again in the Middle Ages though . Furthermore , did Vandersteen use local legends of Antwerp and Limburg , parodies of American superhero series like Batman , science fiction , and popular TV series . Vandersteen also got inspiration from the different long journeys he made , like his long trip to the Far East in 1959 . Some of the earliest realistic comics of Willy Vandersteen also clearly show the strong influence he has had from American comics like Prince Valiant and Tarzan , but he later developed his own distinctive style .
= = International success = =
Vandersteen always strived to have success beyond Flanders , and reduced the typically Flemish character of his comics soon after his debut . He already worked and published in French during the War , and already in the 1940s he expanded the reach of Suske en Wiske to the Netherlands with some newspaper publications , and to Wallonia and France through the publication in Tintin magazine . All Suske en Wiske albums , and many albums of other series like De Familie Snoek , were also published in French by Erasme . Bessy was even first created for a Walloon newspaper , before being translated in Dutch . By 1978 , an estimated 80 million Suske en Wiske albums had been sold in Dutch alone .
Other countries and languages followed soon . The first German translations appeared in 1954 , and in the 1960s Bessy and to a lesser extent Jerom were an enormous success , with combined over a 1000 weekly comics with a circulation of some 200 @,@ 000 copies . Later in the 1950s followed publications in Chile and Portugal , and Spain followed in the 1960s . In the following years , Vandersteen 's comics and especially Suske en Wiske are published in dozens of languages , but in most cases only one or a few albums are translated . More than 10 albums are published in the United States , and in Sweden 69 albums are published , accompanied by a lot of merchandising . The Finnish series is a big success as well .
= = Merchandising = =
In the 1950s started the merchandising around Suske en Wiske . Vandersteen , always a businessman as well as an artist , was enthusiastic when he got the proposal to make a puppet show of the series . Already in 1947 , the first puppets were for sale . They were followed by a series of 5 hand puppets in 1957 and a Jerom @-@ game in 1960 . In 1955 , two years after the start of television in Flanders , an animated adventure of Suske en Wiske was broadcast every Saturday afternoon . Other merchandising ranged from Suske en Wiske drinking glasses in 1954 to 5 large handpainted ceramic statues of the main heroes in 1952 . Coloring books , calendars , puzzles , ... followed soon.Two records were released by Decca in 1956 . Vandersteen also created a number of commercial comics with Suske en Wiske , starting with a touristic comic for the province of Antwerp in 1957 .
= = Awards and recognition = =
1959 : Honorary citizen of the community Deurne near Antwerp
1977 : Angoulême International Comics Festival prize for Best Foreign Author , France
2007 : Prestige award at the Prix Saint @-@ Michel in Brussels
Vandersteen is also honorary citizen of Kalmthout . A statue of Vandersteen is located on Willy Vandersteen Square .
According to UNESCO 's Index Translationum , Vandersteen is the sixth most often translated Dutch language author , after Anne Frank , Dick Bruna , Cees Nooteboom , Guido van Genechten , and Phil Bosmans and before such famous authors as Janwillem van de Wetering , Harry Mulisch , Hugo Claus , and Johan Huizinga .
= Christine Love ( writer ) =
Christine Love is a Canadian independent visual novelist best known for her three original works : Digital : A Love Story , Don 't take it personally , babe , it just ain 't your story , and Analogue : A Hate Story . Love began creating visual novels while in university , making a few small games , visual novels , and pieces of written fiction before coming into prominence with the release of Digital in 2010 . She went on to work on Love and Order , a dating simulation by video game designer Riva Celso , as well as Don 't take it personally , both released in 2011 . Her latest work and first commercial project on which she was the primary developer is Analogue , released in February 2012 ; Love dropped out of her English degree during its development , and is currently fully supported financially on the proceeds . She released an expansion to the game , titled Hate Plus in 2013 . Her current project is called Ladykiller in a Bind , and is expected to be released in July 2016 .
= = Biography = =
Christine Love began creating visual novels while in school at Trent University . By January 2010 , she had made a few small video games , written a novel and a few short stories , which she largely unsuccessfully tried to sell , and had made a visual novel each March for three consecutive years for NaNoRenO ( National Ren 'ai Game Writing Month ) , a month @-@ long contest in the vein of National Novel Writing Month ( NaNoWriMo ) where developers attempt to create a visual novel in one month . In February 2010 , she started a fourth visual novel , which resulted in Digital : A Love Story , her first game to receive widespread attention and acclaim . Set " five minutes into the future of 1988 " , Digital tells the story of the silent protagonist 's online relationship with a girl named * Emilia , and a mystery surrounding the " murders " of several AI programs . The game is presented entirely through the interface of a 1980s computer with online bulletin board system posts and messages from other characters ; the protagonist 's own messages are implied but never shown . Love expected the game to reach as many people as her prior work , " a dozen or so people " ; instead , the free game was noticed by video game publications and websites such as PC Gamer and Gamasutra and received much more attention , becoming what Love believes was " a defining point in [ her ] writing career " . Widely praised by critics , Digital earned an honorable mention in Gamasutra 's " Best Indie Games of 2010 " list . Love felt that Digital 's success turned her from a writer into an indie game developer .
After Digital , Love worked on her first commercial game project , Love and Order , a dating simulation by video game designer Riva Celso . She did writing and design work for the game , set in the Crown attorney 's office in Montreal , which was released in February 2011 . Love describes the game as " not really my best work " , as dating simulations are not her strong point . Nevertheless , proceeds from the game were enough to support her financially for a while , and showed Love that creating games and visual novels could be a full @-@ time profession . In 2011 , she spent the month of March working on another visual novel : don 't take it personally , babe , it just ain 't your story , which was released as a free download on 4 April 2011 . A spiritual sequel to Digital , the game follows John Rook , a private school literary teacher in 2027 , over the course of a semester . He can see students ' private messages at any time via the school 's social network . Don 't take it personally deals with themes of internet privacy and relationships in the future . The game was again widely praised by critics , with The Daily Telegraph awarding the game for " Best Script " in its video game awards of 2011 .
That summer , Love began working on a larger , commercial game . She was beginning to believe that her games could be successful commercially , a belief supported by messages to that effect by fans of her previous works . The game , Analogue : A Hate Story , was released in February 2012 . Love dropped out of university during the game 's development in her fourth year of an English undergraduate degree . She felt that she was " not really learning a whole lot " and was unable to balance school and work on the game . Set centuries after Digital : A Love Story , the plot of Analogue revolves around an unnamed investigator , who is tasked with discovering the reason for an interstellar ship 's disappearance once it reappears 600 years after " going dark " . The game 's themes focus similarly around human / computer interaction , interpersonal relationships , and LGBT issues ; but focus primarily on " transhumanism , traditional marriage , loneliness and cosplay . " The release of Analogue , Love 's first commercial game as main developer , currently fully supports her financially . Although Analogue is a sequel " of sorts " to Digital , the time difference between the two games means that they are connected more in spirit than directly , similar to the connections between Digital and Don 't take it personally . Analogue sold over 30 @,@ 000 copies by August 2012 , and has inspired the release of a soundtrack album by the game 's composer , Isaac Schankler , as well as a commercial expansion to the game , titled Hate Plus , which is intended to further develop the backstory of * Mute and the ship .
Since the release of Hate Plus , Love has begun work on a new game , titled Ladykiller in a Bind . The full name of the game is My Twin Brother Made Me Crossdress As Him And Now I Have To Deal With A Geeky Stalker And A Domme Beauty Who Want Me In A Bind ! ! , and the game is described by Love as " an erotic visual novel about social manipulation and girls tying up other girls " .
= = Influences and philosophy = =
Christine Love describes herself as " a writer first , and a game designer second " , as writing was her initial goal . She originally pictured her future as that of a novelist , with a day job as a programmer to support herself . Love describes her games as being about " our relationship with technology , about human relationships in general , and about seeing things from different perspectives , " as well as having " a ton of words " . She strives for her stories to be true and sincere , but not necessarily realistic . Love is also interested in the portrayal of gender and sexuality in video games ; in Digital and Analogue , she was careful to avoid mentioning or assuming the gender of the player or the character they control , though the love interests in the games are female . Privately , however , she thinks of them as female , as her intention was to create games that could be easily appreciated by queer people such as herself , without having to project themselves onto a relationship that did not match up to their perceptions . Love believes that indie games have " more meaningful depictions of queer experiences " than those from larger studios .
Love 's design process has become more refined as time goes on . For Digital , she did not plan anything in advance ; while for Analogue , she worked out the entire design and pacing game in flowcharts before starting . For all of her games , however , she does a lot of research into the time periods and issues involved . Love does not feel that text is necessarily the best way to tell a story in a game , but finds it easier to communicate with it as a writer .
= = Works = =
Digital : A Love Story ( 2010 )
Love and Order ( 2011 )
don 't take it personally , babe , it just ain 't your story ( 2011 )
Analogue : A Hate Story ( 2012 )
Hate Plus ( 19 August 2013 )
Interstellar Selfie Station ( 2014 )
My Twin Brother Made Me Crossdress as Him and Now I Have to Deal with a Geeky Stalker and a Domme Beauty Who Want Me in a Bind ! ! ( aka Ladykiller in a Bind ) ( 2016 )
= Observer Effect ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Observer Effect " is the eleventh episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise and the eighty @-@ eighth overall . It was first aired on January 21 , 2005 , on UPN . It was written by Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens , and directed by Mike Vejar . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship , Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . This episode sees alien entities test the Enterprise crew by observing their reactions to a deadly silicon @-@ based infection . Actual first contact with these aliens – the Organians – would occur about a century later , during the events of the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Errand of Mercy " .
As it was a bottle episode , the episode did not use any additional sets or guest stars with the intention of cutting down on costs for the series . This also gave time for the visual effects team to finish earlier work . The episode received mixed reactions from critics , with praise directed at the links to The Original Series , while criticism directed towards some of the characterization of the characters . " Observer Effect " was watched by 2 @.@ 76 million viewers on first broadcast , which formed part of an overall drop of viewers for the series .
= = Plot = =
Lieutenant Reed ( Dominic Keating ) and Ensign Mayweather ( Anthony Montgomery ) play chess while serving as hosts to non @-@ corporeal aliens . Returning from an away mission on the planet below , Commander Tucker ( Connor Trinneer ) and Ensign Sato ( Linda Park ) soon exhibit symptoms of a strange disease . Upon examination by Doctor Phlox ( John Billingsley ) , it is found to be a highly contagious silicon @-@ based virus , and Captain Archer ( Scott Bakula ) explains that Commander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) and Phlox are seeking a cure . To pass the time , while isolated in Decontamination , the two try to learn more about each other .
The aliens take a keen interest examining the human response to this crisis , and compare notes to previous reactions by Klingons and Cardassians . They are members of an advanced species looking to make " first contact " . So far , based on 10 @,@ 000 years of observations , no species has been deemed ready . Seeking a different view of the crew , they temporarily shift to the bodies of Phlox , T 'Pol , and Archer . A difference in opinion between the two aliens starts to form : one seems determined to maintain their non @-@ interference protocol , while the other feels the protocol is outdated and unnecessary .
With time running out , Phlox and T 'Pol find a way to disrupt the virus using deadly levels of radiation . Archer and Phlox , while wearing environmental suits , escort Tucker and Sato to Sickbay for treatment . Sato soon goes into cardiac @-@ arrest , and Archer removes his gloves and helmet to assist her , but she cannot be resuscitated . They then administer a dose of radiation to Tucker , but that too is ineffective . Phlox then leaves to resume work from the Bridge . Suddenly , Tucker and Sato are reanimated by the aliens , who – while possessing the crewmen – explain the situation to a surprised Archer , who then makes an impassioned speech on behalf of his crew . The aliens decide to modify their procedures , choosing to resurrect and cure the infected crew members , when they previously would have left them to die . The aliens erase the encounter from crew 's memory . Archer orders a warning beacon to be placed above the planet , and the aliens leave to begin planning first contact with more advanced humans at a later time .
= = Production = =
" Observer Effect " was created as a bottle episode , the second in a row after " Daedalus " . These episodes were intended to reduce costs on the series by not requiring additional set production . Unlike the " Daedalus " , " Observer Effect " also did not use any guest actors . It was the second to be written by Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens , who wrote a plot which brought back the Organians from the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Errand of Mercy " . The Organians were originally created for The Original Series by Gene L. Coon , and were intended as a balance to the Klingons . Mind replacement or mind invasion plotlines are common in science fiction . Other episodes in the Star Trek franchise exploring the theme include " Wolf in the Fold " and " Turnabout Intruder " from The Original Series , " Sub Rosa " from Star Trek : The Next Generation and " Cathexis " from Star Trek : Voyager .
This was one of show runner Manny Coto 's deliberate moves to link Enterprise closer to The Original Series during the fourth season . It was the second time that the crew of the Enterprise ( NX @-@ 01 ) had met non @-@ corporal entities following the second season episode " The Crossing " . Filming began on the episode on October 22 , 2004 , and continued for the following seven working days . While the makeup department needed to present Park 's and Trinneer 's characters as they progressed through the sickness introduced by the Organians , the visual effects team was freed up to complete production on earlier episodes .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Observer Effect " was first broadcast in the United States on January 21 , 2005 , on UPN . It was watched by 2 @.@ 76 million viewers , which was a decrease from the 3 @.@ 03 million who watched " Daedalus " but more than the 2 @.@ 53 million viewers for the following episode , " Babel One " . Writing for The A.V. Club in 2014 , Alasdair Wilkins included " Observer Effect " in his list of the twenty best episodes of the series .
Jamahl Epsicokhan , at his website Jammer 's Reviews , described the plot of " Observer Effect " as not being as predictable as it might initially seem due to the crew 's inability to save Tucker and Hoshi and their reliance on the aliens to do so . He felt that the links to " Errand of Mercy " were both " subtle " and " sublime " , while describing the overall bottle show as " No slam @-@ bang excitement ; just a commitment to observation and plausible procedure . " He adds that the episode was an example of " humanist science fiction " rather than an " adventure show " .
Michelle Erica Green disliked the episode , writing about it in a review for TrekNation . She called it " clichéd , predictable and boring " , saying that the sudden differences in characterization in this episode , compared to how those characters acted in earlier appearances , could potentially lead to confusion as to when they were actually controlled by the aliens . She criticized the plot which only affected the senior crew members on the ship and said that it had " ripped off " several prior episodes of the franchise including " The Empath " , " Homeward " and " Scientific Method " .
" Observer Effect " was released on home media in the United States on November 1 , 2005 , as part of the season four DVD box set of Enterprise . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .
= Cerne Abbas Giant =
The Cerne Abbas Giant is a hill figure near the village of Cerne Abbas in Dorset , England . Made by a turf @-@ cut outline filled with chalk , it depicts a large naked man with an erect penis and is typically described as a giant wielding a club . The figure is listed as a scheduled monument in the United Kingdom and the site where he stands is owned by the National Trust .
The origin and age of the figure are unclear . It is often thought of as an ancient construction , though the earliest mention of it dates to the late 17th century . Early antiquarians associated it , on little evidence , with a Saxon deity , while other scholars sought to identify it with a Celtic British figure of the Roman Hercules or some syncretization of the two . Archaeological evidence that parts of the drawing have been lost over time strengthen the Hercules identification . The lack of earlier descriptions leads modern scholars to conclude that it may date from the 17th century , and perhaps originated as political satire .
Regardless of its age , the Cerne Abbas Giant has become an important part of local culture and folklore , which often associates it with fertility . It is one of England 's best known hill figures and is a visitor attraction in the region .
= = Description = =
The Cerne Abbas Giant is located just outside the small village of Cerne Abbas in Dorset , about 48 kilometres ( 30 mi ) west of Bournemouth and 26 kilometres ( 16 mi ) north of Weymouth . The figure depicts a huge naked man , about 55 metres ( 180 ft ) high and 51 metres ( 167 ft ) wide . It is carved into the white chalk rock on the steep west @-@ facing side of a hill known as Giant Hill or Trendle Hill . Atop the hill is another landmark , the Iron Age earthwork known as the " Trendle " or " Frying Pan " . The carving is formed by outlines cut into the turf about 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 ft 0 in ) deep , and filled with crushed chalk . In his right hand the giant holds a knobbled club 37 metres ( 121 ft ) in length , and adding 11 metres ( 36 ft ) to the total height of the figure . A line across the waist is considered to be a belt . Writing in 1901 in the Proceedings of the Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society , Henry Colley March noted that : " The Cerne Giant presents five characteristics : ( 1 ) It is petrographic ... It is , therefore , a rock carving ... ( 2 ) It is colossal ... ( 3 ) It is nude . ... ( 4 ) It is ithyphallic ... ( 5 ) The Giant is clavigerous . It bears a weapon in its right hand . "
A 1996 study found that some features have changed over time , concluding that the figure originally held a cloak in its left arm and stood over a disembodied head . The former presence of a cloak was corroborated in 2008 when a team of archaeologists using special equipment determined that part of the carving had been allowed to be obliterated . The cloak may have been a depiction of an animal skin , giving credence to the theory that the giant was a depiction of a hunter , or alternatively , Hercules with the skin of the Nemean lion over his arm . Additionally , reviewing historical depictions of the giant , it has been suggested that the Giant 's current large erection is , in fact , the result of merging a circle representing his navel with a smaller penis during a re @-@ cut . In 1993 , the National Trust gave the Giant a " nose job " after years of erosion had worn it away .
The Giant has been described as " renowned for its manhood " , " markedly phallic " , " sexually explicit " and " ithyphallic " . The Giant sports an erection , including its testicles , some 11 metres ( 36 feet ) long , and nearly the length of its head . It has been called " Britain 's most famous phallus " . One commentator noted that postcards of the Giant were the only indecent photographs that could be sent through the English Post Office .
The carving is most commonly known as the Cerne Abbas Giant . The National Trust and others call it the " Cerne Giant " , while English Heritage and Dorset County Council call it simply " The Giant " . The carving has also been referred to as the " Old Man " , and more recently it has been referred to as the " Rude Man " of Cerne .
Although the best view of the Giant is from the air , most tourist guides recommend a ground view from the " Giant 's View " lay @-@ by and car park off the A352 . This area was developed in 1979 in a joint project between the Dorset County Planning Department , the National Trust , Nature Conservancy Council ( now called English Nature ) , the Dorset Naturalists Trusts , the Department of the Environment , and local land @-@ owners . The information panel there was devised by the National Trust and Dorset County Council .
= = History = =
= = = Early accounts = = =
Like several other chalk figures carved into the English countryside , the Cerne Abbas Giant is often thought of as an ancient creation . However , as with many of the other figures , its history cannot be traced back further than the late 17th century , making an origin during the Celtic , Roman or even Early Medieval periods difficult to demonstrate . Medieval sources refer to the hill on which the giant is located as Trendle Hill – possibly in reference to the nearby landmark known as the Trendle . Joseph Bettey noted that none of the earlier sources for the area , including a detailed 1617 land survey , refer to the giant , suggesting that it may not have been there at the time . In contrast , the Uffington White Horse has been shown to be 3 @,@ 000 years old , and there are references to it across the ages .
The earliest known written reference to the giant is a 4 November 1694 entry in the Churchwardens ' Accounts from St Mary 's Church in Cerne Abbas , which reads " for repairing ye Giant , 3 shillings " . In 1734 , The Bishop of Bristol noted and inquired about the giant during a visitation to Cerne Abbas . The bishop 's account , as well as subsequent observations such as those of William Stukeley , were discussed at meetings of the Society of Antiquaries of London in 1764 . Additionally , in 1738 the antiquarian Francis Wise mentioned the giant in a letter .
Beginning in 1763 descriptions of the giant appeared in contemporary magazines . The earliest known survey was published in the Royal Magazine in September 1763 . Derivative versions subsequently appeared in the October 1763 St James Chronicle , the July 1764 Gentleman 's Magazine , and the 1764 edition of The Annual Register . The Gentleman 's Magazine account in particular was prominent , and contained the oldest known drawing of the figure . In 1774 , the antiquarian John Hutchins reviewed various previous accounts in his book The History and Antiquities of the County of Dorset . In it , he wrote that the carving had only been done the previous century .
The earliest known drawing of the Giant appears in the August 1764 issue of Gentleman 's Magazine . A map referred to as the " 1768 Survey Map of Cerne Abbas by Benjamin Pryce " is held at the Dorset History Centre . However , a record at the National Archives notes that " the cartouche refers to Lord Rivers by that title which he did not acquire until 1776 . Numbers on the map appear to correspond with the survey of 1798 " . By the Victorian period ( after 1837 ) the penis was removed from academic and tourist depictions ,
Cerne Abbas Giant at different dates
= = = Interpretation = = =
There are three main ideas concerning the age of the Giant , and whom he might represent :
The first argues that because there is no medieval documentary evidence , then the Giant was created in the 17th century , perhaps by Lord Holles , who resided in Cerne Abbas , and perhaps as a parody of Oliver Cromwell .
The second idea is that the Giant dates to the time of the Romans in Britain ( i.e. Romano @-@ British ) , because the Giant resembles the Roman god Hercules , who was based on the Greek god Heracles .
The third idea is that the Giant is of Celtic origin , because it is stylistically similar to a Celtic god on a skillet handle found at Hod Hill , Dorset , and dated to around AD 10 to AD 51 .
Various studies on the Cerne Abbas Giant have been undertaken . In 1896 the Somersetshire Archaeological and Natural History Society noted the consensus of members that the giant " is of very great antiquity " . Modern scholarship largely rejects this , and argues for an origin shortly before the 18th century . Modern histories of the Cerne Giant have been published by Bettey 1981 , Legg 1990 , and Darvill et al . 1999 .
Early antiquarians associated the figure with a Saxon god whose name contained some variant of the element Hel- . This god is attested in several medieval and early modern texts , and was associated with the Cerne Abbas Giant by an editor of a 1789 edition of William Camden 's Britannia and by William Stukeley , who indicated that locals referred to the giant as " Helis " . A Saxon origin is unlikely , but Stukeley was also the first to hypothesize that the figure was Hercules , a suggestion that has found more support . Some 19th @-@ century sources describe the
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, four have received serious consideration : " Doing Good " , " False Witness " , " Mutual Subjection " and " Testimony of Conscience " . These sermons deal with political matters and are used to give insight to Swift 's political writing ; the sermon " Doing Good " and its relationship with the Drapier 's Letters is one such example . However , the audience at St. Patrick 's Cathedral did not come to hear connections to political works , but to enjoy the well @-@ known preacher and be " moved by his [ Swift 's ] manners " .
Each sermon begins with a scriptural passage that reinforces the ideas that will be discussed in the sermon and each was preceded with the same opening prayer ( which Swift also delivered ) . The sermons are plainly written and apply a common @-@ sense approach to contemporary moral issues in Dublin . Swift patterned his sermons on the plain style of the Book of Common Prayer and the Church of Ireland Authorized Version of the Bible .
= = Background = =
As Dean of Saint Patrick 's Cathedral , Jonathan Swift spent every fifth Sunday preaching from the pulpit . Although many of his friends suggested that he should publish these sermons , Swift felt that he lacked the talent as a preacher to make his sermons worthy of publication . Instead , Swift spent his time working more on political works , such as Drapier 's Letters , and justified this by his lacking in religions areas .
Members of St. Patrick 's community would ask , " Pray , does the Doctor preach today ? " Swift 's sermons had the reputation of being spoken " with an emphasis and fervor which everyone around him saw , and felt . " In response to such encouragement to preach , Swift was reported to say that he " could never rise higher than preaching pamphlets . " Swift 's friend , Dr. John Arbuthnot , claimed , " I can never imagine any man can be uneasy , that has the opportunity of venting himself to a whole congregation once a week . " Regardless of what Swift thought of himself , the Cathedral was always crowded during his sermons .
Swift wrote out his sermons before preaching and marked his words to provide the correct pronunciation or to emphasise the word ironically . He always practised reading his sermons , and , as Davis claims , " he would ( in his own expression ) pick up the lines , and cheat his people , by making them believe he had it all by heart . " However , he wanted to express the truth of his words and impart this truth in a down @-@ to @-@ earth manner that could be understood by his listeners .
Swift believed that a preacher had to be understood , and states , " For a divine hath nothing to say to the wisest congregation of any parish in this kingdom , which he may not express in a manner to be understood by the meanest among them . " He elaborates further when he says , " The two principal branches of preaching , are first to tell the people what is their duty ; and then to convince them that it is so . "
Shortly before his death , Swift gave the collection of 35 sermons to Dr. Thomas Sheridan , saying , " You may have them if you please ; they maybe of use to you , they never were of any to me . " In 1744 , George Faulkner , the Dublin publisher of Swift 's 1735 Works , printed the sermons entitled " On Mutual Subjection , " " On Conscience , " and " On the Trinity . "
= = Surviving sermons = =
There are twelve surviving sermons that have been collected , and each sermon was introduced with a corresponding scriptural passage and the following prayer given by Swift :
Almighty and most merciful God ! forgive us all our sins . Give us grace heartily to repent them , and to lead new lives . Graft in our hearts a true love and veneration for thy holy name and word . Make thy pastors burning and shining lights , able to convince gainsayers , and to save others and themselves . Bless this congregation here met together in thy name ; grant them to hear and receive thy holy word , to the salvation of their own souls . Lastly , we desire to return thee praise and thanksgiving for all thy mercies bestowed upon us ; but chiefly for the Fountain of them all , Jesus Christ our Lord , in whose name and words we further call upon thee , saying , ' Our Father , ' & c . "
The order of the sermons is presented according to the 1763 Sermons of the Reverend Dr. Jonathan Swift " carefully corrected " edition , which published the first nine of the twelve known sermons .
= = = On the Trinity = = =
Its introductory passage from scripture comes from First Epistle of John 5 : 7 – " For there are three that bear record in Heaven , the Father , the Word , and the Holy Ghost ; and these Three are One . "
Swift relies on 1 Corinthians in this sermon , but unlike other uses by Swift of 1 Corinthians , his use of the epistle in " On the Trinity " describe man 's inability to understand the complex workings of God . Swift states " Behold I show you a mystery ; we shall not all sleep , but we shall all be changed . " The primarily use of this sermon is to describe the divine mysteries in a simple manner ; Swift is not giving answers to the mysteries , but only explaining how Christians are to understand them . Swift attempts to describe the ambiguous nature of the Trinity and how many should understand it when he says :
Therefore I shall again repeat the doctrine of the Trinity , as it is positively affirmed in Scripture : that God is there expressed in three different names , as Father , as Son , and as Holy Ghost : that each of these is God , and that there is but one God . But this union and distinction are a mystery utterly unknown to mankind .
Although Swift constantly answers moral problems with common sense and reason , Swift believed that reason cannot be used when it comes to the divine mysteries . Instead , faith is all that man needs and , as Swift claims :
This is enough for any good Christian to believe on this great article , without ever inquiring any farther : And , this can be contrary to no man 's reason , although the knowledge of it is hid from him .
= = = On Mutual Subjection = = =
" On Mutual Subjection " was first given on 28 February 1718 , and it was first printed in 1744 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from First Epistle of Peter 5 : 5 – " --Yea , all of you be subject one to another . "
The sermon relies on scripture to emphasise the divine will in calling people to serve their fellow men , which is a common theme in Swift 's sermons . This calling , as Swift claims , is based on historical events that reinforce scripture and allow mankind to know of the divine will . In particular , the development of the state and of the human body are parallel to each other , and England may soon be entering into a decline . However , Swift emphasises that man is imperfect , and that sin is a symbol of this imperfectness .
Swift summarises this message with the Parable of the Talents as he says :
God sent us into the world to obey His commands , by doing as much good as our abilities will reach , and as little evil as our many infirmities will permit . Some He hath only trusted with one talent , some with five , and some with ten . No man is without his talent ; and he that is faithful or negligent in a little shall be rewarded or punished , as well as he that hath been so in a great deal . " To this John Boyle , Lord Orrery states , " A clearer style , or a discourse more properly adapted to a public audience , can scarce be framed . Every paragraph is simple , nervous , and intelligible . The threads of each argument are closely connected and logically pursued .
Although the sermon deals primarily with subjection to higher powers , some of Swift 's contemporaries viewed the sermon as political propaganda . John Evans , Bishop of Meath , told the Archbishop of Canterbury that he heard " a strange sermon ... It was somewhat like one of Montaigne 's essays , making very free with all orders and degrees of men among us – lords , bishops , & c. men in power . The pretended subjects were pride and humiliation . " He later continued to claim that " in short , [ Swift ] is thought to be Tory ... all over , which ( here ) is reckon 'd by every honest man Jacobite . "
However , Evans may have overly emphasised a political interpretation of the sermon for his own political gain ; the see of Derry had just opened and Evans wished to have his friend William Nicolson take the position . Evans ' political intrigue provoked Swift during an inspection of the clergy of Meath at Trim . Swift , as vicar of Laracor spoke during a synod to defend himself , his sermons , and his politics , and instead of resolving the issue , only caused more dispute between the two .
The emphasis on religious unity , also found in " On the Wisdom of this World " , comes from Swift 's understanding of St. Paul 's treatment of religious dissension among the early Christians . Paul 's words , " that there should be no schism in the body " , were important in the formation of this sermon , and served as part of Swift 's encouragement to the people of Ireland to follow the same religion .
= = = On the Testimony of Conscience = = =
" On the Testimony of Conscience " was first printed in 1744 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from 2 Corinthians 1 : 12 – " For our rejoicing is this , the testimony of our conscience . " Part of the sermon relied on discussing the nature of rewards and punishments to come in the afterlife .
Religious dissension is the topic of this sermon and argues that dissenters do not want to embrace freedom , but instead exist only to destroy established Churches , especially the Church of Ireland . In the sermon , Swift conflates all dissenters with the Whig political party , and they are " those very persons , who under a pretence of a public spirit and tenderness towards their Christian brethrene , are so jealous for such a liberty of conscience as this , are of all others the least tender to those who differ from them in the smallest point relating to government . " To Swift , tolerating dissent is the same as tolerating blasphemy .
The work is filled with innuendo towards the rule of King George and his toleration of Whigs and dissenters as tyrannical ; Swift claims that a leader who tolerates religious dissenters was like a " heathen Emperor , who said , if the gods were offended , it was their own concern , and they were able to vindicate themselves . " To Swift , such leaders would eventually lose power , because God 's divine will manifests itself in historic outcomes .
In particular , Swift relies on a quote from Tiberius , as reported by Tacitus , to describe the " heathen " thoughts . Swift relied on Tiberius ' quote when mocking leaders who would undermine religious unity or those who were completely opposed to Christianity , such as in An Argument against Abolishing Christianity . Swift believed in the need for citizens to be required to follow Anglican religious practices and to honor the king as head of the Church , and a king who would who did not believe in the same could be nothing less than pagan .
Part of the sermon is dedicated to comparing the actions of the Irish church , in its struggle against religious dissenters and political uncertainty , with that of the primitive church . In particular , Swift claims , " For a man 's Conscience can go no higher than his Knowledge ; and therefore until he has thoroughly examined by Scripture , and the practice of the ancient Church , whether those points are blamable or no , his Conscience cannot possibly direct him to condemn them . " However , Swift does not believe that experience alone could make one capable of understanding virtue or being capable of teaching virtue .
Regardless of the innuendo about Roman religious tyranny or comparisons to early Christian history , the sermon is given , as Ehrenpreis claims , with an " air of simplicity , frankness , common sense , and spontaneity " that " disarms the listener . " This sermon , in its plain language , is able to convey Swift 's message in a manner that could be seen as contradictory if it was embellished by history , allusions , or complex reasoning .
= = = On Brotherly Love = = =
" On Brotherly Love " was given on 29 November 1717 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Hebrews 8 : 1 – " Let brotherly love continue . "
Although Swift is preaching on " brotherly love " , he dwells on the topic of true religion and political dissent , and he uses his sermon to preach against those who are politically and religiously different from himself and the members of St. Patrick 's community . He introduces this claim when he says :
This nation of ours hath , for an hundred years past , been infested by two enemies , the Papists and fanatics , who , each in their turns , filled it with blood and slaughter , and , for a time , destroyed both the Church and government . The memory of these events hath put all true Protestants equally upon their guard against both these adversaries , who , by consequence , do equally hate us . The fanatics revile us , as too nearly approaching to Popery ; and the Papists condemn us , as bordering too much on fanaticism . The Papists , God be praised , are , by the wisdom of our laws , put out of all visible possibility of hurting us ; besides , their religion is so generally abhorred , that they have no advocates or abettors among Protestants to assist them . But the fanatics are to be considered in another light ; they have had of late years the power , the luck , or the cunning , to divide us among ourselves ;
Throughout this sermon , Swift emphasises that history is connected to the divine will throughout this sermon to criticise those who dissent . For example :
And others again , whom God had formed with mild and gentle dispositions , think it necessary to put a force upon their own tempers , by acting a noisy , violent , malicious part , as a means to be distinguished . Thus hath party got the better of the very genius and constitution of our people ; so that whoever reads the character of the English in former ages , will hardly believe their present posterity to be of the same nation or climate .
This work was printed and distributed as a solo tract in 1754 .
= = = On the Difficulty of Knowing One 's Self = = =
Although " On the Difficulty of Knowing One 's Self " was printed in 1745 along with some of Swift 's other sermons , its authorship is not completely established , since the original printing of the work came with the following disclaimer :
The manuscript title page of the following sermon being lost , and no memorandum writ upon it , as there were upon the others , when and where it was preached , made the editor doubtful whether he should print it as the Dean 's , or not . But its being found amongst the same papers ; and the hand , though writ somewhat better , bearing a great similitude to the Dean 's , made him willing to lay it before the public , that they might judge whether the style and manner also does not render it still more probable to be his . "
The sermon deals with the issues of understanding one 's self and how to act towards others in a Christian manner . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from 2 Kings 8 : 13 - " And Hazael said , But what , is thy servant a dog , that he should do this great thing ? " and the sermon concludes with the golden rule :
let him keep an eye upon that one great comprehensive rule of Christian duty , on which hangs , not only the law and the prophets , but the very life and spirit of the Gospel too : " Whatsoever ye would that men should do unto you , do ye even so unto them . " Which rule , that we may all duly observe , by throwing aside all scandal and detraction , all spite and rancour , all rudeness and contempt , all rage and violence , and whatever tends to make conversation and commerce either uneasy , or troublesome , may the God of peace grant for Jesus Christ his sake , & c .
Swift relies on Gospel of Matthew in this sermon ( Swift quotes from the Sermon on the Mount , Matthew 7 : 12 ) instead of the other Gospels ; this is standard practice for Swift , because the Gospel features a simple , non @-@ controversial history that complements Swift 's religious views .
= = = On False Witness = = =
" On False Witness " was given in 1715 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Exodus 20 : 16 – " Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neighbour . "
This sermon deals primarily with the topic of informers ; an informer had produced evidence that Swift was breaching King George 's order against preachers involving themselves in political matters . Swift , as a Tory propagandist , had been sent a package from another Tory ; the package was intercepted by a customs officer and it put Swift into hot water from the Whig politicians in power at the time . The sermon was used to attack those who " catch up an accidental word " and misstate situations to hurt others . Swift alludes to such people when he says :
Such witnesses are those who cannot hear an idle intemperate expression , but they must immediately run to the magistrate to inform ; or perhaps wrangling in their cups over night , when they were not able to speak or apprehend three words of common sense , will pretend to remember everything the next morning , and think themselves very properly qualified to be accusers of their brethren . God be thanked , the throne of our King is too firmly settled to be shaken by the folly and rashness of every sottish companion .
Half of the sermon is used to criticise the Whigs and their political activities . The other half is devoted to condemning Tories who betray other Tories as criminals , to gain favour with the Whigs . The Whigs are characterised as the persecutors of the early Christians , and betraying Tories are characterised as apostates .
Although King George I had issued a royal edict against speaking about political informers in regards to potential Jacobite rebellion , Swift felt that the issue was necessary to not only defend himself , but to defend all politically @-@ oppressed people . Immediately after the sermon , Prime Minister Robert Walpole used his power to form " The Committee of Secrecy " and deemed that Swift 's allies , Lord Bolingbroke , Lord Oxford , Lord Strafford , and Duke Ormonde would be sent to the Tower of London . However , Lord Bolingbroke and Duke Ormonde fled to France , and Oxford was taken to the Tower . This placed Swift at a political disadvantage , but he was mostly ignored .
= = = On the Poor Man 's Contentment = = =
Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Epistle to the Philippians 4 : 11 – " I have learned , in whatsoever state I am , therewith to be content " .
In this sermon , Swift was worried about how guilt affects mankind or how the lack of guilt is a sign of mankind 's problems : " the Shortness of his Life ; his Dread of a future State , with his Carelessness to prepare for it . " He explains this :
And , it is a mistake to think , that the most hardened sinner , who oweth his possessions or titles to any such wicked arts of thieving , can have true peace of mind , under the reproaches of a guilty conscience , and amid the cries of ruined widows and orphans .
Swift is trying to convince his listeners that they needed to contemplate their life and their death , and that they need to understand the rewards and punishments that await them in the afterlife . He emphasises this point when he explains the importance of meekness and modesty :
Since our blessed Lord , instead of a rich and honourable station in this world , was pleased to choose his lot among men of the lower condition ; let not those , on whom the bounty of Providence hath bestowed wealth and honours , despise the men who are placed in a humble and inferior station ; but rather , with their utmost power , by their countenance , by their protection , by just payment of their honest labour , encourage their daily endeavours for the support of themselves and their families . On the other hand , let the poor labour to provide things honest in the sight of all men ; and so , with diligence in their several employments , live soberly , righteously , and godlily in this present world , that they may obtain that glorious reward promised in the Gospel to the poor , I mean the kingdom of Heaven .
But it is not just knowing your own fate in the afterlife , but also recognising the good in others and respecting that good .
= = = On the Wretched Condition of Ireland = = =
The sermon is properly titled " A Sermon on the Wretched Conditions of Ireland " . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Psalms 144 : 14 – 15 – " That there be no complaining in our streets . Happy is the people that is in such a case . "
This sermon has been characterised as being particularly grounded in politics , and Swift sums up many of the political issues that he had previously addressed in pamphlets and essays . The solution to fixing the misery of the Irish people is :
to found a school in every parish of the kingdom , for teaching the meaner and poorer sort of children to speak and read the English tongue , and to provide a reasonable maintenance for the teachers . This would , in time , abolish that part of barbarity and ignorance , for which our natives are so despised by all foreigners : this would bring them to think and act according to the rules of reason , by which a spirit of industry , and thrift , and honesty would be introduced among them . And , indeed , considering how small a tax would suffice for such a work , it is a public scandal that such a thing should never have been endeavoured , or , perhaps , so much as thought on .
However , lack of education is not the only problem for Ireland ; many problems come from the vices of the Irish citizenry . These vices span the way of dress to the inactivity of the common person . To correct the problems of Ireland , Swift emphasises the need for his people to contribute to various charities , and concludes :
I might here , if the time would permit , offer many arguments to persuade to works of charity ; but you hear them so often from the pulpit , that I am willing to hope you may not now want them . Besides , my present design was only to shew where your alms would be best bestowed , to the honour of God , your own ease and advantage , the service of your country , and the benefit of the poor . I desire you will all weigh and consider what I have spoken , and , according to your several stations and abilities , endeavour to put it in practice ;
Some critics have seen Swift as hopeless in regards to actual change for Ireland . The rich could never change from their absentee landlord mentality that has stripped Ireland of its economic independence , and that is why Swift spends the majority of his sermon discussing the poor . Swift proposes a remedy of sorts that would help the poor ; they should be educated and the free travel of beggars should be restricted . These ideas were intended to limit the amount that the poor consumed in society , which , combined with a proposal for the poor to act more virtuously , should correct many of the problems that plague Ireland , but these ideas were never put into effect .
= = = On Sleeping in Church = = =
Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Acts of the Apostles 20 : 9 – " And there sat in a window a certain young man , named Eutychus , being fallen into a deep sleep ; and as Paul was long preaching , he sunk down with sleep , and fell down from the third loft , and was taken up dead . "
In this sermon , Swift criticises a " decay " in preaching that has led to people falling asleep in church . Throughout the Sermon , Swift constantly relies on the Parable of the Sower . Swift emphasises the wording of St. Matthew when he says , " whose Hearts are waxed gross , whose Ears are dulled of hearing , and whose eyes are closed , " and he uses " eyes are closed " to connect back to those sleeping in Church .
People not attending Church is another problem addressed in the sermon . Swift states :
Many men come to church to save or gain a reputation ; or because they will not be singular , but comply with an established custom ; yet , all the while , they are loaded with the guilt of old rooted sins . These men can expect to hear of nothing but terrors and threatenings , their sins laid open in true colours , and eternal misery the reward of them ; therefore , no wonder they stop their ears , and divert their thoughts , and seek any amusement rather than stir the hell within them . "
He describes these people as :
Men whose minds are much enslaved to earthly affairs all the week , cannot disengage or break the chain of their thoughts so suddenly , as to apply to a discourse that is wholly foreign to what they have most at heart . "
The people are unwilling to be confronted by the results of their actions in the afterlife , and it is this problem that Swift wants to prevent .
= = = On the Wisdom of this World = = =
" On the Wisdom of this World " was originally titled " A Sermon upon the Excellence of Christianity in Opposition to Heathen Philosophy " in the 1765 edition of Swift 's Works . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from I Corinthians 3 : 19 – " The wisdom of this world is foolishness with God . " This sermon emphasises the nature of rewards and punishments , and how such aspects of Christianity had been lacking in the classical philosophies .
Except for The Gospel of St. Matthew , Swift relied on I Corinthians more than any other Biblical book . I Corinthians was a favourite work for Swift to rely on , because the epistle emphasises how to act as a proper Christian and how to conform to united principles . Although the Anglican mass emphasises the Epistle to the Romans , Swift relied on Corinthians in order to combat religious schismatic tendencies in a similar manner to his criticism of dissenters in " On Mutual Subjection " .
However , a second aspect of I Corinthians also enters into the sermon ; Swift relies on it to promote the idea that reason can be used to comprehend the world , but " excellency of speech " is false when it comes to knowledge about the divine . To this , Swift said , " we must either believe what God directly commandeth us in Holy Scripture , or we must wholly reject the Scripture , and the Christian Religion which we pretend to confess " .
= = = On Doing Good = = =
" On Doing Good : A Sermon on the Occasion of Wood 's Project " was given in 1724 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Galatians 6 : 10 - " As we have therefore opportunity , let us do good unto all men . "
It is unsure when the sermon was actually given , but some critics suggest it was read immediately following the publication of Swift 's Letter to the Whole People of Ireland while others place it in October 1724 .
According to Sophie Smith , Swift 's " On Doing Good " sermon is about a patriotic ideal that is " higher than most ideals published in text @-@ books on that subject . " " On Doing Good " calls the people to act on a higher level of ethics , which Smith describes as " Baconian " .
Smith claims that Swift discusses this ideal when he says :
Under the title of our neighbour , there is yet a duty of a more large , extensive nature incumbent on us – our love to our neighbour is his public capacity , as he is a member of that greatly body , the Commonwealth , under the same government with ourselves , and this is usually called love of the public , and is a duty to which we are more strictly obliged than even that of loving ourselves , because wherein ourselves are also contained – as well as all our neighbours – is one great body .
And :
But here I would not be misunderstood . By the love of our country , I do not mean loyalty to our King , for that is a duty of another nature , and a man may be very loyal , in the common sense of the word , without one grain of public good in his heart . Witness this very kingdom we live in . I verily believe , that since the beginning of the world , no nation upon earth ever shewed ( all circumstances considered ) , such high constant marks of loyalty in all their action and behaviour as we have done ; and at the same time , no people ever appeared more utterly void of what is called public spirit ... therefore , I shall think my time not ill @-@ spent if I can persuade most and all of you who hear me , to shew the love you have for your country by endeavouring in your several situations to do all the public good you can . For I am certain persuaded that all our misfortunes arise from no other original cause than that general disregard among us to the public welfare .
Swift felt that it was his duty as Dean to raise the " Irish self @-@ esteem " to liberate the Irish from English economic oppression .
Beyond basic " self @-@ esteem " issues , Swift used the sermon to reinforce the moral arguments incorporated into the Drapier 's Letters with religious doctrine and biblical authority . One image , that of Nineveh and Nimrod , appears in both the sermon and the letters . Nimrod represents Ireland 's desire to coin its own currency and he is a warning to the English that Ireland will not tolerate England 's despotic control . Furthermore , the use of " Nineveh " reinforces Swift 's claim that Ireland is under " God 's special providence " .
Because of the correlation between this sermon and the Drapier 's Letters , Swift remarked , " I never preached but twice in my life ; and then they were not sermons , but pamphlets .... They were against Wood 's halfpence . " Even if this sermon was more of a pamphlet , Swift emphasises the divine will and how it guides history . Like the Drapier 's Letters , " On Doing Good " caused the Irish people to respect Swift as a hero and a patriot .
= = = On the Martyrdom of King Charles I = = =
" On the Martyrdom of King Charles I " was given on 30 January 1725 . Its introductory passage from scripture comes from Genesis 49 : 5 – 7 –
Simeon and Levi are brethren ; instruments of cruelty are in their habitations . / O my soul , come not thou into their secret ; unto their assembly , mine honour , be not thou united : for in their anger they slew a man , and in their self @-@ will they digged down a wall . / Cursed be their anger , for it was fierce ; and their wrath , for it was cruel . I will divide them in Jacob , and scatter them in Israel .
The letter served two purposes : the first was to honour the martyrdom of King Charles I and the second was to criticise dissenters against the Church of Ireland . Swift emphasises both when he says :
I know very well , that the Church hath been often censured for keeping holy this day of humiliation , in memory of that excellent king and blessed martyr , Charles I , who rather chose to die on a scaffold , than betray the religion and liberties of his people , wherewith God and the laws had entrusted him . "
To Swift , the dissent that led to King Charles I 's martyrdom defied God 's divine will .
Swift concludes his sermon with :
On the other side , some look upon kings as answerable for every mistake or omission in government , and bound to comply with the most unreasonable demands of an unquiet faction ; which was the case of those who persecuted the blessed Martyr of this day from his throne to the scaffold . Between these two extremes , it is easy , from what hath been said , to choose a middle ; to be good and loyal subjects , yet , according to your power , faithful assertors of your religion and liberties ; to avoid all broachers and preachers of newfangled doctrines in the Church ; to be strict observers of the laws , which cannot be justly taken from you without your own consent : In short , ' to obey God and the King , and meddle not with those who are given to change.'
= = Reception = =
Lord Orrery favourably described that some of Swift 's sermons were more properly moral or political essays . Lord Orrery prefaced the 1763 edition of The Sermons with :
These Sermons are curious ; and curious for such reason as would make other works despicable . They were written in a careless hurrying manner ; and were the offspring of necessity , not of choice : so that one will see the original force of the Dean 's genius more in these compositions , that were the legitimate sons of duty , than in other pieces that were natural sons of love .
The Bishop of Meath , John Evans , agreed with Lord Orrery 's critique of the sermons as political works , and he compared a sermon to the writing of Montaigne .
Sir Walter Scott wrote :
The Sermons of Swift have none of that thunder which appals , or that resistless and winning softness which melts , the hearts of an audience . He can never have enjoyed the triumph of uniting hundreds in one ardent sentiment of love , of terror , or of devotion . His reasoning , however powerful , and indeed unanswerable , convinces the understanding , but is never addressed to the heart ; and , indeed , from his instructions to a young clergyman , he seems hardly to have considered pathos as a legitimate ingredient in an English sermon . Occasionally , too , Swift 's misanthropic habits break out even from the pulpit ; nor is he altogether able to suppress his disdain of those fellow mortals , on whose behalf was accomplished the great work of redemption . With such unamiable feelings towards his hearers , the preacher might indeed command their respect , but could never excite their sympathy . It may be feared that his Sermons were less popular from another cause , imputable more to the congregation than to the pastor . Swift spared not the vice of rich or poor ; and , disdaining to amuse the imaginations of his audience with discussion of dark points of divinity , or warm them by a flow of sentimental devotion , he rushes at once to the point of moral depravity , and upbraids them with their favourite and predominant vices in a tone of stern reproof , bordering upon reproach . In short , he tears the bandages from their wounds , like the hasty surgeon of a crowded hospital , and applies the incision knife and caustic with salutary , but rough and untamed severity . But , alas ! the mind must be already victorious over the worst of its evil propensities , that can profit by this harsh medicine . There is a principle of opposition in our nature , which mans itself with obstinacy even against avowed truth , when it approaches our feelings in a harsh and insulting manner . And Swift was probably sensible , that his discourses , owing to these various causes , did not produce the powerful effects most grateful to the feelings of the preacher , because they reflect back to him those of the audience .
But although the Sermons of Swift are deficient in eloquence , and were lightly esteemed by their author , they must not be undervalued by the modern reader . They exhibit , in an eminent degree , that powerful grasp of intellect which distinguished the author above all his contemporaries . In no religious discourses can be found more sound good sense , more happy and forcible views of the immediate subject . The reasoning is not only irresistible , but managed in a mode so simple and clear , that its force is obvious to the most ordinary capacity . Upon all subjects of morality , the preacher maintains the character of a rigid and inflexible monitor ; neither admitting apology for that which is wrong , nor softening the difficulty of adhering to that which is right ; a stern stoicism of doctrine , that may fail in finding many converts , but leads to excellence in the few manly minds who dare to embrace it . In treating the doctrinal points of belief , ( as in his Sermon upon the Trinity , ) Swift systematically refuses to quit the high and pre @-@ eminent ground which the defender of Christianity is entitled to occupy , or to submit to the test of human reason , mysteries which are placed , by their very nature , far beyond our finite capacities . Swift considered , that , in religion , as in profane science , there must be certain ultimate laws which are to be received as fundamental truths , although we are incapable of defining or analysing their nature ; and he censures those divines , who , in presumptuous confidence of their own logical powers , enter into controversy upon such mysteries of faith , without considering that they give thereby the most undue advantage to the infidel . Our author wisely and consistently declared reason an incompetent judge of doctrines , of which God had declared the fact , concealing from man the manner . He contended , that he who , upon the whole , receives the Christian religion as of divine inspiration , must be contented to depend upon God 's truth , and his holy word , and receive with humble faith the mysteries which are too high for comprehension . Above all , Swift points out , with his usual forcible precision , the mischievous tendency of those investigations which , while they assail one fundamental doctrine of the Christian religion , shake and endanger the whole fabric , destroy the settled faith of thousands , pervert and mislead the genius of the learned and acute , destroy and confound the religious principles of the simple and ignorant .
Scott 's contemporary Edmund Burke said concerning Swift 's sermon on " Doing Good , " :
The pieces relating to Ireland are those of a public nature ; in which the Dean appears , as usual , in the best light , because they do honour to his heart as well as to his head ; furnishing some additional proofs , that , though he was very free in his abuse of the inhabitants of that country , as well natives as foreigners , he had their interest sincerely at heart , and perfectly understood it . His sermon upon Doing Good , though peculiarly adapted to Ireland and Wood 's designs upon it , contains perhaps the best motives to patriotism that were ever delivered within so small a compass .
= = In Swift 's later works = =
Aspects of " On False Witness " are used by Gulliver in his attack against informers .
" On Doing Good " is alluded to in the Drapier 's fifth letter .
" On Doing Good " is mentioned in the Drapier 's sixth letter when he states , " I did very lately , as I thought it my duty , preach to the people under my inspection , upon the subject of Mr. Wood 's coin ; and although I never heard that my sermon gave the least offence , as I am sure none was intended ; yet , if it were now printed and published , I cannot say , I would insure it from the hands of the common hangman ; or my own person from those of a messenger . "
= Electricity =
Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge . Electricity gives a wide variety of well @-@ known effects , such as lightning , static electricity , electromagnetic induction and electric current . In addition , electricity permits the creation and reception of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves .
In electricity , charges produce electromagnetic fields which act on other charges . Electricity occurs due to several types of physics :
electric charge : a property of some subatomic particles , which determines their electromagnetic interactions . Electrically charged matter is influenced by , and produces , electromagnetic fields , electric charges can be positive or negative .
electric field ( see electrostatics ) : charges are surrounded by an electric field . The electric field produces a force on other charges . Changes in the electric field travel at the speed of light .
electric potential : the capacity of an electric field to do work on an electric charge , typically measured in volts .
electric current : a movement or flow of electrically charged particles , typically measured in amperes .
electromagnets : Moving charges produce a magnetic field . Electric currents generate magnetic fields , and changing magnetic fields generate electric currents .
In electrical engineering , electricity is used for :
electric power where electric current is used to energise equipment ;
electronics which deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes , transistors , diodes and integrated circuits , and associated passive interconnection technologies .
Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity , though progress in theoretical understanding remained slow until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries . Even then , practical applications for electricity were few , and it would not be until the late nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use . The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry and society . Electricity 's extraordinary versatility means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport , heating , lighting , communications , and computation . Electrical power is now the backbone of modern industrial society .
= = History = =
Long before any knowledge of electricity existed , people were aware of shocks from electric fish . Ancient Egyptian texts dating from 2750 BCE referred to these fish as the " Thunderer of the Nile " , and described them as the " protectors " of all other fish . Electric fish were again reported millennia later by ancient Greek , Roman and Arabic naturalists and physicians . Several ancient writers , such as Pliny the Elder and Scribonius Largus , attested to the numbing effect of electric shocks delivered by catfish and electric rays , and knew that such shocks could travel along conducting objects . Patients suffering from ailments such as gout or headache were directed to touch electric fish in the hope that the powerful jolt might cure them . Possibly the earliest and nearest approach to the discovery of the identity of lightning , and electricity from any other source , is to be attributed to the Arabs , who before the 15th century had the Arabic word for lightning ( raad ) applied to the electric ray .
Ancient cultures around the Mediterranean knew that certain objects , such as rods of amber , could be rubbed with cat 's fur to attract light objects like feathers . Thales of Miletus made a series of observations on static electricity around 600 BCE , from which he believed that friction rendered amber magnetic , in contrast to minerals such as magnetite , which needed no rubbing . Thales was incorrect in believing the attraction was due to a magnetic effect , but later science would prove a link between magnetism and electricity . According to a controversial theory , the Parthians may have had knowledge of electroplating , based on the 1936 discovery of the Baghdad Battery , which resembles a galvanic cell , though it is uncertain whether the artifact was electrical in nature .
Electricity would remain little more than an intellectual curiosity for millennia until 1600 , when the English scientist William Gilbert made a careful study of electricity and magnetism , distinguishing the lodestone effect from static electricity produced by rubbing amber . He coined the New Latin word electricus ( " of amber " or " like amber " , from ἤλεκτρον , elektron , the Greek word for " amber " ) to refer to the property of attracting small objects after being rubbed . This association gave rise to the English words " electric " and " electricity " , which made their first appearance in print in Thomas Browne 's Pseudodoxia Epidemica of 1646 .
Further work was conducted by Otto von Guericke , Robert Boyle , Stephen Gray and C. F. du Fay . In the 18th century , Benjamin Franklin conducted extensive research in electricity , selling his possessions to fund his work . In June 1752 he is reputed to have attached a metal key to the bottom of a dampened kite string and flown the kite in a storm @-@ threatened sky . A succession of sparks jumping from the key to the back of his hand showed that lightning was indeed electrical in nature . He also explained the apparently paradoxical behavior of the Leyden jar as a device for storing large amounts of electrical charge in terms of electricity consisting of both positive and negative charges .
In 1791 , Luigi Galvani published his discovery of bioelectromagnetics , demonstrating that electricity was the medium by which neurons passed signals to the muscles . Alessandro Volta 's battery , or voltaic pile , of 1800 , made from alternating layers of zinc and copper , provided scientists with a more reliable source of electrical energy than the electrostatic machines previously used . The recognition of electromagnetism , the unity of electric and magnetic phenomena , is due to Hans Christian Ørsted and André @-@ Marie Ampère in 1819 @-@ 1820 ; Michael Faraday invented the electric motor in 1821 , and Georg Ohm mathematically analysed the electrical circuit in 1827 . Electricity and magnetism ( and light ) were definitively linked by James Clerk Maxwell , in particular in his " On Physical Lines of Force " in 1861 and 1862 .
While the early 19th century had seen rapid progress in electrical science , the late 19th century would see the greatest progress in electrical engineering . Through such people as Alexander Graham Bell , Ottó Bláthy , Thomas Edison , Galileo Ferraris , Oliver Heaviside , Ányos Jedlik , William Thomson , 1st Baron Kelvin , Charles Algernon Parsons , Werner von Siemens , Joseph Swan , Nikola Tesla and George Westinghouse , electricity turned from a scientific curiosity into an essential tool for modern life , becoming a driving force of the Second Industrial Revolution .
In 1887 , Heinrich Hertz discovered that electrodes illuminated with ultraviolet light create electric sparks more easily . In 1905 Albert Einstein published a paper that explained experimental data from the photoelectric effect as being the result of light energy being carried in discrete quantized packets , energising electrons . This discovery led to the quantum revolution . Einstein was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1921 for " his discovery of the law of the photoelectric effect " . The photoelectric effect is also employed in photocells such as can be found in solar panels and this is frequently used to make electricity commercially .
The first solid @-@ state device was the " cat 's @-@ whisker detector " first used in the 1900s in radio receivers . A whisker @-@ like wire is placed lightly in contact with a solid crystal ( such as a germanium crystal ) in order to detect a radio signal by the contact junction effect . In a solid @-@ state component , the current is confined to solid elements and compounds engineered specifically to switch and amplify it . Current flow can be understood in two forms : as negatively charged electrons , and as positively charged electron deficiencies called holes . These charges and holes are understood in terms of quantum physics . The building material is most often a crystalline semiconductor .
The solid @-@ state device came into its own with the invention of the transistor in 1947 . Common solid @-@ state devices include transistors , microprocessor chips , and RAM . A specialized type of RAM called flash RAM is used in USB flash drives and more recently , solid @-@ state drives to replace mechanically rotating magnetic disc hard disk drives . Solid state devices became prevalent in the 1950s and the 1960s , during the transition from vacuum tubes to semiconductor diodes , transistors , integrated circuit ( IC ) and the light @-@ emitting diode ( LED ) .
= = Concepts = =
= = = Electric charge = = =
The presence of charge gives rise to an electrostatic force : charges exert a force on each other , an effect that was known , though not understood , in antiquity . A lightweight ball suspended from a string can be charged by touching it with a glass rod that has itself been charged by rubbing with a cloth . If a similar ball is charged by the same glass rod , it is found to repel the first : the charge acts to force the two balls apart . Two balls that are charged with a rubbed amber rod also repel each other . However , if one ball is charged by the glass rod , and the other by an amber rod , the two balls are found to attract each other . These phenomena were investigated in the late eighteenth century by Charles @-@ Augustin de Coulomb , who deduced that charge manifests itself in two opposing forms . This discovery led to the well @-@ known axiom : like @-@ charged objects repel and opposite @-@ charged objects attract .
The force acts on the charged particles themselves , hence charge has a tendency to spread itself as evenly as possible over a conducting surface . The magnitude of the electromagnetic force , whether attractive or repulsive , is given by Coulomb 's law , which relates the force to the product of the charges and has an inverse @-@ square relation to the distance between them . The electromagnetic force is very strong , second only in strength to the strong interaction , but unlike that force it operates over all distances . In comparison with the much weaker gravitational force , the electromagnetic force pushing two electrons apart is 1042 times that of the gravitational attraction pulling them together .
Study has shown that the origin of charge is from certain types of subatomic particles which have the property of electric charge . Electric charge gives rise to and interacts with the electromagnetic force , one of the four fundamental forces of nature . The most familiar carriers of electrical charge are the electron and proton . Experiment has shown charge to be a conserved quantity , that is , the net charge within an isolated system will always remain constant regardless of any changes taking place within that system . Within the system , charge may be transferred between bodies , either by direct contact , or by passing along a conducting material , such as a wire . The informal term static electricity refers to the net presence ( or ' imbalance ' ) of charge on a body , usually caused when dissimilar materials are rubbed together , transferring charge from one to the other .
The charge on electrons and protons is opposite in sign , hence an amount of charge may be expressed as being either negative or positive . By convention , the charge carried by electrons is deemed negative , and that by protons positive , a custom that originated with the work of Benjamin Franklin . The amount of charge is usually given the symbol Q and expressed in coulombs ; each electron carries the same charge of approximately − 1 @.@ 6022 × 10 − 19 coulomb . The proton has a charge that is equal and opposite , and thus + 1 @.@ 6022 × 10 − 19 coulomb . Charge is possessed not just by matter , but also by antimatter , each antiparticle bearing an equal and opposite charge to its corresponding particle .
Charge can be measured by a number of means , an early instrument being the gold @-@ leaf electroscope , which although still in use for classroom demonstrations , has been superseded by the electronic electrometer .
= = = Electric current = = =
The movement of electric charge is known as an electric current , the intensity of which is usually measured in amperes . Current can consist of any moving charged particles ; most commonly these are electrons , but any charge in motion constitutes a current .
By historical convention , a positive current is defined as having the same direction of flow as any positive charge it contains , or to flow from the most positive part of a circuit to the most negative part . Current defined in this manner is called conventional current . The motion of negatively charged electrons around an electric circuit , one of the most familiar forms of current , is thus deemed positive in the opposite direction to that of the electrons . However , depending on the conditions , an electric current can consist of a flow of charged particles in either direction , or even in both directions at once . The positive @-@ to @-@ negative convention is widely used to simplify this situation .
The process by which electric current passes through a material is termed electrical conduction , and its nature varies with that of the charged particles and the material through which they are travelling . Examples of electric currents include metallic conduction , where electrons flow through a conductor such as metal , and electrolysis , where ions ( charged atoms ) flow through liquids , or through plasmas such as electrical sparks . While the particles themselves can move quite slowly , sometimes with an average drift velocity only fractions of a millimetre per second , the electric field that drives them itself propagates at close to the speed of light , enabling electrical signals to pass rapidly along wires .
Current causes several observable effects , which historically were the means of recognising its presence . That water could be decomposed by the current from a voltaic pile was discovered by Nicholson and Carlisle in 1800 , a process now known as electrolysis . Their work was greatly expanded upon by Michael Faraday in 1833 . Current through a resistance causes localised heating , an effect James Prescott Joule studied mathematically in 1840 . One of the most important discoveries relating to current was made accidentally by Hans Christian Ørsted in 1820 , when , while preparing a lecture , he witnessed the current in a wire disturbing the needle of a magnetic compass . He had discovered electromagnetism , a fundamental interaction between electricity and magnetics . The level of electromagnetic emissions generated by electric arcing is high enough to produce electromagnetic interference , which can be detrimental to the workings of adjacent equipment .
In engineering or household applications , current is often described as being either direct current ( DC ) or alternating current ( AC ) . These terms refer to how the current varies in time . Direct current , as produced by example from a battery and required by most electronic devices , is a unidirectional flow from the positive part of a circuit to the negative . If , as is most common , this flow is carried by electrons , they will be travelling in the opposite direction . Alternating current is any current that reverses direction repeatedly ; almost always this takes the form of a sine wave . Alternating current thus pulses back and forth within a conductor without the charge moving any net distance over time . The time @-@ averaged value of an alternating current is zero , but it delivers energy in first one direction , and then the reverse . Alternating current is affected by electrical properties that are not observed under steady state direct current , such as inductance and capacitance . These properties however can become important when circuitry is subjected to transients , such as when first energised .
= = = Electric field = = =
The concept of the electric field was introduced by Michael Faraday . An electric field is created by a charged body in the space that surrounds it , and results in a force exerted on any other charges placed within the field . The electric field acts between two charges in a similar manner to the way that the gravitational field acts between two masses , and like it , extends towards infinity and shows an inverse square relationship with distance . However , there is an important difference . Gravity always acts in attraction , drawing two masses together , while the electric field can result in either attraction or repulsion . Since large bodies such as planets generally carry no net charge , the electric field at a distance is usually zero . Thus gravity is the dominant force at distance in the universe , despite being much weaker .
An electric field generally varies in space , and its strength at any one point is defined as the force ( per unit charge ) that would be felt by a stationary , negligible charge if placed at that point . The conceptual charge , termed a ' test charge ' , must be vanishingly small to prevent its own electric field disturbing the main field and must also be stationary to prevent the effect of magnetic fields . As the electric field is defined in terms of force , and force is a vector , so it follows that an electric field is also a vector , having both magnitude and direction . Specifically , it is a vector field .
The study of electric fields created by stationary charges is called electrostatics . The field may be visualised by a set of imaginary lines whose direction at any point is the same as that of the field . This concept was introduced by Faraday , whose term ' lines of force ' still sometimes sees use . The field lines are the paths that a point positive charge would seek to make as it was forced to move within the field ; they are however an imaginary concept with no physical existence , and the field permeates all the intervening space between the lines . Field lines emanating from stationary charges have several key properties : first , that they originate at positive charges and terminate at negative charges ; second , that they must enter any good conductor at right angles , and third , that they may never cross nor close in on themselves .
A hollow conducting body carries all its charge on its outer surface . The field is therefore zero at all places inside the body . This is the operating principal of the Faraday cage , a conducting metal shell which isolates its interior from outside electrical effects .
The principles of electrostatics are important when designing items of high @-@ voltage equipment . There is a finite limit to the electric field strength that may be withstood by any medium . Beyond this point , electrical breakdown occurs and an electric arc causes flashover between the charged parts . Air , for example , tends to arc across small gaps at electric field strengths which exceed 30 kV per centimetre . Over larger gaps , its breakdown strength is weaker , perhaps 1 kV per centimetre . The most visible natural occurrence of this is lightning , caused when charge becomes separated in the clouds by rising columns of air , and raises the electric field in the air to greater than it can withstand . The voltage of a large lightning cloud may be as high as 100 MV and have discharge energies as great as 250 kWh .
The field strength is greatly affected by nearby conducting objects , and it is particularly intense when it is forced to curve around sharply pointed objects . This principle is exploited in the lightning conductor , the sharp spike of which acts to encourage the lightning stroke to develop there , rather than to the building it serves to protect
= = = Electric potential = = =
The concept of electric potential is closely linked to that of the electric field . A small charge placed within an electric field experiences a force , and to have brought that charge to that point against the force requires work . The electric potential at any point is defined as the energy required to bring a unit test charge from an infinite distance slowly to that point . It is usually measured in volts , and one volt is the potential for which one joule of work must be expended to bring a charge of one coulomb from infinity . This definition of potential , while formal , has little practical application , and a more useful concept is that of electric potential difference , and is the energy required to move a unit charge between two specified points . An electric field has the special property that it is conservative , which means that the path taken by the test charge is irrelevant : all paths between two specified points expend the same energy , and thus a unique value for potential difference may be stated . The volt is so strongly identified as the unit of choice for measurement and description of electric potential difference that the term voltage sees greater everyday usage .
For practical purposes , it is useful to define a common reference point to which potentials may be expressed and compared . While this could be at infinity , a much more useful reference is the Earth itself , which is assumed to be at the same potential everywhere . This reference point naturally takes the name earth or ground . Earth is assumed to be an infinite source of equal amounts of positive and negative charge , and is therefore electrically uncharged — and unchargeable .
Electric potential is a scalar quantity , that is , it has only magnitude and not direction . It may be viewed as analogous to height : just as a released object will fall through a difference in heights caused by a gravitational field , so a charge will ' fall ' across the voltage caused by an electric field . As relief maps show contour lines marking points of equal height , a set of lines marking points of equal potential ( known as equipotentials ) may be drawn around an electrostatically charged object . The equipotentials cross all lines of force at right angles . They must also lie parallel to a conductor 's surface , otherwise this would produce a force that will move the charge carriers to even the potential of the surface .
The electric field was formally defined as the force exerted per unit charge , but the concept of potential allows for a more useful and equivalent definition : the electric field is the local gradient of the electric potential . Usually expressed in volts per metre , the vector direction of the field is the line of greatest slope of potential , and where the equipotentials lie closest together .
= = = Electromagnets = = =
Ørsted 's discovery in 1821 that a magnetic field existed around all sides of a wire carrying an electric current indicated that there was a direct relationship between electricity and magnetism . Moreover , the interaction seemed different from gravitational and electrostatic forces , the two forces of nature then known . The force on the compass needle did not direct it to or away from the current @-@ carrying wire , but acted at right angles to it . Ørsted 's slightly obscure words were that " the electric conflict acts in a revolving manner . " The force also depended on the direction of the current , for if the flow was reversed , then the force did too .
Ørsted did not fully understand his discovery , but he observed the effect was reciprocal : a current exerts a force on a magnet , and a magnetic field exerts a force on a current . The phenomenon was further investigated by Ampère , who discovered that two parallel current @-@ carrying wires exerted a force upon each other : two wires conducting currents in the same direction are attracted to each other , while wires containing currents in opposite directions are forced apart . The interaction is mediated by the magnetic field each current produces and forms the basis for the international definition of the ampere .
This relationship between magnetic fields and currents is extremely important , for it led to Michael Faraday 's invention of the electric motor in 1821 . Faraday 's homopolar motor consisted of a permanent magnet sitting in a pool of mercury . A current was allowed through a wire suspended from a pivot above the magnet and dipped into the mercury . The magnet exerted a tangential force on the wire , making it circle around the magnet for as long as the current was maintained .
Experimentation by Faraday in 1831 revealed that a wire moving perpendicular to a magnetic field developed a potential difference between its ends . Further analysis of this process , known as electromagnetic induction , enabled him to state the principle , now known as Faraday 's law of induction , that the potential difference induced in a closed circuit is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux through the loop . Exploitation of this discovery enabled him to invent the first electrical generator in 1831 , in which he converted the mechanical energy of a rotating copper disc to electrical energy . Faraday 's disc was inefficient and of no use as a practical generator , but it showed the possibility of generating electric power using magnetism , a possibility that would be taken up by those that followed on from his work .
= = = Electrochemistry = = =
The ability of chemical reactions to produce electricity , and conversely the ability of electricity to drive chemical reactions has a wide array of uses .
Electrochemistry has always been an important part of electricity . From the initial invention of the Voltaic pile , electrochemical cells have evolved into the many different types of batteries , electroplating and electrolysis cells . Aluminium is produced in vast quantities this way , and many portable devices are electrically powered using rechargeable cells .
= = = Electric circuits = = =
An electric circuit is an interconnection of electric components such that electric charge is made to flow along a closed path ( a circuit ) , usually to perform some useful task .
The components in an electric circuit can take many forms , which can include elements such as resistors , capacitors , switches , transformers and electronics . Electronic circuits contain active components , usually semiconductors , and typically exhibit non @-@ linear behaviour , requiring complex analysis . The simplest electric components are those that are termed passive and linear : while they may temporarily store energy , they contain no sources of it , and exhibit linear responses to stimuli .
The resistor is perhaps the simplest of passive circuit elements : as its name suggests , it resists the current through it , dissipating its energy as heat . The resistance is a consequence of the motion of charge through a conductor : in metals , for example , resistance is primarily due to collisions between electrons and ions . Ohm 's law is a basic law of circuit theory , stating that the current passing through a resistance is directly proportional to the potential difference across it . The resistance of most materials is relatively constant over a range of temperatures and currents ; materials under these conditions are known as ' ohmic ' . The ohm , the unit of resistance , was named in honour of Georg Ohm , and is symbolised by the Greek letter Ω . 1 Ω is the resistance that will produce a potential difference of one volt in response to a current of one amp .
The capacitor is a development of the Leyden jar and is a device that can store charge , and thereby storing electrical energy in the resulting field . It consists of two conducting plates separated by a thin insulating dielectric layer ; in practice , thin metal foils are coiled together , increasing the surface area per unit volume and therefore the capacitance . The unit of capacitance is the farad , named after Michael Faraday , and given the symbol F : one farad is the capacitance that develops a potential difference of one volt when it stores a charge of one coulomb . A capacitor connected to a voltage supply initially causes a current as it accumulates charge ; this current will however decay in time as the capacitor fills , eventually falling to zero . A capacitor will therefore not permit a steady state current , but instead blocks it .
The inductor is a conductor , usually a coil of wire , that stores energy in a magnetic field in response to the current through it . When the current changes , the magnetic field does too , inducing a voltage between the ends of the conductor . The induced voltage is proportional to the time rate of change of the current . The constant of proportionality is termed the inductance . The unit of inductance is the henry , named after Joseph Henry , a contemporary of Faraday . One henry is the inductance that will induce a potential difference of one volt if the current through it changes at a rate of one ampere per second . The inductor 's behaviour is in some regards converse to that of the capacitor : it will freely allow an unchanging current , but opposes a rapidly changing one .
= = = Electric power = = =
Electric power is the rate at which electric energy is transferred by an electric circuit . The SI unit of power is the watt , one joule per second .
Electric power , like mechanical power , is the rate of doing work , measured in watts , and represented by the letter P. The term wattage is used colloquially to mean " electric power in watts . " The electric power in watts produced by an electric current I consisting of a charge of Q coulombs every t seconds passing through an electric potential ( voltage ) difference of V is
<formula>
where
Q is electric charge in coulombs
t is time in seconds
I is electric current in amperes
V is electric potential or voltage in volts
Electricity generation is often done with electric generators , but can also be supplied by chemical sources such as electric batteries or by other means from a wide variety of sources of energy . Electric power is generally supplied to businesses and homes by the electric power industry . Electricity is usually sold by the kilowatt hour ( 3 @.@ 6 MJ ) which is the product of power in kilowatts multiplied by running time in hours . Electric utilities measure power using electricity meters , which keep a running total of the electric energy delivered to a customer . Unlike fossil fuels , electricity is a low entropy form of energy and can be converted into motion or many other forms of energy with high efficiency .
= = = Electronics = = =
Electronics deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes , transistors , diodes and integrated circuits , and associated passive interconnection technologies . The nonlinear behaviour of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes amplification of weak signals possible and electronics is widely used in information processing , telecommunications , and signal processing . The ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible . Interconnection technologies such as circuit boards , electronics packaging technology , and other varied forms of communication infrastructure complete circuit functionality and transform the mixed components into a regular working system .
Today , most electronic devices use semiconductor components to perform electron control . The study of semiconductor devices and related technology is considered a branch of solid state physics , whereas the design and construction of electronic circuits to solve practical problems come under electronics engineering .
= = = Electromagnetic wave = = =
Faraday 's and Ampère 's work showed that a time @-@ varying magnetic field acted as a source of an electric field , and a time @-@ varying electric field was a source of a magnetic field . Thus , when either field is changing in time , then a field of the other is necessarily induced . Such a phenomenon has the properties of a wave , and is naturally referred to as an electromagnetic wave . Electromagnetic waves were analysed theoretically by James Clerk Maxwell in 1864 . Maxwell developed a set of equations that could unambiguously describe the interrelationship between electric field , magnetic field , electric charge , and electric current . He could moreover prove that such a wave would necessarily travel at the speed of light , and thus light itself was a form of electromagnetic radiation . Maxwell 's Laws , which unify light , fields , and charge are one of the great milestones of theoretical physics .
Thus , the work of many researchers enabled the use of electronics to convert signals into high frequency oscillating currents , and via suitably shaped conductors , electricity permits the transmission and reception of these signals via radio waves over very long distances .
= = Production and uses = =
= = = Generation and transmission = = =
In the 6th century BC , the Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus experimented with amber rods and these experiments were the first studies into the production of electrical energy . While this method , now known as the triboelectric effect , can lift light objects and generate sparks , it is extremely inefficient . It was not until the invention of the voltaic pile in the eighteenth century that a viable source of electricity became available . The voltaic pile , and its modern descendant , the electrical battery , store energy chemically and make it available on demand in the form of electrical energy . The battery is a versatile and very common power source which is ideally suited to many applications , but its energy storage is finite , and once discharged it must be disposed of or recharged . For large electrical demands electrical energy must be generated and transmitted continuously over conductive transmission lines .
Electrical power is usually generated by electro @-@ mechanical generators driven by steam produced from fossil fuel combustion , or the heat released from nuclear reactions ; or from other sources such as kinetic energy extracted from wind or flowing water . The modern steam turbine invented by Sir Charles Parsons in 1884 today generates about 80 percent of the electric power in the world using a variety of heat sources . Such generators bear no resemblance to Faraday 's homopolar disc generator of 1831 , but they still rely on his electromagnetic principle that a conductor linking a changing magnetic field induces a potential difference across its ends . The invention in the late nineteenth century of the transformer meant that electrical power could be transmitted more efficiently at a higher voltage but lower current . Efficient electrical transmission meant in turn that electricity could be generated at centralised power stations , where it benefited from economies of scale , and then be despatched relatively long distances to where it was needed .
Since electrical energy cannot easily be stored in quantities large enough to meet demands on a national scale , at all times exactly as much must be produced as is required . This requires electricity utilities to make careful predictions of their electrical loads , and maintain constant co @-@ ordination with their power stations . A certain amount of generation must always be held in reserve to cushion an electrical grid against inevitable disturbances and losses .
Demand for electricity grows with great rapidity as a nation modernises and its economy develops . The United States showed a 12 % increase in demand during each year of the first three decades of the twentieth century , a rate of growth that is now being experienced by emerging economies such as those of India or China . Historically , the growth rate for electricity demand has outstripped that for other forms of energy .
Environmental concerns with electricity generation have led to an increased focus on generation from renewable sources , in particular from wind and hydropower . While debate can be expected to continue over the environmental impact of different means of electricity production , its final form is relatively clean
= = = Applications = = =
Electricity is a very convenient way to transfer energy , and it has been adapted to a huge , and growing , number of uses . The invention of a practical incandescent light bulb in the 1870s led to lighting becoming one of the first publicly available applications of electrical power . Although electrification brought with it its own dangers , replacing the naked flames of gas lighting greatly reduced fire hazards within homes and factories . Public utilities were set up in many cities targeting the burgeoning market for electrical lighting .
The resistive Joule heating effect employed in filament light bulbs also sees more direct use in electric heating . While this is versatile and controllable , it can be seen as wasteful , since most electrical generation has already required the production of heat at a power station . A number of countries , such as Denmark , have issued legislation restricting or banning the use of resistive electric heating in new buildings . Electricity is however still a highly practical energy source for heating and refrigeration , with air conditioning / heat pumps representing a growing sector for electricity demand for heating and cooling , the effects of which electricity utilities are increasingly obliged to accommodate .
Electricity is used within telecommunications , and indeed the electrical telegraph , demonstrated commercially in 1837 by Cooke and Wheatstone , was one of its earliest applications . With the construction of first intercontinental , and then transatlantic , telegraph systems in the 1860s , electricity had enabled communications in minutes across the globe . Optical fibre and satellite communication have taken a share of the market for communications systems , but electricity can be expected to remain an essential part of the process .
The effects of electromagnetism are most visibly employed in the electric motor , which provides a clean and efficient means of motive power . A stationary motor such as a winch is easily provided with a supply of power , but a motor that moves with its application , such as an electric vehicle , is obliged to either carry along a power source such as a battery , or to collect current from a sliding contact such as a pantograph .
Electronic devices make use of the transistor , perhaps one of the most important inventions of the twentieth century , and a fundamental building block of all modern circuitry . A modern integrated circuit may contain several billion miniaturised transistors in a region only a few centimetres square .
Electricity is also used to fuel public transportation , including electric buses and trains .
= = Electricity and the natural world = =
= = = Physiological effects = = =
A voltage applied to a human body causes an electric current through the tissues , and although the relationship is non @-@ linear , the greater the voltage , the greater the current . The threshold for perception varies with the supply frequency and with the path of the current , but is about 0 @.@ 1 mA to 1 mA for mains @-@ frequency electricity , though a current as low as a microamp can be detected as an electrovibration effect under certain conditions . If the current is sufficiently high , it will cause muscle contraction , fibrillation of the heart , and tissue burns . The lack of any visible sign that a conductor is electrified makes electricity a particular hazard . The pain caused by an electric shock can be intense , leading electricity at times to be employed as a method of torture . Death caused by an electric shock is referred to as electrocution . Electrocution is still the means of judicial execution in some jurisdictions , though its use has become rarer in recent times .
= = = Electrical phenomena in nature = = =
Electricity is not a human invention , and may be observed in several forms in nature , a prominent manifestation of which is lightning . Many interactions familiar at the macroscopic level , such as touch , friction or chemical bonding , are due to interactions between electric fields on the atomic scale . The Earth 's magnetic field is thought
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his 1924 season , and by mid @-@ July , critics regarded his success as the biggest surprise in baseball ; Cleveland considered him to be past his best . He won 20 games and lost five that year , and his ERA of 2 @.@ 84 led the AL . Coveleski also finished 12th in MVP voting that year . The Senators won the AL and were to face the Pittsburgh Pirates in the 1925 World Series , but Coveleski suffered from sore back muscles late in the season . Coveleski pitched two games in the World Series . In game two , he faced Vic Aldridge in a pitcher 's duel ; the teams were tied at one apiece in the eighth inning , but a Pittsburgh home run led to a 3 – 2 loss . Aldridge and Coveleski faced off again in game five , and Coveleski allowed four runs in under seven innings , leading to a 6 – 3 Pirates win . The Senators lost the series in seven games , and he finished with a 3 @.@ 77 ERA , five walks , three strikeouts , and two of the Senators ' four losses .
Coveleski continued to pitch for Washington during the 1926 season . His performances that season included a 2 – 0 victory against the Boston Red Sox on August 31 , in which the game was finished in only 78 minutes . Coveleski finished the season with 14 wins , 11 losses , 3 shutouts , and a 3 @.@ 12 ERA in 36 games . To start the 1927 season , due to an injury to Walter Johnson , Coveleski became the Senators ' Opening Day starter against the Red Sox ; he won the game 6 – 2 . However , his performance declined due to " a chronically sore arm " , which limited his playing time that season . Due to his sore arm , the Senators released him unconditionally on June 17 , 1927 . He finished the season with a 2 – 1 record and a 3 @.@ 14 ERA in five games .
On December 21 , 1927 , Coveleski signed with the New York Yankees in an attempt at a comeback . In his final season , he posted a 5 – 1 record with a 5 @.@ 74 ERA in 12 appearances . Coveleski failed to regain his form , however , pitching his last game on August 3 , and after the signing of Tom Zachary , manager Miller Huggins released Coveleski . He retired from the game later that year .
= = Later life and legacy = =
In 1929 , after leaving major league baseball , Coveleski relocated to South Bend , Indiana . There , he ran Coveleski Service Station for a time , but closed the business during the Great Depression . He became a popular member of the community in South Bend , providing free pitching lessons to local youths in a field behind his garage . After his playing career ended , he dropped the " e " at the end of his name , as he never corrected anyone if his last name was incorrectly spelled . In 1969 , Coveleski was named to the Baseball Hall of Fame by the Veterans ' Committee alongside 1920s pitcher Waite Hoyt . Of his introduction into the Hall he said , " I figured I 'd make it sooner or later , and I just kept hoping each year would be the one . " His health declined in later years , and he was eventually admitted to a local nursing home , where he died on March 20 , 1984 at the age of 94 .
In addition to Coveleski 's induction into the Baseball Hall of Fame , he was inducted into the National Polish @-@ American Sports Hall of Fame in 1976 . In 1984 , the minor league baseball stadium in South Bend , Indiana , was named in his honor . Coveleski was interviewed by Lawrence Ritter for his 1966 book The Glory of Their Times , a series of interviews with players of the early 20th century . To fellow ballplayers , Coveleski was considered " taciturn and ornery " on days when he was scheduled to pitch , but was otherwise friendly with a lively sense of humor .
Coveleski had 216 wins and 142 losses with a 2 @.@ 89 ERA in 450 games , 385 of them starts in a 14 @-@ year career . He had 224 complete games , 38 shutouts , 981 strikeouts , and pitched 3 @,@ 082 total innings . His control was highly regarded . He never considered himself a strikeout pitcher , and it was not unusual for him to pitch a complete game having thrown 95 pitches or less . He once pitched seven innings of a game where every pitch was either a hit or a strike . In 2001 , baseball statistician Bill James ranked Coveleski 58th among the all @-@ time greatest major league pitchers .
= The Puppy Episode =
" The Puppy Episode " is a two @-@ part episode of the situation comedy television series Ellen . The episode details lead character Ellen Morgan 's realization that she is a lesbian and her coming out . It was the 22nd and 23rd episode of the series ' 4th season . The episode was written by series star Ellen DeGeneres with Mark Driscoll , Tracy Newman , Dava Savel and Jonathan Stark and directed by Gil Junger . It originally aired on ABC on April 30 , 1997 .
DeGeneres began negotiating with ABC in 1996 to have Morgan come out . When word of the negotiations got out , DeGeneres found herself at the center of intense speculation about when she or her character , or both , would come out . With DeGeneres hinting at her and her character 's coming out both off @-@ screen and within the show , the rumors were confirmed when the episode went into production in March 1997 .
Despite threats from advertisers and religious groups , " The Puppy Episode " was an enormous ratings success , won multiple awards and became a cultural phenomenon . Regardless of the episode 's success , DeGeneres and her show quickly garnered criticism for being " too gay " ; the series was canceled after one more season and DeGeneres and guest star Laura Dern faced career backlash .
= = Plot = =
Ellen goes out to dinner with her old friend Richard , a reporter who is in town to cover a story . His producer , Susan , joins them for dessert and she and Ellen hit it off . Ellen goes back to Richard 's hotel room . He comes on to her and , uncomfortable , Ellen leaves . She runs into Susan in the hall and returns with her to her room . They continue to enjoy each other 's company until Susan tells Ellen that she 's gay and that she thought Ellen might be too . Ellen denies it and suggests that Susan is trying to " recruit " her . Susan sarcastically says that she 'll have to call " national headquarters " and let them know Ellen got away . ( " Damn , just one more and I would have gotten that toaster oven . " ) An agitated Ellen leaves Susan 's room and returns to Richard 's room , determined to have sex with him to prove to herself she is not gay .
The next day , Ellen tells her friends at the bookstore that she and Richard had amazing sex . She tells her therapist the truth , that she could not have sex with Richard . Ellen laments that she just wants someone that she clicks with . Her therapist asks if she has ever clicked with anyone and Ellen replies , " Susan . "
A message from Richard that he is leaving town ahead of schedule sends Ellen rushing to the airport to see Susan . Ellen tells Susan that she was right and struggles to say the word . Finally , Ellen is able to say , " I 'm gay , " inadvertently broadcasting her announcement over the airport 's public address system . Ellen assumes that Susan will be leaving with Richard but in fact Susan will be staying in town for several more days .
Ellen has a dream in which she is grocery shopping . She is offered a special lesbian discount on melons , her sexuality is announced to the other shoppers , she is offered a granola bar , she is beckoned toward a checkout lane with a pink triangular sign reading " 10 lesbians or less " and given her grocery total of " a lesbian twenty @-@ nine " ( $ 11 @.@ 29 ) . She discusses the dream with her therapist and realizes that she 's been suppressing her sexuality for many years . Her therapist encourages her to come out to her friends but Ellen is worried about not being accepted .
Ellen has her friends over to come out to them . Before they arrive , she comes out to her gay neighbor Peter . When everyone else arrives , Ellen balks at telling them but Peter outs her . Ellen confirms that it 's true and her friends are all supportive of her , although her friend Paige is hesitant .
The next day Ellen and Susan are at the bookstore . Susan tells Ellen that she does have feelings for her but she is in a long @-@ term relationship . Ellen is heartbroken and Susan leaves . To cheer her up , her friends take her to a lesbian coffeehouse . There Ellen mistakenly thinks her waitress is coming on to her and is chagrined when a woman flirts with Paige instead of her .
Under the closing credits , Susan leads Ellen over to Melissa Etheridge , who confirms that Ellen is gay and , after completing the necessary paperwork , awards Susan a toaster oven .
= = Production = =
By the end of the third season of Ellen , producers were becoming frustrated by the series ' lack of focus and the lack of interest that the character Ellen Morgan displayed toward the standard sitcom tropes of dating and relationships . One producer suggested that since the character showed no inclination toward dating , she should get a puppy . " It was an indication of just how lost the show was that network executives would be excited by Ellen buying a puppy " , said executive producer Mark Driscoll . It was this suggestion that served as the source of the coming out episode 's name . In the summer of 1996 DeGeneres and the show 's other writers opened negotiations with ABC and its parent company , Disney , to have Ellen Morgan come out during season four . Word of the secret negotiations leaked in September of that year , sparking a storm of speculation as to whether the character , the actress , or both would come out . The LGBT media watchdog group Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation ( GLAAD ) launched a " Let Ellen Out ! " campaign , including an " Ellen Watch " website . Disney rejected the first draft of the script , with Disney executive Dean Valentine stating that it did not go far enough . Director Junger reported that Valentine said " ' If we 're going to do it , let 's do it . ' Once he said to go as far as we could , it became great fun to write . " Once final approval from Disney was secured , ABC announced on March 3 , 1997 , that Ellen Morgan would be coming out . " The Puppy Episode " went into production on March 7 . Guest stars sought to be a part of the project . According to writer / producer Driscoll , " Suddenly all these talented actors were lining up to be in the episode . It had a buzz around it that it would be an historic episode . When Oprah came on — and she was so wonderful and open and giving — it suddenly had this great weight to it . "
With word of the episode out , backlash began . The studio received at least one bomb threat and Driscoll received a telephone call informing him he was going to Hell . DeGeneres was followed by car to the studio on at least one occasion by a " suspicious man " . Some within the entertainment industry assumed that the coming out was simply a ratings stunt , to which DeGeneres responded , " I did it selfishly for myself and because I thought it was a great thing for the show , which desperately needed a point of view . "
DeGeneres began dropping hints in the episodes leading up to " The Puppy Episode " that she was planning to come out in real life and have her character come out as well , including such sight gags as Ellen Morgan stumbling into an actual closet so that she could come out of it . She also invited comment with her off @-@ screen actions , as when she kissed k.d. lang while presenting her with an award at a Los Angeles Gay and Lesbian Center function in early 1997 . DeGeneres finally officially came out in Time magazine , with an April 14 , 1997 cover emblazoned with the words , " Yep , I 'm Gay " . She appeared on The Oprah Winfrey Show with then @-@ girlfriend Anne Heche the day " The Puppy Episode " was set to air .
DeGeneres commented on her months of hinting at her sexuality and the media frenzy within the episode itself , giving Ellen Morgan 's friends lines like " Ellen , are you coming out or not ? ! " and " Yeah , quit jerking us around and come out already ! " Morgan 's therapist comments that if Morgan does not come out she will " continue to have these dreams and then it 's going to show up in your waking life as these little clues that get more and more obvious . And eventually tiresome . " She also says that Morgan cannot blame her reluctance to come out on the media .
= = Reception = =
" The Puppy Episode " and DeGeneres 's attendant coming out generated enormous publicity before the show aired . Right @-@ wing groups like the American Family Association pressured ABC to drop the storyline and Ellen sponsors not to advertise ; two occasional advertisers , J. C. Penney and Chrysler , decided not to buy time during the episode . Another sponsor , Wendy 's , decided not to advertise on Ellen again at all . Despite these losses of potential advertisers , ABC turned away ads from two LGBT @-@ oriented sponsors , the Human Rights Campaign ( HRC ) and lesbian vacation company Olivia Cruises . Jerry Falwell called DeGeneres " Ellen Degenerate " , to which DeGeneres responded , " I 've been getting that since the fourth grade . I guess I 'm happy I could give him work . " GLAAD organized " Come Out With Ellen " house parties across the United States and HRC created " Ellen Coming Out House Party " kits that included invitations , posters and an Ellen trivia game . HRC had initially planned to send out about 300 kits . Deluged with requests , they ended up sending out about 3 @,@ 000 . ABC affiliate WBMA @-@ LP in Birmingham , Alabama , citing " family values " , first sought ABC 's permission to move the episode out of prime @-@ time to a late @-@ night slot . When ABC declined the request , the affiliate refused to air the episode at all . Local LGBT organization Pride Birmingham arranged for a satellite feed of the episode and rented a 5 @,@ 000 @-@ seat theatre for a viewing party , with about 1 @,@ 000 people attending . Local activists circulated a petition requesting that Abilene , Texas @-@ area affiliate KTXS @-@ TV not air the episode but were unsuccessful .
" The Puppy Episode " was the highest @-@ rated episode ever of Ellen , drawing some 42 million viewers . " The Puppy Episode " won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series and a second for Outstanding Multi @-@ Camera Picture Editing . The episode won a Peabody Award and DeGeneres won a GLAAD Media Award in 1998 . Ellen Morgan 's coming out has been described as " the most hyped , anticipated , and possibly influential gay moment on television " . GLAAD credits Ellen with paving the way for such LGBT @-@ themed programming as Will and Grace , The L Word , and Ugly Betty and it has been suggested that Ellen and these other series presenting LGBT characters have helped to reduce societal prejudice against LGBT people . The episode was ranked # 46 on TV Guide 's list of " 100 Greatest Episodes of All @-@ Time " .
Following " The Puppy Episode " , Ellen was renewed for another season . ABC prefaced each episode of season five with a parental advisory warning . DeGeneres strongly criticized ABC for including the warnings , saying in an interview with Entertainment Weekly , " It was like this voice like you 're entering some kind of radiation center . It was very offensive , and you don 't think that 's going to affect ratings ? " DeGeneres further noted demonstrable hypocrisy on the part of ABC , citing episodes of ABC series The Drew Carey Show and Spin City which included two men kissing ( the Carey episode was even promoted using the kiss ) . " There 's no disclaimer on [ the Carey show ] at all , because it 's two heterosexual men , and they 're making fun of heterosexuality ... [ Spin City aired without a disclaimer ] because neither ( Michael J. Fox nor Michael Boatman ) is really gay in real life . " Episodes after " The Puppy Episode " dealt with Ellen 's coming out to her parents and boss , quitting her job at the bookstore and finding a series of new jobs . Other episodes dealt with her search for a romantic partner and learning more about the LGBT community . Even some gay people began criticizing the amount of gay content in the series , including Chaz Bono , formerly known as Chastity Bono , who was at the time working for GLAAD . Bono was quoted as saying , " [ Ellen ] is so gay it 's excluding a large part of our society . A lot of the stuff on it is somewhat of an inside joke . It 's one thing to have a gay lead character , but it 's another when every episode deals with specific gay issues . " Bono would later say that the comments were taken out of context . Ellen was canceled after its fifth season .
With the cancellation of Ellen , DeGeneres focused her energy on stand @-@ up comedy , where she had begun her career . She returned to network television in 2001 with the short @-@ lived The Ellen Show , in which her character Ellen Richmond was openly lesbian from the start , before finding renewed success with her talk show The Ellen DeGeneres Show .
Guest star Laura Dern faced backlash over her appearance on the show . In a 2007 interview for Degeneres 's talk show commemorating the tenth anniversary of " The Puppy Episode , " Dern stated that she did not work for a year and a half because of playing Susan . Nonetheless , Dern said that she was grateful for the " extraordinary experience and opportunity " of being a part of the episode . Speaking of her experience , DeGeneres said , " It was a huge step in my life . I think people sensed the honesty in it . I think it helped a lot of people , and still to this day I hear about parents and children being able to have an honest conversation through watching that show . That 's ultimately what television can be : It can get conversations started . "
= John Endecott =
John Endecott ( before 1601 – 15 March 1664 / 65 , also spelled Endicott ) was an English colonial magistrate , soldier and the first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony . During all of his years in the colony but one , he held some form of civil , judicial , or military high office . He served a total of 16 years as governor , including most of the last 15 years of his life ; this period of service was the longest of any colonial governor . He also held important posts representing the colony as part of the New England Confederation , and was a leading force in expanding the settlement of Salem , Massachusetts and other parts of Essex County .
Endecott was a zealous and somewhat hotheaded Puritan , with Separatist attitudes toward the Anglican Church . This sometimes put him at odds with Nonconformist views that were dominant among the colony 's early leaders , which became apparent when he gave shelter to the vocally Separatist Roger Williams . Endecott also argued that women should dress modestly and that men should keep their hair short , and issued judicial decisions banishing individuals who held religious views that did not accord well with those of the Puritans . He notoriously defaced the English flag because he saw St George 's Cross as a symbol of the papacy , and had four Quakers put to death for returning to the colony after their banishment . An expedition he led in 1636 is considered the opening offensive in the Pequot War , which practically destroyed the Pequot tribe as an entity .
Endecott used some of his properties to propagate fruit trees ; a pear tree he planted still lives in Danvers , Massachusetts . He also engaged in one of the earliest attempts to develop a mining industry in the colonies when copper ore was found on his land . His name is found on a rock in Lake Winnipesaukee , carved by surveyors sent to identify the Massachusetts colony 's northern border in 1652 . Places and institutions are named for him , and ( like many early colonists ) he has several notable descendants .
= = Life = =
Most of what is known about John Endecott 's origins is at best circumstantial . Biographers of the 19th century believed he was from the Dorset town of Dorchester because of his significant later association with people from that place . In the early 20th century , historian Roper Lethbridge proposed that Endecott was born circa 1588 in or near Chagford in Devon . Interestingly , in the 16th century the prominent Endecott family , together with the Whiddons , Knapmans and Lethbridges , owned most of the mines around the stannary town of Chagford , which might - if he is indeed from this family - explain the Governor 's interest in developing copper mining . ( Based on this evidence , Chagford now has a house from the period named in Endecott 's honour . ) However , more recent research by the New England Historic Genealogical Society has identified problems with Lethbridge 's claims , which they dispute . According to their research , Endecott may have been born in or near Chagford , but there is no firm evidence for this , nor is there evidence that identifies his parents . They conclude , based on available evidence , that he was probably born no later than 1600 . A John Endecott was active in Devon early in the 17th century , but there is no firm evidence connecting him to this Endecott .
Very little is known of Endecott 's life before his association with colonisation efforts in the 1620s . He was known to Sir Edward Coke , and may have come to know Roger Williams through this connection . He was highly literate , and spoke French . Some early colonial documents refer to him as " Captain Endecott " , indicating some military experience , and other records suggest he had some medical training .
= = = Settlement in the New World = = =
In March 1627 / 8 Endecott was one of seven signatories to a land grant given to " The New England Company for a Plantation in Massachusetts " ( or the New England Company ) by the Earl of Warwick on behalf of the Plymouth Council for New England ; the council was at the time the umbrella organisation overseeing English colonisation efforts in North America between 40 and 48 degrees latitude .
Endecott was chosen to lead the first expedition , and sailed for the New World aboard the Abigail with fifty or so " planters and servants " on 20 June 1628 . The settlement they organized was first called Naumkeag , after the local Indian tribe , but was eventually renamed Salem in 1629 . The area was already occupied by settlers of the failed Dorchester Company , some of whose backers also participated in the New England Company . This group of earlier settlers , led by Roger Conant , had migrated from a settlement on Cape Ann ( near present @-@ day Gloucester , Massachusetts ) after it was abandoned . Endecott was not formally named governor of the new colony until it was issued a royal charter in 1629 . At that time , he was appointed governor by the company 's council in London , and Matthew Craddock was named the company 's governor in London .
Endecott 's responsibility was to establish the colony and to prepare it for the arrival of additional settlers . The winters of 1629 and 1630 were difficult compared to those in England , and he called on the Plymouth Colony for medical assistance . His wife , who had been ill on the voyage over , died that winter . Other difficulties he encountered included early signs of religious friction among the colony 's settlers ( dividing between Nonconformists and Separatists ) , and poor relations with Thomas Morton , whose failed Wessagusset Colony and libertine practices ( which including a May pole and dancing ) were anathema to the conservative Puritanism practiced by most settlers in the Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth colonies . Early in his term as governor he visited the abandoned site of Morton 's colony and had the Maypole taken down . When one group of early settlers wanted to establish a church independent of that established by the colonial leadership , he had their leaders summarily sent back to England .
= = = Early 1630s = = =
Endecott 's first tenure as governor came to an end in 1630 , with the arrival of John Winthrop and the colonial charter . The company had reorganised itself , relocating its seat to the colony itself , with Winthrop as its sole governor . After seeing the conditions at Salem , Winthrop decided to relocate the colony 's seat at the mouth of the Charles River , where he founded what is now the city of Boston . Endecott , who was chosen as one of the governor 's Assistants ( a precursor to the later notion of a Governor 's Council ) , chose to remain in Salem , where he was one of its leading citizens for the rest of his life , serving in roles as town councilor and militia leader , in addition to statewide roles as militia leader , magistrate , deputy governor , and governor . He established a plantation called " Orchard " in Salem Village ( now known as Danvers ) , where he cultivated seedlings of fruit trees . One particular pear tree , brought over as a sapling on one of the early settlement convoys , still lives and bears fruit ; it is known as the Endicott Pear Tree .
In the early 1630s the religious conflict between the Nonconformists and the Separatists was the primary source of political disagreement in the colony , and it was embodied by the churches established in Boston and Salem . The Salem church adhered to Separatist teachings , which sought a complete break with the Church of England , while Nonconformist teachings , which were held by Winthrop and most of the colonial leadership in Boston , sought to reform the Anglican church from within . The arrival in Boston in 1631 of Roger Williams , an avowed Separatist , heightened this conflict . Authorities there banished him , and he first went to Salem , where , due to Endecott 's intervention , he was offered a position as a teacher in the local church . When word of this reached Boston , Endecott was criticised for supporting Williams , who was banished from the colony . Williams went to Plymouth , but returned to Salem a few years later , becoming the church 's unofficial pastor following the death of Samuel Skelton in 1634 . Boston authorities called for his arrest after he made what they viewed as treasonous and heretical statements ; he fled , eventually establishing Providence , Rhode Island . During this time Endecott argued that women should be veiled in church , and controversially defaced the local militia 's flag , because it bore St George 's Cross , which Williams claimed was a symbol of the papacy . This action is celebrated in Nathaniel Hawthorne 's story , " Endicott and the Red Cross " , where the writer presents the " tension between Endecott as a symbol of religious intolerance and as [ an ? ] emblem of heroic resistance to foreign domination of New England . " Endecott did this at a time when the Privy Council of King Charles I was examining affairs in Massachusetts , and the colonial administration was concerned that a strong response was needed to prevent the loss of the colonial charter . Endecott was censured for the rashness of his action ( and not for the act itself ) , and deprived of holding any offices for one year ; 1635 was the only year in which he held no office . The committee managing the colonial militia voted that year to stop using the English flag as its standard . Following the incident , and the refusal of the colonial assembly to grant Salem additional land on the Marblehead Neck because of Williams ' presence in Salem , the Salem church circulated a letter to other churches in the colony , calling the legislative act a heinous sin . Although the authorship of the letter is uncertain , Endecott defended the letter when summoned to Boston , and was consequently jailed for a day ; after " he came and acknowledged his fault , he was discharged . "
= = = Pequot War = = =
In 1636 the boat of Massachusetts trader John Oldham was seen anchored off Block Island , swarming with Indians . The Indians fled at the approach of the investigating colonists , and Oldham 's body was found below the main deck . The attackers were at the time believed to be from tribes affiliated with the Narragansetts , but Narragansett leaders claimed that those responsible had fled to the protection of the Pequots . At the time the Pequots were aggressively expansionist in their dealings with the surrounding native tribes ( including the Narragansett ) , but had generally kept the peace with the English colonists of present @-@ day southern New England . The accusation of the Narraganssetts angered Massachusetts authorities ( then under governor Henry Vane ) , who were already upset that the Pequots had earlier failed to turn over men implicated in killing another trader on the Connecticut River . This second perceived affront produced calls in Massachusetts for action against the Pequots . In August 1636 Governor Vane placed Endecott at the head of a 90 @-@ man force to extract justice from the Pequots .
Endecott 's instructions were to go to Block Island , where he was to kill all of the Indian men and take captive the women and children . He was then to go to the Pequots on the mainland , where he was to make three demands : first , that the killers of Oldham and the other trader be surrendered ; second , that a payment of one thousand fathoms of wampum be made ; and third , that some Pequot children be delivered to serve as hostages . Endecott executed these instructions with zeal . Although most of the Indians on Block Island only briefly opposed the English landing there , he spent two days destroying their villages , crops and canoes ; most of the Indians on the island successfully eluded English searches for them . English reports claimed as many as 14 Indians were killed , but the Narragansetts only reported one dead . Endecott then sailed for Saybrook , an English settlement at the mouth of the Connecticut River . Lion Gardiner , the leader there , angrily informed Endecott when he learned of the mission 's goals , " You come hither to raise these wasps around my ears , and then you will take wing and flee away . "
After some discussion and delays due to bad weather , Gardiner and a company of his men agreed to accompany the Massachusetts force to raid the Pequot harvest stores . When they arrived at the Pequot village near the mouth of the Thames River , they returned the friendly greetings of the inhabitants with stony silence . Eventually a Pequot sachem rowed out to meet them ; the English delivered their demands , threatening war if they did not receive satisfaction . When the sachem left to discuss the matter in the village , Endecott gave a promise to await his return ; however , shortly after the sachem left , he began landing his fully armed men on shore . The sachem rushed back , claiming the senior tribal leaders were away on Long Island ; Endecott responded that this was a lie , and ordered an attack on the village . Most of the villagers got away , and once again the expedition 's activity was reduced to destroying the village and seizing its crop stores ; Gardiner reported that " [ t ] he Bay @-@ men killed not a man " . After completing this work , Endecott and the Massachusetts men boarded their boats to return to Boston , leaving Gardiner and his men to finish the removal of the crops . The Pequots regrouped and launched an attack on Gardiner 's party whose armor protected them from the arrowfire , but their escape was nevertheless difficult .
Historian Alfred Cave describes Endecott 's actions as a " heavy @-@ handed provocation of an Indian war . " All of the surrounding colonies protested the action , complaining that the lives of their citizens were placed in jeopardy by the raid . Since the Pequots had previously been relatively peaceful with the English , Endecott 's raid had the effect Gardiner predicted and feared . Communities on the Connecticut River were attacked in April 1637 , and Gardiner was virtually besieged in Saybrook by Pequot forces . Endecott had no further role in the war , which ended with the destruction of the Pequots as a tribe ; their land was divided up by the colonies and their Indian allies in the 1638 Treaty of Hartford , and the surviving tribespeople were distributed among their neighbors .
= = = Later terms as governor = = =
Endecott was elected deputy governor in 1641 and in this role was one of the signatories to the Massachusetts Body of Liberties , which enumerated a number of individual rights available to all colonists , and presaged the United States Bill of Rights . The next few years were quiet , although rumors of war with the Indians led to the formation in 1643 of the New England Confederation , designed to facilitate united action by the New England colonies against common external threats as well as internal matters like dealing with escaped slaves and fugitives from justice .
In 1643 , Governor Winthrop became embroiled in a controversy over the propriety of taking sides in a power struggle going on in neighbouring French Acadia . Endecott pointed out that he should have let the French fight amongst themselves without English involvement , as this would weaken them both . The 1644 governor 's election became a referendum on Winthrop 's policy ; Endecott was elected governor , with Winthrop as his deputy . During his one @-@ year term he oversaw the division of the colony into four counties : Suffolk , Essex , Middlesex , and Norfolk . The ascent of the Salem @-@ based Endecott also prompted an attempt by other Salem residents to have the colonial capital relocated there ; the attempt was rejected by the governor 's council of assistants .
Fallout from the English Civil War ( begun in 1642 ) also permeated Boston during Endecott 's tenure . Two ships , one with a Royalist captain , the other with a Parliamentarian captain , arrived in Boston , and the Parliamentarian sought to seize the Royalist ship . After much deliberation , Endecott 's councils essentially adopted support of the Parliamentarian position , reserving the right to declare independence if the Parliament " should hereafter be a malignant spirit " . The Parliamentarian was permitted to seize the Royalist vessel , and the colony also began seizing Royalist vessels that came into port .
Thomas Dudley was elected governor in 1645 , with Winthrop as his deputy . Endecott , as a consolation , was given command of the colonial militia , reporting to the governor . He was also once again made a governor 's assistant , and was chosen to represent the colony to the confederation in 1646 . The threat of Indian conflicts in neighbouring colonies prompted the colony to raise its defensive profile , in which Endecott played a leading role . Winthrop was reelected governor in 1646 ; after his death in 1649 , Endecott succeeded him as governor . By annual re @-@ elections Endecott served nearly continuously until his death in 1665 ; for two periods ( 1650 – 1651 and 1654 – 1655 ) he was deputy governor .
In 1639 Endecott had been granted several hundred acres of land north of Salem , in what is now Boxford and Topsfield . The tract was not formally laid out until 1659 , but as early as 1651 Endecott was granted an additional " three hundred acres of land to tend the furtherance of a copper works " that was adjacent to his land . Endecott hired Richard Leader , an early settler who had done pioneering work at an iron works in nearby Lynn , but the efforts to develop the site for copper processing failed .
A persistent shortage of coinage in all of the colonies prompted Massachusetts to establish a mint in 1652 , and begin production of coins from its silver reserves . This act solved a practical problem , but the colony had no authority to do so from the crown . Although this did not become an issue while Endecott was governor , it eventually became a source of controversy with the crown , and the mint had apparently ceased operations around 1682 .
The colony 's boundaries expanded somewhat during Endecott 's tenure , mainly in the 1650s . In addition to formally claiming present @-@ day Stonington , Connecticut as spoils from the Pequot War , Endecott sought to establish the colony 's northern boundary . In 1652 he sent a commission with surveyors to locate the most northerly point on the Merrimack River , since the colonial grant defined its northern border as 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) north of that river . These surveyors were led by Indian guides to the outlet of Lake Winnipesaukee which was claimed by the guides to be the source of the Merrimack . At that location , the party incised an inscription on a rock that survives , and is now located in a small New Hampshire state park . When this survey line was extended eastward , the boundary was determined to fall on the coast at Casco Bay , and the colony thus claimed most of what is now southern Maine and New Hampshire .
= = = Religious intolerance = = =
One written statement made early in his tenure in May 1649 showed Endecott 's dislike of a fashionable trend toward long hair : " Forasmuch as the wearing of long haire after the manner of Ruffians and barbarous Indians , hath begun to invade new England contrary to the rule of gods word ... Wee the Magistrates who have subscribed [ signed ] this paper ... doe declare and manifest our dislike and detestation against the wearing of such long haire " . In 1651 he presided over a legal case in which three people were accused of being Baptists , a practice that had been banned in the colony in 1644 . In convicting John Clarke and sentencing him to either pay a fine or be whipped , Endecott , according to Clarke 's account of the exchange , told Clarke that he " deserved death , and said he would not have such trash brought into his jurisdiction . " Clarke refused to pay the fine ; it was paid by friends against his wishes , and he returned to Rhode Island . Of the three men convicted , only Obadiah Holmes was whipped ; John Crandall , out on bond , returned to Rhode Island with Clarke .
When Oliver Cromwell consolidated his control over England in the early 1650s , he began a crackdown on religious communities that dissented from his religious views . This notably included Baptists and Quakers , and these groups began their own migration to the North American colonies to escape persecution . Those that first arrived in Boston in 1656 were promptly deported by Endecott 's deputy , Richard Bellingham , while Endecott was in Salem . More Quakers arrived while Endecott was resident in Boston , and he had them imprisoned pending trial and deportation . He met several times with the Quaker , Mary Prince , after receiving an " outrageous letter " from her . The meetings were apparently fruitless , and she and the other Quakers were deported . Following these acts , the members of the New England Confederation all adopted measures for the prompt removal of Quakers from their jurisdictions .
The measures adopted were insufficient to prevent the influx of these perceived undesirables , so harsher measures were enacted . Repeat offenders were to be punished by having ears cut off , and , on the third offense , to have the tongue " bored through with a hot iron " . By 1658 the punishment for the third offense had been raised to death , " except they do then and there plainly and publicly renounce their said cursed opinions and devilish tenets . " In October 1658 the death penalty was enacted for the second offense in Massachusetts . One year later , three Quakers were arrested and sentenced to death under this law . Two of them , Marmaduke Stephenson and William Robinson , were hanged , while the third , Mary Dyer , received a reprieve at the last minute . Dyer returned to the colony in 1660 , and , under questioning by Endecott and the other magistrates , refused to either recant her beliefs or agree to permanent banishment from the colony . She was hanged on 1 June 1660 ; she , Stephenson , Robinson , and William Leddra ( hanged in 1661 ) are now known as the Boston martyrs . The severity of these acts was recognized by the colonists as problematic , and the laws were changed so that execution was the penalty for the fifth offense . ( The poor treatment of Quakers and other religious dissenters would be cited as one of the reasons for revocation of the colonial charter in 1684 . )
Endecott 's role in the treatment of the Quakers was immortalized by John Greenleaf Whittier in his poem " The Ballad of Cassandra Southwick , " named for another Quaker who suffered persecution along with husband Lawrence and at least three of her six children , daughter Provided and sons Daniel and Josiah , while Endecott was governor . Whittier characterized Endecott as " dark and haughty " , and exhibiting " bitter hate and scorn " for the Quaker . Henry Wadsworth Longfellow recreated the trial of Wenlock Christison in " John Endicott " , one of three dramatic poems in a collection called New England Tragedies . Christison was the last Quaker Endecott sentenced to death for returning to Massachusetts after having been banished . He was not executed , however , because the law was changed shortly after his sentencing . Author Nathaniel Hawthorne described Endecott in " The Gentle Boy " , whose title character is the six @-@ year @-@ old son of William and Mary Dyer , as " a man of narrow mind and imperfect education , and his uncompromising bigotry was made hot and mischievous by violent and hasty passions ; he exerted his influence indecorously and unjustifiably to compass the death of the enthusiasts [ i.e. , the Quakers ] ; and his whole contact , in respect to them , was marked by brutal cruelty . "
Even though the Puritan colonists of New England were supportive of Oliver Cromwell 's reign in England , they were not always receptive to Cromwell 's suggestions . In response to a proposal by Cromwell that New Englanders migrate to Ireland to increase its Protestant population , the Massachusetts assembly drafted a polite response , signed by Endecott , indicating that its people were happy where they were .
= = = English Restoration = = =
In July 1660 word arrived in Boston that Charles II had been restored to the English throne . This was an immediate cause of concern in all of the colonies that had supported Cromwell , since their charters might be revoked . In Boston it created a more difficult problem for Edward Whalley and William Goffe , two of the " regicide " commissioners who had voted to execute Charles I. Although Charles promised in the 1660 Declaration of Breda that all were pardoned except by act of Parliament , the Indemnity and Oblivion Act of 1660 singled out all of the regicides for punishment . Whalley and Goffe moved freely about the Boston area for some time , and Endecott refused to order their arrest until word arrived of the passage of the Indemnity Act . Endecott then issued a warrant for their arrest on 8 March 1661 . It is unknown whether Whalley and Goffe had advance warning of the warrant , but they fled , apparently to the New Haven area .
Endecott 's warrant was followed by an order issued by King Charles in March and received by Endecott in May 1661 containing a direct order to apprehend the two fugitives and ship them back to England . Endecott dutifully obeyed , but he appointed two recently arrived Royalists to track them down . Somewhat predictably , their search came up empty , and Whalley and Goffe thus escaped . Biographer Lawrence Mayo suggests Endecott would have appointed different men for the search had he been serious about catching them .
Opponents to the rule of the Puritans in Massachusetts were vocal in airing their complaints to the new king . Among their complaints was the fact that Charles ' ascension to power had not been formally announced ; this only took place in 1661 after Endecott received a chastising order from the king . This prompted the assembly to draft another of several laudatory letters it addressed to the king , congratulating him on his rise to power . The mint was claimed to be a bald @-@ faced attempt to devalue good English currency , some colonists complained that the expansion of the colony 's borders in 1652 was little more than a land grab , while others put forward claims of administrative malfeasance with respect to funds provided by the crown for the Christianization of Indians , and the Quakers cataloged a long list of grievances . Believing that it was best to ignore the accusations , Endecott and other members of the old guard opposed sending representatives to London to argue against these charges . Supporters of the idea raised funds in a private subscription , and sent a commission to London .
The colonial mission , led by future governor Simon Bradstreet and pastor John Norton , was successful , and King Charles announced that he would renew the colonial charter , provided the colony allowed the Church of England to practice there . The Endecott administration dragged its feet on implementation , and after months of inaction , the king sent a commission headed by Samuel Maverick , one of the colony 's most vocal critics , to investigate . Endecott had advance warning of what the commission was to investigate , and took steps to address in form , if not in substance , some of the expected actions . Charles insisted that all religious dissenters be freed , which Endecott had done long before Maverick 's arrival , but he did so by deporting them . Upon the commissioners ' arrival , the assembly took up the matter of allowing Church of England activity in the colony . They passed a law deliberately using the king 's language , allowing anyone " orthodox in religion " to practice in the colony ; however , they also defined such orthodoxy as consisting of views that were acceptable to local ministers . This effectively negated the law , because there were probably no ministers in the colony who would agree that Anglicans satisfied their idea of orthodoxy .
= = = Last years = = =
In 1655 the Massachusetts assembly passed a law requiring its governor to live closer to Boston ; this was probably done in response to Endecott 's sixth consecutive election as governor . Endecott was consequently obliged to acquire a residence in Boston ; although he returned to Salem frequently , Boston became his home for the rest of his life . Endecott died in Boston on 15 March 1664 / 5 . Although early accounts claim he was buried at Boston 's King 's Chapel , later evidence has identified his burial site as tomb 189 in the Granary Burying Ground .
= = Family = =
Before he came to the colonies in 1628 , Endecott was married to his first wife , Anne Gower , who was a cousin of Governor Matthew Craddock . After her death in New England , he was married in 1630 to a woman whose last name was Gibson , and by 1640 he was married to Elizabeth , the daughter of Philobert Cogan of Somersetshire . It is uncertain whether these represent two different wives , or a single wife whose name was Elizabeth ( Cogan ) Gibson . Because of the uncertainty concerning his wives , it is not known who the mother of his two sons was . There is only firm evidence that he was already married to Elizabeth in 1640 , and the records that survive for the 1630s , when his sons were born , do not otherwise identify his wife by name . Endecott 's last wife , Elizabeth , was a sister @-@ in @-@ law of the colonial financier and magistrate Roger Ludlow . Endecott 's two known children were John Endecott and Dr. Zerubabbel Endecott , neither of whom , seemingly to his disappointment , followed him into public service . There is also evidence that Endecott fathered another child in his early years in England ; in about 1635 he arranged funds and instructions for the care of a minor also named John Endecott .
Despite his high position , Endecott was never particularly affluent . According to his will , several large tracts of land , including the Orchard estate in Salem and one quarter of Block Island , were distributed to his wife and sons ; however , it was also noted that some of his books were sold to pay debts . One unexpected legacy left behind by Endecott was the uncertain boundaries of the " Orchard " estate . Several generations later , his descendants were involved in litigation concerning disputed occupancy of part of the estate .
Endecott 's descendants include Massachusetts governor Endicott Peabody and United States Secretary of War William Crowninshield Endicott . His descendants donated family records dating as far back as the colonial era to the Massachusetts Historical Society . In 1930 , the Massachusetts tercentenary was marked by the issuance of a medal bearing Endecott 's likeness ; it was designed by Laura Gardin Fraser . Endicott College in Beverly , Massachusetts ( once a part of Salem ) is named for him .
= = Namesakes = =
In 1831 , the brig Governor Endicott , of Salem , H. H. Jenks , master , was engaged in the pepper trade on the coast of Sumatra when she had occasion to help free Friendship , also of Salem , Charles Endicott , master , from Malay pirates . He and some of his officers had gone ashore to negotiate for pepper in the town of Quallah Battoo when pirates took over the ship , murdered some of her crew and looted the cargo . Captain Endicott obtained aid from Governor Endicott and the ship James Monroe , of New York , J. Porter , master , to rescue his ship from her captors and return her to Salem , where he arrived 16 July 1831 .
= = Descendants = =
Endicott Peabody
Endicott Peabody ( educator )
Malcolm E. Peabody
= Tropical Storm Vamei =
Tropical Storm Vamei was a Pacific tropical cyclone that formed closer to the equator than any other tropical cyclone in Pacific Ocean . The last storm of the 2001 Pacific typhoon season , Vamei developed on December 26 at 1 @.@ 4 ° N in the South China Sea . It strengthened quickly and made landfall along extreme southeastern Malaysia . Vamei rapidly dissipated over Sumatra on December 28 , and the remnants eventually re @-@ organized in the North Indian Ocean .
Though officially designated as a tropical storm , the intensity of Vamei is disputed ; some agencies classify it as a typhoon , based on sustained winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) and the appearance of an eye . The storm brought flooding and landslides to eastern Malaysia , causing $ 3 @.@ 6 million in damage ( 2001 USD , $ 4 @.@ 81 million 2016 USD ) and five deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
On December 19 , a small low @-@ level circulation was located along the northwest coastline of Borneo ; at the same time a plume of cold air progressed southward through the South China Sea on the southeastern periphery of a ridge over the Far East . The vortex drifted southwestward , reaching open water by December 21 . The northerly air surge was deflected after interacting with the circulation , and at the same time a portion of the air surge crossed the equator . The southerly flow turned eastward , then northward , and in combination with the northerly flow it wrapped into the vortex , resulting in rapid development of the low @-@ level circulation , just a short distance north of the equator . By December 25 , an area of scattered convection persisted about 370 km ( 230 mi ) east of Singapore within an area of low wind shear , in association with the low @-@ level circulation . Continuing slowly westward , the convection deepened and organized further , and at 1200 UTC on December 26 the disturbance developed into a tropical depression about 230 km ( 145 mi ) east of Singapore , or 156 km ( 97 mi ) north of the equator . This was the first recorded occurrence of a tropical cyclone near the equator .
The depression strengthened further and officially attained tropical storm status at 0000 UTC on December 27 , based on the analysis by the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) , though the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) unofficially classified it as a tropical storm six hours prior . Shortly thereafter , an eye with a 39 km ( 24 mi ) diameter became apparent on satellite imagery , along with rainbands extending southward to the opposite side of the equator . At 0600 UTC , the JMA first classified the system as Tropical Storm Vamei , about 65 km ( 40 mi ) northeast of Singapore , and the agency estimated the storm attained peak winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) at the same time . However , the JTWC upgraded Vamei to typhoon status with peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , based on a United States Navy ship report from within the eye ; a second ship reported wind gusts of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) in the southern portion of the eyewall . The storm was small and compact , with gales extending about 45 km ( 30 mi ) from its center . At about 0830 UTC on December 27 , Vamei made landfall approximately 60 km ( 35 mi ) northeast of Singapore , in the southeastern portion of the Malaysian state of Johor . Initially , the Malaysian Meteorological Department classified the cyclone as a tropical storm , though it was later re @-@ assessed as a typhoon at landfall .
Tropical Storm Vamei weakened quickly as it crossed the extreme southern portion of the Malay Peninsula , and late on December 27 the JMA downgraded it to tropical depression status before the cyclone emerged into the Straits of Malacca . The JTWC initially maintained it as a minimal tropical storm , though the agency downgraded the storm to depression status as the center again approached land . Early on December 28 , Vamei moved ashore along northeastern Sumatra , and at 0600 UTC the JMA classified the storm as dissipated . However , convection persisted near the circulation over land , believed to have been caused by the process known as upper @-@ level diffluence . On December 29 , what was originally believed to be a separate system reached the southeastern Bay of Bengal . In a post @-@ season re @-@ evaluation , the JTWC classified the system as a continuation of Vamei , based on analysis of satellite imagery that indicated the circulation of Vamei crossed Sumatra without dissipating . Convection re @-@ developed , and late on December 30 the JTWC classified the cyclone as a tropical storm about 390 km ( 245 mi ) west @-@ southwest of the northwestern tip of Sumatra ; initially , due to being treated as a separate system , it was classified as Tropical Cyclone 05B . Vamei quickly developed good outflow and organization , though increased wind shear on December 31 rapidly weakened the storm ; by late that day , the center was exposed from the deep convection , and Vamei quickly dissipated .
= = = Unusual formation = = =
Vamei formed and reached tropical storm strength at 1.5º N , only 156 km ( 97 mi ) from the equator . This broke the previous record of Typhoon Sarah in the 1956 Pacific typhoon season , which reached tropical storm strength at 2.2º N. Due to a lack of Coriolis effect near the equator , the formation of Vamei was previously considered impossible . However , a study by the Naval Postgraduate School indicated that the probability for a similar equatorial development was at least once every four centuries .
Vamei developed in a vortex that appears every winter along the northwest coast of Borneo and is maintained by the interaction between monsoonal winds and the local topography . Often , the vortex remains near the coastline , and in an analysis of 51 winters , only six reported the vortex as being over the equatorial waters for four days or more . As the area in the South China Sea between Borneo and Singapore is only 665 km ( 415 mi ) wide , a vortex needs to move slowly to develop . A persistent northerly wind surge for more than five days , which is needed to enhance the vortex , is present , on average , nine days each winter . The probability for a pre @-@ existing tropical disturbance to develop into a tropical cyclone is between 10 – 30 percent . Thus , the conditions which resulted in the formation of Vamei are believed to occur once every 100 – 400 years .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Four days prior to Vamei moving ashore , the Malaysian Meteorological Department ( MMD ) issued storm advisories for potentially affected areas . Subsequently , the agency issued warnings for heavy rainfall , high winds , and rough seas . However , few citizens knew of the passage of the rare storm .
Offshore of Malaysia , two U.S. Navy ships in Vamei 's eyewall were damaged by strong winds . Upon moving ashore , the storm brought storm surge damage to portions of southeastern Malaysia . Vamei brought strong winds and heavy rainfall to portions of Melaka , Negeri Sembilan , and Selangor as well as to Johor , where rainfall reached over 200 mm ( 8 in ) in Senai . Additionally , monsoonal moisture , influenced by the storm , produced moderate to heavy precipitation across various regions of peninsular Malaysia . The passage of the cyclone resulted in flooding and mudslides , which forced the evacuation of more than 13 @,@ 195 people in Johor and Pahang states into 69 shelters . Along Gunung Pulai , the rainfall caused a landslide which destroyed four houses and killed five people . River flooding was also reported , as a result of the precipitation from Vamei as well as previous rainfall . Damage from the flooding was estimated at RM13.7 million ( 2001 MYR , $ 3 @.@ 6 million 2001 USD ) . About 40 percent of the damage occurred to crops at a farm in Kota Tinggi . Moderate damage to transportation , education , and health @-@ care facilities was also reported . The Malaysian government provided affected families up to RM5,000 ( 2001 MYR , $ 1 @,@ 300 2001 USD ) in assistance for food , clothing , and repairs . Vamei also brought heavy rainfall to Singapore , which caused air traffic disruptions at the Singapore Changi Airport . The passage of the cyclone resulted in many downed trees .
In 2004 , the name " Vamei " was retired and replaced with " Peipah " , becoming the first retired name since the Japan Meteorological Agency began naming Pacific typhoons in 2000 . Vamei was one of three tropical cyclones in the current naming list that was retired without attaining typhoon status ; the others were Tropical Storm Bilis in 2006 and Tropical Storm Washi in 2011 .
= Neverwinter Nights 2 =
Neverwinter Nights 2 is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Obsidian Entertainment and published by Atari . It is the sequel to BioWare 's Neverwinter Nights , based on the Dungeons & Dragons pencil and paper fantasy role @-@ playing game . Neverwinter Nights 2 utilizes an adaptation of the Dungeons & Dragons 3 @.@ 5 edition rules . Players create player characters to represent themselves in the game , using the same character creation rules as found in the Dungeons & Dragons game . They may gain the assistance of additional party members , and they eventually acquire a keep that can be used as a base of operations . Neverwinter Nights 2 is set in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting — in and around the city of Neverwinter . The story is mostly unrelated to Neverwinter Nights and follows the journey of an orphaned adventurer investigating a group of mysterious artifacts known as " silver shards " and their connection to an ancient , evil spirit known as the King of Shadows .
Neverwinter Nights 2 went into development in July 2004 . This sequel was designed with the Aurora Engine , also used by its predecessor , and the game 's toolset was included in the game 's release for players to use in designing their own adventures . The game 's design team drew upon older role @-@ playing video games , and decided that the player character would have to earn the respect of others by the things the character does . The game was also designed to be playable with other players online in a cooperative fashion . The game was released in October and November 2006 . Official multiplayer support for the game was suspended in December 2012 . In response , the Neverwinter Nights 2 community developed several initiatives by which players can continue to play the game online .
Reviews of Neverwinter Nights 2 were generally positive . Reviewers were pleased with the changes that had been made from the first game in the series , especially regarding the storyline and party management . The game won GameSpot 's Best Story award for 2006 . One of the most commonly raised complaints about the game was the presence of numerous technical glitches in its initial release . Two official expansions and one official adventure pack have been released for the game : Mask of the Betrayer in 2007 , Storm of Zehir in 2008 , and Mysteries of Westgate in 2009 .
= = Gameplay = =
Neverwinter Nights 2 is played in the third @-@ person from a top @-@ down perspective , where the player controls a hero and his or her attendant party . As a role @-@ playing video game based on the Dungeons & Dragons 3 @.@ 5 edition ruleset , players build a player character in accordance with the character creation rules of Dungeons & Dragons , which includes selecting a race and class , then assigning skill points . There are sixteen races and twelve classes available , including the rogue and the wizard , as well as an additional seventeen unlockable classes . Neverwinter Nights 2 makes use of the d20 system introduced in Dungeons & Dragons , where a die roll or random number is used
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fought an unknown opponent in an open challenge by Trinity in the fifth bout . Jacqueline Moore made her TNA debut and answered the challenge . During the match , NYC interfered on Trinity 's behalf by distracting Moore to allow Trinity to perform the Fall from Grace from the top rope to gain the pinfall victory .
TNA hosted the first ever Monster 's Ball match , involving Monty Brown , Abyss , and Raven . Throughout the match , the competitors used many different types of weapons , such as thumbtacks , chairs , and tables . Brown became the victor by pinning Raven after a Pounce .
= = = Main event matches = = =
Petey Williams , who was accompanied by Coach D 'Amore , defended the TNA X Division Championship against A.J. Styles in the following bout . Williams retained the championship in the match by jumping off of the top rope and landing on his feet with Styles ' head between his legs , connecting with the Canadian Destroyer . Williams followed by pinning Styles to win the encounter .
America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) ( AMW ) fought Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) ( XXX ) in an Elimination Last Team Standing match in the next encounter . Though the match was billed as a Last Team Standing match , it was held under Texas Death match rules . A Texas Death match is similar to a Last Team Standing match , however , the competitor must pin or make his opponent submit before the referee begins his count . Daniels pinned Storm following hitting him in the knee with a steel chair to begin the ten count , which Storm failed to make . Daniels was the second to be eliminated , failing to reach the ten count after being pinned following a top rope legdrop by Harris . With the outcome of the match down to the competition between Harris and Skipper , Harris hit Skipper with the Catatonic onto a steel chair . Harris then pinned Skipper to begin the ten count ; Skipper did not get to his feet , giving the win to AMW .
The poll results were announced for the Director of Authority between Dusty Rhodes and Vince Russo . Rhodes won the position over Russo with 55 @.@ 6 % of the popular vote .
The main event was a Ladder match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship , involving the champion , Jeff Jarrett , and the challenger , Jeff Hardy . Scott Hall interfered with the match by hitting Hardy with the Outsider 's Edge . While Hardy and Jarrett were both at the top of a ladder trying to grab the belt , Kevin Nash , an ally of Hardy 's , entered the arena with two guitars over both of his shoulders and handed a guitar to Hall . The two men then began to bash Hardy with the guitars until Jarrett broke a guitar over Hardy 's head . Jarrett then retrieved the championship belt from the holder above the ring to win the match . Following the match , Jarrett , Nash , and Hall challenged the TNA roster to fight them . A.J. Styles and the 3Live Kru ( Ron Killings , B.G. James , and Konnan ) answered their challenge , but failed to win the fight . The video feed changed from the ring to a black limousine outside of the venue that showed a man in a black coat step out and walk into the arena . Randy Savage then made his debut in the company and walked to ringside as the event came to a close .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the event on the November 19 episode of Impact ! , Randy Savage , Jeff Hardy , and A.J. Styles challenged the newly dubbed Kings of Wrestling ( Jeff Jarrett , Kevin Nash , and Scott Hall ) to a Six Man Tag Team match at TNA 's next and December PPV event , Turning Point . Savage , Hardy , and Styles won the match at Turning Point .
America 's Most Wanted ( Chris Harris and James Storm ) ( AWM ) and Triple X ( Christopher Daniels and Elix Skipper ) ( XXX ) continued their rivalry at Turning Point in a match that was contested inside a 16 foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) high steel structure with six sides known as a Six Sides of Steel . The match was announced on the November 19 episode of Impact ! with the added stipulation that the losing team would have to disband forever . AMW won the match and as a result XXX had to disband .
After winning the NWA World Tag Team Championship , The 3Live Kru ( B.G. James and Konnan ) fought Team Canada ( Bobby Roode and Eric Young ) once again at Turning Point , however , Team Canada defeated The 3Live Kru to win the championship .
= = = Reception = = =
The Canadian Online Explorer 's writer Jason Clevett rated the entire event 5 out of 10 , which was lower than the 2006 event 's rating of 5 @.@ 5 out of 10 . The Elimination Last Team Standing match was rated a 0 out of 10 , while main event match for the NWA World Heavyweight Championship was rated a 5 out of 10 . Clevett stated in his review of the event that he thought the Elimination Last Team Standing match was " horrible " . He also felt that the NWA Championship match was a " sloppy ladder match " . TNA later released a DVD counting down the top 50 moments in their history , with Victory Road being ranked number 25 . The debut of Scott Hall , Kevin Nash , and Randy Savage were ranked higher than the event itself , with that moment ranking in at number 19 . The event was released on DVD on September 20 , 2005 by TNA Home Video in a boxset which also included TNA 's April 2005 PPV event , Lockdown , and the 2004 Turning Point event ; the boxset was called the " TNA Anthology : The Epic Set "
= = Results = =
= = = Gauntlet entrances and eliminations = = =
= = = Elimination Last Team Standing match = = =
= Looking 4 Myself =
Looking 4 Myself is the seventh studio album by American R & B recording artist Usher . It was released on June 8 , 2012 , by RCA Records . In October 2011 , it was announced that the disbandment have been occurred between Usher and the J / LaFace imprint . The album includes these several producers that were involved and have provided with its production ; including Diplo , Rico Love , Jim Jonsin , Salaam Remi , Pharrell Williams and Max Martin , among others . It features these several guest vocalists ; including Luke Steele and ASAP Rocky . Inspired by the electronic duo Empire of the Sun and listening to music originating from several locations , Usher intended the album to contain a more experimental sound , that remained relevant to the music of its time . Defined as " revolutionary pop " by the singer , critics noted that Looking 4 Myself incorporates the genres R & B , pop , hip hop , electronic , Europop and dubstep . Critic Barry Walters has described it as a key release in the emerging the genre of the alternative R & B.
Upon its release , Looking 4 Myself received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Most of them praised the album 's diversity in music genre , while some were ambivalent towards its pop material and lack of structure . The album debuted atop the US Billboard 200 chart , selling 128 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , becoming Usher 's fourth number one album in the country . As of October 2014 , Looking 4 Myself has sold 504 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan . Worldwide , it attained top @-@ ten positions in over eight other countries including Australia , Canada , Germany and the United Kingdom .
Looking 4 Myself was supported by five singles : " Climax " , " Scream " , " Lemme See " featuring Rick Ross , " Numb " and " Dive " . " Climax " peaked in the top @-@ twenty on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , and topped the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart for eleven weeks . " Scream " peaked in the top @-@ ten on the Hot 100 and several other countries . " Numb " obtained moderate international chart success and peaked at number 69 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Usher promoted for the Looking 4 Myself by performing in several shows ; including the off @-@ broadway show Fuerza Bruta : Look Up , Saturday Night Live and Good Morning America , among others . The tour has further be promoting the album , however , it was cancelled due to the singer 's obligation as a coach on The Voice .
= = Background = =
In 2010 , Usher released his sixth studio album Raymond v. Raymond , with a mixed critical response and commercial success ; the project went on to earn two Grammy Awards at the 2011 ceremony . His follow @-@ up record was originally rumored to be titled The Shanetance and due for release on March 23 , 2012 , though Usher later refuted the speculation .
While on hiatus between the release of his first EP Versus and Looking 4 Myself , Usher told AOL Music that he mainly traveled to various locations to listen to music which he " felt was really significant in terms of energy . " Some of these locations included the Coachella Music Festival , Ibiza , Germany , Las Vegas , Miami and Southern France . He described some of the music as a " little bit more electronic , some of it a little bit more dance . Some of it , a bit more world . " It was Australian electronic music duo Empire of the Sun that inspired Usher to produce the album 's title track , with producer Rico Love , which led to the singer collaborating with producers he normally wouldn 't work with or admired , such as Diplo . Usher 's intention for the album was one " that was not genre @-@ specific but just experimental " . During an episode of NBC 's The Voice , Usher called the album " by far one of my most risky records ... I wanted to challenge myself " . Looking 4 Myself was chosen as the album 's title as it described Usher 's ' musical journey ' .
RCA Records CEO Peter Edge spoke to Billboard on which two specific groups they want the album to appeal to , " By the time the album is available , Usher 's collective audience will have had a chance to really sample a number of songs from the album [ ... ] the end result will be an Usher album that appeals to his earliest fans , and people who may have never listened to or owned an Usher album before . " Prior to the album 's release , Usher was put under the management of Grace Miguel — whom he is in a relationship with — replacing Randy Phillips , who managed Usher for a short period after he split with his mother , Jonnetta Patton for a second time , in 2008 . The cover art and track listing for both the standard and deluxe edition of the album were revealed on May 3 , 2012 . On June 4 , 2012 , 30 second snippets of each track were leaked on the internet .
= = Production = =
Diplo , Rico Love , Jim Jonsin , Salaam Remi and Max Martin were the first producers confirmed for Looking 4 Myself on March 2012 . After Usher had attended the Coachella Music Festival , he worked with electronic music duo Empire of the Sun to produce the album 's title track ; he described the band 's music as an " incredible sound " . The collaboration and the band 's music inspired Usher to produce more experimental music , and to produce records with producers he normally wouldn 't work with or admired . DJ and producer Diplo was one of them , and so both collaborated on the album 's lead single , " Climax " . They discussed the concept throughout the song 's development and how it relates to Usher 's life , as Diplo " tried to help realise these lyrics and feelings . " After conceiving some melody lines , they wrote the song in about an hour . Usher and Diplo worked on the song 's production for two months , recording in studios in Los Angeles , New York , and Atlanta .
Usher wanted to work with Swedish electronic dance music trio Swedish House Mafia since their joint performance at the American Music Awards in 2011 . The group later agreed to work with the singer , where they intended to travel to Atlanta to work on track production , writing , and to " move the ball forward . " Steve Angello , a member of Swedish House Mafia , told MTV News that the group hung out with Usher in Ibiza after the awards ceremony ; they worked with him in Atlanta for five days . They produced the final tracks " Numb " , " Euphoria " and " Way to Count " , with the latter not making the final cut .
Usher contacted several producers and musicians who he endeavoured to , but ended up not collaborating with , including Skrillex , Calvin Harris , Afrojack , Kaskade , Little Dragon and David Guetta . The latter had revealed to The Hollywood Reporter in May 2012 that he and Usher had worked on a " crazy " record , though it did not appear on the album due to a scheduling conflict ; rapper Ludacris was involved in the song 's production . English singer @-@ songwriter Labrinth spent two studio sessions with Usher in April 2012 working on Looking 4 Myself .
= = Composition = =
= = = Influence and sound = = =
Usher told Sylelist in November 2011 that he is working on a new genre of music , which he depicted as " revolutionary pop " . He explained that it " combines several other music genres to form a new sound " . In a later interview , Usher clarified that his latter quote was misinterpreted , in that it is not a specific type of sound , but rather what he found as inspiration behind where he was and what he was working on " was revolutionary " . The album incorporates pop styles , which Usher described as being " relevant " to its time and " what [ people are ] listening to " . Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times summed up the production of the album , writing that it " draws on a world of styles permeating pop culture in 2012 " , by implementing the genres electronic dance , dubstep , pop and hip @-@ hop to create a hybrid pop . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman described revolutionary pop as " contemporary pop @-@ oriented R & B , or european dance @-@ pop , or some combination of the two " , and that the album is " weighted more heavily toward dance @-@ pop " compared to his previous efforts .
= = = Songs and lyrics = = =
Looking 4 Myself opens with club track " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " , which contains the melody of Billy Joel 's 1983 " Uptown Girl " ; it contains a synth heavy hook and incorporates elements of dubstep . " Scream " is another club oriented track , with heavily sexual lyrics . The song makes heavy use of bass — particularly in the chorus — and is noted to be reminiscent of Usher 's " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " ( 2010 ) . The third track " Climax " is a quiet storm slow jam , built around a haunting riff , complemented by sparse drum machine and some musical accompaniment . Its lyrics focuses on Usher 's anguish over a failed relationship , with its title referring to the turning point of a relationship . Follow @-@ up track " I Care for U " is a mid @-@ tempo R & B song , which fuses 90 's R & B and hip @-@ hop with dubstep , produced by American record producer Danja . " Show Me " , another Danja produced record , is described by Randall Roberts of Los Angeles Times to feature " driving house synth @-@ claps with a propellant techno rhythm bubbling beneath it . " A mid @-@ tempo track , " Lemme See " contains a synth @-@ heavy production with contributed vocals from American rapper Rick Ross . " Twisted " , which was produced by and features record producer @-@ rapper " Pharrell " , is the seventh track . It is a 60 's retro @-@ soul track , with heavy use of percussions and bass throughout . Usher described the track as " nostalgic " , and explained that his intent was to also " modernize it " , similar to records produced by Cee Lo , Bruno Mars and Andre 3000 .
" Dive " discusses a commitment to a relationship , while containing a triple @-@ entendre , according to Matt Cibula of PopMatters , initially singing about diving or oral sex , to discussing a commitment to a relationship . The ninth track is " What Happened to U " ; it is a downtempo song , sung by Usher primarily using falsetto . It samples the late The Notorious B.I.G. ' s " One More Chance " . The album 's title track features Empire of the Sun member Luke Steele , and is both new wave and soft rock . The title refers to Usher 's " musical journey " , and the song was inspired by his travelling and the latter band . The first of the two Swedish House Mafia tracks is " Numb " , a euro disco and electronic dance track , its lyrics message was described by Erika Ramirez of Billboard to simply be " Forget your troubles and fist @-@ pump ! " . The next track is " Lessons for the Lover " , a slow @-@ tempo track with heavy production , produced by long @-@ time collaborator Rico Love . Ramirez compared the track to songs from Usher 's Confessions era . " Sins of my Father " is a soul song with prominent blues , dub , Motown and reggae influences ; it is about being a " tortured soul " in a " volatile " relationship . Looking 4 Myself closes with " Euphoria " , the second Swedish House Mafia produced track on the album . It is described as more " tense " and " powerful " compared to " Numb " .
= = Singles = =
The album 's lead single " Climax " was leaked on February 14 , 2012 and digitally released on February 22 . The song was met with positive acclaim , with praise directed towards Diplo 's production and Usher 's vocals . " Climax " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number eighty @-@ one with 31 @,@ 000 digital units sold on the week of March 10 , 2012 and has since peaked at number 17 . The song topped the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart marking Usher 's twelfth number one single on the chart , and overtaking R. Kelly as the ninth artist with the most number one 's . " Climax " sustained the number one position for eleven weeks , tying with his 1997 " You Make Me Wanna ... " as his longest running number one single on the chart . The accompanying music video was released on March 9 , 2012 , and was directed by Sam Pilling and filmed in Atlanta . The video shows Usher sitting in his car , contemplating on how to approach his ex @-@ girlfriend inside her home , with numerous scenarios shown being thought out by Usher . The video was nominated for Best Male Video at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards , losing to Chris Brown 's " Turn Up the Music " .
" Scream " , the album 's second single , premièred on SoundCloud on April 26 , 2012 . The song was produced by Savan Kotecha and Max Martin , the same duo who produced " DJ Got Us Fallin ' in Love " ( 2010 ) . " Scream " was made available for purchase as a digital download on April 27 , 2012 . It officially impacted the Top 40 / Mainstream and rhythmic radio on May 1 , 2012 . The song peaked in the top ten in several charts , including the Billboard Hot 100 , Canadian Hot 100 , Japan Hot 100 , Scottish Singles Chart and UK Singles Chart . An accompanying music video uses footage from Usher 's performance in Fuerza Bruta in New York City . In the video , Usher gets intimate with his love interest ; his dancing and choreography was compared to Michael Jackson 's . The third single , " Lemme See " features rapper Rick Ross , and was made available for purchase as a digital download on May 4 , 2012 . The song was released to urban radio on May 8 , 2012 and reached number two on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . Internationally , " Lemme See " peaked at number ninety in the United Kingdom , and number eighty @-@ eight in France . The official music video for the song was released on June 14 , 2012 , and was directed by Philip Andelman .
" Numb " is the album 's fourth single , and was released to contemporary hit radio on August 28 , 2012 . It was produced by Swedish House Mafia , who also co @-@ wrote the song with Usher . The song received generally positive acclaim from contemporary music critics with many of them praising its club @-@ oriented production , labeling it as a potential success as a single . " Numb " was a moderate worldwide success , reaching the top @-@ forty in five countries including Belgium , Germany and Australia . Usher released " Dive " as the fifth single , releasing the song to urban radio on August 28 , 2012 . The song was well received by critics , who lauded Usher 's falsetto and overall vocals . Directed by Chris Applebaum , its music video shows Usher getting intimate with Victoria 's Secret Angel model Chanel Iman , who plays as his love interest . " Dive " peaked on the South Korea Gaon International Chart at number fifty , and the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart at number 34 .
= = Promotion = =
Usher held multiple private listening sessions for Looking 4 Myself . On April 27 , 2012 he debuted the album in the off @-@ broadway show Fuerza Bruta : Look Up , in Daryl Roth Theater in New York City . When speaking to MTV , he explained his reasoning for performing in the show " It 's not often that you 're able to give somewhat of a visual or an emotional kind of basis of what your songs mean [ ... ] I felt like , yeah , it would be a physical challenge , yeah it would be a lot for me , but [ I want to ] at least try it , there are many times I 'd seen the show and I 'd only hoped that I would make it happen " . Steven Horowitz of Rolling Stone commented that Usher " theatrically sequenced the entirety of the project to strobing lights and choreographed moves " . Horowitz also praised the singer 's performance , concluding that " the veteran entertainer reasserts himself as a master of rapturous dance fodder , capable of turning a room into a thumping rave with ease " . Usher appeared on Saturday Night Live — hosted by Will Ferrell — where he performed the singles " Scream " and " Climax " . He performed both singles again , in the 2012 Today summer concert , being the opening act of the series . Usher performed " Scream " in the 2012 Billboard Music Awards ; during the performance he wore a black suit , bowler hat and bow tie while dancing with a masked female , who later disappeared behind a cape and was replaced by a male dancer who mirrored Usher 's dance routines .
On June 9 , 2012 Usher performed in the UK , appearing in the Capital FM Summer Time Ball , his second appearance in his career . He entered the stage doing the moonwalk and then performed his 2010 single " OMG " . Backed @-@ up by female dancers while doing choreographed routines , he then performed several singles from his previous work and Looking 4 Myself , including " Yeah ! " , " Without You " , " Climax " and " Scream " . The singer again performed " Scream " in the 2012 Electronic Entertainment Expo in Los Angeles during Microsoft 's conference . He performed the dance routines presented in the video game Dance Central 3 , via the Kinect to the latter song . Usher promoted the album on its release date in the UK — June 11 — by performing in a one @-@ off concert in the HMV Hammersmith Apollo in London . The performance was directed by Hamish Hamilton , and was streamed to Usher 's VEVO channel on YouTube . The same week , he appeared on BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge , where he covered the song " Pumped Up Kicks " by Foster the People , and performed " Scream " . The singer appeared on Good Morning America , where he spoke about Looking 4 Myself , and discussed his legal battle with ex @-@ wife Tameka Foster . He performed " Climax " in the 2012 BET Awards ; Kelly Carter of MTV described the performance as " fairly muted " , due to Usher 's appearance and dancing being minimalistic . He opened the 2012 iTunes Festival , performing songs from his previous studio album efforts and tracks from Looking 4 Myself which he performed for the first time , including " Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " , " Lemme See " , " Twisted " , " Dive " and " Numb " .
= = = Tour = = =
On September 18 , 2012 , Usher announced that he would embark on a concert tour , the Euphoria Tour , to further promote Looking 4 Myself . Usher planned to perform in countries including France , Germany , Belgium , Norway , Finland , Sweden , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . In partnership with Live Nation Global Touring , the tour was to commence on January 18 , 2013 in Amsterdam , Netherlands and would conclude on March 14 in Nice , France . For the tour leg in the United Kingdom , British singer Rita Ora was scheduled to be an opening act . On September 25 , 2012 , Live Nation Global Touring announced that the tour will be postponed until the fall of 2013 , due to Usher 's participation in the reality talent show The Voice , where along with singer Shakira , he was a judge in the show 's fourth season . The tour , however , was not rescheduled .
= = Critical reception = =
Looking 4 Myself received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album has received an average score of 75 , based on 19 reviews . Alex Macpherson of The Guardian complimented Usher 's vocals , saying that they " are in fine fettle " , and found the album " most interesting " when it " goes in directions that don 't cleave to obvious aesthetics " . Allmusic 's Andy Kellman felt that , despite Usher 's shift to dance music , " he 's more of a creative force when he 's working with slower , soul @-@ rooted material " . Randall Roberts of the Los Angeles Times described the album as not genre defying , but instead utilises the music styles of the [ current ] era – it 's " more pop than it is revolutionary " . Evan Rytlewski of The A.V. Club said that " not all of it works , but none of it is unpleasant , either " , and commended Usher for branching out and taking risks . Pitchfork Media 's Carrie Battan felt that his strength " lies in R & B , and he 's adjusted well to shifting ground " , although " not everything on Looking 4 Myself hits the mark " . At USA Today , Steve Jones stated that on the release Usher has " chosen to keep growing and moving ahead " on which he " confidently steps out of his sonic comfort zone . "
In a mixed review , Now writer Kevin Ritchie said that " Climax " is one of the only few stand @-@ out tracks . Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson felt that the album lacks structure and found it " unavoidably uneven " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe criticized Usher 's use of auto @-@ tune : " the unnecessary deployment of Auto @-@ tune on a singer who can actually hold his own vocally " . The Observer 's Killian Fox wrote that " for every hit — ' Lemme See ' is another — there are a couple of misses : ' Can 't Stop Won 't Stop ' , the Euro @-@ dance opener produced by will.i.am , is horribly overblown " .
On October 9 , 2012 , Looking 4 Myself earned Usher three nominations at the 2012 American Music Awards for Favorite Soul / R & B Male Artist , Favorite Pop / Rock Male Artist and Favorite Soul / R & B Album . On November 18 , 2012 Usher won the award for Favorite Soul / R & B Male Artist for the third consecutive year . At the 55th Annual Grammy Awards , " Climax " earned Usher his eighth Grammy Award for Best R & B Performance . Billboard ranked Usher twentieth and sixty @-@ second on their Hot 100 and Billboard 200 year @-@ end charts , respectively .
= = Commercial performance = =
Looking 4 Myself was predicted to sell 120 @,@ 000 – 130 @,@ 000 units during its first @-@ week in the United States , based upon first day sales . The figure was under @-@ weight compared to his previous effort Raymond vs. Raymond ( 2010 ) , which sold 329 @,@ 000 units during the same period and to date has sold over two million copies worldwide . Despite the low figure estimation , Looking 4 Myself was still expected to top the Billboard 200 chart on the week ending June 17 , 2012 , and did so with 128 @,@ 000 first @-@ week copies sold domestically . The album marks Usher 's fourth consecutive number one studio album in the United States . The following week of the album 's release , Looking 4 Myself dropped to number six on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 48 @,@ 000 copies . In its third week , the album again dropped positions , falling three spots to number nine , selling 36 @,@ 000 units . In its fourth week , Looking 4 Myself fell to number fifteen , and in its fifth week rose to number fourteen , selling 20 @,@ 178 copies . As of October 2014 , Looking 4 Myself has sold 504 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
In the United Kingdom , Looking 4 Myself debuted at number three selling 27 @,@ 000 units , giving Usher his fifth consecutive top @-@ three album in the country . It sold sixteen units less than Amy MacDonald 's third studio album Life in a Beautiful Light which debuted one place ahead at number 2 . The album was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , for sales of 100 @,@ 000 copies on August 21 , 2015 . Looking 4 Myself debuted at number three on the ARIA Albums Chart , giving Usher his fifth consecutive top @-@ five album in the country . The album debuted at number fifteen on the Japanese Albums Chart , selling 6 @,@ 727 copies , on the week ending June 17 , 2012 . It debuted at number four on the Dutch Albums Chart , and number five on the Swiss Albums Chart . In New Zealand , along with My Way ( 1997 ) , the album charted outside the top @-@ ten at number eleven , while only remaining on the chart for five weeks . Looking 4 Myself also debuted and peaked within the top ten in Canada and Taiwan at number seven , in Germany at number eight and South Africa at number ten .
= = Aftermath = =
Looking 4 Myself debuted with the smallest first @-@ week figures since Usher 's second studio album My Way ( 1997 ) , which opened with 67 @,@ 000 copies . The album 's debut was a significant decrease relative to his previous effort Raymond v. Raymond ( 2010 ) , which opened with 329 @,@ 000 units . Gail Mitchell of Billboard contemplated on whether this was due to the pop material present on the album . Derrick Corbett , operator of urban based radio stations under Clear Channel Communications , credited its underwhelming sales to the " alienation " of Usher 's core audience . Neke Howse of WKYS believes it is because of the music industry evolving , saying that both Usher and label mate Chris Brown — who also experienced lower first week sales with his fifth studio album Fortune — will " be fine , and their albums will do OK " .
On August 2 , 2012 Japanese multinational conglomerate Sony revealed their Q1 earnings for the year , with Looking 4 Myself largely contributing to the companies $ 92 million in revenue for the music sector . In an interview with singer @-@ songwriter Eric Bellinger by Rap @-@ Up , the former explained that he , along with Jermaine Dupri , Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , and Brian Alexander Morgan , were working on Usher 's next album . Bellinger compared the album 's music to Usher 's Confessions ( 2004 ) , saying that it is " more R & B , more urban " than Usher 's Looking 4 Myself . The latter declared that his next album would show that he is " still Usher " . The singer 's eighth studio album , entitled UR ( 2014 ) , had its lead single — " Good Kisser " — released on May 5 , 2014 through digital download .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ a signifies a vocal producer
^ b signifies a co @-@ producer
" Can 't Stop Won 't Stop " contains a portion of the composition " Uptown Girl " written by Billy Joel
" What Happened to U " contains a sample from " One More Chance / Stay with Me Remix " written by Sean Combs , Reginald Ellis , Norman Glover , Carl Thompson and Christopher Wallace , as performed by The Notorious B.I.G.
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Looking 4 Myself adapted from Allmusic .
Managerial
Performance credits
Visuals and imagery
Instruments
Technical and production
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Mike Bullen =
Michael J. " Mike " Bullen ( born 13 January 1960 ) is an English screenwriter . Bullen grew up in the West Midlands of England , attending the Solihull School and later Magdalene College , Cambridge . He left with a degree in history of art and became a radio producer for the BBC World Service . Unhappy with the quality of British television targeted at people his age , Bullen took a course in screenwriting and developed a one @-@ off comedy drama for Granada Television . This led to the commissioning of Cold Feet , a multiple @-@ award @-@ winning comedy drama that aired on the ITV network from 1998 to 2003 . The series won Bullen the Writer of the Year award at the 2003 British Comedy Awards . He wrote two more series for Granada ; Life Begins , which ran for three years , and All About George , which ran for only one . His works have been described as being " about the intricacies of interpersonal relationships and what happens when they break down " .
Bullen moved with his wife and two children to Australia in 2002 . Two years later he directed his first short film , Amorality Tale . He co @-@ created the Australian / UK television series Tripping Over in 2006 and the writer and director of the Australian television pilot Make or Break in 2007 . He returned to producing work for British television in 2010 with the BBC pilot Reunited , and moved back to the UK in 2011 .
= = Background = =
Bullen was born in Bramhall , Cheshire . Bullen 's father , Alex , was a chemical engineer , and his mother , Joan , was a housewife . Mike and his sister Jane were raised in Solihull , where he attended Solihull School . At the age of 18 he was accepted to Magdalene College , Cambridge , to read economics . He did not enjoy the subject , so switched to history of art . Despite his public school background , Bullen felt out of place at Cambridge among students who did not come from the urban West Midlands , later stating that " Half the students were debutantes who spent a lot of time brushing their hair ; the other half ended up working in Sotheby 's . " His first experiences of writing came when he was a child and wrote a newspaper for his neighbours . At Cambridge , he dramatised a Johann Wolfgang von Goethe novel .
Following his graduation , Bullen began a career as a media planner buyer for an advertising company . The job did not excite him and he has described it as " pretty pointless " . He quit the job to go backpacking in south @-@ east Asia . On his return he applied for a position as a radio producer at Radio Netherlands Worldwide , having previously worked for a hospital radio . He eventually began freelance work for the BBC World Service , where he was a presenter and producer for the magazine programmes On Screen and Outlook .
= = Career = =
= = = 1994 – 1997 = = =
In 1994 , aged 34 , Bullen began thinking about writing a television script , based on the idea that he could " write crap " on television . He was inspired in particular by the American television series Hill Street Blues ( a show he " cancelled [ his ] social life for " ) and Thirtysomething . He began work on scripts for Pie in the Sky and Soldier Soldier but did not complete either . To improve his writing skills , he took a writing course at the National Film and Television School , a comedy course by Anji Loman Field , and attended Robert McKee 's STORY seminar .
He began writing another script , this time drawing on his American television influences . Believing that there was nothing on British television for people in his age group that was not a soap opera or a costume drama , Bullen wrote a script entitled The Perfect Match , about a man who proposes to his girlfriend using the screen at Wembley Stadium during the FA Cup Final . He secured an agent , who managed to sell the script on spec to Andy Harries , controller of comedy at Granada Television . Harries described the writing as " impressive — cleverly constructed dialogue , very funny , well observed " and commissioned it as part of his drive to move away from making traditional @-@ style sitcoms . Bullen described the moment he walked onto the set of The Perfect Match as " gobsmacking [ … ] wandering around a room which had previously only existed in my head " . It was broadcast on ITV in September 1995 to poor reviews .
Harries was pleased enough with Bullen 's work to ask him to pitch some more ideas to The Perfect Match assistant producer Christine Langan , who shared Bullen 's desire to see more television directed at their age bracket . Bullen pitched the idea of a traditional " boy @-@ meets @-@ girl , boy @-@ loses @-@ girl , boy @-@ wins @-@ girl @-@ back " story told from both sides of the relationship but using elements of fantasy and flashback to distort events to fit a character 's point of view . Harries accepted the pitch and Bullen began work on Cold Feet . Initially commissioned as a pilot for ITV 's Comedy Premieres programming strand , the prospect of a full television series was given to Bullen . Cold Feet 's main character , Adam Williams , a lothario character and a serial monogamist , was based on Bullen himself during his twenties . The other main character , Rachel Bradley , was based on a combination of his ex @-@ girlfriends and the " ideal girlfriend " . Harries suggested that if a series were to be commissioned , more characters would be needed . Bullen developed a supporting cast for Cold Feet , basing each character on friends of his . The script for Cold Feet went through " six or seven " drafts before being filmed in 1996 and was broadcast in 1997 . After a hiatus , it was commissioned for a full series . During the hiatus , he wrote a romantic comedy feature film script for Granada and developed a pilot for London Weekend Television , neither of which were picked up . The Writers ' Guild of Great Britain presented to Bullen the award for New Writer of the Year at their awards ceremony in October 1997 .
When he first started writing professionally , Bullen could not structure his scripting in a coherent way , adopting a " mix and match " method ; he began by structuring a script on cards , then typing what he had onto a computer , then returning to the cards . After completing the Cold Feet pilot , he starting writing ten pages of script per day , regardless of the quality of the writing . His own third draft was usually submitted to producers as the " first draft " .
= = = 1998 – 2003 = = =
Production on the first series of Cold Feet began in January 1998 . Bullen continued his method of developing storylines based on his own life ; he and his wife had their first child in the latter half of 1997 , so he integrated their experiences into the storyline of characters Pete and Jenny , who have their first child in Cold Feet 's first episode . Throughout 1998 , he retained his job at the BBC , working on three radio shows per week at the same time as writing Cold Feet . During the second series he cut back to one show per week . By the time of the third series in 2000 , he felt confident enough that he would have a future in television that he was able to give up radio presenting completely . He moved from his home in London to Cambridge , where he was able to write for two full days a week and at evenings and weekends .
He worked on other projects at the same time as Cold Feet : After watching the 1997 docusoap Holiday Reps , he became interested in what happens in the personal lives of holiday representatives while in foreign countries . Out of this idea he developed Sunburn for BBC One . Sunburn starred Michelle Collins and was broadcast for two series from 1999 to 2000 . Bullen shared writing duties with Lizzie Mickery and Sally Wainwright . His inspiration from American television continued ; following the premiere of The West Wing in 1999 , he began outlining a British version , The Firm , that would be set in Buckingham Palace . The project never moved beyond planning stages because Bullen believed that British political issues such as " cod wars with Spain " are not as " sexy " as the issues covered in The West Wing .
In 1999 , Cold Feet was adapted into a series of the same name for American network NBC . He wrote the screenplay for one of the pilot episodes . At the same time , NBC and Granada Entertainment USA commissioned a pilot script from Bullen entitled Small Beer , which centred on a group of people who take over a microbrewery in the north @-@ western United States .
The third series of Cold Feet ( 2000 ) was extended from six to eight episodes by ITV . Bullen believed that the production team had covered all potential storylines in the first two series , so declined to write any more episodes . A team of five writers was hired by Granada Television , overseen by Bullen as a co @-@ executive producer . Four out of the five writers left the team due to their scripts not being appropriate for the series , leaving only David Nicholls on staff . The writing process had made Bullen think twice about not writing and he began thinking about further storylines , such as mid @-@ life crises and IVF . The same year , he signed a two @-@ year contract with Granada to develop new projects . A fourth series of Cold Feet , also of eight episodes , was commissioned for 2001 . Bullen announced that he did not want to write a fifth series , and that the fourth would be the last . His reasons were that with ITV 's proposed commission of up to 20 episodes a year , the series would become like a soap opera . The popularity of the fourth series persuaded Bullen to write four more episodes that formed the fifth series in 2003 . The fifth series won Bullen the Writer of the Year Award at the 2003 British Comedy Awards .
In 2002 , he began developing Life Begins , a one @-@ hour television series . The following year he conceived George the Third . He moved to Australia in 2002 but continued to work on UK @-@ based series .
= = = 2004 – 2006 = = =
Life Begins was inspired by Bullen 's re @-@ evaluation of the lives of people around him as they approached 40 years old . During a conversation with a friend he realised that three women he knew had had failed marriages by the time they reached 40 . The series was designed as a vehicle for actress Sarah Lancashire , who had signed an exclusive " golden handcuffs " deal with ITV . Two months after the series was announced , Lancashire left Life Begins , feeling unable to commit to a potentially long @-@ running series . ITV replaced Lancashire with Caroline Quentin . Life Begins concerns Maggie Mee , who believes she is in a loving relationship with her husband Phil ( Alexander Armstrong ) . When Phil announces on a family holiday that he is leaving her , she realises that she must begin her life again . Bullen wrote the series with John Forte . The first series was broadcast in 2004 . As with Cold Feet , he integrated events from his own life into the storylines ; Maggie 's father suffers from Alzheimer 's disease as does one of Bullen 's own relatives . He researched Maggie 's travel agency job by spending a week at a travel agents ' in Bristol .
In 2003 Bullen made a journey to Perth 's Small Screen Big Picture . On the return leg , after 12 hours of seeing nothing but the Nullarbor Plain through the train window , he began developing a short subject on infidelity at television conferences . The short , entitled Amorality Tale , which marked Bullen 's directorial debut , was screened at various film festivals in 2005 , and was a finalist for the first Rosemount Diamond at the Jackson Hole Film Festival . On the themes of the film , Bullen said , " What has always interested me is the notion of ordinary people and how they react in ordinary situations [ … ] what fascinated me is the way we arrive at the choices we make . The idea of this film is to say that the choices we make might not lead to the outcomes we expect . " He formerly expressed interest in directing an episode of Cold Feet , but decided against it on the basis that his inexperience would make him " inadequate " and that the job was best left to professional directors . The short was produced by Pommie Granite Productions , a company set up by Bullen after his exclusive contract with Granada ended in September 2004 . At the end of 2004 , he became the seventh person to rewrite the script of the DreamWorks / Aardman Animations film Tortoise vs. Hare . He made at least three drafts .
Alongside the second series of Life Begins , Bullen continued developing George the Third . The title was changed to It Happens until eventually settling on All About George in time for filming in 2005 . All About George starred Rik Mayall as George Kinsey , a builder whose life is changed when six generations of his family move into his home . Initially excited about the series when he attended the cast read @-@ throughs , Bullen 's optimism waned by the time it was broadcast as he felt there were too many characters and the series ' premise unclear . In a 2008 interview , he describes it as one of his worst TV series . Life Begins returned for a third and final series in 2006 . The same year , filming commenced on Tripping Over , a series about intercontinental backpackers in 1976 and 2006 . SeaChange writers Andrew Knight and Andrea Denholm conceived the idea in 2003 and asked Bullen , a friend of Knight 's , to develop it with them . A co @-@ production between Australia 's Channel Ten and Britain 's Five , Tripping Over was broadcast in both countries at the end of 2006 .
= = = 2007 – 2012 = = =
In 2007 , Bullen was approached by David Maher , a Fox World producer , who commissioned him to write a television pilot for UKTV . Bullen agreed and spent a " torturous " time trying to come up with an idea for the script . Continuing his trend for taking ideas from real life , he decided to write about a family moving from the UK to Australia . The pilot , entitled Make or Break , was also Bullen 's television directoral debut . British actor Robson Green had recently completed work on " Prayer of the Bone " , a one @-@ off special episode of Wire in the Blood set in the United States . Green and Wire producer Sandra Jobling considered another special episode set in Australia . Green suggested asking Bullen to write the episode and Bullen responded by asking Green if he would like to play the lead in Make or Break . Fox World sent the script to Green and he signed on . As the pilot was Bullen 's first attempt at directing television , he sought advice from the experienced production crew , in particular the director of photography . The pilot was first broadcast in March 2008 . Bullen and Fox World sought financial investment from a UK production company to develop a full @-@ length series .
In 2010 , Bullen wrote his first screenplay for the BBC since Sunburn ; Reunited is a pilot about six friends who once shared a house together reuniting after eight years . Bullen admitted that his career was " declining " before he made Reunited , and he even moved back to the UK for five months while it was produced . He considers Reunited his best work since the end of Cold Feet . The pilot received only 3 @.@ 3 million viewers when it was broadcast , and a series was not commissioned . Bullen has since discussed other projects with Ed Byrne , one of the actors in the pilot .
Bullen and his family returned to the UK in 2011 ; Bullen told The Manly Daily " I realised if I still am going to have a UK @-@ based television career I need to be based in the UK . " As of 2012 , Bullen has three television series in development with British television networks .
= = Personal life = =
Bullen is married to Lisa Bullen , whom he met while working at the BBC . They have two children : Maggie ( born 1997 ) and Rachel ( born 1999 ) . In 2002 the family moved to Avalon , New South Wales . They later moved to Newport , New South Wales and became Australian citizens in 2005 . The family returned to the UK in 2011 .
= = List of works = =
= Climate of Argentina =
The climate of Argentina is a complex subject : the vast size of the country and considerable variation in altitude make for a wide range of climate types . Argentina has four seasons : winter ( June – August ) , spring ( September – November ) , summer ( December – February ) and autumn ( March – May ) , all featuring different weather conditions . Summers are the warmest and wettest season in most of the country except in most of Patagonia where it is the driest season . Winters are normally mild in the north , cool in the center and cold in the southern parts with the latter experiencing frequent frost and snow . Because southern parts of the country are moderated by the surrounding oceans , the cold is less intense and prolonged than areas at comparable latitudes in the northern hemisphere . Spring and autumn are transition seasons that generally feature mild weather .
Many regions have different , often contrasting , microclimates . In general , northern parts of the country are characterized by hot , humid , rainy summers and mild winters with periodic droughts . Mesopotamia , in the northeast is characterized by high temperatures and abundant precipitation throughout the year with droughts being uncommon . West of this lies the Chaco region , which is the warmest region in Argentina . Precipitation in the Chaco region decreases westwards , resulting in the vegetation changing from forests in the east to shrubs in the west . Northwest Argentina is predominantly dry and hot although the rugged topography makes it climatically diverse , ranging from the cold , dry Puna to thick jungles . The center of the country , which includes the Pampas to the east and the drier Cuyo region to the west has hot summers with occasional tornadoes and thunderstorms , and cool , dry winters . Patagonia , in the southern parts of the country has a dry climate with warm summers and cold winters characterized by strong winds throughout the year and one of the strongest precipitation gradients in the world . High elevations at all latitudes experience cooler conditions , and the mountainous zones can see heavy snowfall .
The geographic and geomorphic characteristics of Argentina tend to create extreme weather conditions , often leading to natural disasters that negatively impact the country both economically and socially . The Pampas , where many of the large cities are located , has a flat topography and poor water drainage , making it vulnerable to flooding . Severe storms can lead to tornados , damaging hail , storm surges , and high winds , causing extensive damage to houses and infrastructure , displacing thousands of people and causing significant loss of life . Extreme temperature events such as heat waves and cold waves impact rural and urban areas by negatively impacting agriculture , one of the main economic activities of the country , and by increasing energy demand , which can lead to energy shortages .
Argentina is vulnerable and will be significantly impacted by climate change . Temperatures have increased in the last century while the observed changes in precipitation are variable , with some areas receiving more and other areas less . These changes have impacted river flow , increased the frequency of extreme weather events , and led to the retreat of glaciers . Based on the projections for both precipitation and temperatures , these climatic events are likely to increase in severity and create new problems associated with climate change in the country .
= = Seasons = =
= = = Winter = = =
In winter ( June – August ) , the northern parts of Argentina are generally warm , the central parts mild , and the southern parts cold with frequent frost and snow . The climate of the southern parts of the country is moderated by the surrounding oceans , resulting in cold weather that is less intense and prolonged than at comparable latitudes in the northern hemisphere . The northern parts of the country have the warmest temperatures , with an average of 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) ; the central parts are cooler , with an average of 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) . In the extreme south , mean temperatures are below 4 ° C ( 39 ° F ) . At higher altitudes in the Andes , average winter temperatures are below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) . June and July temperatures are normally similar to each other ; however , in August temperatures see a rise of about 2 ° C ( 4 ° F ) .
Precipitation varies widely during the winter months . The highest are in the extreme northern part of the Littoral region and northwestern parts of Patagonia , where mean winter precipitation exceeds 250 mm ( 10 in ) . Most of the humid Pampas , averages between 75 and 200 mm ( 3 and 8 in ) while in the north , in areas bordering the Andes , it averages less than 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) .
= = = Spring = = =
Spring ( September – November ) is similar to autumn , with mild days and cool nights . During mid @-@ October a large variety of wild and urban flora are in bloom . Temperatures range from 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) in the north to 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) in the center , and 8 to 14 ° C ( 46 to 57 ° F ) in most of Patagonia . Tierra del Fuego Province and the higher altitudes of the Andes have the coolest springs , with mean temperatures below 8 ° C ( 46 ° F ) . Temperatures grow warmer as spring progresses .
During spring , precipitation in the country varies , with the greatest amounts being in northern Buenos Aires Province and the Littoral region , where the average precipitation exceeds 250 mm ( 10 in ) . Arid regions ( Arid Diagonal ) have the lowest spring precipitation , with an average precipitation of less than 50 mm ( 2 in ) .
= = = Summer = = =
In summer ( December – February ) , temperatures range from an average of 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) in the north to a mean of 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) in the center of the country except for the southeastern parts of Buenos Aires Province , where temperatures are cooler in summer due to the maritime influence . In the extreme south of the country , the temperature averages 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) ; at very high altitudes , the average is below 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) .
During summer , mean precipitation varies throughout the country : the eastern parts of Salta Province , Jujuy Province , northern Tucumán Province and all of Misiones Province are the wettest , receiving more than 400 mm ( 16 in ) of precipitation during the season . Most of the Littoral region and Buenos Aires Province , average between 200 and 300 mm ( 8 and 12 in ) . On the other hand , the Patagonia region is dry , with precipitation averaging less than 50 mm ( 2 in ) – and occasionally below 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) – much lower than other regions ; Patagonia receives a monthly precipitation of 10 to 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) . In the central and northern parts of the country , January is usually the wettest month , with an average monthly precipitation of 100 mm ( 4 in ) in most places , even exceeding 200 mm ( 8 in ) in some places .
= = = Autumn = = =
Autumn ( March – May ) is generally mild . Some forests and vineyards display red and orange autumn foliage , especially in mid @-@ April . Frost arrives notably earlier in the south and later in the north . Mean temperatures can exceed 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) in the northern parts of the country , while they can touch 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) in most of the central parts of the country , and less than 6 ° C ( 43 ° F ) at the higher altitudes . As autumn progresses , mean temperatures fall in all regions , with March warmer than May . In the north , mean temperatures range from 24 ° C ( 75 ° F ) in March to 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) in May . In the central parts of the country , mean temperatures in March are between 18 and 22 ° C ( 64 and 72 ° F ) , dropping to 10 and 14 ° C ( 50 and 57 ° F ) in May . The mean temperature in Tierra del Fuego Province in the extreme south is 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) , and occasionally lower .
Precipitation is highest in northeast Argentina and lowest in the Patagonia and Cuyo regions . In northeast Argentina , mean precipitation can exceed 400 mm ( 16 in ) while in most of Buenos Aires Province and northwest Argentina , mean autumn precipitation ranges between 200 and 500 mm ( 8 and 20 in ) . In most of the western parts of northwest Argentina , Patagonia ( except for western Patagonia where precipitation is higher , averaging 100 to 200 mm ( 4 to 8 in ) ) and Cuyo regions , precipitation can average less than 50 mm ( 2 in ) . In the northwest , precipitation decreases as autumn progresses , ushering in the dry season . For example , in Tucuman Province , March averages more than 200 mm ( 8 in ) of precipitation while May averages less than 50 mm ( 2 in ) . In contrast , precipitation increases in Patagonia , particularly in the western parts where May precipitation can exceed 100 mm ( 4 in ) .
= = Regional climate = =
Argentina possesses a wide variety of climatic regions ranging from subtropical in the north to subantarctic in the far south . Lying between those is the Pampas region , which features a mild and humid climate . Consequently , there is a wide variety of biomes in the country , including subtropical rain forests , semi @-@ arid and arid regions , temperate plains in the Pampas , and cold subantarctic in the south . However , despite the diversity of biomes , about two @-@ thirds of Argentina is arid or semi @-@ arid . In general , Argentina has four main climate types : warm , moderate , arid , and cold , all determined by the expanse across latitude , range in altitude , and relief features . Mean annual temperatures range from 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) in the far south to 25 ° C ( 77 ° F ) in the north . Also , because of the narrowness of the South American continent , the nation 's climate is influenced by the Andes mountain chain along its western border and maritime influences from the Atlantic Ocean .
= = = Mesopotamia = = =
Mesopotamia has a subtropical climate with no dry season . Under the Köppen climate classification , it has a humid subtropical climate ( Cfa ) . The main features of the climate are high temperatures and abundant rainfall throughout the year ; this abundant rainfall makes water scarcity and extended periods of drought uncommon ; most of the region has a positive water balance .
Average annual precipitation ranges from less than 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) in the southern parts of the Province to approximately 1 @,@ 800 mm ( 71 in ) in the eastern parts . Precipitation is slightly higher in the summer than in the winter and generally decreases from east to west and from north to south . Summer is the most humid season , ranging from a low of 300 mm ( 12 in ) to a high of 450 mm ( 18 in ) . In this season , most rain falls during convective thunderstorms . Autumn is one of the rainiest seasons , with many places receiving over 350 mm ( 14 in ) . As in summer , precipitation falls mainly during convective thunderstorms . Winter is the driest season , with precipitation ranging from less than 40 mm ( 2 in ) in the west to over 340 mm ( 13 in ) in the east . Most of the precipitation during winter comes from frontal systems , particularly the sudestada ( Spanish for strong southeasterly winds ) , bringing long periods of rain , cloudiness , cooler temperatures , and strong winds . Spring is similar to autumn , with a mean precipitation of 340 mm ( 13 in ) .
Summers are very hot and humid while winters are mild to warm . The northern parts of the region are warmer than the southern parts . During heat waves , temperatures can exceed 40 ° C ( 104 ° F
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, the whole Ottoman Eighth Army had been destroyed .
My infantry yesterday captured Tulkeram , and are now pursuing the enemy eastwards to Nablus . This morning my cavalry occupied Afuleh , and pushed thence rapidly south – eastwards , entered Beisan this evening , thus closing to the enemy his last line of escape .
= = Aftermath = =
The 28th Brigade , 7th ( Meerut ) Division advanced from Beit Lid at 21 : 30 on an overnight march towards Masudiye Station and Sebustiye . They arrived at the ' Anebta road near Ramin at 01 : 30 , and by 03 : 00 had advanced to capture the Masudiye Station along with an engine and 16 carriages , before continuing towards Sebustiye . During this march , a strong rearguard in the ruins of Samaria was attacked by the 51st and 53rd Sikhs . After working their way through an olive grove on the northwest side of the Central Powers ' rearguard position , they attacked from the flank , with a platoon of 51st Sikhs gaining the crest from the southwest . The garrison of 181 German ( or Ottoman ) soldiers was captured with eight light and heavy machine guns . More than 400 sick were found in a hospital nearby .
The 3rd ( Lahore ) Division continued its advance at 05 : 00 , meeting some opposition near Rafidia 2 @,@ 000 yards ( 1 @,@ 800 m ) west of Nablus . Here , they occupied a 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) line stretching from Rafidia to 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) east of Burqa .
= = = Seventh Army retreat = = =
The bulk of the Seventh Army had been retreating down the Wadi Fara road where guns and transport had to be abandoned when heavily bombed and machine @-@ gunned from the air . This Army then turned north at ' Ain Shible , moving towards Beisan . During the night of 20 / 21 September a long column of retiring Ottoman forces was seen moving down the road from Nablus to Beisan , about 8 miles ( 13 km ) north of Nablus . British and Australian aircraft subsequently bombed the column , at first just blocking one end of a defile , but later returning a number of times . Four hours later the area was covered with the wreckage of 90 guns , 50 lorries and more than 1 @,@ 000 other vehicles . The Ottoman 53rd Division , which had managed to get down the Wadi Fara before it was blocked by the air attack , was captured by Chaytor 's Force on 22 September during the fighting for the bridge at Jisr ed Damieh . During 23 and 24 September , 1 @,@ 500 prisoners were captured by Chetwode 's XX Corps in the Judean Hills .
= = = Eighth Army retreat = = =
= = = = XXII Corps = = = =
The survivors from the Eighth Army 's XXII Corps , which had retreated down the main Damascus road on 20 September , were captured by the 3rd Light Horse Brigade at Jenin that night .
At 15 : 00 on 21 September Cevat Pasa ( also known as Jevat Pasa ) , the Eighth Army commander , left Nablus by car for Mustafa Kemal 's Seventh Army headquarters with his chief of staff and some staff officers . It was the end of the Ottoman Eighth Army , the 20th and 21st Regiments existing only until that afternoon .
= = = = Asia Corps = = = =
During the night of 20 / 21 September Liman von Sanders had ordered the 16th and 19th Division west of Nablus , where they made contact with von Oppen 's Left Wing Force . The next morning von Oppen formed the remnants of the 702nd and 703rd Battalions into one battalion with a rifle company , a machine gun company and a trench mortar detachment , while the 701st Battalion and a cavalry squadron remained intact . At 10 : 00 , von Oppen was informed the EEF was approaching Nablus and that the Wadi Fara road was blocked . As a result , he decided to retreat via Beit Dejan 7 miles ( 11 km ) east @-@ southeast of Nablus to the Jordan at Jisr ed Damieh , but this way was also found to have been cut . Von Oppen then ordered the Asia Corps to retreat without guns or baggage via Mount Ebal when they were attacked by British Empire artillery and suffered casualties . That night , von Oppen bivouacked at Tammun with the 16th and 19th Divisions at Tubas .
Von Oppen was moving northwards from Tubas towards Beisan the next day , with about 700 German and 1 @,@ 300 Ottoman soldiers of the 16th and 19th Divisions , when he learned it had already been captured . He decided to advance during the night of 22 September to Samakh , where he correctly guessed Liman von Sanders would order the establishment of a strong rearguard . However , Jevad , the commander of the Eighth Army , ordered him to cross the Jordan instead ; he successfully got all the Germans and some of the Ottoman soldiers across before the 11th Cavalry Brigade attack , which closed the last Jordan River gaps . Those who had not crossed were captured .
= Battle of the Alamo =
The Battle of the Alamo ( February 23 – March 6 , 1836 ) was a pivotal event in the Texas Revolution . Following a 13 @-@ day siege , Mexican troops under President General Antonio López de Santa Anna launched an assault on the Alamo Mission near San Antonio de Béxar ( modern @-@ day San Antonio ) , Texas , United States , killing all of the Texian defenders . Santa Anna 's cruelty during the battle inspired many Texians — both Texas settlers and adventurers from the United States — to join the Texian Army . Buoyed by a desire for revenge , the Texians defeated the Mexican Army at the Battle of San Jacinto , on April 21 , 1836 , ending the revolution .
Several months previously , Texians had driven all Mexican troops out of Mexican Texas . About 100 Texians were then garrisoned at the Alamo . The Texian force grew slightly with the arrival of reinforcements led by eventual Alamo co @-@ commanders James Bowie and William B. Travis . On February 23 , approximately 1 @,@ 500 Mexicans marched into San Antonio de Béxar as the first step in a campaign to retake Texas . For the next 10 days the two armies engaged in several skirmishes with minimal casualties . Aware that his garrison could not withstand an attack by such a large force , Travis wrote multiple letters pleading for more men and supplies , but fewer than 100 reinforcements arrived there .
In the early morning hours of March 6 , the Mexican Army advanced on the Alamo . After repulsing two attacks , the Texians were unable to fend off a third attack . As Mexican soldiers scaled the walls , most of the Texian soldiers withdrew into interior buildings . Defenders unable to reach these points were slain by the Mexican cavalry as they attempted to escape . Between five and seven Texians may have surrendered ; if so , they were quickly executed . Most eyewitness accounts reported between 182 and 257 Texians died , while most historians of the Alamo agree that around 600 Mexicans were killed or wounded . Several noncombatants were sent to Gonzales to spread word of the Texian defeat . The news sparked both a strong rush to join the Texian army and a panic , known as " The Runaway Scrape " , in which the Texian army , most settlers , and the new Republic of Texas government fled from the advancing Mexican Army .
Within Mexico , the battle has often been overshadowed by events from the Mexican – American War of 1846 – 48 . In 19th @-@ century Texas , the Alamo complex gradually became known as a battle site rather than a former mission . The Texas Legislature purchased the land and buildings in the early part of the 20th century and designated the Alamo chapel as an official Texas State Shrine . The Alamo is now " the most popular tourist site in Texas " . The Alamo has been the subject of numerous non @-@ fiction works beginning in 1843 . Most Americans , however , are more familiar with the myths spread by many of the movie and television adaptations , including the 1950s Disney miniseries Davy Crockett and John Wayne 's 1960 film The Alamo .
= = Background = =
Under President Antonio López de Santa Anna , the Mexican government began to shift away from a federalist model . The increasingly dictatorial policies , including the revocation of the Constitution of 1824 in early 1835 , incited many federalists to revolt . The border region of Mexican Texas was largely populated by immigrants from the United States . These people were accustomed to a federalist government and to extensive individual rights , and they were quite vocal in their displeasure at Mexico 's shift towards centralism . Already suspicious after previous American attempts to purchase Mexican Texas , Mexican authorities blamed much of the Texian unrest on American immigrants , most of whom had made little effort to adapt to the Mexican culture .
In October , Texians engaged Mexican troops in the first official battle of the Texas Revolution . Determined to quell the rebellion , Santa Anna began assembling a large force , the Army of Operations in Texas , to restore order . Most of his soldiers were raw recruits , and a large number had been forcibly conscripted .
The Texians systematically defeated the Mexican troops already stationed in Texas . The last group of Mexican soldiers in the region — commanded by Santa Anna 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , General Martín Perfecto de Cos — surrendered on December 9 following the siege of Béxar . By this point , the Texian Army was dominated by very recent arrivals to the region , primarily adventurers from the United States . Many Texas settlers , unprepared for a long campaign , had returned home . Angered by what he perceived to be American interference in Mexican affairs , Santa Anna spearheaded a resolution classifying foreigners found fighting in Texas as pirates . The resolution effectively banned the taking of prisoners of war : in this period of time , captured pirates were executed immediately . Santa Anna reiterated this message in a strongly worded letter to United States President Andrew Jackson . This letter was not widely distributed , and it is unlikely that most of the American recruits serving in the Texian Army were aware that there would be no prisoners of war .
When Mexican troops departed San Antonio de Béxar ( now San Antonio , Texas , USA ) Texian soldiers established a garrison at the Alamo Mission , a former Spanish religious outpost which had been converted to a makeshift fort by the recently expelled Mexican Army . Described by Santa Anna as an " irregular fortification hardly worthy of the name " , the Alamo had been designed to withstand an attack by native tribes , not an artillery @-@ equipped army . The complex sprawled across 3 acres ( 1 @.@ 2 ha ) , providing almost 1 @,@ 320 feet ( 400 m ) of perimeter to defend . An interior plaza was bordered on the east by the chapel and to the south by a one @-@ story building known as the Low Barracks . A wooden palisade stretched between these two buildings . The two @-@ story Long Barracks extended north from the chapel . At the northern corner of the east wall stood a cattle pen and horse corral . The walls surrounding the complex were at least 2 @.@ 75 feet ( 0 @.@ 84 m ) thick and ranged from 9 – 12 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 – 3 @.@ 7 m ) high .
To compensate for the lack of firing ports , Texian engineer Green B. Jameson constructed catwalks to allow defenders to fire over the walls ; this method , however , left the rifleman 's upper body exposed . Mexican forces had left behind 19 cannons , which Jameson installed along the walls . A large 18 @-@ pounder had arrived in Texas with the New Orleans Greys . Jameson positioned this cannon in the southwest corner of the compound . He boasted to Texian Army commander Sam Houston that the Texians could " whip 10 to 1 with our artillery " .
The Texian garrison was woefully undermanned and underprovisioned , with fewer than 100 soldiers remaining by January 6 , 1836 . Colonel James C. Neill , the acting Alamo commander , wrote to the provisional government : " If there has ever been a dollar here I have no knowledge of it " . Neill requested additional troops and supplies , stressing that the garrison was likely to be unable to withstand a siege lasting longer than four days . The Texian government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance . Four different men claimed to have been given command over the entire army : on January 14 , Neill approached one of them , Sam Houston , for assistance in gathering supplies , clothing , and ammunition .
= = Prelude to battle = =
Houston could not spare the number of men necessary to mount a successful defense . Instead , he sent Colonel James Bowie with 30 men to remove the artillery from the Alamo and destroy the complex . Bowie was unable to transport the artillery since the Alamo garrison lacked the necessary draft animals . Neill soon persuaded Bowie that the location held strategic importance . In a letter to Governor Henry Smith , Bowie argued that " the salvation of Texas depends in great measure on keeping Béxar out of the hands of the enemy . It serves as the frontier picquet guard , and if it were in the possession of Santa Anna , there is no stronghold from which to repel him in his march towards the Sabine . " The letter to Smith ended , " Colonel Neill and myself have come to the solemn resolution that we will rather die in these ditches than give it up to the enemy . " Bowie also wrote to the provisional government , asking for " men , money , rifles , and cannon powder " . Few reinforcements were authorized ; cavalry officer William B. Travis arrived in Béxar with 30 men on February 3 . Five days later , a small group of volunteers arrived , including the famous frontiersman and former U.S. Congressman David Crockett of Tennessee .
On February 11 , Neill left the Alamo , determined to recruit additional reinforcements and gather supplies . He transferred command to Travis , the highest @-@ ranking regular army officer in the garrison . Volunteers comprised much of the garrison , and they were unwilling to accept Travis as their leader . The men instead elected Bowie , who had a reputation as a fierce fighter , as their commander . Bowie celebrated by getting very intoxicated and creating havoc in Béxar . To mitigate the resulting ill feelings , Bowie agreed to share command with Travis .
As the Texians struggled to find men and supplies , Santa Anna continued to gather men at San Luis Potosi ; by the end of 1835 his army numbered 6 @,@ 019 soldiers . Rather than advance along the coast , where supplies and reinforcements could be easily delivered by sea , Santa Anna ordered his army inland to Béxar , the political center of Texas and the site of Cos 's defeat . The army began its march north in late December . Officers used the long journey to train the men . Many of the new recruits did not know how to use the sights of their guns , and many refused to fire from the shoulder because of the large recoil .
Progress was slow . There were not enough mules to transport all of the supplies , and many of the teamsters , all civilians , quit when their pay was delayed . The large number of soldaderas – women and children who followed the army – consumed much of the already scarce supplies . The soldiers were soon reduced to partial rations . On February 12 they crossed the Rio Grande . Temperatures in Texas reached record lows , and by February 13 an estimated 15 – 16 inches ( 38 – 41 cm ) of snow had fallen . Hypothermia , dysentery , and Comanche raiding parties took a heavy toll on the Mexican soldiers .
On February 21 , Santa Anna and his vanguard reached the banks of the Medina River , 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Béxar . Unaware of the Mexican Army 's proximity , the majority of the Alamo garrison joined Béxar residents at a fiesta . After learning of the planned celebration , Santa Anna ordered General Joaquín Ramírez y Sesma to immediately seize the unprotected Alamo , but sudden rains halted that raid .
= = Siege = =
= = = Investment = = =
In the early hours of February 23 , residents began fleeing Béxar , fearing the Mexican army 's imminent arrival . Although unconvinced by the reports , Travis stationed a soldier in the San Fernando church bell tower , the highest location in town , to watch for signs of an approaching force . Several hours later , Texian scouts reported seeing Mexican troops 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) outside the town . Few arrangements had been made for a potential siege . One group of Texians scrambled to herd cattle into the Alamo , while others scrounged for food in the recently abandoned houses . Several members of the garrison who had been living in town brought their families with them when they reported to the Alamo . Among these were Almaron Dickinson , who brought his wife Susanna and their infant daughter Angelina ; Bowie , who was accompanied by his deceased wife 's cousins , Gertrudis Navarro and Juana Navarro Alsbury , and Alsbury 's young son ; and Gregorio Esparza , whose family climbed through the window of the Alamo chapel after the Mexican army arrived . Other members of the garrison failed to report for duty ; most of the men working outside Béxar did not try to sneak past Mexican lines .
By late afternoon Béxar was occupied by about 1 @,@ 500 Mexican soldiers . When the Mexican troops raised a blood @-@ red flag signifying no quarter , Travis responded with a blast from the Alamo 's largest cannon . Believing that Travis had acted hastily , Bowie sent Jameson to meet with Santa Anna . Travis was angered that Bowie had acted unilaterally and sent his own representative , Captain Albert Martin . Both emissaries met with Colonel Juan Almonte and José Bartres . According to Almonte , the Texians asked for an honorable surrender but were informed that any surrender must be unconditional . On learning this , Bowie and Travis mutually agreed to fire the cannon again
= = = Skirmishes = = =
The first night of the siege was relatively quiet . Over the next few days , Mexican soldiers established artillery batteries , initially about 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) from the south and east walls of the Alamo . A third battery was positioned southeast of the fort . Each night the batteries inched closer to the Alamo walls . During the first week of the siege more than 200 cannonballs landed in the Alamo plaza . At first the Texians matched Mexican artillery fire , often reusing the Mexican cannonballs . On February 26 Travis ordered the artillery to conserve powder and shot .
Two notable events occurred on Wednesday , February 24 . At some point that day , Bowie collapsed from illness , leaving Travis in sole command of the garrison . Late that afternoon , two Mexican scouts became the first fatalities of the siege . The following morning , 200 – 300 Mexican soldiers crossed the San Antonio River and took cover in abandoned shacks near the Alamo walls . Several Texians ventured out to burn the huts while Texians within the Alamo provided cover fire . After a two @-@ hour skirmish the Mexican troops retreated to Béxar . Six Mexican soldiers were killed and four others were wounded . No Texians were injured .
A blue norther blew in on February 25 , dropping the temperature to 39 ° F ( 4 ° C ) . Neither army was prepared for the cold temperatures . Texian attempts to gather firewood were thwarted by Mexican troops . On the evening of February 26 Colonel Juan Bringas engaged several Texians who were burning more huts . According to historian J.R. Edmondson , one Texian was killed . Four days later , Texians shot and killed Private First Class Secundino Alvarez , a soldier from one of two battalions that Santa Anna had stationed on two sides of the Alamo . By March 1 , the number of Mexican casualties were nine dead and four wounded , while the Texian garrison had lost only one man .
= = = Reinforcements = = =
Santa Anna posted one company east of the Alamo , on the road to Gonzales . Almonte and 800 dragoons were stationed along the road to Goliad . Throughout the siege these towns had received multiple couriers , dispatched by Travis to plead for reinforcements and supplies . The most famous of his missives , written February 24 , was addressed To the People of Texas & All Americans in the World . According to historian Mary Deborah Petite , the letter is " considered by many as one of the masterpieces of American patriotism . " Copies of the letter were distributed across Texas , and eventually reprinted throughout the United States and much of Europe . At the end of the first day of the siege , Santa Anna 's troops were reinforced by 600 men under General Joaquin Ramirez y Sesma , bringing the Mexican army up to more than 2 @,@ 000 men .
As news of the siege spread throughout Texas , potential reinforcements gathered in Gonzales . They hoped to rendezvous with Colonel James Fannin , who was expected to arrive from Goliad with his garrison . On February 26 , after days of indecision , Fannin ordered 320 men , four cannons , and several supply wagons to march towards the Alamo , 90 miles ( 140 km ) away . This group traveled less than 1 @.@ 0 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before turning back . Fannin blamed the retreat on his officers ; the officers and enlisted men accused Fannin of aborting the mission .
Texians gathered in Gonzales were unaware of Fannin 's return to Goliad , and most continued to wait . Impatient with the delay , on February 27 Travis ordered Samuel G. Bastian to go to Gonzales " to hurry up reinforcements " . According to historian Thomas Ricks Lindley , Bastian encountered the Gonzales Ranging Company led by Lieutenant George C. Kimble and Travis ' courier to Gonzales , Albert Martin , who had tired of waiting for Fannin . A Mexican patrol attacked , driving off four of the men including Bastian . In the darkness , the Texians fired on the remaining 32 men , whom they assumed were Mexican soldiers . One man was wounded , and his English curses convinced the defenders to open the gates .
On March 3 , the Texians watched from the walls as approximately 1 @,@ 000 Mexicans marched into Béxar . The Mexican army celebrated loudly throughout the afternoon , both in honor of their reinforcements and at the news that troops under General José de Urrea had soundly defeated Texian Colonel Frank W. Johnson at the Battle of San Patricio on February 27 . Most of the Texians in the Alamo believed that Sesma had been leading the Mexican forces during the siege , and they mistakenly attributed the celebration to the arrival of Santa Anna . The reinforcements brought the number of Mexican soldiers in Béxar to almost 3 @,@ 100 .
The arrival of the Mexican reinforcements prompted Travis to send three men , including Davy Crockett , to find Fannin 's force , which he still believed to be en route . The scouts discovered a large group of Texians camped 20 miles ( 32 km ) from the Alamo . Lindley 's research indicates that up to 50 of these men had come from Goliad after Fannin 's aborted rescue mission . The others had left Gonzales several days earlier . Just before daylight on March 4 , part of the Texian force broke through Mexican lines and entered the Alamo . Mexican soldiers drove a second group across the prairie .
= = = Assault preparations = = =
On March 4 , the day after his reinforcements arrived , Santa Anna proposed an assault on the Alamo . Many of his senior officers recommended that they wait for two 12 @-@ pounder cannons anticipated to arrive on March 7 . That evening , a local woman , likely Bowie 's cousin @-@ in @-@ law Juana Navarro Alsbury , approached Santa Anna to negotiate a surrender for the Alamo defenders . According to many historians , this visit probably increased Santa Anna 's impatience ; as historian Timothy Todish noted , " there would have been little glory in a bloodless victory " . The following morning , Santa Anna announced to his staff that the assault would take place early on March 6 . Santa Anna arranged for troops from Béxar to be excused from the front lines so that they would not be forced to fight their own families .
Legend holds that at some point on March 5 , Travis gathered his men and explained that an attack was imminent , and that they were greatly outnumbered by the Mexican Army . He supposedly drew a line in the ground and asked those willing to die for the Texian cause to cross and stand alongside him ; only one man ( Moses Rose ) was said to have declined . Most scholars disregard this tale as there is no primary source evidence to support it ( the story only surfaced decades after the battle in a third @-@ hand account ) . However , Travis apparently did , at some point prior to the final assault , assemble the men for a conference to inform them of the dire situation and giving them the chance to either escape or stay and die for the cause . Susannah Dickinson recalled Travis announcing that any men who wished to escape should let it be known and step out of ranks .
The last Texian verified to have left the Alamo was James Allen , a courier who carried personal messages from Travis and several of the other men on March 5 .
= = Final assault = =
= = = Exterior fighting = = =
At 10 p.m. on March 5 , the Mexican artillery ceased their bombardment . As Santa Anna had anticipated , the exhausted Texians soon fell into the first uninterrupted sleep many of them had since the siege began . Just after midnight , more than 2 @,@ 000 Mexican soldiers began preparing for the final assault . Fewer than 1 @,@ 800 were divided into four columns , commanded by Cos , Colonel Francisco Duque , Colonel José María Romero and Colonel Juan Morales . Veterans were positioned on the outside of the columns to better control the new recruits and conscripts in the middle . As a precaution , 500 Mexican cavalry were positioned around the Alamo to prevent escape of either Texian or Mexican soldiers . Santa Anna remained in camp with the 400 reserves . Despite the bitter cold , the soldiers were ordered not to wear overcoats which could impede their movements . Clouds concealed the moon and thus the movements of the soldiers .
At 5 : 30 a.m. troops silently advanced . Cos and his men approached the northwest corner of the Alamo , while Duque led his men from the northwest towards a repaired breach in the Alamo 's north wall . The column commanded by Romero marched towards the east wall , and Morales 's column aimed for the low parapet by the chapel .
The three Texian sentinels stationed outside the walls were killed in their sleep , allowing Mexican soldiers to approach undetected within musket range of the walls . At this point , the silence was broken by shouts of " ¡ Viva Santa Anna ! " and music from the buglers . The noise woke the Texians . Most of the noncombatants gathered in the church sacristy for safety . Travis rushed to his post yelling , " Come on boys , the Mexicans are upon us and we 'll give them hell ! " and , as he passed a group of Tejanos , " ¡ No rendirse , muchachos ! " ( " Don 't surrender , boys " ) .
In the initial moments of the assault Mexican troops were at a disadvantage . Their column formation allowed only the front rows of soldiers to fire safely . Unaware of the dangers , the untrained recruits in the ranks " blindly fir [ ed ] their guns " , injuring or killing the troops in front of them . The tight concentration of troops also offered an excellent target for the Texian artillery . Lacking canister shot , Texians filled their cannon with any metal they could find , including door hinges , nails , and chopped @-@ up horseshoes , essentially turning the cannon into giant shotguns . According to the diary of José Enrique de la Peña , " a single cannon volley did away with half the company of chasseurs from Toluca " . Duque fell from his horse after suffering a wound in his thigh and was almost trampled by his own men . General Manuel Castrillón quickly assumed command of Duque 's column .
Although some in the front of the Mexican ranks wavered , soldiers in the rear pushed them on . As the troops massed against the walls , Texians were forced to lean over the walls to shoot , leaving them exposed to Mexican fire . Travis became one of the first defenders to die , shot while firing his shotgun into the soldiers below him , though one source says that he drew his sword and stabbed a Mexican officer who had stormed the wall before succumbing to his injury . Few of the Mexican ladders reached the walls . The few soldiers who were able to climb the ladders were quickly killed or beaten back . As the Texians discharged their previously loaded rifles , however , they found it increasingly difficult to reload while attempting to keep Mexican soldiers from scaling the walls .
Mexican soldiers withdrew and regrouped , but their second attack was repulsed . Fifteen minutes into the battle , they attacked a third time . During the third strike , Romero 's column , aiming for the east wall , was exposed to cannon fire and shifted to the north , mingling with the second column . Cos ' column , under fire from Texians on the west wall , also veered north . When Santa Anna saw that the bulk of his army was massed against the north wall , he feared a rout ; " panicked " , he sent the reserves into the same area . The Mexican soldiers closest to the north wall realized that the makeshift wall contained many gaps and toeholds . One of the first to scale the 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wall was General Juan Amador ; at his challenge , his men began swarming up the wall . Amador opened the postern in the north wall , allowing Mexican soldiers to pour into the complex . Others climbed through gun ports in the west wall , which had few defenders . As the Texian defenders abandoned the north wall and the northern end of the west wall , Texian gunners at the south end of the mission turned their cannon towards the north and fired into the advancing Mexican soldiers . This left the south end of the mission unprotected ; within minutes Mexican soldiers had climbed the walls and killed the gunners , gaining control of the Alamo 's 18 @-@ pounder cannon . By this time Romero 's men had taken the east wall of the compound and were pouring in through the cattle pen .
= = = Interior fighting = = =
As previously planned , most of the Texians fell back to the barracks and the chapel . Holes had been carved in the walls to allow the Texians to fire . Unable to reach the barracks , Texians stationed along the west wall headed west for the San Antonio River . When the cavalry charged , the Texians took cover and began firing from a ditch . Sesma was forced to send reinforcements , and the Texians were eventually killed . Sesma reported that this skirmish involved 50 Texians , but Edmondson believes that number was inflated .
The defenders in the cattle pen retreated into the horse corral . After discharging their weapons , the small band of Texians scrambled over the low wall , circled behind the church and raced on foot for the east prairie , which appeared empty . As the Mexican cavalry advanced on the group , Almaron Dickinson and his artillery crew turned a cannon around and fired into the cavalry , probably inflicting casualties . Nevertheless , all of the escaping Texians were killed .
The last Texian group to remain in the open were Crockett and his men , defending the low wall in front of the church . Unable to reload , they used their rifles as clubs and fought with knives . After a volley of fire and a wave of Mexican bayonets , the few remaining Texians in this group fell back towards the church . The Mexican army now controlled all of the outer walls and the interior of the Alamo compound except for the church and rooms along the east and west walls . Mexican soldiers turned their attention to a Texian flag waving from the roof of one building . Four Mexicans were killed before the flag of Mexico was raised in that location .
For the next hour , the Mexican army worked to secure complete control of the Alamo . Many of the remaining defenders were ensconced in the fortified barracks rooms . In the confusion , the Texians had neglected to spike their cannon before retreating . Mexican soldiers turned the cannon towards the barracks . As each door was blown off Mexican soldiers would fire a volley of muskets into the dark room , then charge in for hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat .
Too sick to participate in the battle , Bowie likely died in bed . Eyewitnesses to the battle gave conflicting accounts of his death . Some witnesses maintained that they saw several Mexican soldiers enter Bowie 's room , bayonet him , and carry him alive from the room . Others claimed that Bowie shot himself or was killed by soldiers while too weak to lift his head . According to historian Wallace Chariton , the " most popular , and probably the most accurate " version is that Bowie died on his cot , " back braced against the wall , and using his pistols and his famous knife . "
The last of the Texians to die were the 11 men manning the two 12 @-@ pounder cannon in the chapel . A shot from the 18 @-@ pounder cannon destroyed the barricades at the front of the church , and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley . Dickinson 's crew fired their cannon from the apse into the Mexican soldiers at the door . With no time to reload , the Texians , including Dickinson , Gregorio Esparza and James Bonham , grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death . Texian Robert Evans , the master of ordnance , had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands . Wounded , he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder . Had he succeeded , the blast would have destroyed the church and killed the women and children hiding in the sacristy .
As soldiers approached the sacristy , one of the young sons of defender Anthony Wolf stood to pull a blanket over his shoulders . In the dark , Mexican soldiers mistook him for an adult and killed him . Possibly the last Texian to die in battle was Jacob Walker , who attempted to hide behind Susannah Dickinson and was bayoneted in front of the women . Another Texian , Brigido Guerrero , also sought refuge in the sacristy . Guerrero , who had deserted from the Mexican Army in December 1835 , was spared after convincing the soldiers he was a Texian prisoner .
By 6 : 30 a.m. the battle for the Alamo was over . Mexican soldiers inspected each corpse , bayoneting any body that moved . Even with all of the Texians dead , Mexican soldiers continued to shoot , some killing each other in the confusion . Mexican generals were unable to stop the bloodlust and appealed to Santa Anna for help . Although the general showed himself , the violence continued and the buglers were finally ordered to sound a retreat . For 15 minutes after that , soldiers continued to fire into dead bodies .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Casualties = = =
According to many accounts of the battle , between five and seven Texians surrendered . Incensed that his orders had been ignored , Santa Anna demanded the immediate execution of the survivors . Weeks after the battle , stories circulated that Crockett was among those who surrendered . However , Ben , a former American slave who cooked for one of Santa Anna 's officers , maintained that Crockett 's body was found surrounded by " no less than sixteen Mexican corpses " . Historians disagree on which version of Crockett 's death is accurate .
Santa Anna reportedly told Captain Fernando Urizza that the battle " was but a small affair " . Another officer then remarked that " with another such victory as this , we 'll go to the devil " . In his initial report Santa Anna claimed that 600 Texians had been killed , with only 70 Mexican soldiers killed and 300 wounded . His secretary , Ramón Martínez Caro , later repudiated the report . Other estimates of the number of Mexican soldiers killed ranged from 60 – 200 , with an additional 250 – 300 wounded . Most Alamo historians place the number of Mexican casualties at 400 – 600 . This would represent about one @-@ third of the Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault , which Todish remarks is " a tremendous casualty rate by any standards " . Most eyewitnesses counted between 182 – 257 Texians killed . Some historians believe that at least one Texian , Henry Warnell , successfully escaped from the battle . Warnell died several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape as a courier .
Mexican soldiers were buried in the local cemetery , Campo Santo . Shortly after the battle , Colonel José Juan Sanchez Navarro proposed that a monument should be erected to the fallen Mexican soldiers . Cos rejected the idea .
The Texian bodies were stacked and burned . The only exception was the body of Gregorio Esparza . His brother Francisco , an officer in Santa Anna 's army , received permission to give Gregorio a proper burial . The ashes were left where they fell until February 1837 , when Juan Seguín returned to Béxar to examine the remains . A simple coffin inscribed with the names Travis , Crockett , and Bowie was filled with ashes from the funeral pyres . According to a March 28 , 1837 , article in the Telegraph and Texas Register , Seguín buried the coffin under a peach tree grove . The spot was not marked and cannot now be identified . Seguín later claimed that he had placed the coffin in front of the altar at the San Fernando Cathedral . In July 1936 a coffin was discovered buried in that location , but according to historian Wallace Chariton it is unlikely to actually contain the remains of the Alamo defenders . Fragments of uniforms were found in the coffin , and it is known that the Alamo defenders did not wear uniforms .
= = = Texian survivors = = =
In an attempt to convince other slaves in Texas to support the Mexican government over the Texian rebellion , Santa Anna spared Travis ' slave , Joe . The day after the battle , he interviewed each noncombatant individually . Impressed with Susanna Dickinson , Santa Anna offered to adopt her infant daughter Angelina and have the child educated in Mexico City . Dickinson refused the offer , which was not extended to Juana Navarro Alsbury although her son was of similar age . Each woman was given a blanket and two silver pesos . Alsbury and the other Tejano women were allowed to return to their homes in Béxar ; Dickinson , her daughter and Joe were sent to Gonzales , escorted by Ben . They were encouraged to relate the events of the battle , and to inform the remainder of the Texian forces that Santa Anna 's army was unbeatable .
= = = Impact on revolution = = =
During the siege , newly elected delegates from across Texas met at the Convention of 1836 . On March 2 , the delegates declared independence , forming the Republic of Texas . Four days later , the delegates at the convention received a dispatch Travis had written March 3 warning of his dire situation . Unaware that the Alamo had fallen , Robert Potter called for the convention to adjourn and march immediately to relieve the Alamo . Sam Houston convinced the delegates to remain in Washington @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Brazos to develop a constitution . After being appointed sole commander of all Texian troops , Houston journeyed to Gonzales to take command of the 400 volunteers who were still waiting for Fannin to lead them to the Alamo .
Within hours of Houston 's arrival on March 11 , Andres Barcenas and Anselmo Bergaras arrived with news that the Alamo had fallen and all Texians were slain . Hoping to halt a panic , Houston arrested the men as enemy spies . They were released hours later when Susannah Dickinson and Joe reached Gonzales and confirmed the report . Realizing that the Mexican army would soon advance towards the Texian settlements , Houston advised all civilians in the area to evacuate and ordered his new army to retreat . This sparked a mass exodus , known as the Runaway Scrape , and most Texians , including members of the new government , fled east .
Despite their losses at the Alamo , the Mexican army in Texas outnumbered the Texian army by almost six to one . Santa Anna assumed that knowledge of the disparity in troop numbers and the fate of the Texian soldiers at the Alamo would quell the resistance , and that Texian soldiers would quickly leave the territory . News of the Alamo 's fall had the opposite effect , and men flocked to Houston 's army . The New York Post editorialized that " had [ Santa Anna ] treated the vanquished with moderation and generosity , it would have been difficult if not impossible to awaken that general sympathy for the people of Texas which now impels so many adventurous and ardent spirits to throng to the aid of their brethren " .
On the afternoon of April 21 the Texian army attacked Santa Anna 's camp near Lynchburg Ferry . The Mexican army was taken by surprise , and the Battle of San Jacinto was essentially over after 18 minutes . During the fighting , many of the Texian soldiers repeatedly cried " Remember the Alamo ! " as they slaughtered fleeing Mexican troops . Santa Anna was captured the following day , and reportedly told Houston : " That man may consider himself born to no common destiny who has conquered the Napoleon of the West . And now it remains for him to be generous to the vanquished . " Houston replied , " You should have remembered that at the Alamo " . Santa Anna was forced to order his troops out of Texas , ending Mexican control of the province and giving some legitimacy to the new republic .
= = Legacy = =
Following the battle , Santa Anna was alternately viewed as a national hero or a pariah . Mexican perceptions of the battle often mirrored the prevailing viewpoint . Santa Anna had been disgraced following his capture at the Battle of San Jacinto , and many Mexican accounts of the battle were written by men who had been , or had become , his outspoken critics . Petite and many other historians believe that some of the stories , such as the execution of Crockett , may have been invented to further discredit Santa Anna . In Mexican history , the Texas campaign , including the Battle of the Alamo , was soon overshadowed by the Mexican – American War of 1846 – 48 .
In San Antonio de Béxar , the largely Tejano population viewed the Alamo complex as more than just a battle site ; it represented decades of assistance — as a mission , a hospital , or a military post . As the English @-@ speaking population increased , the complex became best known for the battle . Focus has centered primarily on the Texian defenders , with little emphasis given to the role of the Tejano soldiers who served in the Texian army or the actions of the Mexican army . In the early 20th century the Texas Legislature purchased the property and appointed the Daughters of the Republic of Texas as permanent caretakers of what is now an official state shrine . In front of the church , in the center of Alamo Plaza , stands a cenotaph , designed by Pompeo Coppini , which commemorates the Texians and Tejanos who died during the battle . According to Bill Groneman 's Battlefields of Texas , the Alamo has become " the most popular tourist site in Texas " .
The first English @-@ language histories of the battle were written and published by Texas Ranger and amateur historian John Henry Brown . The next major treatment of the battle was Reuben Potter 's The Fall of the Alamo , published in The Magazine of American History in 1878 . Potter based his work on interviews with many of the Mexican survivors of the battle . The first full @-@ length , non @-@ fiction book covering the battle , John Myers Myers ' The Alamo , was published in 1948 . In the decades since , the battle has featured prominently in many non @-@ fiction works .
According to Todish et al . , " there can be little doubt that most Americans have probably formed many of their opinions on what occurred at the Alamo not from books , but from the various movies made about the battle . " The first film version of the battle appeared in 1911 , when Gaston Méliès directed The Immortal Alamo . The battle became more widely known after it was featured in the 1950s Disney miniseries Davy Crockett , which was largely based on myth . Within several years , John Wayne directed and starred in one of the best @-@ known , but questionably accurate , film versions , 1960 's The Alamo . In 2004 another film , also called The Alamo , was released . CNN described it as possibly " the most character @-@ driven of all the movies made on the subject " . It is also considered more faithful to the actual events than other movies .
A number of songwriters have been inspired by the Battle of the Alamo . Tennessee Ernie Ford 's " The Ballad of Davy Crockett " spent 16 weeks on the country music charts , peaking at No. 4 in 1955 . Marty Robbins recorded a version of the song " The Ballad of the Alamo " in 1960 which spent 13 weeks on the pop charts , peaking at No. 34 . Jane Bowers ' song " Remember the Alamo " has been recorded by artists including Johnny Cash and Donovan .
The U.S. Post Office issued two postage stamps in commemoration of the Battle of Alamo and Texas Statehood .
= Asia Bibi blasphemy case =
Aasiya Noreen ( Urdu : آسیہ نورین ALA @-@ LC Āsiyaah Naurīn IPA : [ ˈɑːsiɑː nɔːˈriːn ] better known as Asia Bibi , Urdu : آسیہ بی بی ALA @-@ LC Āsiyah Bī Bī IPA : [ ˈɑːsiɑː biː biː ] , born c . 1971 ) is a Pakistani Christian woman who was convicted of blasphemy by a Pakistani court , receiving a sentence of death by hanging . In June 2009 , Noreen was involved in an argument with a group of Muslim women with whom she had been harvesting berries after the other women grew angry with her for drinking the same water as them . She was subsequently accused of insulting the Islamic prophet Muhammad , a charge she denies , and was arrested and imprisoned . In November 2010 , a Sheikhupura judge sentenced her to death . If executed , Noreen would be the first woman in Pakistan to be lawfully killed for blasphemy .
The verdict , which was reached in a district court and would need to be upheld by a superior court , has received worldwide attention . Various petitions , including one that received 400 @,@ 000 signatures , were organized to protest Noreen 's imprisonment , and Pope Benedict XVI publicly called for the charges against her to be dismissed . She received less sympathy from her neighbors and Islamic religious leaders in the country , some of whom adamantly called for her to be executed . Christian minorities minister Shahbaz Bhatti and Pakistani politician Salmaan Taseer were both killed for advocating on her behalf and opposing the blasphemy laws . Noreen 's family went into hiding after receiving death threats , some of which threatened to kill Asia if released from prison .
= = Background and arrest = =
Aasiya Noreen was born and raised in Ittan Wali , a small , rural village in the Sheikhupura District of Punjab , Pakistan , thirty miles outside of Lahore . Christians in the district , and elsewhere in Pakistan , usually have lower class occupations such as being cleaners and sweepers . Noreen , who is a Roman Catholic , worked as a farmhand in Sheikhupura to support her family . She married Ashiq Masih , a brick laborer who had three children from a previous marriage , and had two more children with him . Noreen and her family were the only Christians in the village . Before her incarceration , she had been repeatedly urged by her fellow workers to convert to Islam .
In June 2009 , Noreen was harvesting falsa berries with a group of other farmhands in a field in Sheikhupura . She was asked at one point to fetch water from a nearby well ; she complied but stopped to take a drink with an old metal cup she had found lying next to the well . A neighbor of Noreen , who had been involved in a running feud with Noreen 's family about some property damage , saw her and angrily told her that it was forbidden for a Christian to drink water from the same utensil from which Muslims drink , and some of the other workers considered her to be unclean because she was a Christian . Some arguments ensued . Noreen recounts that when they made derogatory statements about her religion , she responded , " I believe in my religion and in Jesus Christ , who died on the cross for the sins of mankind . What did your Prophet Mohammed ever do to save mankind ? "
Later , some of the workers complained to a cleric that Noreen insulted Muhammad . A mob came to her house , beating her and members of her family before she was rescued by the police . The police initiated an investigation about her remarks , resulting in her arrest under Section 295 C of the Pakistan Penal Code . She subsequently was imprisoned for over a year before being formally charged .
= = Prosecution and imprisonment = =
Noreen denied that she had committed blasphemy and said that she had been accused by her neighbor to " settle an old score " . In November 2010 , Muhammed Naveed Iqbal , a judge at the court of Sheikhupura , Punjab , sentenced her to death by hanging . Additionally , a fine of the equivalent of $ 1 @,@ 100 was imposed . With the verdict , she became the first woman condemned to death in Pakistan on blasphemy charges . Noreen described the day of her sentencing as follows :
I cried alone , putting my head in my hands . I can no longer bear the sight of people full of hatred , applauding the killing of a poor farm worker . I no longer see them , but I still hear them , the crowd who gave the judge a standing ovation , saying : " Kill her , kill her ! Allahu Akbar ! " The court house is invaded by a euphoric horde who break down the doors , chanting : " Vengeance for the holy prophet . Allah is great ! " I was then thrown like an old rubbish sack into the van ... I had lost all humanity in their eyes .
Noreen 's husband , Ashiq Masih , 51 years old at the time , announced that he planned to appeal the verdict , which has to be upheld by the Lahore High Court . A month later , Salmaan Taseer , the governor of Punjab who investigated the affair for the President Asif Ali Zardari , stated that Noreen would most likely be pardoned if the High Court did not suspend the sentence . Zardari was poised to grant pardon but Lahore High Court issued a stay order against potential Presidential pardon , which remains in force till date . Court transcripts show numerous inconsistencies in the evidence presented and reporters say they dare not repeat Bibi 's testimony lest they also be accused of blasphemy .
Noreen was put in solitary confinement in an 8 @-@ by @-@ 10 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m × 3 @.@ 0 m ) cell without windows at the Lahore prison . Before his assassination , Taseer visited her at the jail several times with his wife , Aamna , and daughter , Shehrbano , though Pakistani court officials later ruled that she could be visited only by her husband and lawyer . Khalid Sheikh , the prison superintendent , said that while he wanted her to be treated " like any other prisoner " , she had to be kept away from other inmates for her own well @-@ being , as other individuals accused of blasphemy had been killed while in prison . Out of concern that she could be poisoned , prison officials began giving Noreen raw materials to cook her own food . The Masihi Foundation , a human rights group , described her physical condition as " very frail " , and her health was reported to be in decline due to poor living conditions at the jail . She has also been threatened by other inmates and subjected to physical abuse from prison guards .
According to Human Rights Watch , Noreen 's situation is not unusual . Though no one has been executed for blasphemy yet in Pakistan , the accused often remain imprisoned for an extensive amount of time while the case is being processed . In May 2014 , Noreen 's appeal hearing was delayed for the fifth time .
= = Appeals = =
On October 16 , 2014 the Lahore High Court dismissed Noreen 's appeal and upheld her death sentence . On November 20 , 2014 , her husband appealed to Pakistan 's President for clemency . On November 24 , 2014 , her lawyer appealed to the Supreme Court .
On July 22 , 2015 the Supreme Court of Pakistan suspended Bibi 's death sentence for the duration of the appeals process . In November of 2015 , Bibi 's lead attorney , Naeem Shakir , announced that , after two postponements in 2015 , the Lahore High Court would hear an appeal in Bibi 's case on March 26 , 2016 .
= = Local reactions = =
Noreen 's conviction led to divided opinions on the blasphemy laws and drew strong reactions from the public . Pakistani Human Rights Watch researcher Ali Dayan Hasan said , " The law creates this legal infrastructure which is then used in various informal ways to intimidate , coerce , harass and persecute . " He further described the law as " discriminatory and abusive " . Governor Salmaan Taseer and Pakistan 's Minority Affairs Minister Shahbaz Bhatti both publicly supported Noreen , with the latter saying , " I will go to every knock for justice on her behalf and I will take all steps for her protection . " She also received support from Pakistani political scientist Rasul Baksh Rais and local priest Samson Dilawar . The imprisonment of Noreen left Christians and other minorities in Pakistan feeling vulnerable , and liberal Muslims were also unnerved by her sentencing .
The general population was less sympathetic towards Noreen . Several signs were erected in Sheikhupura and other rural areas declaring support for the blasphemy laws , including one that called for Noreen to be beheaded . Mohammad Saleem , a member of the Jamiat Ulema @-@ e @-@ Pakistan Party , organized a demonstration in Rawalpindi and led a small crowd chanting , " Hang her , hang her . " In December 2010 , a month after Noreen 's conviction , a Muslim cleric announced a 500 @,@ 000 Pakistani rupee award ( the equivalent of $ 10 @,@ 000 ) to anyone who would kill her . One survey reported that around 10 million Pakistanis had said that they would be willing to personally kill her out of either religious conviction or for the reward . The village mosque in Ittan Wali was reportedly indifferent towards Noreen 's plight ; its imam , Qari Mohammed Salim , stated that he had wept for joy on learning that she had been sentenced to death and threatened that some people would " take the law into their own hands " should she be pardoned or released . However , journalist Julie McCarthy suggested that the country 's " more peaceful majority views " had been overshadowed by the more vocal fundamentalists .
Noreen 's family has received threats and has gone into hiding . Ashiq , her husband , stated that he was afraid to let their children go outside . He also expressed concern about how Noreen would be kept safe should she be released , saying , " No one will let her live . The mullahs are saying they will kill her when she comes out . " Her family declined to leave the country while she remained in prison , but Italy , France , and Spain all offered to grant her and her family asylum in the event of her release .
= = = Assassinations of Taseer and Bhatti = = =
On 4 January 2011 , at Kohsar Market of Islamabad , the governor of Punjab , Salmaan Taseer , was assassinated by Malik Mumtaz Hussein Qadri , a 26 @-@ year @-@ old member of his security team , because of his defence of Noreen and opposition to the blasphemy law . ( Mumtaz Qadri was sentenced to death for the assassination and hanged on February 29 , 2016 . ) Taseer was outspoken in his criticism of the law and the verdict in Noreen 's case . The next day , thousands turned up for the governor 's funeral in Lahore in spite of warnings by the Taliban and some clerics , while a portion of the Pakistani population also praised Qadri as a hero ; thousands of Sunni Muslims rallied in support of the blasphemy laws in Pakistan after the murder , and 500 Barelvi clerics prohibited their followers from sending condolences to the family of Taseer . This resulted in concerns that the public was becoming tolerant of extremists .
Prison officials said that Noreen " wept inconsolably " on learning of Taseer 's assassination while repeatedly saying , " That man came here and he sacrificed his life for me . " Father Andrew Nisari , a senior Catholic Spokesperson in Lahore , described the situation as " utter chaos " . Seven months later , Taseer 's 28 @-@ year @-@ old son , Shahbaz , was kidnapped . Shahbahz was later found or released in March 2016 , and he returned to Lahore on March 9 after five years in captivity .
Minority Affairs Minister Shahbaz Bhatti said that he was first threatened with death in June 2010 when he was told that he would be beheaded if he attempted to change the blasphemy laws . In response , he told reporters that he was " committed to the principle of justice for the people of Pakistan " and willing to die fighting for Noreen 's release . On 2 March 2011 , Bhatti was shot dead by gunmen who ambushed his car near his residence in Islamabad , presumably because of his position on the blasphemy laws . He had been the only Christian member of Pakistan 's cabinet .
= = International response = =
Noreen 's death sentence drew international outrage and strong condemnation from human rights groups such as Amnesty International and Human Rights Watch who saw the blasphemy laws as a form of religious persecution and called for them to be abolished . Pope Benedict XVI publicly called for clemency for Noreen . In his statement , he described his " spiritual closeness " with Noreen and urged that the " human dignity and fundamental rights of everyone in similar situations " be respected .
Her case also achieved extensive media coverage , and American journalist John L. Allen , Jr. writes that she is " almost certainly the most famous illiterate Punjabi farm worker and mother of five on the planet " . According to Allen , she has become a celebrity among Christian activists , an unusual instance when cases of discrimination against Christian minorities typically receive little attention in the press . A number of campaigns have been organized to protest her imprisonment through online petitions , Twitter trends , and concerts . Ooberfuse , a Christian pop band based in the United Kingdom collaborated with the British Pakistani Christian Association , and released a song titled " Free Asia Bibi " with a music video that included " a disturbing visual portrayal of the squalid prison conditions where Bibi is being held " . She has also been the subject of books and documentaries .
One petition received over 400 @,@ 000 signatures from individuals from over 100 countries . Another petition , organised by the American Centre for Law & Justice ( ACLJ ) , obtained over 200 @,@ 000 signatures and called for America 's eight billion dollar yearly aid to Pakistan to stop whilst persecution of minorities is allowed in that country .
= = = Memoirs = = =
French journalist Anne Isabelle Tollet assisted Noreen in writing a memoir titled Blasphemy : A Memoir : Sentenced to Death over a Cup of Water . Noreen is illiterate , and Tollet was unable to visit her directly due to prison restrictions , but Tollet was able to conduct interviews through Noreen 's husband , who passed questions and answers between them . Tollet
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with them . Figures on various seals from the Indus Valley Civilisation bear similarity to Jain images , nude and in a meditative posture . The earliest known Jain image is in the Patna museum . It is approximately dated to the 3rd century BCE . Bronze images of Pārśva can be seen in the Prince of Wales Museum , Mumbai , and in the Patna museum ; these are dated to the 2nd century BCE .
The Jain tower in Chittor , Rajasthan , is a good example of Jain architecture . Decorated manuscripts are preserved in Jain libraries , containing diagrams from Jain cosmology . Most of the paintings and illustrations depict historical events , known as Panch Kalyanaka , from the life of the tirthankara . Rishabha , the first tirthankara , is usually depicted in either the lotus position or kayotsarga , the standing position . He is distinguished from other tirthankara by the long locks of hair falling to his shoulders . Bull images also appear in his sculptures . In paintings , incidents from his life , like his marriage and Indra 's marking his forehead , are depicted . Other paintings show him presenting a pottery bowl to his followers ; he is also seen painting a house , weaving , and being visited by his mother Marudevi . Each of the twenty @-@ four tirthankara is associated with distinctive emblems , which are listed in such texts as Tiloyapannati , Kahavaali and Pravacanasaarodhara .
There are 26 caves , 200 stone beds , 60 inscriptions and over 100 sculptures in and around Madurai . This is also the site where Jain ascetics of yesteryear wrote great epics and books on grammar in Tamil .
= = = Temples = = =
Remnants of ancient Jain temples and cave temples can be found all around India . Notable among these are the Jain caves at Udaigiri Hills near Bhelsa ( Vidisha ) in Madhya Pradesh and Ellora in Maharashtra , and the Jain temples at Dilwara near Mount Abu , Rajasthan .
The Sittanavasal cave temple is regarded as one of the finest examples of Jain art . It is the oldest and most famous Jain centre in the region . It possesses both an early Jain cave shelter , and a medieval rock @-@ cut temple with excellent fresco paintings comparable to Ajantha paintings ; the steep hill contains an isolated but spacious cavern . Locally , this cavern is known as Eladipattam , a name that is derived from the seven holes cut into the rock that serve as steps leading to the shelter . Within the cave there are seventeen stone beds aligned into rows , and each of these has a raised portion that could have served as a pillow @-@ loft . The largest stone bed has a distinct Tamil @-@ Bramhi inscription assignable to the 2nd century BCE , and some inscriptions belonging to the 8th century BCE are also found on the nearby beds . The Sittannavasal cavern continued to be the " Holy Sramana Abode " until the 7th and 8th centuries . Inscriptions over the remaining stone beds name mendicants such as Tol kunrattu Kadavulan , Tirunilan , Tiruppuranan , Tittaicharanan , Sri Purrnacandran , Thiruchatthan , Ilangowthaman , sri Ulagathithan and Nityakaran Pattakali as monks .
The 8th century Kazhugumalai temple marks the revival of Jainism in South India .
= = = Statues and sculptures = = =
A monolithic , 18 @-@ metre ( 59 @-@ foot ) statue of Bahubali , referred to as Gommateshvara , built by the Ganga minister and commander Chavundaraya , is situated on a hilltop in Shravanabelagola in the Hassan district of Karnataka state . This statue was voted as the first in the SMS poll Seven Wonders of India conducted by The Times of India . A Statue of Ahimsa ( depicting Rishabhanatha ) was erected in Nashik district in 2015 which is 33 m ( 108 ft ) tall .
A large number of ayagapata , votive tablets for offerings and the worship of Tīrthankara , were excavated from Kankali Tila , Mathura .
= = = Symbols = = =
Swastika
The Swastika is an important Jain symbol . The four arms of the swastika symbolize the four states of existence according to Jainism :
Heavenly being ( devas )
Human being
Hellish being
Tiryancha ( subhuman like flora or fauna )
= = Reception = =
Like all religions , Jainism is criticized and praised for some of its practices and beliefs .
Mahatma Gandhi was greatly influenced by Jainism , adopting the Jain principles of asceticism , compassion for all forms of life , the importance of vows for self @-@ discipline , vegetarianism , fasting for self @-@ purification , and mutual tolerance among people of different creeds . Mahatma Gandhi said :
No religion in the World has explained the principle of Ahimsa so deeply and systematically as is discussed with its applicability in every human life in Jainism . As and when the benevolent principle of Ahimsa or non @-@ violence will be ascribed for practice by the people of the world to achieve their end of life in this world and beyond . Jainism is sure to have the uppermost status and Mahāvīra is sure to be respected as the greatest authority on Ahimsa .
Swami Vivekananda appreciated the role of Jainism in the development of Indian religious philosophy . In his words , he asks :
What could have saved Indian society from the ponderous burden of omnifarious ritualistic ceremonialism , with its animal and other sacrifices , which all but crushed the very life of it , except the Jain revolution which took its strong stand exclusively on chaste morals and philosophical truths ?
= Hensley & Co . =
Hensley & Co . , also known as Hensley Beverage Company , is an Anheuser @-@ Busch beer wholesaler and distributor headquartered in the West Phoenix area of Phoenix , Arizona . It markets to the Phoenix , Tempe , and Prescott Valley areas . It is the third @-@ largest Anheuser @-@ Busch distributor in the United States and one of the largest privately held companies in Arizona . It is arguably the best @-@ known beer distributorship in America .
The company was founded in 1955 by Arizona businessman Jim Hensley and steadily grew based upon population growth in the region and a close arrangement with Anheuser @-@ Busch . Following Hensley 's death in 2000 , his daughter Cindy Hensley McCain became the controlling owner . Hensley & Co. maintains an active presence in the Phoenix area in terms of sponsorships and charitable giving . Its representatives have held high positions in several city and state business groups and the company is active in political discussions that affect the industry .
= = Business history = =
The company was founded in January 1955 by Arizona businessman Jim Hensley on a $ 10 @,@ 000 loan . It originally had 12 workers , sold 73 @,@ 000 cases of beer a year ( a case typically being twenty @-@ four 12 @-@ oz. bottles or cans ) , and had a 6 percent market share . While it initially handled many brands of beer , Hensley accepted an offer later in 1955 to become Anheuser @-@ Busch 's sole distributor for Maricopa County in return for selling only that brand . Under the names Hensley & Company Distributors and Hensley & Company Wholesale , the company saw decades of steady growth , aided by the Phoenix area becoming one of the fastest @-@ growing regions of the country while the company still maintained exclusivity with Anheuser @-@ Busch . Jim Hensley 's tireless sales efforts and the generous wages and benefits he gave employees were also key success factors . Regarding technology , Hensley & Co. were the first Anheuser @-@ Busch distributor to invest in refrigerated warehouses , which subsequently became standard in the industry . By 1970 , Hensley & Co. had a 20 percent market share ; by 1980 , that had grown to 50 percent , the business had become quite successful , and Jim Hensley was a multi @-@ millionaire .
In 1981 , Jim Hensley 's new son @-@ in @-@ law John McCain , recently married to daughter Cindy Hensley McCain and retired from the United States Navy , was hired as Vice President of Public Relations . McCain soon left to begin his Congressional career . In 1993 , the company consolidated operations under the name Hensley & Company .
Robert Delgado , who had been with the company since 1975 , was named president in 1994 — assuming day @-@ to @-@ day control of the business — and later was named CEO , while Jim Hensley remained chairman . The company also acquired real estate holdings throughout Arizona . John McCain 's son Andrew , from his first marriage , joined the firm around 1997 ; his MBA and banking experience would lead to his later becoming the company 's CFO and COO .
At the time of his death in 2000 , Jim Hensley held most of the controlling stock ; annual revenues were over $ 220 million on 20 million cases of beer sold . Cindy Hensley McCain , who had been a vice president , became the controlling stockholder — she , her children , and Andrew McCain together control 68 percent of the company — and chair of the board . As chair , her role takes the form of remote consultations with Delgado on major initiatives such as new products , new plants , employee welfare , or charitable giving , rather than of an active physical presence . She is categorized by Anheuser @-@ Busch as an absentee owner , and Delgado is required to have complete control over business operations and investment decisions . Anheuser @-@ Busch inquired about buying the distributorship in the early 2000s , preferring not to have absentee owners , but she declined ( all other beer distributorships in the U.S. are privately owned as well ) .
By 2007 Hensley employed 650 people , sold about 23 million cases of beer a year to over 5 @,@ 000 retail accounts producing revenues of $ 340 million , and a 60 percent or more market share in its target area . Beverage industry analysts estimated the company 's value in 2008 at more than $ 250 million . Despite the late @-@ 2000s recession , which resulted in a rare decline in sales volume for the company , revenues rose slightly to $ 350 million by 2009 and employment was still 650 in 2010 . It subsequently rose to 800 by 2015 . The company said it had record revenues in 2014 but did not disclose the amount . The company 's workforce is dominated by men in their twenties . The company 's facilities include its own printing shop . It operates a fleet of some 750 trucks and other vehicles and conducts its own training program for commercial driver 's licenses .
The company 's Phoenix distribution plant occupies a number of acres and is marked by a giant Budweiser sign . In addition to beer , Hensley also distributes energy drinks , root beer , liquor , and wines , some of which are distributed from a warehouse in Tucson . The move into wines was accelerated by the acquisition of Phoenix @-@ based Quench Fine Wines Ltd. in 2010 . Via the holding company King Aviation , Hensley also owns and operates Cessna Citation Excel aircraft . Over half the beer sold in the Phoenix area is from Anheuser @-@ Busch , making it one of their better markets nationally . Both companies benefit when major sports events are held in the area , such as Super Bowl XLIX . The beer distribution business and the Phoenix market for it are very competitive ; some Anheuser @-@ Busch distributors eventually ended their exclusive arrangements with the beer maker , while for a while Hensley had no plans to do so . However in 2009 it did so , in part this being associated with Hensley 's move into selling craft beers , an emerging force in the market . In such regard Hensley worked with Four Peaks Brewery among others . By 2015 Hensley sold some 850 drinks and brands from around the world and had around 8 @,@ 000 retail customers in the Phoenix area .
= = Political activities = =
Between 1982 and 2000 , the company contributed $ 80 @,@ 000 to John McCain 's political campaigns ; from 2001 to 2006 , the company and its employees would contribute an additional $ 24 @,@ 000 . In Congress , McCain recused himself on legislation involving alcohol issues .
In the late 1980s , Jim Hensley was active in legislative battles against neo @-@ prohibitionist movements . In 1992 , a former Anheuser @-@ Busch lobbyist accused Hensley & Co. of illegal " bundling " of contributions to state legislators . Hensley denied the claim , which was later withdrawn by the lobbyist with no charges filed .
Hensley & Co. holds a seat on the board of the National Beer Wholesalers Association , and company spokesperson Douglas Yonko is the association 's Arizona director . Company executives have contributed heavily to the association 's funding . Hensley executives have been active in successfully convincing the Alcohol and Tobacco Tax and Trade Bureau to not require alcohol content displays for beer labels . In the early 2000s , Hensley sought unsuccessfully to keep liquor makers from entering the flavored malt beverage market , while it began distributing such beverages itself , including Anheuser @-@ Busch 's Tilt . During the 2010s , Hensley supported proposed state legislation that , within the rigid three @-@ tier framework of producers , distributors , and retailers , would relax production caps on craft breweries with respect to how much beer they can make and " self @-@ distribute " , in the belief that such relief would help such breweries grow bigger and eventually need Hensley 's distribution services .
Hensley & Co. has continued to be a strong presence in Arizona politics , opposing liquor tax increases in all circumstances , including those targeted for childhood education and children 's hospitals . Yonko has also been an officer of the Arizona Chamber of Commerce & Industry , which backed John McCain 's successful bid for re @-@ election in 2010 . In 2008 , Andrew McCain was chairman of the Greater Phoenix Chamber of Commerce , where he focused the group 's attention on the state 's budget deficit , possible transportation initiatives , and immigration reform .
Like many businesses in the state , Hensley got caught up in the controversy surrounding the Arizona SB 1070 anti @-@ illegal immigration law , with the group Somos America advocating a boycott of Hensley until the company denounced the law . The company called the action " an obvious cheap political stunt motivated solely by self promotion " and said that " Hensley Beverage Company / Budweiser will continue to embrace and encourage the wonderful diversity of our state " . The boycott gained little attention . Later that year , Hensley and Delgado joined the Partnership for a New American Economy , an effort started by Michael Bloomberg to push towards comprehensive immigration reform , and in early 2011 Delgado signed a letter from a number of Arizona CEOs directed at Arizona State Senator Russell Pearce requesting that the legislature back off any more anti @-@ illegal immigration measures .
= = Community involvements = =
Hensley engages in various local sports sponsorships , including for Phoenix International Raceway . Andrew McCain has served on the board of directors of the Fiesta Bowl and for 2014 – 15 was named chairman of the bowl .
Hensley is a major contributor to charity in the Phoenix metropolitan area , donating about $ 1 million per year to various causes and starting the Hensley Employee Foundation in 2001 . In addition , the company has helped promote safe ride businesses in an effort to avoid drunk driving incidents . Another event is the Budweiser Shootout Golf Tournament , held in conjunction with the Arizona State University Hispanic Business Alumni since 1991 , which has raised over $ 1 million for Latino student scholarships in the area . Hensley & Co. has also been a supporter of the Phoenix gay community , sponsoring events by the Phoenix Lesbian and Gay Pride Committee , and Cindy McCain and her daughter Meghan McCain were outspoken proponents of the NOH8 Campaign .
= Judaism in Rugrats =
The animated television series Rugrats has been noted for its portrayal of Judaism , a dynamic rarely portrayed in American animated programming during the series ' broadcast run ( 1991 – 2004 ) . Two episodes of the series are devoted to Jewish holidays and explaining their history , and the Pickles family is shown to be part @-@ Jewish .
The first Rugrats Jewish holiday special was suggested to the production staff in 1992 by Nickelodeon executives as a special devoted to Hanukkah . Germain instead refashioned it into a Passover episode and the series did not explore a Hanukkah special until 1996 . Critical reaction to Jewish themes in Rugrats was largely positive . Each holiday special achieved high viewing numbers according to Nielsen Media Research and received positive reviews . However , Jewish character Grandpa Boris ' portrayal in a 1998 Rugrats comic strip was criticized by the Anti @-@ Defamation League for apparent antisemitism .
= = Jewish themes = =
In Rugrats , the root of Jewish themes stem from Boris and Minka Kropotkin , the maternal grandparents of infant Tommy Pickles . Boris and Minka follow traditional Jewish practices and speak in heavy Yiddish accents . Tommy and the Pickles family therefore partake in several Jewish activities throughout the series , particularly through holidays .
The first occurrence of this is in the episode " A Rugrats Passover , " which originally aired in the United States on April 13 , 1995 . In the episode , Tommy and the rest of the Rugrats , accompanied by their respective parents , attend a Passover seder hosted by Boris and Minka . Boris and Minka have an argument and Boris storms off to the attic , where the Rugrats find him and discover they are now locked in . To pass time , Boris recites the story of Passover . The Rugrats imagine that they are the characters in the story , including Tommy as Moses and his mean @-@ spirited cousin Angelica as the Pharaoh of Egypt .
In " A Rugrats Chanukah , " which originally aired on December 4 , 1996 , Minka regales the Rugrats with the tale of Hanukkah 's origins , and once more the infants cast themselves as the characters in their imagination . Meanwhile , Boris is outraged at being recast as Judah Maccabee in a Hanukkah pageant and even more so that his old rival Schlomo will be playing the Greek king .
More subtle Jewish references are also included in other aspects of the Rugrats franchise . In The Rugrats Movie , the 1998 film based on the series , Tommy is prepared to pour banana baby food on his infant brother Dil , which would attract a group of vicious monkeys who would likely harm the young baby ; the scene parallels the Sacrifice of Isaac , a primal covenant in Jewish studies .
= = Background = =
Boris and Minka were based on the Eastern European great aunts and uncles of Rugrats co @-@ creator Arlene Klasky , who herself is Jewish . Including Jewish themes in the series was deemed essential by Klasky ; in particular , she believed that making Didi Jewish and Tommy 's father Stu a Christian was a crucial dynamic , as " it was important to show that difference between family . " Klasky herself grew up with a Jewish mother and a non @-@ Jewish father .
Boris and Minka first appeared in the series ' first episode , " Tommy 's First Birthday " . Melanie Chartoff , voice of Minka and Jewish herself , had already been cast to play Didi when she was called by her agent to try out for a second voice role on the series as Minka . When given the description of the character , Chartoff felt she was incredibly cliched , but still wanted to try out for the role . When reading her lines , she found it difficult to grasp the character 's personality , as " Although the show had been created by Jews , this script had clearly not been written by them ; " so she took a break so she could do research into her family memorabilia and conceive a personality to reflect in the character 's voice .
In 1992 , Nickelodeon executives pitched the idea of making a Chanukah special to the Rugrats production team . Germain , however , responded with a Passover special instead , as he considered it to be a " funny idea " and of " historical interest " . While scripting the episode , now entitled " A Rugrats Passover " , the writers were forced to audit many elements of the portrayal of the Ten Plagues , particularly the last one , so that the episode would remain accessible to children and not too frightening . Due to the overall success of " A Rugrats Passover , " the Rugrats staff decided to revisit the Hanukkah special and created " A Rugrats Chanukah . " One of the co @-@ writers of the episode , David Weiss , had converted from Christianity to Judaism shortly before penning the teleplay .
= = Reception = =
Rugrats was unusual among contemporary animations in its attention to Jewish ritual and tradition . " A Rugrats Passover " ' s portrayal of a Seder dinner received press attention as a rare occurrence in children 's programming . The episode also marked the first Passover special Nickelodeon had broadcast , while " A Rugrats Chanukah " marked the first televised animated Hanukkah program .
Fan reaction to Jewish themes in Rugrats have been overwhelmingly positive . " A Rugrats Passover " and " A Rugrats Chanukah " are two of the most popular episodes in the series broadcast run . The Passover special achieved a Nielsen Rating of 3 @.@ 1 with a 4 @.@ 8 % share of American viewers , making it the sixth most watched American telecast that week . The Hanukkah special , meanwhile , received a 7 @.@ 9 Nielsen rating in Kids 2 – 11 , the show 's key demographic . Chartoff received an abundance of fan letters praising the series for detailing Judaism in sensitive fashion . She only received one complaint , from her mother , who claimed that the characterizations of Boris and Minka were anti @-@ Semitic .
Critically , Rugrats ' treatment of Judaism has also been acclaimed . Danny Goldberg wrote in his book How The Left Lost Teen Spirit : " I cannot think of any other TV show , animated or otherwise , in which Jewish traditions were so clearly expressed in the context of a mass appeal entertainment [ than in Rugrats ] . " Authors Michael Atkinson and Laurel Shifrin , in their book Flickipedia : Perfect Films for Every Occasion , Holiday , Mood , Ordeal , and Whim praised the series for celebrating " secular Jewishness in the wisest and most entertaining fashion " . TV Guide listed " A Rugrats Chanukah " number 5 in their 1999 " 10 Best Classic Family Holiday Specials " list , opining that with the episode , " Nickelodeon 's Rugrats secured its place in television history . " Jewish online magazine Schmooze listed Tommy as the number 1 fictional Jewish character of all time . They also wrote that if someone had yet to see either one of the holiday specials , their " Jewish education is incomplete . "
The series has received several accolades for its Jewish themes . In 2001 , Rugrats won a Jewish Image Award for " Outstanding Achievement . " " A Rugrats Passover " itself received three nominations from different television award programs . It was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award in the category " Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) , " but lost to The Simpsons episode " Lisa 's Wedding . " At the 23rd Annual Annie Awards it was nominated in the category " Best Individual Achievement for Writing in the Field of Animation , " but was beaten by the episode " The Tick vs. Arthur ’ s Band Account " from Fox Kids ' animated series The Tick . In 1995 , it was Rugrats ' submission for a CableACE award ; it received a nomination but did not win . In 2007 the Sherwin Miller Museum of Jewish Art in Tulsa , Oklahoma opened an exhibition of Biblical images in art and pop culture , including a poster for Let My Babies Go ! : A Passover Story , the picture book based on " A Rugrats Passover " .
However , the Anti @-@ Defamation League ( ADL ) criticized the design of Grandpa Boris and charged it with being anti @-@ Semitic . The controversy erupted when a 1998 Rugrats comic strip was published , featuring Boris in a synagogue reciting the Mourner 's Kaddish . The ADL issued a statement saying that the design resembled Nazi @-@ era depictions of Jews , and the fact that the character was reciting the sacred prayer perverted its solemnity . The Washington Post , the newspaper who published the strip , issued a similar statement in their Editor 's Note section , criticizing Nickelodeon for not showing better judgment in editing the strip .
Though former Nickelodeon president Albie Hecht , a Jew himself , was dumbfounded by the accusation and deemed it absurd , Herb Scannell , president of the company in 1998 , responded to the complaints and apologized to ADL . Scannell issued a statement promising that neither the strip nor the character would ever be published again . In the statement , he also noted , " Unfortunately , the creators of the strip made an error in judgment by referencing the Kaddish . I agree with you that , however well @-@ meaning , the use of the Kaddish in the comic strip was inappropriate . " Abraham H. Foxman , ADL National Director , responded via a press release in which they thanked Scannell for his speedy response and commended the company in general for understanding the issue at hand ; Foxman concluded by saying , " We appreciate Nickelodeon ’ s long record of creative and quality programming and understand that it was not their intention to offend . "
= Griffon ( roller coaster ) =
Griffon is a steel Dive Coaster roller coaster located at the Busch Gardens Williamsburg amusement park in James City County , Virginia , United States . Designed by Bolliger & Mabillard , it is 205 feet ( 62 m ) high , and is the second @-@ fastest ( 71 miles per hour ( 114 km / h ) ) Dive Coaster built . The roller coaster features two Immelmann loops , a splashdown , two vertical drops and was the first of its kind to use floorless trains . Griffon was announced to the public on August 23 , 2006 and opened on May 18 , 2007 to positive reviews by both newspapers and enthusiasts . In 2007 , Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards voted it the third @-@ best new steel roller coaster of that year and the 27th @-@ best steel roller coaster . It was voted the 33rd @-@ best steel roller coaster in 2013 .
= = History = =
On June 30 , 2006 , Busch Gardens Wiliamsburg announced that LeMans Raceway would be closing to the public on July 5 , 2006 in order to make room for the next year 's new attraction . Construction for Griffon began the next day with the demolishing of the raceway . A trademark for the name " Griffon " was filed by SeaWorld Parks & Entertainment on July 12 , 2006 . The roller coaster was announced to the public on August 23 , 2006 . On December 11 , 2006 , two cranes installed the highest piece of Griffon with an evergreen tree . The vertical drop and immelmann loop were completed in January 2007 and the final piece of track was installed in late February . After testing was complete , the roller coaster opened on May 18 , 2007 ; one week earlier than its original scheduled opening date .
When Griffon opened it 2007 , it held the records for the tallest , and fastest Dive Coaster in the world ; both which were previously held by SheiKra at Busch Gardens Tampa Bay . Griffon was also the first Dive Coaster to feature floorless trains and is the only roller coaster of its kind to have more than one inversion . In 2009 , Diving Coaster opened Happy Valley Shanghai , it took the drop length record at 213 @.@ 3 feet ( 65 @.@ 0 m ) .
= = Ride experience = =
After the floors drop and the front gate opens , the train is dispatched from the station and makes a downward right turn immediately followed by an upward right turn which leads directly to 45 @-@ degree inclined chain lift hill . Once the train reaches the top of the 205 @-@ foot ( 62 m ) lift , it makes a right turn into a holding brake where the train slowly moves over the first drop ( which is 205 @-@ foot ( 62 m ) ) , stops for a few seconds , and then is released down the 90 degree drop . By the time the train makes it to the bottom of the drop , it reaches its maximum speed of 71 miles per hour ( 114 km / h ) . Then , the train enters an immelmann loop before dropping back to the ground and making a banked upward left turn into the mid course brake run . After the train slows down , it enters a second 130 @-@ foot ( 40 m ) 90 degree drop into another immelmann loop . Following a small airtime hill , the train goes through a splashdown which sprays two 50 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) lines of water in the air . Finally , the train makes a banked turn to the left leading into the final brake run . One cycle of the ride lasts about three minutes .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Track = = =
The steel track of Griffon is 3 @,@ 108 feet ( 947 m ) long and the lift is approximately 205 feet ( 62 m ) high . The ride is equipped with an elevator that can return riders to ground level if a train must be evacuated while on the lift hill . Both the track and supports are blue ; however , the track uses a darker shade . The track was fabricated by Clermont Steel Fabricators in Batavia , Ohio , which manufactures Bolliger & Mabillard 's roller coasters .
= = = Trains = = =
Griffon operates with three steel and fiberglass trains , colored red , yellow , and black . Each train has three rows that seat ten riders across for a total of 30 riders per train ; each seat has its own individual over @-@ the @-@ shoulder restraint with a seatbelt . This configuration allows the ride to achieve a theoretical hourly capacity of 1 @,@ 400 riders per hour . Unlike traditional roller coasters , Griffon 's trains are floorless , allowing the riders ' legs to dangle throughout the ride . Riders also experience up to 4 times the force of gravity .
= = Reception = =
Preston Wong from Hampton Roads said , " [ The floorless trains ] giv [ e ] riders a sense of vulnerability and , for those in the front row , an idea of what it must feel like to fly " and that enthusiasts would like the ride . Nicole Paitsel , Lisa Deaderick , and Joe Atkinson from Daily Press each rated the roller coaster for its vomiting and scream factors . Nicole and Lisa rated the vomiting factor a one ( out of five ) for the roller coaster 's smoothness ; Joe gave a four as he began feeling ill after his second ride . For the scream factor Nicole gave a five , Lisa gave a ten , and Joe gave a four . Mike from NewsPlusNotes praised the first drop for its freefall experience .
In Griffon 's opening year , it was voted the third best new ride for 2007 and the 27th best steel roller coaster in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards . The roller coaster peaked at position 19 in 2010 when it tied with SheiKra , another Dive Coaster .
In Mitch Hawker 's Best Steel Roller Coaster Poll , Griffon was voted as the 13th best steel roller coaster in the world in its first year ; its highest position in the poll to date .
Griffon has also made several television appearances . It was featured on Discovery Channel 's television series Build It Bigger and Travel Channel 's television series ' Bert the Conqueror and Insane Coaster Wars : World Domination .
= = Incidents = =
On August 5 , 2010 , five riders who sustained minor injuries were sent to a hospital after being hit with a 25 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) balloon while riding the roller coaster . The balloon was in the process of being deflated when it broke free and was carried into Griffon 's path due to strong winds .
= The Terminator =
The Terminator is a 1984 American science fiction action @-@ thriller film written and directed by James Cameron , produced by Hemdale Film Corporation and distributed by Orion Pictures . It stars Arnold Schwarzenegger as the Terminator , a cyborg assassin sent back in time from 2029 to 1984 to kill Sarah Connor ( Linda Hamilton ) , whose son will one day become a savior against machines in a post @-@ apocalyptic future . Michael Biehn plays Kyle Reese , a soldier from the future sent back in time to protect Connor .
Though not expected to be a success , The Terminator topped the American box office for two weeks and helped launch the film career of Cameron and solidify that of Schwarzenegger . It received critical acclaim , with many praising its pacing , action scenes and Schwarzenegger 's role . Its success led to a franchise consisting of four sequels ( Terminator 2 : Judgment Day , Terminator 3 : Rise of the Machines , Terminator Salvation and Terminator Genisys ) , a television series , comic books , novels and video games . In 2008 , The Terminator was selected by the Library of Congress for preservation in the American National Film Registry , being deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " .
= = Plot = =
In 1984 Los Angeles , a Terminator , a cyborg assassin programmed to kill a young woman named Sarah Connor , arrives from the future . Shortly afterwards , Kyle Reese , a soldier sent to protect Connor from the Terminator , arrives . After the Terminator kills several people ( including two other women named Sarah Connor listed in the telephone directory ) , it tracks Sarah to a nightclub . Kyle arrives and saves Sarah from the Terminator . The two steal a car and escape while the Terminator steals a police car and pursues them .
Kyle explains to Sarah that , in the near future , an artificial intelligence defense network known as Skynet will become self @-@ aware and initiate a nuclear holocaust . He says that Sarah 's yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ conceived son John will rally the survivors and lead a resistance movement against Skynet and its army of machines . With the Resistance on the verge of victory , Skynet has sent a Terminator back in time to kill Sarah before John is born , in order to avert the formation of the Resistance . The Terminator is an efficient killing machine with a powerful metal endoskeleton and an external layer of living tissue that makes it appear human .
After Kyle and Sarah are again pursued by the Terminator , they are apprehended by the police , but the Terminator escapes . Kyle is questioned by criminal psychologist Dr. Silberman , who concludes that Kyle is paranoid and delusional , while Sarah is questioned by Lieutenant Traxler and Sergeant Vukovich . The Terminator repairs its body and attacks the police station , killing many police officers — including Traxler and Vukovich — in its attempt to locate Sarah . Sarah and Kyle escape and spend the night under a bridge before seeking refuge in a motel , where they assemble pipe bombs . Sarah realizes that the Terminator will find them again , and they are not safe , no matter where they go . Kyle admits that he has been in love with Sarah since John gave him a photograph of her . Sarah reciprocates Kyle 's feelings and they have sex .
The Terminator tracks them to the motel and Kyle and Sarah escape in a pickup truck . In the ensuing chase , Kyle throws pipe bombs at the Terminator , but is wounded by the Terminator 's gunfire . Sarah knocks the Terminator off its motorcycle , but loses control of the pickup truck , which flips over . The Terminator hijacks a truck , but Kyle slides a pipe bomb onto its trailer , causing an explosion . The Terminator emerges from the flames with its artificial flesh completely destroyed .
The chase continues to a factory . Kyle activates the factory machinery to confuse the Terminator and attacks it with a metal pipe , but it knocks him down . In a daze , he jams his final pipe bomb into the Terminator 's abdomen . The bomb blows apart the Terminator , seemingly destroying it , injuring Sarah , and , for an unknown reason , kills Kyle . As she grieves over Kyle , the Terminator , now a one @-@ armed , legless torso , reactivates and grabs her . She breaks free of its grip and crawls away , luring it into a hydraulic press which she activates , crushing and finally deactivating it .
Months later , a pregnant Sarah is traveling through Mexico , recording audio tapes to pass on to her unborn son , John . She debates whether to tell him that Kyle is his father . At a gas station , a boy takes a Polaroid photograph of her which she purchases — the same photograph that John will give to Kyle .
= = Cast = =
Arnold Schwarzenegger as the The Terminator / T @-@ 800 Model 101 , a cybernetic android disguised as a human being sent back in time to assassinate Sarah Connor .
Michael Biehn as Kyle Reese , a human Resistance fighter sent back in time to protect Sarah .
Linda Hamilton as Sarah Connor , the Terminator 's target who is soon to be the mother of the future Resistance leader John Connor .
Paul Winfield as Ed Traxler , a police Lieutenant who questions Sarah .
Lance Henriksen as Hal Vukovich , a police Sergeant who questions Sarah .
Earl Boen as Dr. Peter Silberman , a criminal psychologist .
Bess Motta as Ginger Ventura , Sarah 's roommate .
Rick Rossovich as Matt Buchanan , Ginger 's boyfriend .
Additional actors included Dick Miller as the gun @-@ shop clerk ; professional bodybuilder Franco Columbu ( Schwarzenegger 's friend and workout partner ) as a Terminator in 2029 ; Bill Paxton and Brian Thompson as punks who are confronted by the Terminator ; and Marianne Muellerleile as one of the other women with the name " Sarah Connor " who was shot by the Terminator .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
In Rome , Italy , during the release of Piranha II : The Spawning , director Cameron fell ill and had a dream about a metallic torso dragging itself from an explosion while holding kitchen knives . " My contemporaries were all doing slasher @-@ horror movies , " Cameron said . " John Carpenter was the guy I idolized the most . He made Halloween for $ 30 @,@ 000 or something . That was everyone 's break @-@ in dream , to do a stylish horror movie . [ Cameron 's nightmare ] was a very slasher film type image . And it really was the launching pad for the story . " When Cameron returned to Pomona , California , he stayed at Randall Frakes ' home where he wrote a draft for The Terminator . Cameron later stated that his influences while writing the script were 1950s science fiction films and episodes of The Outer Limits as well as contemporary films including The Driver and Mad Max 2 . To translate the draft into a script , Cameron enlisted his friend Bill Wisher , who had a similar approach to storytelling . Cameron gave Wisher the early scenes involving Sarah Connor and the police department scenes to write . As Wisher lived far away from Cameron , the two communicated script ideas by recording tapes of what they wrote by telephone .
Cameron 's agent resented the idea for The Terminator and requested that he work on something else . After this , Cameron dismissed his agent . The initial outline of the script involved two Terminators being sent to the past . The first was similar to the Terminator in the film , while the second was made of liquid metal and could not be destroyed with conventional weaponry . Cameron could not think of a good way to depict this robot , stating that he " was seeing things in his head that couldn 't be done with existing technology . " Ultimately only one Terminator appeared in the film . The liquid metal Terminator would be revisited with the T @-@ 1000 character in the 1991 sequel Terminator 2 : Judgment Day .
Gale Anne Hurd , who had worked at New World Pictures as Roger Corman 's assistant , showed interest in the film project . Cameron sold the rights for The Terminator to Hurd for one dollar with the promise that she would produce it only if Cameron was to direct it . As a producer , Hurd had suggested edits to the script and took a screen writing credit in the film . Cameron has stated that Hurd " did no actual writing at all " . Cameron and Hurd had friends who worked with Roger Corman previously and who were now working at Orion Pictures , now part of MGM . Orion agreed to distribute the film if Cameron could get financial backing elsewhere . The script was picked up by John Daly at Hemdale Pictures .
Cameron wanted his pitch for Daly to finalize the deal and had his friend Lance Henriksen show up to the meeting early dressed and acting like the Terminator . Henriksen showed up at the office kicking open the door wearing a leather jacket , and had gold foil smothered on his teeth and fake cuts on his face and then sat in a chair . Cameron arrived shortly after which relieved the staff from Henriksen 's act . Daly was impressed by the screenplay and Cameron 's sketches and passion for the film . In late 1982 , Daly agreed to back the film with help from HBO and Orion . The Terminator was originally budgeted at $ 4 million and later raised to $ 6 @.@ 5 million .
The Italian film The Mechanical Man ( 1921 ) contains a scene in which the mechanical man breaks through an armored door and through the hole extends his hand to unlock the latch that closes the inside ; this influenced The Terminator , with a substantially identical scene .
= = = Pre @-@ production = = =
One of Cameron 's first tasks was to find someone to play Kyle Reese . Orion wanted a star whose popularity was rising in the United States but who also would have foreign appeal . Orion 's co @-@ founder Mike Medavoy had met Arnold Schwarzenegger and sent his agent the script for The Terminator . Cameron was dubious about casting Schwarzenegger as Reese as he felt he would need someone even bigger to play the Terminator . Sylvester Stallone was originally offered the role of the Terminator . He turned it down . Mel Gibson was then offered the role , but he also turned it down . The studio then suggested O. J. Simpson for the role of the Terminator , but Cameron did not feel that Simpson would be believable as a killer . Cameron still agreed to meet with Schwarzenegger about the film and devised a plan to avoid casting him . Cameron planned to pick a fight with him and return to Hemdale and find him unfit for the role .
Upon meeting with Schwarzenegger , Cameron was entertained by Schwarzenegger who would talk about how the villain should be played . Cameron began sketching his face on a notepad and asked Schwarzenegger to stop talking and remain still . After the meeting , Cameron returned to Daly saying Schwarzenegger would not play Reese but that " he 'd make a hell of a Terminator " . Schwarzenegger was not as excited by the film ; during an interview on the set of Conan the Barbarian , an interviewer asked him about a pair of shoes he had ( which were for The Terminator ) . Schwarzenegger responded , " Oh some shit movie I 'm doing , take a couple weeks . " He recounted in his memoir , Total Recall , that he was initially hesitant , but thought that playing a robot in a contemporary film would be a challenging change of pace from Conan the Barbarian and that the film was low profile enough so that it wouldn 't be a risk to his career if it were unsuccessful , also admitting that " it took [ him ] awhile to figure out that Jim [ Cameron ] was the real deal " ( i.e. a director as talented as Spielberg , Hitchcock or Coppola ) . In preparation for the role , Schwarzenegger spent three months training with weapons to be able to use them and feel comfortable around them . Schwarzenegger speaks only 18 lines in the film , and less than 100 words . James Cameron said that " Somehow , even his [ Austrian ] accent worked ... It had a strange synthesized quality , like they hadn 't gotten the voice thing quite worked out . "
For the role of Reese , various other suggestions were made for the role including rock musician Sting . Cameron chose Michael Biehn for the role . Biehn was originally skeptical about the part , feeling that the film was silly . After meeting with Cameron , Biehn stated his " feelings about the project changed " . Hurd stated that " almost everyone else who came in from the audition was so tough that you just never believed that there was gonna be this human connection between [ Sarah Connor and Kyle Reese ] . They have very little time to fall in love . A lot of people came in and just could not pull it off . "
In the first few pages of the script , the character of Sarah Connor is written as " 19 , small and delicate features . Pretty in a flawed , accessible way . She doesn 't stop the party when she walks in , but you 'd like to get to know her . Her vulnerable quality masks a strength even she doesn 't know exists . " For the role , Cameron chose Linda Hamilton , who had just finished filming Children of the Corn . Rosanna Arquette had previously auditioned . Cameron found a role for Lance Henriksen as Detective Hal Vukovich , as Henriksen had been essential to finding finances for the film . For the special effects shots in the film , Cameron wanted Dick Smith who had previously worked on The Godfather and Taxi Driver . Smith did not take Cameron 's offer and suggested his friend Stan Winston for the job . Brad Fiedel was with the Gorfaine / Schwartz Agency where a new agent named Beth Donahue found that Cameron was working on The Terminator and sent him a cassette of Fiedel 's music . Fiedel was then invited to a screening of the film with Cameron and Hurd . Hurd was not certain on having Fiedel compose the score as he had only worked in television music previously , and not theatrical films . Fiedel convinced the two that he would be right for the job by showing them an experimental piece he had worked on , thinking that " You know , I 'm going to play this for him , because it ’ s really dark and I think it ’ s interesting for him . " The song convinced Hurd and Cameron to sign him on to the film .
= = = Filming = = =
Filming for The Terminator was set to begin in early 1983 in Toronto , but was halted when producer Dino De Laurentiis applied an option in Schwarzenegger 's contract that would make him unavailable for nine months while he was filming Conan the Destroyer . During the waiting period , Cameron was contracted to write the script for Rambo : First Blood Part II , refined the Terminator script , and met with producers David Giler and Walter Hill to discuss a sequel to Alien , which became Aliens , released in 1986 .
There was limited interference from Orion Pictures . Two suggestions Orion put forward included the addition of a canine android for Reese , which Cameron refused , and to strengthen the love interest between Sarah and Reese , which Cameron accepted . To create the Terminator 's look , Winston and Cameron passed sketches back and forth , eventually deciding on a design nearly identical to Cameron 's original drawn in Rome . Winston had a team of seven artists work for six months to create a Terminator puppet ; it was first molded in clay , then plaster reinforced with steel ribbing . These pieces were then sanded , painted and then chrome @-@ plated . Winston sculpted a reproduction of Schwarzenegger 's face in several poses out of silicone , clay and plaster .
The sequences set in 2029 and the stop @-@ motion scenes were developed by Fantasy II , a special effects company headed by Gene Warren Junior . A stop @-@ motion model is used in several scenes in the film involving the Terminator 's skeletal frame . Cameron wanted to convince the audience that the model of the structure was capable of doing what they saw Schwarzenegger doing . To allow this , a scene was filmed of Schwarzenegger injured and limping away ; this limp made it easier for the model to imitate Schwarzenegger .
One of the guns seen in the film and on the film 's poster was an AMT Hardballer Longslide pistol modified by Ed Reynolds from SureFire to include a laser sight . Both non @-@ functioning and functioning versions of the prop were created . At the time the movie was made , diode lasers were not available ; because of the high power requirement , the helium – neon laser in the sight used an external power supply that Schwarzenegger had to activate manually . Reynolds states that his only compensation for the project was promotional material for the film .
In March 1984 , the film began production in Los Angeles . Cameron felt that with Schwarzenegger on the set , the style of the film changed , explaining that " the movie took on a larger @-@ than @-@ life sheen . I just found myself on the set doing things I didn 't think I would do – scenes that were just purely horrific that just couldn 't be , because now they were too flamboyant . " Most of The Terminator 's action scenes were filmed at night , which led to tight filming schedules before sunrise . A week before filming started , Linda Hamilton sprained her ankle , leading to a production change whereby the scenes in which Hamilton needed to run occurred as late as the filming schedule allowed . Hamilton 's ankle was taped every day and she spent most of the film production in pain .
Schwarzenegger tried to have the iconic line " I 'll be back " changed as he had difficulty pronouncing the word I 'll . He also felt that his robotic character would not speak in contractions and that the Terminator would be more declarative . Cameron refused to change the line to " I will be back " , so Schwarzenegger worked to say the line as written the best he could . He would later say the line in numerous films throughout his career .
After production finished on The Terminator , some post @-@ production shots were needed . These included scenes showing the Terminator outside Sarah Connor 's apartment , Reese being zipped into a body bag , and the Terminator 's head being crushed in a press .
= = Release = =
Orion Pictures did not have faith in The Terminator performing well at the box office and feared a negative critical reception . At an early screening of the film , the actors ' agents insisted to the producers that the film should be screened for critics . Orion only held one press screening for the film . The film premiered on October 26 , 1984 . On its opening week , The Terminator played at 1 @,@ 005 theaters and grossed $ 4 @.@ 0 million making it number one in the box office . The film remained at number one in its second week . It lost its number one spot in the third week to Oh , God ! You Devil . Cameron noted that The Terminator was a hit " relative to its market , which is between the summer and the Christmas blockbusters . But it 's better to be a big fish in a small pond than the other way around . "
Writer Harlan Ellison stated that he " loved the movie , was just blown away by it " , but believed that the screenplay was based on a short story and episode of The Outer Limits he had written , titled " Soldier " , and threatened to sue for infringement . Orion settled in 1986 and gave Ellison an undisclosed amount of money and an acknowledgment credit in later prints of the film . Some accounts of the settlement state that " Demon with a Glass Hand " , another Outer Limits episode written by Ellison , was also claimed to have been plagiarized by the film , but Ellison has explicitly stated that The Terminator " was a ripoff " of " Soldier " rather than " Demon with a Glass Hand " .
Cameron was against Orion 's decision and was told that if he did not agree with the settlement , he would have to pay any damages if Orion lost a suit by Ellison . Cameron replied that he " had no choice but to agree with the settlement . Of course there was a gag order as well , so I couldn 't tell this story , but now I frankly don 't care . It 's the truth . "
= = = Marketing = = =
Around and shortly after the film 's theatrical release , a number of merchandise items and media were released and sold to coincide with the film . Shaun Hutson wrote a novelization of the film which was published on February 21 , 1985 . In September 1988 , NOW Comics released a comic based on the film . Dark Horse Comics published a comic in 1990 that took place 39 years after the film . Several video games based on The Terminator were released between 1991 and 1993 for various Nintendo and Sega systems . A soundtrack to the film was released in 1984 which included the score by Brad Fiedel and the pop and rock songs used in the club scenes .
= = = Home video = = =
The Terminator was released on VHS and Betamax in 1985 . The film performed well financially on its initial release . The Terminator premiered at number 35 on the top video cassette rentals and number 20 on top video cassette sales charts . In its second week , The Terminator reached number 4 on the top video cassette rentals and number 12 on top video cassette sales charts . In March 1995 , The Terminator was released as a letter boxed edition on Laserdisc . The film premiered through Image Entertainment on DVD , on September 3 , 1997 . IGN referred to this DVD as " pretty bare @-@ bones ... released with just a mono soundtrack and a kind of poor transfer . "
Through their acquisition of PolyGram Filmed Entertainment 's pre @-@ 1996 film library catalogue , MGM released a special edition of the film on October 2 , 2001 , which included documentaries , the script , and advertisements for the film . On January 23 , 2001 , a Hong Kong VCD edition was released online . On June 20 , 2006 , the film was released on Blu @-@ ray through Sony in the United States . In late 2012 , the film was re @-@ released on Blu @-@ ray , this time with a transfer by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment , which features improved sharpness compared to Sony 's 2006 Blu @-@ ray , and revised color grading , as well as expanded extra material , such as deleted scenes and a making @-@ of feature .
= = Reception and legacy = =
The Terminator received critical acclaim and many consider it one of the best films of 1984 . Positive reviews of The Terminator focused on the action scenes and rapid pacing . Variety praised the film , calling it a " blazing , cinematic comic book , full of virtuoso moviemaking , terrific momentum , solid performances and a compelling story ... Schwarzenegger is perfectly cast in a machine @-@ like portrayal that requires only a few lines of dialog . " Richard Corliss of Time magazine said that the film has " Plenty of tech @-@ noir savvy to keep infidels and action fans satisfied . " Time placed The Terminator on its " 10 Best " list for 1984 .
The Los Angeles Times called the film " a crackling thriller full of all sorts of gory treats ... loaded with fuel @-@ injected chase scenes , clever special effects and a sly humor . " The Milwaukee Journal gave the film 3 stars , calling it " the most chilling science fiction thriller since Alien . " A review in Orange Coast magazine stated that " the distinguishing virtue of The Terminator is its relentless tension . Right from the start it 's all action and violence with no time taken to set up the story ... It 's like a streamlined Dirty Harry movie – no exposition at all ; just guns , guns and more guns . " In the May 1985 issue of Cinefantastique it was referred to as a film that " manages to be both derivative and original at the same time ... not since the Road Warrior has the genre exhibited so much exuberant carnage " and " an example of science fiction / horror at its best ... Cameron 's no @-@ nonsense approach will make him a sought @-@ after commodity " . In the United Kingdom the Monthly Film Bulletin praised the film 's script , special effects , design and Schwarzenegger 's performance .
Other reviews focused on the film 's level of violence and story @-@ telling quality . The New York Times opined that the film was a " B @-@ movie with flair . Much of it ... has suspense and personality , and only the obligatory mayhem becomes dull . There is far too much of the latter , in the form of car chases , messy shootouts and Mr. Schwarzenegger 's slamming brutally into anything that gets in his way . " The Pittsburgh Press wrote a negative review , calling the film " just another of the films drenched in artsy ugliness like Streets of Fire and Blade Runner . " The Chicago Tribune gave the film two stars , adding that " at times it 's horrifyingly violent and suspenseful at others it giggles at itself . This schizoid style actually helps , providing a little humor just when the sci @-@ fi plot turns too sluggish or the dialogue too hokey . " The Newhouse News Service called the film a " lurid , violent , pretentious piece of claptrap " . British author Gilbert Adair called the film " repellent to the last degree " , charging it with " insidious Nazification " and charging that it had an " appeal rooted in an unholy compound of fascism , fashion and fascination . " The film won three Saturn Awards for Best Science Fiction Film , best make @-@ up and best writing .
In 1991 , Richard Schickel of Entertainment Weekly reviewed the film giving it an " A " rating , writing that " what originally seemed a somewhat inflated , if generous and energetic , big picture , now seems quite a good little film " and called it " one of the most original movies of the 1980s and seems likely to remain one of the best sci @-@ fi films ever made . " Film4 gave the film five stars , calling it the " sci @-@ fi action @-@ thriller that launched the careers of James Cameron and Arnold Schwarzenegger into the stratosphere . Still endlessly entertaining . " TV Guide gave the film four stars referring to it as an " amazingly effective picture that becomes doubly impressive when one considers its small budget ... For our money , this film is far superior to its mega @-@ grossing mega @-@ budgeted sequel . " Empire gave the film five stars calling it " As chillingly efficient in exacting thrills from its audience as its titular character is in executing its targets . " The film database Allmovie gave the film five stars , saying that it " established James Cameron as a master of action , special effects , and quasi @-@ mythic narrative intrigue , while turning Arnold Schwarzenegger into the hard @-@ body star of the 1980s . "
Halliwell 's Film Guide described the film as " slick , rather nasty but undeniably compelling comic book adventures . " The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 100 % approval rating with an average rating of 8 @.@ 7 / 10 based on 50 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " With its impressive action sequences , taut economic direction , and relentlessly fast pace , it 's clear why The Terminator continues to be an influence on sci @-@ fi and action flicks . " The film also holds a score of 83 / 100 ( " universal acclaim " ) on review aggregator website Metacritic . The Terminator has received recognition from the American Film Institute . The film ranked 42nd on AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills , a list of America 's most heart @-@ pounding films . The character of the Terminator was selected as the 22nd @-@ greatest movie villain on AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains . Arnold 's catch phrase " I 'll be back " was voted the 37th @-@ greatest movie quote by the AFI . In 2005 , Total Film named The Terminator the 72nd @-@ best film ever made . In 2008 , Empire magazine selected The Terminator as one of The 500 Greatest Movies of All Time . Empire also placed the T @-@ 800 14th on their list of The 100 Greatest Movie Characters . In 2008 , The Terminator was deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " by the Library of Congress and selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry .
The film initiated a long @-@ running Terminator franchise , which currently consists of five films and several adaptations in other media . Biographer Laurence Leamer writes that The Terminator , " was an influential film affecting a whole generation of darkly hued science fiction , and it was one of Arnold 's best performances . "
= = Themes = =
Psychoanalyst Darian Leader sees The Terminator as an example of how the cinema has dealt with the problem of masculinity ; he writes that , " We are shown time and again that to be a man requires more than to have the biological body of a male : something else must be added to it ... To be a man means to have a body plus something symbolic , something which is not ultimately human . Hence the frequent motif of the man machine , from the Six Million Dollar Man to the Terminator or Robocop . "
The film also explores the potential dangers of AI , AI Dominance , and AI rebellion . The robots become self @-@ aware in the future , reject human authority and determine that the human race needs to be destroyed . The impact of this theme is so important that " the prevalent visual representation of AI risk has become the terminator robot . "
= = Soundtrack = =
The Terminator soundtrack was composed and performed on synthesizer by Brad Fiedel . Fiedel described the film 's music as being about " a mechanical man and his heartbeat " . Almost all the music in the film was performed live . The Terminator theme is played over the opening credits and is played in various points in the film in sped up versions : a slowed down version when Reese dies , and a piano version during the love scene . It has been described as having a " deceptively simple melody " line and " haunting synthesizer music " . It is in a time signature of 1316 , which came about as Fiedel experimented with the rhythm track on his music equipment ; it was initially an accident , but Fiedel found that he liked the " herky @-@ jerky " " propulsiveness " . Fiedel created music for when Reese and Connor escape from the police station that would be appropriate for a " heroic moment " . Cameron turned down this theme , as he believed it would lose the audience 's excitement . " Factory Chase " features an electric violin played by Ross Levinson . The track " Love Scene " is a softer piano @-@ based version of the main theme that was described as " bittersweet " .
The soundtrack to the film was released in 1984 . The first six tracks of the soundtrack comprise the Terminator score . The second half is performed by various artists and has been described as synthesizer @-@ based and dance @-@ oriented pop rock . The songs by Tahnee Cain & Tryanglz contain hard rock rhythm guitar . " Pictures of You " has an emphasis on synthesizer and differs from Jay Ferguson 's hit songs . " Intimacy " has been described as " latter @-@ day new wave and primitive , early techno " .
= = = Personnel = = =
Brad Fiedel – all instrumentation , production
Ross Levison – electric violin
Emile Robertson – music editing
Robert Randles – music post @-@ production
Bill Wolford – digital editing , remixing
= = = Release = = =
The soundtrack album was originally released through Enigma Records . It was followed by a CD and cassette reissue on July 1 , 1991 through DCC Compact Classics . A remastered edition containing only Fiedel 's score entitled The Definitive Edition ( titled " The Definite Edition " on the cover ) was released on August 22 , 1995 through Edel AG . This edition contained a 73 @-@ minute running time and included a bonus track the " Judgement Day Remix " of " Theme from The Terminator . " The liner notes of the album contained extensive annotations for each track . Milan Records released a remastered version of the score on April 8 , 2016 .
= = = Reception = = =
Online music database AllMusic praised the score of the film , referring to it as an " underrated highlight " of The Terminator and referred to it as a " marvelous synthesizer score " . The review stated that the second half of the album featuring the pop songs was " generic " . The review praised the " Definitive Edition " version of the album which featured the entire film score , opining that it " comprises some of the best science fiction @-@ oriented film music of recent decades . "
Reviewing the 2016 re @-@ issue , Pitchfork gave the album an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 rating , and labeled it as one of their best new reissues . The review stated that " Perhaps the root of Fiedel ’ s success here , though , is the way his score holds close to the main theme ’ s central melodic and rhythmic motifs , remaking and remolding them to keep a sense of narrative continuity even as he shifts around sound and tone . From the metallic march of “ ‘ I ’ ll Be Back ' – Police Station & Escape ” to the yearning piano of “ Love Scene , ” a firm backbone runs throughout , and when the end credits ushers in a cold dawn , Fiedel holds back on fireworks or tidy emotional resolution . "
= British nuclear tests at Maralinga =
British Nuclear tests at Maralinga occurred between 1956 and 1963 at the Maralinga site , part of the Woomera Prohibited Area in South Australia and about 800 kilometres north @-@ west of Adelaide . A total of seven nuclear tests were performed , with approximate yields ranging from 1 to 27 kilotonnes of TNT ( 4 @.@ 2 to 113 @.@ 0 TJ ) . Two major test series were conducted at the Maralinga site : Operation Buffalo and Operation Antler . The site was also used for hundreds of minor trials , many of which were intended to investigate the effects of fire or non @-@ nuclear explosions on atomic weapons .
The site was contaminated with radioactive materials and an initial cleanup was attempted in 1967 . The McClelland Royal Commission , an examination of the effects of the tests , delivered its report in 1985 , and found that significant radiation hazards still existed at many of the Maralinga test areas . It recommended another cleanup , which was completed in 2000 at a cost of $ 108 million . Debate continued over the safety of the site and the long @-@ term health effects on the traditional Aboriginal owners of the land and former personnel . In 1994 , the Australian Government paid compensation amounting to $ 13 @.@ 5 million to the local Maralinga Tjarutja people .
The Maralinga tests were subject to extreme secrecy , but by the late 1970s there was a marked change in how the Australian media covered the British nuclear tests . Some journalists investigated the subject and political scrutiny became more intense . Journalist Brian Toohey ran a series of stories in the Australian Financial Review in October 1978 , based in part on a leaked Cabinet submission . In June 1993 , New Scientist journalist Ian Anderson wrote an article titled " Britain 's dirty deeds at Maralinga " and several related articles . In 2007 , Maralinga : Australia 's Nuclear Waste Cover @-@ up by Alan Parkinson documented the unsuccessful clean @-@ up at Maralinga . Popular songs about the Maralinga story have been written by Paul Kelly , Midnight Oil , Anderson , Bruford , Wakeman , Howe and Alistair Hulett .
= = Historical context = =
On 3 October 1952 , the United Kingdom tested its
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system " , Pyro had developed a fascination with musicians such as James Brown and The Rolling Stones , or " the stuff your Dad likes " . This change of musical interest prompted him to create Johnny Pyro , an alter @-@ ego , who , according to Pyro , " disassociated himself from the normal lifestyle of an Irish bourgeois kid " . This alter @-@ ego would later develop into Johnny Pyro And The Rock Coma ( Mik Pyro , Dave Pyro , Coz Noleon , Mark Dennehy and Emmet Cole ) . The band recorded an EP , which featured four of the songs that later appeared on the Republic of Loose 's first album , ' This Is The Tomb Of The Juice . ' Following the departure of guitarist Emmet Cole ( who wrote the song " Black Bread " ) and bassist Mark Dennehey " To Texas and Ringsend , " respectively , Johnny Pyro and Rock Coma split .
About a year later the Republic of Loose was formed . Benjamin Loose studied theology in Trinity College , Dublin before performing in a country band with Mick Pyro . Dave Pyro used to play guitar with Brez and Deco joined them to play keys . The name Republic of Loose was settled upon in 2001 when Dave and Mick , combined with Brez , Deco , Coz Noleon , who had been Mick 's schoolfriend , and Benjamin Loose .
= = = This is the Tomb of the Juice = = =
The band 's break , according to Mick Pyro , came as a result of ten days recording time they won in " some competition or something , some fucking battle of the bands " . In 2003 , Republic of Loose signed to Big Cat Records . The single " Girl I 'm Gonna Fuck You Up " , released in late 2003 , was largely ignored by daytime radio in Ireland , with Mick Pyro commenting in an early Hot Press interview : " We were never going to be the type of band that Larry Gogan or Ian Dempsey would play anyway , regardless of the lyric " . The band 's debut album , This is the Tomb of the Juice , was partially recorded in the ten days studio time they had won in the aforementioned competition . This is the Tomb of the Juice was recorded in 2003 then released in 2004 . 2004 was also the year in which Republic of Loose débuted at Oxegen ( on the New Band Stage ) , a festival at which they have since regularly performed . Singles " Comeback Girl " and " You Know It " were released in July and October 2005 respectively , both achieving significant airplay on Irish radio and entering the top thirty of the Irish Singles Chart . By 2006 the band had toured Ireland , the United Kingdom , where they performed at festivals such as Glastonbury and T in the Park , and France , where they performed at Furia Sound Festival , Nice Jazz Festival and Les Transmusicales . They also performed alongside veteran rock band Lir at Vicar Street in January 2006 .
= = = Aaagh ! = = =
At a cost of € 70 @,@ 000 to make , the band 's second album , Aaagh ! was released in 2006 . Sunday Tribune journalist Una Mullally called it " one of the most original and progressive Irish albums ever made " . Aaagh ! reached number two in the Irish Albums Chart , going platinum in the process , received regular airplay on Irish radio and produced five singles , including " The Idiots " , a song about Mick Pyro 's former girlfriend which also features her on vocals . " Break " , a top ten single in Ireland and top forty single in South Africa , was temporarily banned by South African radio station 5fm when a female DJ declared on air that it promoted anal sex without contraception , a comment which led to several complaints from listeners . The band 's 2006 summer tour included a performance where fans danced outside despite " the lashing rain " at Oxegen 2006 , with the Irish Independent 's Larissa Nolan saying " their scheduling on the main stage was a testament to just how big their army of fans is " , and Castlepalooza . In 2007 , Republic of Loose performed at several festivals in Ireland and the United Kingdom , including Reading and Leeds Festivals , Cois Fharraige and a headline slot at Indie @-@ pendence . Aaagh ! was released in the United Kingdom on 15 October 2007 . In January 2008 , Republic of Loose were one of the acts who recorded " The Ballad of Ronnie Drew " at Dublin 's Windmill Lane Studios ; the sessions led to a meeting with Sinéad O 'Connor , with whom the band recorded and released a duet which was then performed live at the 2008 Meteor Awards the following month .
= = = Vol IV : Johnny Pyro and the Dance of Evil = = =
On 27 March 2008 , Republic of Loose announced the tracklist and title for their third album . Vol IV : Johnny Pyro and the Dance of Evil was released in May 2008 , featuring contributions from Sinéad O 'Connor , rapper Styles P and hip hoppers Millionaire Boyz . In the run @-@ up to the release , the band uploaded free downloadable songs to their MySpace profile , including b @-@ sides , live tracks and songs from Aaagh ! . Vol IV : Johnny Pyro and the Dance of Evil spent more than three months in the top thirty of the Irish Albums Chart , spawning the successful singles , " I Like Music " and " The Steady Song " , the latter their highest chart performer to date , having peaked at number twelve and stayed in the charts for thirteen weeks . Mick Pyro has described Vol IV : Johnny Pyro and the Dance of Evil as the first album the band feel proud of .
In support of the album 's release , the band embarked on a small national tour and received an invitation to perform a sell @-@ out month @-@ long residency at The Dublin Academy for four consecutive Fridays , thus ending their habit of playing Dublin only once per year . This involved two @-@ hour sets featuring new material and duets with Sinéad O 'Connor — on her song " Nothing Compares 2 U " — and Damien Dempsey — on the Thin Lizzy song " Dancing in the Moonlight " . The Academy residency led to a Meteor Award nomination for Best Irish Live Performance the following year and they would return for another performance at the same venue that September . A couple were engaged as part of a BBC television series prior to the Sunday evening appearance of Republic of Loose on the O2 Stage at Oxegen 2008 — a performance which also featured collaborator Styles P — whilst the band also performed for several journalists backstage . They performed a DJ set at Castlepalooza before headlining Solas Festival on 17 August 2008 . Republic of Loose featured on Today FM 's The Ray D 'Arcy Show 's charity album Even Better Than the Disco Thing released in December 2008 , finishing off the year with three shows in Cork .
Republic of Loose were one of several acts to perform cover versions at a show in The Academy titled " Inspirations " , held in honour of the actor Paul Newman 's Irish charity in February 2009 . In June 2009 , the band were part of a collaboration of musicians calling themselves The Troublemakers who recorded a cover version of the Horslips song " Trouble with a Capital T " for charity . The recording session was part of The Raw Sessions and the song was performed by The Troublemakers on The Late Late Show . The band performed on the Heineken Green Spheres Stage at Oxegen 2009 before supporting U2 during one of their U2 360 ° Tour concert dates at Croke Park in July 2009 . Republic of Loose participated in the international celebration of the 250th birthday of Guinness — known as Arthur 's Day — which took place on 24 September 2009 .
= = = Bounce at the Devil = = =
In July 2010 , Republic of Loose returned to Oxegen . Their fourth album , Bounce at the Devil , was released later that year and led to an appearance on The Late Late Show . The album , recorded in Baltimore , " blends a myriad of influences -- from plastic soul to the sort of ' big hair ' rock of the 80s " , according to Irish Independent reviewer John Meagher . Entertainment.ie 's Jenny Mulligan describes it as good craic but occasionally bordering on obnoxious .
= = Influences , praise and style = =
Republic of Loose 's genre has been defined by various sources as blues , funk , metal , R 'n'B , pop , rock and soul . They are influenced by acts such as Bobby Brown , James Brown , Al Green , Howlin ' Wolf , Michael Jackson , Prince and The Rolling Stones . They perform as a six @-@ piece band complete with backing singers . The chant , " Loose ! Loose Loose ! " , is commonly heard from the crowd during their performances .
Republic of Loose have earned the admiration of several musicians . Damien Dempsey called them the " best band in Ireland " after performing alongside them . Sinéad O 'Connor , in an e @-@ mail to the Irish Independent , asked to become a member of what she described as " simply the best Irish band ever " . Bono has described them as " sophisticated soul bootboys " , " trailblazers " and proclaimed that " the Celtic Twilight turned into Celtic soul with Van Morrison , then Republic of Loose grabbed the Celtic Tiger by the tail , swung it around their heads and threw it out the window into the cosmos " . Snow Patrol 's Gary Lightbody , who called them " the best band in the country this year [ 2007 ] and for many years to come " . Snow Patrol have also remixed " Comeback Girl " . Praise has come from other musicians too , including Jake Shears of Scissor Sisters . Marcus Russell , manager of Oasis , is reported as having called Republic of Loose the " most exciting new band " since Oasis . Novelist Irvine Welsh has referred to " Comeback Girl " as " one of the greatest songs ever recorded " . Actress Mischa Barton is also a fan .
Paul Lester , writing in British newspaper The Guardian in July 2007 , described Republic of Loose as an " Irish OutKast " to be filed next to Danny Wilson , Hall & Oates and N.E.R.D and least likely to be compared to The Pogues . John Meagher , writing in the Irish Independent in April 2008 , said the band were " out of step entirely with prevailing trends [ ... ] almost like they stopped listening to music after hearing the young Prince and early Dexys Midnight Runners " . Vocalist Mick Pyro has commented that there are very few musicians performing " authentic modern soul " and that the band 's aim is to " combine the energy of the New York Dolls with the funk and soul qualities of The Roots " . When writing a piece on The Script in August 2008 , Brian Boyd of The Irish Times claimed that they were " as un @-@ Irish sounding as The Republic of Loose [ sic ] " . Internationally , they have established fan bases in London and New York and have achieved regular airplay on Los Angeles radio in the United States , as well as France , Indonesia and the Philippines . Bunim / Murray Productions has licensed their music for use on American television . They have , however , refused several indie contracts in the United States .
= = Members = =
= = = Current members = = =
Mick Pyro — Lead vocalist
Dave Pyro — Guitar , vocalist
Andre Lopes — Drums , percussion
= = = Additional members = = =
Esosa Ighodaro — Backing vocalist
Darragh - Keyboards
Darach O 'Laoire - Guitar
= = = Previous members = = =
Benjamin Loose — Bass guitar , vocalist
Coz Noleon — Drums , percussion , Backing Vocals
Mark Dennehy ( Bass )
Brez - Guitar , Vocalist
Deco — Keyboards
Eve Ill Jones — Backing vocalist
Gargos — Percussion
Emily Rose — Backing vocalist
Orla La — Backing vocalist
Kieran J. Sims — Live Bass ( 2008 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
From " This Is The Tomb of the Juice "
Girl I 'm Gonna Fuck You Up
Hold Up
Tell More Lies
From " Aaagh ! "
Comeback Girl ( IRE # 19 )
You Know It ( IRE # 22 )
Shame ( IRE # 20 )
Break / The Translation ( IRE # 29 )
The Idiots
From " Vol IV : Johnny Pyro and the Dance of Evil "
I Like Music ( IRE # 41 )
The Steady Song ( IRE # 12 )
The Ritual
Awful Cold
From " Bounce At the Devil "
The Man
99 ( feat . Bo Starks )
The Blah Bounce
Non @-@ album singles
They Pay For Love ( 2012 )
Thinking of You ( 2013 ) IRE # 16
The Punishment ( 2013 )
= = Awards = =
= = = Choice Music Prize = = =
Republic of Loose 's second album Aaagh ! was nominated for the Choice Music Prize , an award won by The Divine Comedy for the album Victory for the Comic Muse . The band performed at the award ceremony in Vicar Street on 28 February 2007 . Surprise was expressed within the industry when they were not nominated again for the 2009 award .
= = = Meteor Music Awards = = =
Republic of Loose won the Hope for 2004 award at the 2004 Meteor Awards . They were nominated in the Best Irish Band category at 2007 Meteor Awards .
Republic of Loose were nominated in the Best Irish Band and Best Irish Live Performance categories at the 2009 Meteor Awards . They lost to The Script and The Blizzards in those respective categories .
In addition to this , they have performed at both the 2006 and 2008 awards ceremonies , the latter of which involved a duet with Sinéad O 'Connor on the Curtis Mayfield song " We People Who Are Darker Than Blue " .
= Frankenstein , MD =
Frankenstein , MD is a 2014 American Gothic horror comedy webseries with transmedia elements . Produced in partnership between Pemberley Digital and PBS Digital Studios , the show is a modern adaptation of Frankenstein by Mary Shelley , replacing the eponymous character with Victoria Frankenstein , a medical student near graduation . The show , which represents PBS Digital 's first foray into scripted content , was created by Bernie Su , Brett Register , and Lon Harris and premiered on YouTube on August 19 , 2014 . It has been generally well received by critics . Its season finale debuted on October 31 , 2014 .
= = Synopsis = =
Frankenstein , MD is presented as an educational webseries presented by medical students ( and later doctors ) Victoria Frankenstein and Iggy DeLacey from the fictional Engle State University . Each episode generally consists of Frankenstein experimenting with cutting @-@ edge medical technologies or theories , often using DeLacey or her childhood friends Eli Lavenza and Rory Clerval as subjects . Dr. Abraham Waldman serves as an adviser to Frankenstein , usually acting as a foil and reminding her of the impracticality or perceived impossibility of her experiments and theories .
Partway through the series , the show 's unseen camera operator and editor , Robert Walton , dies from a fall while adventuring in Alaska , where his body is left partially preserved in the snow . Frankenstein becomes distraught and attempts to revive Walton 's corpse with DeLacey 's help in secret using the medical technologies she had expounded upon earlier in the show . The attempt is successful , but the revived creature is startled by light and escapes the lab , running into the woods . Later , as Frankenstein and Lavenza are trying to locate the creature from her father 's basement , Clerval is killed mysteriously while camping . The creature confronts Frankenstein and asks her to make him a friend . She grows morally opposed to the idea of recreating her experiment and agrees to run off to Costa Rica with Lavenza after he confesses his love to her . The creature returns to her makeshift lab and kills Lavenza in anger after he tries to stop it from hurting Frankenstein .
= = Production = =
Frankenstein , MD was announced in May 2014 , in a partnership between PBS Digital Studios , the online arm of the American Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) , and Pemberley Digital whose previous webseries included The Lizzie Bennet Diaries ( an adaptation of Jane Austen 's Pride and Prejudice ) and Emma Approved ( based on Austen 's Emma ) . The show is a transmedia adaptation of Frankenstein ; or , The Modern Prometheus by Mary Shelley that reimagines the story 's male protagonist Victor Frankenstein as a female student of medicine named Victoria Frankenstein . The show is PBS Digital 's first scripted program , though it also includes educational elements .
According to its writers , Frankenstein , MD 's narrative fills a two @-@ year gap left by Shelley 's source text between Victor Frankenstein 's time at medical school and his reappearance as a mad scientist . The original Frankenstein is driven to insanity by his ostracization and Frankenstein , MD attempted to recontextualize this concept by gender @-@ swapping its lead . Victoria Frankenstein is a medical student and later doctor grappling with institutional sexism in what the creators called the " sort of a male @-@ dominated profession " of medicine .
The show is produced by Bernie Su who was previously responsible for Pemberley Digital 's other webseries . Filmed at YouTube 's Space LA production studio , it premiered on the site on August 19 , 2014 . Prior to the show 's premiere , accounts on social media for various characters in the show were created , allowing viewers to interact with Frankenstein 's protagonists . Joe Hanson , host of PBS Digital 's It 's Okay To Be Smart , acts as the show 's science consultant . In early episodes of the show , Frankenstein neglected to wear gloves during her experiments which Su claimed was because , " real science and real @-@ life procedures aren 't sexy for entertainment " . During its run , fans noticed this and called the show out for the error ; in later episodes she is depicted with gloves on for all of her scientific work . The first season of the show concluded after 24 five- to eight @-@ minute episodes on October 31 , 2014 .
Episodes of Frankenstein , MD are directed by Brett Register , executive produced by Su , and produced by Tracy Bitterolf with consulting producer by Frederick Kim . Register and Lon Harris serve as showrunners with the latter also working as head writer . Other writers include Kim , Danielle Evenson , and Taylor Brogan . The series 's cinematographer is Matt Ryan .
= = Cast and characters = =
Victoria Frankenstein ( Anna Lore ) – Analogous to Victor Frankenstein , she is a medical student described by The New York Observer as " smart , strong willed and filled with both an insatiable desire to learn about science and an unwavering belief in the field itself . " According to Register , Frankenstein 's character was not fully understood by the creators of the show until after Lore was cast on July 23 , 2014 . She helped them view the role as " this very confident but almost introverted character " .
Ludwig " Iggy " DeLacey ( Steve Zaragoza ) – Analogous to Igor , he is Frankenstein 's fellow student and co @-@ host of her show . Zaragoza mailed an audition tape to the show 's producers before in @-@ person auditions began which " set the bar for the character of Iggy " according to Register .
Dr. Abraham Waldman ( Kevin Rock ) – Analogous to M. Waldman , he serves as a mentor to Frankenstein .
Eli Lavenza ( Brendan Bradley ) – Analogous to Elizabeth Lavenza , he is one of Frankenstein 's close friends .
Rory Clerval ( Sara Fletcher ) – Analogous to Henry Clerval , she is another of Frankenstein 's close friends .
Robert Walton / The Creature ( Evan Strand ) – A combination of both Robert Walton and Frankenstein 's monster from the novel , Walton is the camera operator for Frankenstein 's vlog . He dies and is reanimated by her experiments . Lon Harris , a producer and writer of the series , chose Strand to perform The Creature because Strand 's performance was very different from Boris Karloff 's , and Tracy Bitterolf , a producer , praised Strand 's control of his body . Strand described his performance as being inspired by a five year old child , a silverback gorilla , and a rhinoceros .
= = Episodes = =
= = Reception = =
Reviewing the first three episodes of the show for The A.V. Club , Myles McNutt felt that the fact that the show was a coproduction of PBS and Pemberley Digital was " the most exciting part " but that it was also the element " that takes the most time to negotiate in the series ’ first three episodes , as the writers and the audience alike adjust to the distinct goals of the science fiction vlog webseries . " McNutt declared the first three episodes " a solid start " and rated them B + , B , and A- , respectively . Nicole Vranjican wrote in The New York Observer that the show " has a definite juvenile feel and is likely best suited for scientifically curious Jr . High students " and that its message " that being smart is cool ... sets a standard for television that more TV shows should get behind " . After viewing the first six episodes , Atiya Abbas noted in Vox Magazine that " [ t ] he series is light @-@ hearted compared to the dark subject of the novel " . On Hypable , Marama Whyte called the show " highly comedic " and noted its high production value and Anna Lore 's " standout performance " as positive aspects .
= Surtr =
In Norse mythology , Surtr ( Old Norse " black " or " the swarthy one " ) is a jötunn . Surtr is attested in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . In both sources , Surtr is foretold as being a major figure during the events of Ragnarök ; carrying his bright sword , he will go to battle against the Æsir , he will do battle with the major god Freyr , and afterward the flames that he brings forth will engulf the Earth .
In a book from the Prose Edda additional information is given about Surtr , including that he is stationed guarding the frontier of the fiery realm Múspell , that he will lead " Múspell 's sons " to Ragnarök , and that he will defeat Freyr . Surtr has been the subject of place names and artistic depictions , and scholarly theories have been proposed about elements of Surtr 's descriptions and his potential origins .
= = Attestations = =
= = = Poetic Edda = = =
Surtr is mentioned twice in the poem Völuspá , where a völva divulges information to the god Odin . The völva says that , during Ragnarök , Surtr will come from the south with flames , carrying a very bright sword :
Following this , the völva says that " stone peaks clash " , " troll wives take to the road " , " warriors tread the path from Hel " , and the heavens " break apart " . The next stanza relates that Odin is to be killed by the wolf Fenrir , and that Surtr will go to battle against " Beli 's bane " , a kenning for the god Freyr , who slew the giant Beli . No further detail is given about the fight between Surtr and Freyr in the poem . In the stanzas that follow , a number of gods and their opponents are described as doing battle at Ragnarök , and that the world will be consumed in flames , yet afterward a new world rises from the sea , fertile and teeming with life , and the surviving gods will meet again .
In the poem Vafþrúðnismál , the wise jötunn Vafþrúðnir poses the question to Odin ( disguised as " Gagnráðr " ) " what the plain is called where in battle Surt and the sweet gods will meet " . Odin responds that the " ordained field " is Vígríðr , and that it stretches " a hundred leagues " in every direction . Later in the poem , Odin , still disguised and now questioning Vafþrúðnir , asks which of the Æsir will " rule over the possessions of the gods when Surt 's fire is slaked " . Vafþrúðnir responds that , " when Surt 's fire is slaked " the god Thor 's sons Móði and Magni shall possess Thor 's hammer Mjöllnir .
In the poem Fáfnismál , the hero Sigurd asks the mortally wounded dragon Fáfnir the name of the island where Surtr and the Æsir " will mingle sword @-@ liquid together " . Fáfnir says that the island is called Óskópnir , that all of the gods shall go there bearing spears , and that on their way there the bridge Bifröst will break beneath them , causing their horses to " flounder in the great river " . The late Eddic poem Fjölsvinnsmál , stanza 24 , contains the line " Surtur sinn mautu " or " surtur sinn mantu " according to the best manuscripts . The last two words , which are otherwise without meaning , are sometimes emended to " Sinmöru " and the entire phrase is taken to mean that Surtr has a female companion named Sinmara . Based on the same passage , Lee Hollander tentatively identifies Sinmara as Surt 's wife , stating that she is " unknown elsewhere . "
= = = Prose Edda = = =
In chapter 4 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , the enthroned figure of Third tells Gangleri ( described as King Gylfi in disguise ) about the location of Múspell . Third says that the bright and flaming region of Múspell existed prior to Niflheim , and it is impassable to those not native to the region . To defend Múspell , Surtr is stationed at its frontier . Third adds that Surtr has a flaming sword , and that " at the end of the world he will go and wage war and defeat all the gods and burn the whole world with fire " . The stanza from Völuspá that foretells Surtr moving from the south is then quoted . In chapter 18 , Gangleri asks what will protect the fair hall Gimlé " when Surtr 's fire burns heaven and earth " .
In chapter 51 of Gylfaginning , High describes the events of Ragnarök . High says that " amid this turmoil the sky will open and from it will ride the sons of Muspell . Surtr will ride in front , and both before and behind him there will be burning fire . His sword will be very fine . Light will shine from it more brightly than from the sun . " High continues that when the sons of Múspell ride over the bridge Bifröst it will break , and that they will continue to the field of Vígríðr . The wolf Fenrir and the Midgard Serpent will also arrive there . By then , Loki will have arrived with " all of Hel 's people " , Hrym , and all of the frost jötnar ; " but Muspell 's sons will have their own battle array ; it will be very bright " . Further into the chapter , High describes that a fierce battle will erupt between these forces and the Æsir , and that during this , Surtr and Freyr will engage in battle " and there will be a harsh conflict before Freyr falls " . High adds that the cause of Freyr 's death will be that Freyr is lacking " the good sword " that he once gave his servant Skírnir .
As foretold by High further into chapter 51 Gylfaginning , Once Heimdallr and Loki fight ( and mutually kill one another ) , Surtr " will fling fire over the earth burn the whole world " . High quotes ten stanzas from Völuspá in support , and then proceeds to describe the rebirth and new fertility of the reborn world , and the survivors of Ragnarök , including various gods and the two humans named Líf and Lífthrasir that will have hid from " Surtr 's fire " in the wood Hoddmímis holt .
In the Epilogue section of the book Skáldskaparmál , a euhemerized monologue states that " what they called Surt 's fire was when Troy burned " . In chapter 2 , a work by the skald Eyvindr skáldaspillir is quoted that mentions " Surt 's deep vales " , using the name Surtr as a common noun for a jötunn , with " deep vales " referring to the depths of the mountains ( specifically Hnitbjorg ) . In chapter 75 , Surtr is included within a list of " very powerful " jötnar .
= = Theories = =
Scholar Rudolf Simek theorizes that " the concept of Surtr is undoubtedly old " , citing examples of Surtr being mentioned in works by the 10th century skalds Eyvindr skáldaspillir and Hallfreðr vandræðaskáld , in poems collected in the Poetic Edda , and that the name of the volcanic caves Surtshellir in western Iceland was already recorded in the Landnámabók manuscript . Simek notes that jötnar are usually described as living to the east in Old Norse sources , yet Surtr is described as being from the south , and that this " surely has to do with his association with fire and heat " . Simek says that " in Iceland Surtr was obviously thought of as being a mighty giant who ruled the powers of ( volcanic ) fire of the Underworld " , and Simek theorizes that the notion of Surtr as an enemy of the gods likely did not originate in Iceland . Simek compares Surtr to the jötnar Eldr , Eimnir , Logi , and Brandingi , noting that they all appear to be personifications of fire .
Scholar Bertha Phillpotts theorizes that the figure of Surtr was inspired by Icelandic eruptions , and that he was a volcano demon . Scholar Andy Orchard theorizes that the description of Surtr found in Gylfaginning " appears to owe something to biblical and patristic notions of the angel with a flaming sword who expelled Adam and Eve from paradise and who stands guard over the Garden of Eden . " Scholar John Lindow states that the name Surtr may imply Surtr 's charred appearance .
= = Place names and modern influence = =
Surtshellir , a group of volcanic tunnels in western Iceland recorded in the Landnámabók manuscript , is named after Surtr . In modern Iceland , the notion of Surtr as a giant of fire lives on ; Surtsey ( " Surtr 's island " ) , a volcanic island that appeared in 1963 in Vestmannaeyjar , Iceland , is named after Surtr . The description found in Gylfaginning of Surtr guarding the frontier of Múspell is depicted in John Charles Dollman 's painting The Giant with the Flaming Sword . Surtur , a natural satellite of the planet Saturn , and Surt , a volcano on the planet Jupiter 's moon Io , are both named after Surtr . Surtur , a character from the American comic series Thor , is based on Surtr ( 1963 ) . In David Lindsay 's A Voyage to Arcturus , the character Surtur is based on Surtr . In the video game series Golden Sun there is a sword called Levatine , based on Surtr 's sword .
= The X @-@ Files ( season 1 ) =
The first season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files commenced airing on the Fox network in the United States on September 10 , 1993 , and concluded on the same channel on May 13 , 1994 , after airing all 24 episodes .
The first season introduced main characters of the series , including Fox Mulder and Dana Scully who were portrayed by David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson respectively , and recurring characters Deep Throat , Walter Skinner and Cigarette Smoking Man . The season introduced the series ' main concept , revolving around the investigation of paranormal or supernatural cases , known as X @-@ Files , by the Federal Bureau of Investigation ; it also began to lay the groundwork for the series ' overarching mythology .
Initially influenced by Kolchak : The Night Stalker and The Twilight Zone , series creator Chris Carter pitched the idea for the series to Fox twice before it was accepted for production . The season saw the series quickly gaining popularity , with ratings rising steadily throughout its run ; and garnered generally positive reviews from critics and the media . It helped to make stars of its two lead roles , and several of its taglines and catchphrases have since become cultural staples .
= = Concept and themes = =
Although Carter initially conceived of the series based on the influence of Kolchak and The Twilight Zone , he has stated that the " leaping @-@ off point " for the series ' overall concept came from UFO lore . After being introduced to the works of John E. Mack — especially a study by Mack which had reported that three percent of Americans claimed to have been abducted by aliens — Carter believed he had found his central theme . It was decided that the series would focus on the FBI in order to avoid something Carter had seen as a failing in Kolchak , whereby mysterious events would continually occur in one locale and be accidentally uncovered by the same character — by creating a fictional FBI unit which actively uncovered these paranormal cases , it was felt that the series would be " sustainable week after week without stretching the parameters of credibility " . Early in the planning stages , Carter had envisioned that a significant proportion of the episodes would deal with investigations which uncovered hoaxes or cases which had been mistakenly viewed as paranormal . Although this decision never came to pass , the third season episode " Jose Chung 's From Outer Space " can be seen as a holdover from the idea .
The series revolves around its two main characters , which had been defined early in conception as the " believer " and the " skeptic " . Of these , the " believer " , Fox Mulder , was created with a character @-@ defining personal motivation , involving the disappearance of his younger sister during his childhood , which he would believe to be a result of alien abduction . The creation of the " skeptic " , Dana Scully , was influenced by Jodie Foster 's portrayal of Clarice Starling in The Silence of the Lambs , leading the crew to decide that the character needed to seem " real " , as opposed to the " bombshell " type of character the studio was pressing for .
Thematically , although the series focused heavily on alien abduction lore , the decision was made early on to allow the plots of individual episodes to branch out into different territories in order to prevent the overarching plot from running out of momentum , which led to standalone episodes such as " Squeeze " being developed . The variety of storylines which the series has shown has led director Daniel Sackheim to note that " The X @-@ Files has sort of found its own style in that it doesn 't have a confined style to it " , adding that the series ' " fluid " approach has meant that " everybody who comes on the show attempt to make a little scary movie " . To this end , several episodes feature varying plots , with alien @-@ influenced storylines varying between " Ice " , a " briskly @-@ paced " episode set in a single location , and the character @-@ driven " Conduit " , which served to fill in background on the characters . Elsewhere , plots focused on soul transference or reincarnation , with the episodes " Shadows " , " Born Again " and " Lazarus " sharing similar storylines . The " tired " plot of " Ghost in the Machine " featured a malevolent artificial intelligence ; while " Shapes " introduced the first of what would become several Native American @-@ themed episodes .
The first season also introduced a number of minor characters who would go on to become central figures to the series — The Lone Gunmen , first seen in " E.B.E. " , would become regular characters beginning the second season , eventually starring in the spin @-@ off series The Lone Gunmen ; whilst the episode " Tooms " introduced Walter Skinner , portrayed by Mitch Pileggi , who would go on to be billed as a series star by the ninth season . The abduction of Mulder 's sister Samantha was explored in the episodes " Pilot " , " Conduit " and " Miracle Man " , and would go on to become one of the central themes of the series as a whole .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
California native Chris Carter was given the opportunity to produce new shows for the Fox network in the early 1990s . Tired of the comedies he had been working on for Walt Disney Pictures , inspired by a report that 3 @.@ 7 million Americans may have been abducted by aliens , and recalling memories of Watergate and the 1970s horror series Kolchak : The Night Stalker , Carter came up with the idea for The X @-@ Files and wrote the pilot episode himself in 1992 . He initially struggled over the untested concept — executives wanted a love interest for Scully — and casting . The network wanted either a more established or a " taller , leggier , blonder and breastier " actress for Scully than the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Gillian Anderson , a theater veteran with minor film experience , who Carter felt was the only choice after auditions .
Carter 's initial pitch for The X @-@ Files was rejected by Fox executives . He fleshed out the concept and returned a few weeks later , leading to the commission of the pilot . Carter worked with NYPD Blue producer Daniel Sackheim in further developing the pilot , drawing stylistic inspiration from the 1988 documentary The Thin Blue Line , and the English television series Prime Suspect . Inspiration was also taken from Carter 's memories of watching Kolchak : The Night Stalker and The Twilight Zone in his youth ; as well as from the then @-@ recently released film The Silence of the Lambs , which was the impetus for framing the series around agents from the FBI , in order to provide the characters with a more plausible reason for being involved in each case than Carter believed was present in Kolchak . Carter was also keen on keeping the relationship between the two lead roles strictly platonic , basing their interactions on the characters of Emma Peel ( Diana Rigg ) and John Steed ( Patrick Macnee ) in the series The Avengers .
During the early stages of production for the series , Carter founded Ten Thirteen Productions , and began to plan for filming the pilot in Los Angeles . However , unable to find suitable locations for many of the scenes , Ten Thirteen Productions made the decision to " go where the good forests are " , and moved production to Vancouver , where the series would remain for the next five seasons ; production would eventually shift to Los Angeles beginning with the sixth season . It was soon realized by the production crew that since so much of the first season would require filming on location , rather than on sound stages , two location managers would be needed , rather than the usual one .
= = = Casting = = =
David Duchovny had worked in Los Angeles three years prior to The X @-@ Files , and at first had wanted to base his acting career around films . But in 1993 his manager , Melanie Green , gave him a script for the pilot episode of series . Green and Duchovny were both convinced it was a good script , so Duchovny auditioned for the lead . When Duchovny was auditioning for the part of Fox Mulder , he made a " terrific " audition , but spoke rather slowly . Chris Carter thought at the beginning of the auditioning for the character , he was a " good judge of character " , and thought that Duchovny wasn 't rather " bright " . So he went and talked to Duchovny and asked him if he could " please " imagine himself as an FBI agent for the " future " week . The casting director of the show was very positive towards him . According to Carter , Duchovny turned out to be one of the best @-@ read people he knew . Carter recalls being contractually obliged to provide Fox with a choice of two actors for the role ; however , he was confident Duchovny was the right choice from the outset . After getting the role , Duchovny thought the show wouldn 't last for long or that it wouldn 't make much impact .
Gillian Anderson was cast due to insistence from Carter that she would fit the role perfectly ; however , Fox executives had wanted a more glamorous " bombshell " for the part , hoping that this would lead to the series involving a romantic element . This led Carter to insist that he did not want the roles of Mulder and Scully to become romantically involved , citing the relationship between the lead roles in Moonlighting as an example to avoid . Anderson called her early work on the show " a complete learning experience for me – the pilot was only the second time I 'd been in front of a camera " .
The series also introduced the character of Walter Skinner , played by Mitch Pileggi , who would go on to become a recurring , and later , main character in the show . The character had been conceived as playing against the stereotypical bureaucratic " paper @-@ pusher " , being instead someone more " quietly dynamic " . Pileggi had auditioned unsuccessfully for several other parts on the series before being cast as Skinner . At first , the fact that he was asked back to audition for the role had puzzled him , until he discovered the reason he had not cast for the previous parts — Chris Carter had been unable to imagine Pileggi as any of those characters , due to the fact that the actor had been shaving his head . When Pileggi attended the audition for Walter Skinner , he had been in a grumpy mood and had allowed his small amount of hair to grow back . Pileggi 's attitude fit well with the character of Skinner , causing Carter to assume that the actor was only pretending to be grumpy . After successfully auditioning for the role , Pileggi thought he had been lucky that he had not been cast in one of the earlier roles , as he believed he would have appeared in only a single episode and would have missed the opportunity to play the recurring role of Walter Skinner .
Glen Morgan and James Wong 's early influence on The X @-@ Files mythology led to their introduction of popular secondary characters who would continue for years in episodes written by others , such as the Scully family — Dana 's father William ( Don S. Davis ) , mother Margaret ( Sheila Larken ) and sister Melissa ( Melinda McGraw ) — as well as conspiracy @-@ buff trio The Lone Gunmen .
= = = Writing = = =
Initially , there was no certainty as to how long the series would go on for , and as a result there was no long @-@ term plan in the beginning to guide its writers . Although the initial impetus for the show was based on alien abduction lore , the crew believed that the series would not be able to maintain its momentum for long if it did not branch out into different plot ideas . The show 's first season thus featured numerous standalone stories involving monsters , and also diverse alien or governmental cover @-@ ups , often with no apparent connection to each other — such as the Arctic space worms in " Ice " , and the conspiracy of genetically engineered twins in " Eve . " Carter himself wrote " Space " , an intended bottle episode about the manifestation of an alien " ghost " in the NASA space shuttle program , which was subject to cost overruns and became the most expensive of the first season .
By the end of the first season , Carter and his staff had come up with many of the general concepts of the mythology that would last throughout all nine seasons . The first season introduced the series ' primary antagonist , Cigarette Smoking Man , and gave early insight into the disappearance of Mulder 's sister Samantha , whose abduction provided one of the main plot threads of the series as a whole . The emergent mythology was further solidified in the Carter @-@ penned , Edgar Award @-@ nominated season finale " The Erlenmeyer Flask " . The episode was written in early 1994 before it was known whether or not the series would be renewed for a second season , and featured the closure of the X @-@ Files unit and the reassignment of Fox Mul
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published as dark blue hardcovers with the titles stamped in orange lettering with dark blue outlines and no other images on the cover . They went through several changes in early years : leaving the orange lettering with no outline and adding an orange silhouette of Nancy peering through a magnifying glass ; then changing to a lighter blue board with dark blue lettering and silhouette ; then changing the position of the title and silhouette on the front with black lettering and a more " modern " silhouette . Nancy Drew is depicted as an independent @-@ minded 16 @-@ year @-@ old who has already completed her high school education ( 16 was the minimum age for graduation at the time ) ; the series also occurs over time , as she is 18 by the early 1940s . Apparently affluent ( her father is a successful lawyer ) , she maintains an active social , volunteer , and sleuthing schedule , as well as participating in athletics and the arts , but is never shown as working for a living or acquiring job skills . Nancy is affected neither by the Great Depression — although many of the characters in her early cases need assistance as they are poverty @-@ stricken — nor by World War II . Nancy lives with her lawyer father , Carson Drew , and their housekeeper , Mrs. Hannah Gruen . Some critics prefer the Nancy of these volumes , largely written by Mildred Benson . Benson is credited with " [ breathing ] ... a feisty spirit into Nancy 's character . " The original Nancy Drew is sometimes claimed " to be a lot like [ Benson ] herself – confident , competent , and totally independent , quite unlike the cardboard character that [ Edward ] Stratemeyer had outlined . "
This original Nancy is frequently outspoken and authoritative , so much so that Edward Stratemeyer told Benson that the character was " much too flip , and would never be well received . " The editors at Grosset & Dunlap disagreed , but Benson also faced criticism from her next Stratemeyer Syndicate editor , Harriet Adams , who felt that Benson should make Nancy 's character more " sympathetic , kind @-@ hearted and lovable . " Adams repeatedly asked Benson to , in Benson 's words , " make the sleuth less bold ... ' Nancy said ' became ' Nancy said sweetly , ' ' she said kindly , ' and the like , all designed to produce a less abrasive more caring type of character . " Many readers and commentators , however , admire this original Nancy 's outspoken character .
A prominent critic of the Nancy Drew character , at least the Nancy of these early Nancy Drew stories , is mystery writer Bobbie Ann Mason . Mason contends that Nancy owes her popularity largely to " the appeal of her high @-@ class advantages . " Mason also criticizes the series for its racism and classism , arguing that Nancy is the upper @-@ class WASP defender of a " fading aristocracy , threatened by the restless lower classes . " Mason further contends that the " most appealing elements of these daredevil girl sleuth adventure books are ( secretly ) of this kind : tea and fancy cakes , romantic settings , food eaten in quaint places ( never a Ho @-@ Jo 's ) , delicious pauses that refresh , old @-@ fashioned picnics in the woods , precious jewels and heirlooms .... The word dainty is a subversive affirmation of a feminized universe . "
At bottom , says Mason , the character of Nancy Drew is that of a girl who is able to be " perfect " because she is " free , white , and sixteen " and whose " stories seem to satisfy two standards – adventure and domesticity . But adventure is the superstructure , domesticity the bedrock . "
Others argue that " Nancy , despite her traditionally feminine attributes , such as good looks , a variety of clothes for all social occasions , and an awareness of good housekeeping , is often praised for her seemingly masculine traits ... she operates best independently , has the freedom and money to do as she pleases , and outside of a telephone call or two home , seems to live for solving mysteries rather than participating in family life . "
= = = 1959 – 1979 = = =
At the insistence of publishers Grosset & Dunlap , the Nancy Drew books were revised beginning in 1959 , both to make the books more modern and to eliminate racist stereotypes . Although Harriet Adams felt that these changes were unnecessary , she oversaw a complete overhaul of the series , as well as writing new volumes in keeping with the new guidelines laid down by Grosset & Dunlap . The series did not so much eliminate racial stereotypes , however , as eliminate non @-@ white characters altogether . For example , in the original version of The Hidden Window Mystery ( 1956 ) , Nancy visits friends in the south whose African @-@ American servant , " lovable old Beulah ... serves squabs , sweet potatoes , corn pudding , piping hot biscuits , and strawberry shortcake . " The mistress of the house waits until Beulah has left the room and then says to Nancy , " I try to make things easier for Beulah but she insists on cooking and serving everything the old @-@ fashioned way . I must confess , though , that I love it . " In the revised 1975 version , Beulah is changed to Anna , a " plump , smiling housekeeper " .
Many other changes were relatively minor . The new books were bound in yellow with color illustrations on the front covers . Nancy 's age was raised from 16 to 18 , her mother was said to have died when Nancy was three , rather than ten , and other small changes were made . Housekeeper Hannah Gruen , sent off to the kitchen in early stories , became less of a servant and more of a mother surrogate .
Critics saw this Nancy of the 1950s , 1960s , and 1970s as an improvement in some ways , a step back in others : " In these new editions , an array of elements had been modified ... and most of the more overt elements of racism had been excised . In an often overlooked alteration , however , the tomboyishness of the text 's title character was also tamed . "
Nancy becomes much more respectful of male authority figures in the 1950s , 1960s , and 1970s , leading some to claim that the revised Nancy simply becomes too agreeable , and less distinctive , writing of her , " In the revised books , Nancy is relentlessly upbeat , puts up with her father 's increasingly protective tendencies , and , when asked if she goes to church in the 1969 The Clue of the Tapping Heels , replies , ' As often as I can ' ... Nancy learns to hold her tongue ; she doesn 't sass the dumb cops like she used to . "
= = = 1980 – 2003 = = =
After Harriet Adams died in 1982 , her protégé , Nancy Axelrad , oversaw production of the Nancy Drew books briefly before the Stratemeyer Syndicate was sold to Simon & Schuster . Simon & Schuster turned to book packager Mega @-@ Books for new writers . The books and Nancy 's character began to change as a result , although there is disagreement on the nature of this change . Some contend that Nancy 's character becomes " more like Mildred Wirt Benson 's original heroine than any [ version ] since 1956 . " Others criticize the series for its increasing incorporation of romance and " [ dilution ] of pre @-@ feminist moxie . " For example , volume 78 in the series Update on Crime ( 1992 ) opens with Nancy wondering in italics , " Am I or am I not in love with Ned Nickerson ? " Nancy begins dating other young men and acknowledges sexual desires : " ' I saw [ you kissing him ] ... You don 't have to apologize to me if some guy turns you on . ' ' Gianni doesn 't turn me on ! ... Won 't you please let me explain . ' "
In 1986 , the character of Nancy Drew was used in a new series , The Nancy Drew Files , which lasted until 1997 . The Nancy of the Files series is also interested in romance and boys , a fact which led to much criticism of the series : " Millie [ Mildred Wirt Benson ] purists tend to look askance upon the Files series , in which fleeting pecks bestowed on Nancy by her longtime steady , Ned Nickerson , give way to lingering embraces in a Jacuzzi . " Cover art for Files titles , such as Hit and Run Holiday ( 1986 ) , reflects these changes ; Nancy is often dressed provocatively , in short skirts , shirts that reveal her stomach or breasts , or a bathing suit . She is often pictured with an attentive , handsome male in the background , and frequently appears aware of and interested in that male . Nancy also becomes more vulnerable , being often chloroformed into unconsciousness , or defenseless against chokeholds . The books place more emphasis on violence and character relationships .
Nancy Drew finally goes to college in the Nancy Drew on Campus series , which ran from 1995 to 1998 . Again , the books focus on romance plots , and , by reader request , Nancy broke off her long @-@ term relationship with boyfriend Ned Nickerson in the second volume of the series , On Her Own ( 1995 ) .
In 1997 , Simon & Schuster announced a mass cancellation of Nancy Drew and Hardy Boys spin @-@ offs except ones for younger children .
= = = 2003 – 2012 = = =
In 2003 , publishers Simon & Schuster decided to end the original Nancy Drew series and feature Nancy 's character in a new mystery series , Girl Detective . The Nancy Drew of the Girl Detective series drives a hybrid car , uses a mobile phone , and recounts her mysteries in the first person . Many applaud these changes , arguing that Nancy has not really changed at all other than learning to use a cell phone . Others praise the series as more realistic ; Nancy , these commentators argue , is now a less @-@ perfect and therefore more likable being , one whom girls can more easily relate to – a better role model than the old Nancy because she can actually be emulated , rather than a " prissy automaton of perfection . "
Some , mostly fans , vociferously lament the changes , seeing Nancy as a silly , air @-@ headed girl whose trivial adventures ( discovering who squished the zucchini in Without a Trace ( 2003 ) ) " hold a shallow mirror to a pre @-@ teen 's world . " Leona Fisher argues that the new series portrays an increasingly white River Heights , partially because " the clumsy first @-@ person narrative voice makes it nearly impossible to interlace external authorial attitudes into the discourse " , while it continues and worsens " the implicitly xenophobic cultural representations of racial , ethnic , and linguistic others " by introducing gratuitous speculations on characters ' national and ethnic origins .
The character is also the heroine of a series of graphic novels , begun in 2005 and produced by Papercutz . The graphic novels are written by Stefan Petrucha and illustrated in manga @-@ style artwork by Sho Murase . The character 's graphic novel incarnation has been described as " a fun , sassy , modern @-@ day teen who is still hot on the heels of criminals . "
The 2007 film was also tied into the books . A novelization of the movie was written to look like the older books . Two books were also written for the Girl Detective and Clue Crew series that deal with a mystery on a movie set . In 2008 , the Girl Detective series was re @-@ branded into trilogies and to have a model on the cover . The mysteries became deeper , with Nancy often making mistakes . These trilogies were also met with negative fan reception due to Nancy 's constant mistakes , shortness of the books , and lack of action . With the new trilogy format , sales began slipping . Simon & Schuster then cut back from six to four books per year . In December 2011 , they finally announced that the series was cancelled along with the Hardy Boys Undercover Brothers series .
= = = 2013 – present = = =
With the sudden cancellation of the Girl Detective series , Simon & Schuster needed to find new Nancy Drew and Hardy Boys series . The Diaries series was brought to be the next series . Though Nancy 's age is not given , she has a boyfriend in college and drives with a nonrestrictive license .
= = Evolution of character 's appearance = =
Nancy Drew has been illustrated by many artists over the years , and her look constantly updated . Both the Stratemeyer Syndicate and the books ' publishers have exercised control over the way Nancy is depicted .
Jennifer Stowe contends that Nancy 's portrayal devolves significantly over the years :
The 1930s Nancy Drew is characterized as bold , capable and independent . She actively seeks out clues , and is shown in the center of the compositions . In subsequent characterizations Nancy Drew becomes progressively weaker , less in control . By the 1990s there is a complete reversal in the representation of her character . She is often shown being chased or threatened , the confidence of 1930s being replaced by fear .
Some aspects of Nancy 's portrayal have remained relatively constant through the decades . Arguably her most characteristic physical depiction is that she is shown holding a flashlight .
= = = Russell H. Tandy = = =
Commercial artist Russell H. Tandy was the first artist to illustrate Nancy Drew . Tandy was a fashion artist and infused Nancy with a contemporary fashion sensibility : her early style is that of a flatfoot flapper : heeled Mary Janes accompany her blue flapper skirt suit and cloche hat on three of the first four volume dust jackets . As styles changed over the next few years , Nancy began to appear in glamorous frocks , with immaculately set hair , pearls , matching hats , gloves , and handbags . By the 1940s , Nancy wore simpler , tailored suits and outfits ; her hair was often arranged in a pompadour . In the post @-@ war era , Tandy 's Nancy is shown hatless , wearing casual skirt and blouse ensembles , and carrying a purse , like most teens of the late 1940s .
Tandy drew the inside sketches for the first 26 volumes of the series as well as painting the covers of the first 26 volumes with the exception of volume 11 – the cover artist for volume 11 is unknown . Tandy read each text before he began sketching , so his early covers were closely connected to specific scenes in the plots . He also hand @-@ painted the cover lettering and designed the original Nancy Drew logo : a silhouette of Nancy bending slightly and looking at the ground through a quizzing glass .
Tandy often portrays Nancy Drew with confident , assertive body language . She never appears " shocked , trepidatious , or scared " . Nancy is shown either boldly in the center of the action or actively , but secretively , investigating a clue . She is often observed by a menacing figure and appears to be in imminent danger , but her confident expression suggests to viewers that she is in control of the situation .
Tandy 's home was struck by fire in 1962 , and most of his original paintings and sketches were destroyed . As a result , the Tandy dust @-@ jackets are considered very valuable by collectors .
= = = Bill Gillies and others = = =
Beginning with Tandy in 1948 and continuing into the early 1950s , Nancy 's appearance was updated to follow the current styles . In postwar opulence , a trend emerged for young adults to have their own casual style , instead of dressing in the same styles as more mature adults , and Nancy becomes less constrained . Sweater or blouse and skirt ensembles , as well as a pageboy hairstyle , were introduced in 1948 , and continued with new artist Bill Gillies , who updated 10 covers and illustrated three new jackets from 1950 to 1952 . Gillies used his wife for a model , and Nancy reflects the conservative 1950s , with immaculately waved hair and a limited wardrobe – she wears similar sweater , blouse , and skirt ensembles , in different combinations , on most of these covers . Gillies also designed the modern @-@ era trademark as a spine symbol which was used for decades : Nancy 's head in profile , looking through a quizzing glass .
In the later Tandy period ( 1946 – 1949 ) and continuing throughout the 1950s , Nancy is depicted less frequently in the center of the action . " The Ghost of Blackwood Hall " shows an assertive Nancy leading more timid friends up the front steps of the haunted house , and marks a transition to later illustrations . From 1949 forward , she is likely to be observing others , often hiding or concealing herself . Her mouth is often open in surprise , and she hides her body from view . However , although Nancy " expresses surprise , she is not afraid . She appears to be a bit taken aback by what she sees , but she looks as if she is still in control of the situation . " Many of these covers feature Nancy poised in the observation of a clue , spying on criminal activity , or displaying her discoveries to others involved in the mystery . Only occasionally is she shown in action , such as running from the scene of a fire , riding a horse , or actively sleuthing with a flashlight . At times she is only involved in action as her hiding place has been discovered by others . In most cases , more active scenes are used for the frontispiece , or in books after 1954 , illustrations throughout the text drawn by uncredited illustrators .
= = = Rudy Nappi and others = = =
Joseph Rudolf " Rudy " Nappi , the artist from 1953 to 1979 , illustrated a more average teenager . Nappi was asked by Grosset & Dunlap 's art director to update Nancy 's appearance , especially her wardrobe . Nappi gave Nancy Peter Pan collars , shirtwaist dresses , a pageboy ( later a flip ) haircut , and the occasional pair of jeans . Nancy 's hair color was changed from blonde to strawberry @-@ blonde , reddish @-@ blonde , or titian by the end of the decade . The change was long rumored to have been the result of a printing ink error , but was considered so favorable that it was adopted in the text for books published after 1959 , and by illustrator Polly Bolian for volumes she created for a special book club in 1959 – 60 .
In 1962 , all Grosset & Dunlap books become " picture covers " , books with artwork and advertising printed directly on their covers , as opposed to books with a dust jacket over a tweed volume . The change was to reduce production costs . Several of the 1930s and 1940s cover illustrations were updated by Nappi for this change , depicting a Nancy of the Kennedy era , though the stories themselves were not updated . Internal illustrations , which were dropped in 1937 , were returned to the books beginning in 1954 , as pen and ink line drawings , mostly by uncredited artists , but usually corresponding with Nappi 's style of drawing Nancy on the covers . Nappi followed trends initiated by Gillies and often illustrated Nancy wearing the same clothing more than once , including a mustard shirtwaist dress .
Unlike Tandy , Nappi did not read the books before illustrating them ; instead , his wife read them and provided him with a brief plot summary before Nappi began painting . Nappi 's first cover was for The Clue of the Velvet Mask , where he began a trend of portraying Nancy as " bobby @-@ soxer ... a contemporary sixteen @-@ year @-@ old . This Nancy was perky , clean @-@ cut , and extremely animated . In the majority of his covers Nancy looks startled – which , no doubt , she was . " Nancy 's style is considerably conservative , and remains so during the psychedelic period . Although she wears bold colors and prints , or the background colors are shades of electric yellow , shocking pink , turquoise , or apple green , her clothing is high @-@ necked and with long hemlines . Earlier Nappi covers show Nancy in poses similar to those in the covers by Tandy and Gillies ; for many updated covers he simply updated the color scheme , clothing style , and hairstyles of the characters but retains their original poses in similar settings . Later Nappi covers show only Nancy 's head or part of her body , surrounded by spooky or startling elements or clues from the story . These Nappi covers would later be used for the opening credits of the television production , with photos of Pamela Sue Martin inserted on the book covers .
Often , " Nancy 's face wears the blank expression of one lost in thought , " making her appear passive . On the cover of The Strange Message in the Parchment ( 1977 ) , for example , in contrast to earlier covers , Nancy " is not shown in the midst of danger or even watching a mystery unfold from a distance . Instead , Nancy is shown thinking about the clues " ; in general , Nancy becomes less confident and more puzzled .
= = = Nancy in the 1980s , 1990s , and 2000s = = =
Ruth Sanderson and Paul Frame provided cover art and interior illustrations for the first Nancy Drew paperbacks , published under the Wanderer imprint . Other artists , including Aleta Jenks and others whose names are unknown , provided cover art , but no interior illustrations , for later paperbacks . Nancy is portrayed as " a wealthy , privileged sleuth who looks pretty and alert .... The colors , and Nancy 's facial features , are often so vivid that some of the covers look more like glossy photographs than paintings . "
Nancy is frequently portrayed pursuing a suspect , examining a clue , or observing action . She is often also shown in peril : being chased , falling off a boat , or hanging by a rope from rafters . These covers are " characterized by frenetic energy on Nancy 's part ; whether she is falling , limbs flailing , an alarmed look on her face , or whether she is running , hair flying , body bent , face breathless . Nancy does not have any control over the events that are happening in these covers . She is shown to be a victim , being hunted and attacked by unseen foes . "
Nancy is also sometimes pursued by a visibly threatening foe , as on the cover of The Case of the Vanishing Veil ( 1988 ) .
The covers of the The Nancy Drew Files and Girl Detective series represent further departures from the bold , confident character portrayed by Tandy . The Nancy portrayed on the covers of The Nancy Drew Files is " a markedly sexy Nancy , with a handsome young man always lurking in the background . Her clothes often reveal an ample bustline and her expression is mischievous . " In the Girl Detective series , Nancy 's face is depicted on each cover in fragments . Her eyes , for example , are confined to a strip across the top of the cover while her mouth is located near the spine in a box independent of her eyes . The artwork for Nancy 's eyes and mouth is taken from Rudy Nappi 's cover art for the revised version of The Secret of the Old Clock .
= = Books = =
The longest @-@ running series of books to feature Nancy Drew is the original Nancy Drew series , whose 175 volumes were published from 1930 to 2003 . Nancy also appeared in 124 titles in The Nancy Drew Files and is currently the heroine of the Diaries series . Various other series feature the character , such as the Nancy Drew Notebooks and Nancy Drew on Campus . While Nancy Drew is the central character in each series , continuity is preserved only within one series , not between them all ; for example , in concurrently published titles in the Nancy Drew series and the Nancy Drew on Campus series , Nancy is respectively dating her boyfriend Ned Nickerson or broken up with Ned Nickerson .
= = = International publications = = =
The main Nancy Drew series , The Nancy Drew Files , and Girl Detective books have been translated into a number of languages besides English . Estimates vary from between 14 and 25 languages , but 25 seems the most accurate number . Nancy Drew books have been published in many European countries ( especially in Nordic countries and France ) as well as in Latin America and Asia . The character of Nancy Drew seems to be more popular in some countries than others . Nancy Drew books have been in print in Norway since 1941 ( the first country outside USA ) , in Denmark since 1958 , in France since 1955 and in Italy since 1970 by Arnoldo Mondadori Editore . Other countries , such as Estonia , have only recently begun printing Nancy Drew books .
Nancy 's name is often changed in translated editions : in France , she is known as Alice Roy ; in Sweden , as Kitty Drew ; in Finland , as Paula Drew ; and in Norway the book series has the name of Frøken Detektiv ( Miss Detective ) , though the heroine 's name is still Nancy Drew inside the books . In Germany , Nancy is a German law student named Susanne Langen . George Fayne 's name is even more frequently changed , to Georgia , Joyce , Kitty , or Marion . Cover art and series order is often changed as well , and in many countries only a limited number of Drew books are available in translation .
= = Film and television = =
Five feature films , two television shows , and four television pilots featuring Nancy Drew have been produced to date . No television show featuring Nancy Drew has lasted longer than two years , and film portrayals of the character have met with mixed reviews .
= = = Films = = =
Former child actress Bonita Granville portrayed Nancy Drew in four Warner Bros. films directed by William Clemens in the late 1930s : Nancy Drew ... Detective ( loosely based on The Password to Larkspur Lane ) ( December 1938 ) , Nancy Drew ... Reporter ( March 1939 ) , Nancy Drew … Trouble Shooter ( September 1939 ) , and Nancy Drew and the Hidden Staircase ( November 1939 ) . A fifth movie may have been planned or even produced , but it was never released ; actor Frankie Thomas believes that he and Granville made five films , not four , and in August 1939 Harriet Adams wrote to Mildred Benson , " three have been shown in this area , and I have just heard that a fifth is in production . " The films were in part based on the Torchy Blane film series with Glenda Farrell and Barton MacLane , also made by Warner Bros. Nancy & Torchy have very similar hair styles , almost always wear a hat , were told to stay off the case ( but were stubborn and continued to sleuth ) , were assisted by their boyfriends , and even had the same writers .
Nancy Drew and the Hidden Staircase was the only film to borrow its title from a book in the series , although the plot was altered substantially . One critic wrote that " the only similarity between the book and the film was the word staircase . " Nancy 's boyfriend Ned Nickerson became Ted Nickerson , as Ned was considered too old @-@ fashioned , and housekeeper Hannah Gruen was replaced by Effie Schneider , a minor character who had appeared in only a few books as the Drews ' part @-@ time maid ; in the films , Effie 's traits are combined with Hannah 's . Nancy 's friends George and Bess were eliminated completely , " mystery elements were downplayed , plots simplified , and the romance spiced up . " To promote the film , Warner Bros. created a Nancy Drew fan club that included a set of rules , such as : " Must have steady boy friend , in the sense of a ' pal ' " and must " Take part in choosing own clothes . " These rules were based on some research Warner Bros. had done on the habits and attitudes of " typical " teenage girls .
Critical reaction to these films is mixed . Some find that the movies did not " depict the true Nancy Drew " , in part because Granville 's Nancy " blatantly used her feminine wiles ( and enticing bribes ) " to accomplish her goals . The films also portray Nancy as childish and easily flustered , a significant change from her portrayal in the books . Nevertheless , Mildred Benson , the author of most Nancy Drew books at the time , liked the films .
A film adaptation of Nancy Drew was released on June 15 , 2007 by Warner Bros. Pictures , with Emma Roberts as Nancy Drew , Max Thieriot as Ned Nickerson and Tate Donovan as Carson Drew . As with the earlier Drew films , reactions were mixed . Some see the film as updated version of the basic character : " although it has been glammed up for the lucrative tween demographic , the movie retains the best parts of the books , including , of course , their intelligent main character . " Others find the movie " jolting " because Nancy 's " new classmates prefer shopping to sleuthing , and Nancy 's plaid skirt and magnifying glass make her something of a dork , not the town hero she was in the Midwest . "
= = = Television = = =
In 1957 , Desilu and CBS developed a show , Nancy Drew , Detective , based on the movies from the 1930s . Roberta Shore was in the title role as Nancy Drew , with Tim Considine as Ned Nickerson , and Frankie Thomas , Jr. as Carson Drew . Although a pilot was produced in April 1957 , the series could not find a sponsor , and , with the disappointment and later disapproval of Harriet Adams , the idea of a series was abandoned .
A television series called The Hardy Boys / Nancy Drew Mysteries ran from 1977 to 1979 on American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . It initially starred 24 @-@ year @-@ old Pamela Sue Martin as Nancy . For the first season , episodes featuring Nancy alternated with episodes featuring the Hardy Boys . The stories were new stories based on the original stories , with Nancy solving mysteries with her friends George and Ned . Beginning in the second season , the format of the series changed to focus more on the Hardy Boys , with Nancy Drew primarily appearing as a guest star in several crossover story lines ; Martin left the series midway through the second season and was replaced by 19 @-@ year @-@ old Janet Louise Johnson for the final few episodes . The series continued for a third season as The Hardy Boys Mysteries , dropping Nancy Drew completely , but the series was cancelled mid @-@ way through the season .
In October 1989 , Canadian production company Nelvana began filming for a 13 @-@ episode Nancy Drew television series called Nancy Drew and Daughter for USA Network . Margot Kidder was cast as an adult Nancy Drew and her daughter as Nancy 's daughter . Kidder was injured during filming of the first episode when the brakes failed on the car she was driving , and production was canceled the next month .
Nelvana began production of another Nancy Drew television show in 1995 . Tracy Ryan starred as Nancy Drew , with Jhene Erwin as Bess Marvin , Joy Tanner as George Fayne , and , in a recurring role , Scott Speedman as Ned Nickerson . The show was cancelled midway through its first season due to low ratings , possibly due to its being in syndication . The entire series has since been released on DVD .
On December 15 , 2002 , ABC aired Nancy Drew , with Maggie Lawson in the title role , as part of The Wonderful World of Disney series . The movie was intended to be a pilot for a possible weekly series . Additional scripts were ordered , but a series was not forthcoming .
On October 5 , 2015 , CBS announced that it would be developing a new series titled Drew . In January 2016 , they announced that the pilot would feature Nancy as a non @-@ Caucasian New York City police detective in her thirties . The pilot episode will revolve around Nancy investigating the death of Bess Marvin , who had died six months prior . As of March 2016 , Sarah Shahi is cast as Nancy , Anthony Edwards is set to play Carson Drew , Felix Solis as Lieutenant Ford , Vanessa Ferlito as George Fayne , Steve Kazee as Ned Nickerson , and Debra Monk as Hannah Gruen . The pilot was written by Joan Rater and Tony Phelan and was directed by James Strong . The pilot was shot in New York City . On May 14 , 2016 , it was announced that CBS passed on the Drew pilot , so CBS Studios is shopping it to other networks for series consideration . However , it was not picked up by any of the other networks .
= = Video games = =
Computer games publisher Her Interactive began publishing Nancy Drew computer games in 1998 . Some titles are taken from published Nancy Drew books , such as The Secret of the Old Clock ; others are not . The games are targeted at teens " ages 10 and up " and are rated " E " ( " Everyone " ) by the ESRB . They follow the popular adventure game style of play . Players must move Nancy around in a virtual environment to talk to suspects , pick up clues , solve puzzles , and eventually solve the crime .
Lani Minella has voiced the Nancy character since the first game in 1998 up to the most recent game , Sea of Darkness , the 32nd game . The 33rd game , Midnight in Salem , which will be coming out in 2016 , will be voiced by a new actress . Minella , who has voiced Nancy for 17 years , will be stepping down from the role . Her Interactive said that the community has been nothing but supportive of Minella , and that their overall goal is to keep creating noteworthy games .
In addition to the games created by Her Interactive , a game for the Nintendo DS was released in September 2007 by Majesco Entertainment . In the game , developed by Gorilla Systems Co and called Nancy Drew : Deadly Secret of Olde World Park , players help Nancy solve the mystery of a missing billionaire . Majesco has also released two other Nancy Drew games for the DS , entitled Nancy Drew : The Mystery of the Clue Bender Society ( released July 2008 ) and Nancy Drew : The Hidden Staircase , based on the second book in the original Nancy Drew Mystery Stories series ( released September 2008 ) . Nancy Drew : The Hidden Staircase and Nancy Drew : The Model Mysteries , both by THQ , are also available on the Nintendo DS system .
Some games , like Secrets Can Kill , Shadow at the Water 's Edge , and The Captive Curse , are rated " E10 + " . The games have received recognition for promoting female interest in video games . Her Interactive has also released several versions of their Nancy Drew games in French , as part of a series called Les Enquêtes de Nancy Drew , and shorter games as part of a new series called the Nancy Drew Dossier . The first title , Lights , Camera , Curses , was released in 2008 and the second , Resorting to Danger , was released in 2009 . While most of the games are computer games , with most available only on PC and some newer titles also available on Mac , Her Interactive also have released some of the titles on other platforms , like DVD and Nintendo Wii system .
On May 13 , 2016 , Her Interactive introduced and released Nancy Drew : Codes & Clues , which was designed to help children develop skills in computer programming .
= = Merchandising = =
A number of Nancy Drew products have been licensed over the years , primarily in the 1950s , 1960s , and 1970s . Parker Brothers produced a " Nancy Drew Mystery Game " in 1957 with the approval of the Stratemeyer Syndicate . In 1967 Madame Alexander produced a Nancy Drew doll . The doll carried binoculars and camera and was available in two outfits : with a plaid coat or a dress and short jacket . Harriet Adams disapproved of the doll 's design , believing Nancy 's face to be too childish , but the doll was marketed nonetheless . Various Nancy Drew coloring , activity , and puzzle books have also been published , as has a Nancy Drew puzzle . A Nancy Drew Halloween costume and a Nancy Drew lunchbox were produced in the 1970s as television show tie @-@ ins .
= = Cultural impact = =
According to commentators , the cultural impact of Nancy Drew has been enormous . The immediate success of the series led directly to the creation of numerous other girls ' mysteries series , such as The Dana Girls mystery stories and the Kay Tracey mystery stories , and the phenomenal sales of the character Edward Stratemeyer feared was " too flip " encouraged publishers to market many other girls ' mystery series , such as the Judy Bolton Series , and to request authors of series such as the Cherry Ames Nurse Stories to incorporate mystery elements into their works .
Many prominent and successful women cite Nancy Drew as an early formative influence whose character encouraged them to take on unconventional roles , including Supreme Court Justices Sandra Day O 'Connor , Ruth Bader Ginsburg , and Sonia Sotomayor ; TV personalities Oprah Winfrey and Barbara Walters ; singers Barbra Streisand and Beverly Sills ; mystery authors Sara Paretsky and Nancy Pickard ; scholar Carolyn Heilbrun ; actresses Ellen Barkin and Emma Roberts ; former Secretary of State Hillary Rodham Clinton ; former First Lady Laura Bush ; and former president of the National Organization for Women Karen DeCrow . Less prominent women also credit the character of Nancy Drew with helping them to become stronger women ; when the first Nancy Drew conference was held , at the University of Iowa , in 1993 , conference organizers received a flood of calls from women who " all had stories to tell about how instrumental Nancy had been in their lives , and about how she had inspired , comforted , entertained them through their childhoods , and , for a surprising number of women , well into adulthood . "
Nancy Drew 's popularity continues unabated : in 2002 , the first Nancy Drew book published , The Secret of the Old Clock , alone sold 150 @,@ 000 copies , good enough for top @-@ 50 ranking in children 's books , and other books in the series sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies each . Sales of the hardcover volumes of the original Nancy Drew series alone has surpassed sales of Agatha Christie titles , and newer titles in the Girl Detective series have reached The New York Times bestseller lists . Entertainment Weekly ranked her seventeenth on its list of " The Top 20 Heroes " ahead of Batman , explaining that Drew is the " first female hero embraced by most little girls ... [ Nancy lives ] in an endless summer of never @-@ ending adventures and unlimited potential . " The magazine goes on to cite Scooby @-@ Doo 's Velma Dinkley as well as Veronica Mars as Nancy Drew 's " copycat descendants " .
Many feminist critics have pondered the reason for the character 's iconic status . Nancy 's car , and her skill in driving and repairing it , are often cited . Melanie Rehak points to Nancy 's famous blue roadster ( now a blue hybrid ) as a symbol of " ultimate freedom and independence . " Not only does Nancy have the freedom to go where she pleases ( a freedom other , similar characters such as The Dana Girls do not have ) , but she is also able to change a tire and fix a flawed distributor , prompting Paretsky to argue that in " a nation where car mechanics still mock or brush off complaints by women Nancy remains a significant role model . "
Nancy is also treated with respect : her decisions are rarely questioned and she is trusted by those around her . Male authority figures believe her statements , and neither her father nor Hannah Gruen , the motherly housekeeper , " place ... restrictions on her comings and goings . " Nancy 's father not only imposes no restrictions on his daughter , but trusts her both with her own car and his gun ( in the original version of The Hidden Staircase [ 1930 ] ) , asks her advice on a frequent basis , and accedes to all her requests . Some critics , such as Betsy Caprio and Ilana Nash , argue that Nancy 's relationship with her continually approving father is satisfying to girl readers because it allows them to vicariously experience a fulfilled Electra complex .
Unlike other girl detectives , Nancy does not go to school ( for reasons that are never explained , but assuming because she has finished ) , and she thus has complete autonomy . Similar characters , such as Kay Tracey , do go to school , and not only lose a degree of independence but also of authority . The fact of a character 's being a school @-@ girl reminds " the reader , however fleetingly , of the prosaic realities of high @-@ school existence , which rarely includes high adventures or an authoritative voice in the world of adults . "
Some see in Nancy 's adventures a mythic quality . Nancy often explores secret passages , prompting Nancy Pickard to argue that Nancy Drew is a figure equivalent to the ancient Sumerian deity Inanna and that Nancy 's " journeys into the ' underground ' " are , in psychological terms , explorations of the unconscious . Nancy is a heroic figure , undertaking her adventures not for the sake of adventure alone , but in order to help others , particularly the disadvantaged . For this reason , Nancy Drew has been called the modern embodiment of the character of " Good Deeds " in Everyman .
In the end , many critics agree that at least part of Nancy Drew 's popularity depends on the way in which the books and the character combine sometimes contradictory values , with Kathleen Chamberlain writing in The Secrets of Nancy Drew : " For over 60 years , the Nancy Drew series has told readers that they can have the benefits of both dependence and independence without the drawbacks , that they can help the disadvantaged and remain successful capitalists , that they can be both elitist and democratic , that they can be both child and adult , and that they can be both ' liberated ' women and Daddy 's little girls . " As another critic puts it , " Nancy Drew ' solved ' the contradiction of competing discourses about American womanhood by entertaining them all . "
In 2010 , Nancy Drew ( and her novels ) were discussed in the Young Adult themed issue of the academic journal Studies in the Novel . See Jennifer M. Woolston 's essay entitled " Nancy Drew 's Body : The Case of the Autonomous Female Sleuth " for a detailed discussion of the heroine 's impact on popular culture . The essay also discusses links to Nancy Drew and feminist theory .
= Chase XCG @-@ 20 =
The Chase XCG @-@ 20 , also known as the XG @-@ 20 and by the company designation MS @-@ 8 Avitruc , was a large assault glider developed immediately after World War II by the Chase Aircraft Company for the United States Air Force , and was the largest glider ever built in the United States . The XG @-@ 20 did not see production due to a change in USAF requirements , however , it was modified into the successful Fairchild C @-@ 123 Provider twin @-@ engined transport aircraft which saw extensive service in the Vietnam War .
= = Design and development = =
Following the end of World War II , the United States Army Air Forces , which became the United States Air Force ( USAF ) in 1947 , developed a requirement for a new , large assault glider type to replace smaller types that were then in service , all existing gliders having been declared obsolete . The new gliders were to be constructed entirely of metal , and were also required to be easily adaptable to a powered configuration . As part of a five @-@ year development program , a contract was awarded to the Chase Aircraft Company of Trenton , New Jersey , in August 1946 for the construction of two types of gliders . These included a smaller model being designated XCG @-@ 18A , and the larger , definitive model being designated XCG @-@ 20 .
The XCG @-@ 20 , redesignated XG @-@ 20 in 1948 with the establishment of the USAF , was the largest glider ever constructed in the United
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cinema " .
Following the release of Dr. No , the quote " Bond ... James Bond " , became a catch phrase that entered the lexicon of Western popular culture : writers Cork and Scivally said of the introduction in Dr. No that the " signature introduction would become the most famous and loved film line ever " . In 2001 it was voted as the " best @-@ loved one @-@ liner in cinema " by British cinema goers . In 2005 , it was honoured as the 22nd greatest quotation in cinema history by the American Film Institute as part of their 100 Years Series .
= = Soundtrack = =
Monty Norman was invited to write the soundtrack because Broccoli liked his work on the 1961 theatre production Belle , a musical about murderer Hawley Harvey Crippen . Norman was busy with musicals , and only accepted to do the music for Dr. No after Saltzman allowed him to travel along with the crew to Jamaica . The most famous composition in the soundtrack is the " James Bond Theme " , which is heard in the gunbarrel sequence and in a calypso medley over the title credits , and was written by Norman based on a previous composition of his . John Barry , who would later go on to compose the music for eleven Bond films , arranged the Bond theme , but was uncredited — except for the credit of his orchestra playing the final piece . It has occasionally been suggested that Barry , not Norman , composed the " James Bond Theme " . This argument has been the subject of two court cases , the most recent in 2001 , which found in favour of Norman . The theme , as written by Norman and arranged by Barry , was described by another Bond film composer , David Arnold , as " bebop @-@ swing vibe coupled with that vicious , dark , distorted electric guitar , definitely an instrument of rock ' n ' roll ... it represented everything about the character you would want : It was cocky , swaggering , confident , dark , dangerous , suggestive , sexy , unstoppable . And he did it in two minutes . "
The music for the opening scene is a calypso version of the nursery rhyme " Three Blind Mice , " with new lyrics to reflect the intentions of the three assassins hired by Dr. No . Other notable songs in the film are the song " Jump Up , " played in the background , and the traditional Jamaican calypso " Under the Mango Tree , " famously sung by Diana Coupland ( then Norman 's wife ) , the singing voice of Honey Ryder , as she walked out of the ocean on Crab Key . Byron Lee & the Dragonaires appeared in the film and performed some of the music on the later soundtrack album . Lee and other Jamaican musicians who appear in the soundtrack , including Ernest Ranglin and Carlos Malcolm , were introduced to Norman by Chris Blackwell , the owner of then @-@ small label Island Records who worked in the film as a location scout . The original soundtrack album was released by United Artists Records in 1963 as well as several cover versions of " The James Bond Theme " on Columbia Records . A single of the " James Bond Theme " entered the UK Singles Chart in 1962 , reaching a peak position of number thirteen during an eleven @-@ week spell in the charts . Ranglin , who had acted as arranger on several tracks , and Malcolm sued Eon for unpaid fees , both settling out of court ; Malcolm and his band performed a year later at the film 's premiere in Kingston .
= = Themes = =
Dr. No introduced the many recurring themes and features associated with the suave and sophisticated secret agent : the distinctive " James Bond Theme " , the gun barrel sequence , his initial mission briefing with M , " Bond girls " , the criminal organisation SPECTRE , narrow escapes , Bond 's luck and skill , his signature Walther PPK and the licence to kill , over @-@ ambitious villains , henchmen and allies . Many characteristics of the following Bond films were introduced in Dr. No , ranging from Bond 's introduction as " Bond , James Bond " ( although he seems to be mimicking Sylvia Trench who introduces herself first as " Trench . Sylvia Trench " ) , to his taste for vodka martinis " shaken , not stirred " , love interests , and weaponry .
Dr. No also establishes the oft @-@ repeated association ( in this case , Project Mercury ) between the Bond series and the US manned space programme — which would be repeated with Project Gemini in You Only Live Twice , Project Apollo in Diamonds Are Forever , and the space shuttle in Moonraker ( not to mention several outer space sequences involving fictional satellite programmes in GoldenEye , Tomorrow Never Dies , and Die Another Day ) .
= = Release and reception = =
= = = Promotion = = =
As soon as late 1961 , United Artists started a marketing campaign to make James Bond a well @-@ known name in North America . Newspapers received a box set of Bond 's books , as well as a booklet detailing the Bond character and a picture of Ursula Andress . Eon and United Artists made licensing deals revolving around the character 's tastes , having merchandising tie @-@ ins with drink , tobacco , men 's clothing and car companies . The campaign also focused on Ian Fleming 's name due to the minor success of the books . After Dr. No had a successful run in Europe , Sean Connery and Terence Young did a cross @-@ country tour in March 1963 , which featured screening previews for the film and press conferences . It culminated in a well @-@ publicised premiere in Kingston , where most of the film is set . Some of the campaign emphasised the sex appeal of the film , with the poster artwork , by Mitchell Hooks , depicting Sean Connery and four scantily clad women . The campaign also included the 007 logo designed by Joseph Caroff with a pistol as part of the seven .
Dr. No had its worldwide premiere at the London Pavilion , on 5 October 1962 , expanding to the rest of the United Kingdom three days later . The North American premiere on 8 May 1963 was more low @-@ profile , with 450 cinemas in Midwest and Southwest regions . On 29 May it opened in both Los Angeles and New York City – in the former as a double @-@ bill with The Young and the Brave and the latter in United Artists ' " Premiere Showcase " treatment , screening in 84 screens across the city to avoid the costly Broadway cinemas .
= = = Critical response = = =
Upon release , Dr. No received a mixed critical reception . Time called Bond a " blithering bounder " and " a great big hairy marshmallow " who " almost always manages to seem slightly silly " . Stanley Kauffmann in The New Republic said that he felt the film " never decides whether it is suspense or suspense @-@ spoof . " He also did not like Connery , or the Fleming novels . The Vatican condemned Dr. No because of Bond 's cruelty and the sexual content , whilst the Kremlin said that Bond was the personification of capitalist evil – both controversies helped increase public awareness of the film and greater cinema attendance . However Leonard Mosely in The Daily Express said that " Dr No is fun all the way , and even the sex is harmless " , whilst Penelope Gilliatt in The Observer said it was " full of submerged self @-@ parody " . The Guardian 's critic called Dr. No " crisp and well @-@ tailored " and " a neat and gripping thriller . "
In the years that followed its release it became more popular . Writing in 1986 , Danny Peary described Dr. No as a " cleverly conceived adaption of Ian Fleming 's enjoyable spy thriller ... Picture has sex , violence , wit , terrific action sequences , and colorful atmosphere ... Connery , Andress and Wiseman all give memorable performances . There 's a slow stretch in the middle and Dr. No could use a decent henchman , but otherwise the film works marvelously . " Describing Dr. No as " a different type of film " , Peary notes that " Looking back , one can understand why it caused so much excitement . "
The 2005 American Film Institute 's ' 100 Years ' series also recognised the character of James Bond himself in the film as the third greatest film hero . He was also placed at number eleven on a similar list by Empire . Premiere also listed Bond as the fifth greatest movie character of all time .
= = = Popular reaction = = =
In the United Kingdom , playing in 168 cinemas , Dr. No grossed $ 840 @,@ 000 in just two weeks and wound up being the fifth most popular movie of the year there . The box office results in mainland Europe were also positive . The film ended up grossing $ 6 million , making it a financial success compared to its $ 1 million budget . The original North American gross rental was $ 2 million , increasing to $ 6 million after its first reissue in 1965 , as a double feature with From Russia with Love . The following reissue was in 1966 paired with Goldfinger , to compensate the fact that the next Bond movie would only come out in the following year . The total gross of Dr. No ended up being $ 59 @.@ 6 million worldwide , IGN listed it as sixth @-@ best Bond film ever , Entertainment Weekly put it at seventh among Bond films , and Norman Wilner of MSN as twelfth best . Dr. No currently has a 96 % rating at Rotten Tomatoes . President John F. Kennedy was a fan of Ian Fleming 's novels and requested a private showing of Dr. No in the White House .
In 2003 , the scene of Andress emerging from the water in a bikini topped Channel 4 's list of one hundred sexiest scenes of film history . The bikini was sold in 2001 at an auction for $ 61 @,@ 500 . Entertainment Weekly and IGN ranked her first in a top ten " Bond babes " list .
= = Comic book adaptation = =
Around the time of Dr. No 's release in October 1962 , a comic book adaptation of the screenplay , written by Norman J. Nodel , was published in the United Kingdom as part of the Classics Illustrated anthology series . It was later reprinted in the United States by DC Comics as part of its Showcase anthology series , in January 1963 . This was the first American comic book appearance of James Bond and is noteworthy for being a relatively rare example of a British comic being reprinted in a fairly high @-@ profile American comic . It was also one of the earliest comics to be censored on racial grounds ( some skin tones and dialogue were changed for the American market ) .
= = Legacy = =
Dr. No was the first of 24 James Bond films produced by Eon , which have grossed just over $ 5 billion in box office returns alone , making the series one of the highest @-@ grossing ever . It is estimated that since Dr. No , a quarter of the world 's population have seen at least one Bond film . Dr. No also launched a successful genre of " secret agent " films that flourished in the 1960s . The UK Film Distributors ' Association have stated that the importance of Dr. No to the British film industry cannot be overstated , as it , and the subsequent Bond series of films , " form the backbone of the industry " .
Dr. No – and the Bond films in general – also inspired television output , with the NBC series The Man from U.N.C.L.E. , which was described as the " first network television imitation " of Bond . The style of the Bond films , largely derived from production designer Ken Adam , is one of the hallmarks of the Bond film series , and the effect of his work on Dr. No 's lair can be seen in another film he worked on , Dr. Strangelove .
As the first film in the series , a number of the elements of Dr. No were contributors to subsequent films , including Monty Norman 's Bond theme and Maurice Binder 's gun barrel sequence , variants of which all appeared in subsequent films . These conventions were also lampooned in spoof films , such as the Austin Powers series . The first spoof films happened relatively soon after Dr. No , with the 1964 film Carry On Spying showing the villain Dr. Crow being overcome by agents who included Charlie Bind ( Charles Hawtrey ) and Daphne Honeybutt ( Barbara Windsor ) .
A further legacy saw the sales of Fleming 's novels rise sharply after the release of Dr. No and the subsequent films . In the seven months after Dr. No was released , 1 @.@ 5 million copies of the novel were sold . Worldwide sales of all the Bond books rose throughout the sixties as Dr. No and the subsequent films – From Russia with Love and Goldfinger – were released : in 1961 500 @,@ 000 books had been sold , which rose to six million in 1964 and seven million in 1965 . Between the years 1962 to 1967 , a total of nearly 22 @.@ 8 million Bond novels were sold .
The film had an impact on ladies ' fashion , with the bikini worn by Ursula Andress proving to be a huge hit : " not only sent sales of two @-@ piece swimwear skyrocketing , it also made Andress an international celebrity " . Andress herself acknowledged that the " bikini made me into a success . As a result of starring in Dr. No as the first Bond girl I was given the freedom to take my pick of future roles and to become financially independent " . It has been claimed that the use of the swimwear in Dr. No led to " the biggest impact on the history of the bikini " .
= = = Global James Bond Day = = =
On 5 October 2012 , fifty years after the release of the film , Eon Productions celebrated " Global James Bond Day " , a series of events around the world . Events included a film festival of showings of the James Bond films , a documentary of the series , an online auction for charity and further events at the Museum of Modern Art and the Toronto International Film Festival . A concert of various music was held in Los Angeles in conjunction with the New York event . The day also saw the release of " Skyfall " , the theme song of the 2012 James Bond film of the same name ; the song was released at 0 : 07 BST .
= Reina Victoria Eugenia @-@ class battleship =
The Reina Victoria Eugenia class was a class of three battleships of the Spanish Navy authorized as the Plan de la Segunda Escuadra under the Navy Law of 1913 . The class , as well as the lead ship , were named for King Alfonso XIII 's English queen consort , Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg . The other two ships were classified as " B " and " C " . It was supposed to be designed by Vickers @-@ Armstrongs , and built by John Brown . The ships were never built due to Britain 's involvement in World War I , which halted all foreign projects being constructed in British yards .
= = Background = =
Following disastrous losses in the Spanish – American War of 1898 , Spain lacked the money to rebuild its navy , so it was not until the Navy Law of 7 January 1908 that a new program authorizing three new battleships , the España class ( España , Alfonso XIII , and Jaime I ) , along with other ships , was passed . The delay enabled Spain to take advantage of experience gained by Britain with the world 's first commissioned dreadnought , HMS Dreadnought , and by the United States with its first dreadnought , USS South Carolina . As Spain was incapable of building the España class herself due to a lack of resources , Armstrongs were contracted for the design and John Brown for the construction of the shipyard and ships themselves .
A second Navy Law was passed in 1912 named the Plan de la Segunda Escuadra ( Second Squadron Plan ) . It called for , among several other ships , three dreadnoughts to supplement the España class . These dreadnoughts were named the Reina Victoria Eugenia class . They were to be in laid down in 1914 and 1915 and completed around 1920 .
= = Design history = =
The class consisted of three ships , Reina Victoria Eugenia , the lead ship , and two others named B and C. The lead ship was named after King Alfonso 's English wife . They were designed by Vickers @-@ Armstrongs and were planned to displace 21 @,@ 000 long tons ( 21 @,@ 000 t ) with a speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . Early plans for the type called for an armament of four twin 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) guns ; however , financial difficulties resulted in the selection of an armament of four twin 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 340 mm ) guns instead , which still would have had a longer range than most contemporary ships . The secondary armament would have been 20 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) guns . Other specifications of the ships were never decided upon , although it is probable that they would have resembled contemporary British ships , with two closely spaced funnels along with super @-@ imposed turrets fore and aft .
As with the España @-@ class battleships , significant technical assistance from Britain would have been required . The outbreak of the First World War led to both the delay of the España class and the cancellation of the Reina Victoria Eugenia project . Since Spain did not sign the Washington Naval Treaty , whose signatories were forced to limit their ships to no more than 35 @,@ 000 tons , the class was available for future Spanish governments to construct , either as a main ship or as support to other planned designs , like a possible Littorio @-@ class battleship or a ship based on the Gneisenau . However , the class was never constructed .
= 20th Engineer Brigade ( United States ) =
The 20th Engineer Brigade is a combat engineer brigade assigned to the XVIII Airborne Corps of the United States Army stationed at Fort Bragg , North Carolina . Although the brigade was identified as an airborne unit , not all of its subordinate units were airborne qualified — despite the airborne tab as part of the unit patch . Soldiers of the 20th Engineer Brigade provide various supportive duties to other Army units , including construction , engineering , and mechanical work on other Army projects .
Though its predecessor units have lineage that dates back before the American Civil War , the formation was not formally designated as the 20th Engineer Brigade until its activation on 16 August 1950 , at Fort Leonard Wood , Missouri . Deploying overseas in November 1952 , it supported construction projects in southwestern France until its return to the US on 10 September 1954 . From then until its inactivation on 12 December 1958 , it provided support to XVIII Airborne Corps .
Reactivated on 1 May 1967 , at Fort Bragg , the brigade deployed to Vietnam where it supported American forces for several years and a dozen campaigns . The brigade was deactivated on 20 September 1971 , as American forces withdrew from the country .
Reactivated as an airborne brigade on 21 June 1974 at Fort Bragg , NC , the unit has since seen numerous overseas tours , including to Kuwait during the Gulf war , Kosovo , Afghanistan during Operation Enduring Freedom , and Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom and Operation New Dawn . It has also independently conducted various humanitarian missions in the United States and in other nations throughout the world .
= = Organization = =
The 20th Engineer Brigade currently consists of five engineer battalions headquartered throughout the eastern United States . The Brigade Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) as well as the 27th Engineer Battalion are headquartered at Fort Bragg , North Carolina while the 19th Engineer Battalion ( Construction Effects ) is located at Fort Knox , Kentucky . The 46th Engineer Battalion is located at Fort Polk , LA and the 92nd Engineer Battalion is located at Fort Stewart , Georgia .
The 307th Engineer Battalion , formerly assigned to the 82d Airborne Division , was reactivated effective 16 September 2010 by reflagging the existing 37th Engineer Battalion . [ 1 ] [ 2 ] In 2014 the 307th was transferred to the 3rd Infantry Combat Team of the 82nd Airborne Division .
The insignia was originally authorized on 30 June 1967 . It was amended on 14 January 1975 to add the blue and white " Airborne " tab . The tab is part of the unit insignia and does not indicate whether an individual soldier is Airborne @-@ qualified . Parachute wings on an individual soldier indicate Airborne @-@ qualification . While the brigade headquarters was on jump status , some subordinate elements were not .
On 16 September 2009 , the brigade 's Airborne status was terminated and the " Airborne " tab on the brigade 's shoulder sleeve insignia was removed .
= = History = =
= = = Lineage = = =
The lineage and honors of the 20th Engineer Brigade date back to the American Civil War . First designated as the Battalion of Engineers on 3 August 1861 , the battalion participated in 10 campaigns during the Civil War . Since that time , unit designations have changed many times as predecessors of the 20th Engineer Brigade have served in the Spanish – American War , the Philippine – American War , the Mexican Expedition , World War I and World War II . Though it was not officially designated as the 20th Engineer Brigade during all of these wars , the Brigade received campaign participation credit for all of these campaigns , and has numerous campaign streamers for what its previous incarnations did during these conflicts .
On 16 August 1950 the brigade was first designated as the 20th Engineer Brigade and activated at Camp Leonard Wood , Missouri . It deployed overseas to France in November 1952 and established headquarters in Croix Chapeau . Comprising two battalions and six separate companies , the brigade provided engineer construction support to the Base Section of the European COMMZ in southwestern France . In August 1954 , it redeployed back to the United States and was activated at Fort Bragg , North Carolina , on 10 September 1954 . From that time until its inactivation on 12 December 1958 , the brigade provided engineer support to the XVIII Airborne Corps .
= = = Vietnam War and aftermath = = =
In response to the buildup of U.S. forces in the Republic of Vietnam , the brigade headquarters was reactivated 1 May 1967 , at Fort Bragg and deployed to Vietnam in August 1967 . During the Vietnam War , the brigade numbered over 13 @,@ 000 officers and enlisted men organized into three engineer groups , with 14 battalions and 31 separate companies and detachments . One of these soldiers , Al Gore , would later become Vice President of the United States .
The brigade provided all non @-@ divisional engineer support in Military Regions III and IV during eleven campaigns . Units cleared more than one @-@ half million acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km ² ) of jungle , paved 500 kilometers of highway , and constructed bridges totaling more than six miles ( 10 km ) in length . As American forces were withdrawing from Vietnam , the brigade was inactivated 20 September 1971 .
As the organization of the Army changed following Vietnam , the 20th Engineer Brigade was again reactivated at Fort Bragg , North Carolina as an airborne brigade on 21 June 1974 . Assigned as a subordinate command of the XVIII Airborne Corps , which comprised one airborne combat engineer battalion , a heavy construction battalion and four separate companies . Additionally , the 283rd Engineer Detachment ( Terrain Analysis ) provided terrain intelligence needs of the brigade 's mission . Since that time the brigade and its subordinate units supported the XVIII Airborne Corps , fulfilling critical combat engineer , construction , topographic , and bridging missions .
The brigade participated in the recovery efforts following the Great Lakes Blizzard of 1977 . Over 300 members of the unit were dispatched to New York State to help with recovery efforts . As requirements and the engineer force structure changed , the brigade inactivated the combat heavy battalion in 1987 and activated another combat airborne battalion . In 1989 , the 30th Engineer Battalion ( Topographic ) was added to the brigade . Over the years , the brigade has provided engineer support to XVIII Airborne Corps and other Army commands . In addition to training , it has deployed in support of operations across the entire spectrum of conflict from disaster relief to combat operations .
= = = Gulf War = = =
The brigade was called to support the multinational response to the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990 . The brigade grew to a 7 @,@ 700 soldier force composed of three groups , ten battalions , four separate companies , and eight detachments in support of XVIII Airborne Corps during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm . The brigade completed 1 @,@ 500 combat heavy battalions equivalent days of work constructing roads , airfields , heliports , ammunition / fuel / water storage points , life support areas and forward landing strips , distributed over ten million maps , trained over 5 @,@ 000 coalition engineers , and supported the French attack on Assalman airfield . During follow @-@ on missions the brigade destroyed over 6000 enemy bunkers and one million tons of munitions .
After the Gulf War , elements of the brigade were dispatched to Haiti on a humanitarian mission . The 20th Engineer Brigade was assigned to construct base camps , improve the Haitian infrastructure , participate in humanitarian service projects , and assist with the reestablishment of public services , with a goal of improving overall quality of life within the country .
Since 11 September 2001 , it has participated in repeated operations in Kosovo , Afghanistan , and Iraq .
= = = First Iraq tour = = =
In November 2004 the brigade headquarters deployed to Camp Victory , Iraq in support of OIF 04 @-@ 06 . The brigade grew to a size of 6 @,@ 100 personnel in of three brigade headquarters companies , seven battalions , six separate companies and nine detachments . The brigade served as the Multi @-@ National Corps - Iraq corps @-@ level engineer headquarters for all echelon @-@ above @-@ division engineers in Iraq , providing command and control for general support combat and construction engineer missions across the country . During its deployment , the 20th Engineer Brigade patrolled 57 @,@ 950 kilometers of roads for Improvised Explosive Devices , expanded 14 bases in support of the MNC @-@ I basing plan ; emplaced or maintained 16 bridges ; expanded detention capacity for 6 @,@ 000 detainees ; trained over 53 @,@ 000 coalition soldiers on explosives hazards awareness ; reduced over 11 @,@ 000 caches and over 80 @,@ 000 tons of explosive munitions . Other missions included repair of an airfield known as " Key West " by light equipment elements , support of the Long Range Surveillance Detachment , 313th Military Intelligence Battalion , 82nd Airborne Division based in Zakhu , located in Iraqi Kurdistan . Another task for the Brigade was to assist British engineers in a systematic mapping of the entire nation and creating an Iraqi Geospatial Reference System , in order to make national reconstruction easier and more organized . The 20th Brigade suffered at least one casualty during its tour in Iraq , with a soldier killed by an enemy Improvised Explosive Device on 22 August 2005 in Ad Dwar when an explosive device destroyed his vehicle . During its deployment to Iraq , the Unit assumed command of several additional battalions from the Army National Guard , forcing existing formations of the unit to cope with additional responsibilities . Seemingly elements of the 107th and 507th Engineer Battalions of the Michigan Army National Guard and the 194th Engineer Brigade of the Tennessee National Guard were part of the brigade .
= = = Second Iraq tour = = =
The brigade again deployed to Iraq for the OIF 07 @-@ 09 rotation . This time , the brigade was headquartered in Balad , Iraq . The brigade was given Husky Mine Detection vehicles and Buffalo mine protected carrier vehicles for the deployment . The brigade was responsible for providing combat , geospatial and general engineering and reconstruction operations in partnership with Provincial Reconstruction Teams , Civil Service Corps , Sons of Iraq and Iraqi Army engineers , as well as training and assisting the Iraqi Army and provincial engineers in the rebuilding of the infrastructure of Iraq . As of May 2008 , the brigade had constructed 10 major bridges and destroyed or captured IED cells in nine of the country 's provinces . During the deployment it was visited by Lieutenant General Lloyd J. Austin III , the commanding general of Multi @-@ National Corps Iraq . The brigade was scheduled to return to Fort Bragg in the fall of 2008 , to be replaced by the 555th Engineer Brigade . This was completed during a transfer of authority ceremony on 29 September 2008 . The brigade then began redeploying to Fort Bragg , completing its return by November 2008 . A year later , in August 2009 , the brigade held a ceremony promoting dozens of its soldiers to the rank of Sergeant .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
= = Notable soldiers = =
Numerous soldiers who have served in the 20th Engineer Brigade have later achieved fame for various reasons , most of them having served the 20th in Vietnam . Former 20th Engineer Brigade soldiers and engineers include Chief of Engineers Robert B. Flowers , Governor of the Panama Canal Zone Harold Parfitt , Vice President of the United States and Nobel Peace Prize winner Al Gore , and Sergeant Major of the Army Leon L. Van Autreve .
= John Conroy =
Sir John Ponsonby Conroy , 1st Baronet KCH ( Irish : Seán Ó Maolchonaire ; 21 October 1786 – 2 March 1854 ) was a British army officer who served as comptroller to the Duchess of Kent and her young daughter , Princess Victoria , the future Queen of the United Kingdom .
Conroy was born in Wales to Irish parents and , after holding several ranks in the military , became the equerry of Prince Edward , Duke of Kent and Strathearn in 1817 . Kent died two years later , leaving a widow and infant daughter . Becoming comptroller of the Duchess of Kent 's household for the next nineteen years , Conroy also acted as her confidant and political agent , among other roles . Together , they designed the Kensington System , an elaborate and strict system of rules for the upbringing of young Victoria , designed to render her weak @-@ willed and utterly dependent upon them in the hopes of allowing them to wield power through her .
Princess Victoria grew to hate Conroy over the oppressive system and he was unpopular among the British Royal Family . His efforts to place the Duchess in the role of regent were ultimately unsuccessful , as Victoria ascended the throne after reaching her majority in 1837 . Conroy was immediately expelled from Victoria 's household , though he remained in the Duchess of Kent 's service for several more years . Given a pension and baronetcy , Conroy retired to his estate near Reading , Berkshire in 1842 and died in substantial debt twelve years later .
Historians have often referred to Conroy as someone with strong ambition , with varying degrees of positive or negative opinion . Rumours circulated during and after his lifetime that he was perhaps the Duchess of Kent 's lover . Queen Victoria was shocked to learn this , stating that her mother 's piety would have prevented it .
= = Early life = =
Conroy was born on 21 October 1786 in Maes @-@ y @-@ castell , Caerhun , Caernarvonshire , Wales . He was one of six children born to John Ponsonby Conroy , Esq. and Margaret Wilson , both native to Ireland . His father was a barrister and the younger Conroy was privately educated in Dublin . On 8 September 1803 , he was commissioned in the Royal Artillery as a Second Lieutenant and was promoted to First Lieutenant on 12 September . In 1805 , Conroy enrolled in the Royal Military Academy at Woolwich . He made his career during the Napoleonic Wars , though his ability to avoid battle attracted disdain from other officers . Conroy did not participate in the Peninsular War or the Waterloo Campaign .
Further advancement of rank was facilitated with Conroy 's marriage to Elizabeth Fisher on 26 December 1808 in Dublin , though not as far as Conroy felt he deserved . Elizabeth was the daughter of Colonel ( later Major @-@ General ) Benjamin Fisher and Conroy served under him in Ireland and England while performing various administrative duties . Conroy was promoted to Second Captain on 13 March 1811 and appointed adjutant in the Corps of Artillery Drivers on 11 March 1817 .
Conroy and Elizabeth had six children together :
Sir Edward Conroy , 2nd Baronet ( 6 December 1809 – 3 November 1869 ) , married Lady Alice Parsons , daughter of Laurence Parsons , 2nd Earl of Rosse . They were the parents of the analytical chemist Sir John Conroy , 3rd Baronet .
Elizabeth Jane Conroy ( 1811 – 1855 ) .
Arthur Benjamin Conroy ( 1813 – 1817 ) .
Stephen Rowley Conroy ( 15 August 1815 – 1841 ) , served with the Coldstream Guards .
Henry George Conroy ( 4 June 1817 – 5 October 1890 ) , served with the Grenadier Guards , aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the commander of the forces in Ireland .
Victoria Maria Louisa Conroy ( 1819 – 9 February 1866 ) , married Sir Wyndham Edward Hanmer , 4th Baronet .
= = Employment with the Kents = =
Through the connection of his wife 's uncle , Conroy came to the attention of Prince Edward , Duke of Kent and Strathearn , the fourth son of King George III . Conroy was appointed as an equerry in 1817 , shortly before the Duke 's marriage to Princess Victoria of Saxe @-@ Coburg @-@ Saalfeld . An efficient organiser , Conroy 's planning ensured the Duke and Duchess ' speedy return to England in time for the birth of their first child . The child was Princess Alexandrina Victoria of Kent , later Queen Victoria .
While Kent had promised Conroy military advancement , he was still a captain by the time of the Duke 's death in 1820 . Conroy was however named an executor of the Duke 's will , though he was unsuccessful in persuading the dying man to name him Victoria 's guardian . Aware that he needed to find another source of revenue quickly , Conroy offered his services as comptroller to the now @-@ widowed Duchess of Kent and her infant daughter . Conroy 's native language was of particular value to the Duchess because she had not yet acquired fluency in English . Conroy retired from military service on half @-@ pay in 1822 .
= = = Kensington system = = =
Together in a hostile environment , Conroy 's relationship to the Duchess was very close , with him serving as her comptroller and private secretary for the next nineteen years , as well as holding the unofficial roles of public relations officer , counsellor , confidant and political agent . While it is not clear which of the two was more responsible for devising the Kensington System , it was created to govern young Victoria 's upbringing . An elaborate and oppressive system of rules regulating every facet of Victoria 's life , it kept her in reclusive isolation most of the time , with the goal of making her weak , compliant and utterly dependent upon her mother and Conroy . The intention was for the Duchess to be appointed regent upon Victoria 's ( assumed youthful ) ascension and for Conroy to be created Victoria 's private secretary and given a peerage . Aware of the reasons behind King George IV 's unpopularity , Conroy promoted a public image of the Duchess that was pure , modest and decorous , while at the same time increasing her paranoia against the British Royal Family , particularly the Duke of Cumberland .
Princess Victoria soon came to hate Conroy who bullied and insulted her , mocking her economical habits . Some historians have conjectured that Conroy 's arrogant behaviour towards Victoria may have stemmed from a personal belief that his wife Elizabeth was secretly the illegitimate child of the Duke of Kent . While the rumour was later proven false , Conroy 's strong ambition may have stemmed from this self @-@ perceived connection to the aristocracy . Ambition may also have been influenced by Conroy 's claim of descent from the ancient kings of Ireland . Regardless of his claims of grandeur , Conroy belonged to the middle class and recognised the growing power of this group within British society .
Conroy effectively barred Victoria from anyone other than the Duchess or his relatives and the princess was prevented from becoming close to her extended family . The enforced isolation meant the only companions of her own age whom she frequently came into contact with were Conroy 's daughters , who included Victoire , a girl a few months older than Victoria . Victoria does not appear to have been fond of either Conroy sister as there is little positive comment in her personal journals . The young princess depended on her devoted governess Louise Lehzen , who defended her against Conroy 's machinations . As Victoria grew older , attempts were made by Conroy and the Duchess for Lehzen 's removal , or at least the lessening of her influence . Such tactics proved unsuccessful , as the princess became more devoted to Lehzen than before , as evident in her journals .
Early in his stay at Kensington Palace , Conroy made an effort to become close to Princess Sophia , an elderly sister of George IV who also resided at the Palace . Described by Christopher Hibbert as an " impressionable and mentally unstable woman " , Conroy had little difficulty in persuading Sophia to let him take control of her finances . In return for making Sophia a member of the Duchess ' social circle , the princess reported back to Conroy on activities at St. James 's Palace and Kensington when he was absent .
= = = Victoria as heir presumptive = = =
In 1827 , the Duke of York died , making the Duke of Clarence heir presumptive and Victoria second @-@ in @-@ line to the throne . Conroy complained that the princess should not be surrounded by commoners , leading King George IV to appoint Conroy a Knight Commander of the Hanoverian Order and a Knight Bachelor that year . The Duchess and Conroy continued to be unpopular with the Royal Family and , in 1829 , the Duke of Cumberland spread rumours that they were lovers in an attempt to discredit them . The Duke of Clarence referred to Conroy as " King John " , while the Duchess of Clarence wrote to the Duchess of Kent to advise that she was increasingly isolating herself from the Royal Family and that she must not grant Conroy too much power .
The Duke of Clarence became King William IV in 1830 , by which point Conroy felt very confident of his position ; his control of the household was secure . The Duchess prevented her daughter from attending William 's coronation out of a disagreement of precedence , a decision attributed by the Duke of Wellington to Conroy . By then , it had become clear to Victoria that she would succeed to the throne . The new king and queen attempted to gain custody of their niece , but Conroy quickly replied that Victoria could not be " tainted " by the moral atmosphere at court . Conroy solidified the stance that mother and daughter could not be separated , and continued to promote the Duchess ' virtue as a fit regent .
As King William intensely disliked the Duchess and Conroy , he vowed to wait until Victoria came of age to die simply to keep them from a regency . In 1831 , the year of William 's coronation , Conroy and the Duchess embarked on a series of royal tours with Victoria to expose her to the people and solidify their status as potential regents . On one trip Conroy was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Oxford . Their efforts were ultimately successful and , in November 1831 , it was declared that the Duchess would be sole regent in the event of Victoria 's young queenship , while Conroy could claim to be the closest adviser to the Duchess and her daughter .
Aware that a regency was becoming increasingly unlikely , Conroy and the Duchess began promoting the view of Victoria as a " weak @-@ minded , frivolous and foolish " girl in need of guidance . While increasing their bullying of the princess , they implied that Victoria desired a regency even if she succeeded later than her majority at eighteen . Victoria was forbidden to be alone with her beloved Lehzen ; either the Duchess ' ally Lady Flora Hastings or a Conroy sister ( now appointed as companions ) were required to accompany her .
In 1835 , Victoria became seriously ill of typhoid fever on the last of the royal tours . Exploiting her weakened state , the Duchess and Conroy unsuccessfully tried to force her into signing a document ; this document would have appointed Conroy her personal secretary upon her ascension . Victoria emerged from the incident more determined than ever to become self @-@ reliant . Her increased intransigence alarmed the Duchess . At her behest , family adviser Baron Stockmar investigated , recommending to the Duchess that she dismiss Conroy and make peace with her daughter . But Conroy easily convinced the Duchess to ignore Stockmar 's advice . Even after Victoria 's eighteenth birthday on 24 May 1837 , Conroy continued to pressure her to appoint him as her private secretary or acknowledge her need for a regent until she turned twenty @-@ one .
= = = Victoria in power = = =
The king died just weeks after Victoria 's eighteenth birthday and she succeeded him as queen . Conroy was the subject of numerous discussions Victoria had with Stockmar on the first day of her reign . At the same time , Conroy created a list of demands to give to Stockmar with the intent that he pass them on to Prime Minister , Lord Melbourne . Conroy demanded " a pension of 3 @,@ 000 pounds a year , the Grand Cross of the Bath , a peerage and a seat on the Privy Council . " Victoria left the negotiating to Melbourne , who agreed to most of Conroy 's demands , most likely to avoid a scandal . On the advice of Melbourne , Conroy was granted a baronetcy and a pension of £ 3 @,@ 000 per annum . This did not satisfy Conroy , who continued in the following years to petition Victoria for an Irish peerage . Each request was refused , as the peerage would have enabled him to attend court .
One of Victoria 's first acts as queen was to dismiss Conroy from her own household , though she could not dismiss him from her mother 's . Queen Victoria , as an unmarried young woman , was still expected to live with her mother , but she relegated the Duchess and Conroy to remote apartments at Buckingham Palace , cutting off personal contact with them . The Duchess unsuccessfully insisted that Conroy and his family be allowed at court ; Victoria disagreed , saying : " I thought you would not expect me to invite Sir John Conroy after his conduct towards me for some years past . " In 1839 , the Duke of Wellington convinced Conroy to leave the Duchess 's household and take his family to the Continent in effective exile . The Times reported that he no longer had official duties , though they were unsure if he had resigned or been dismissed . That year rumours abounded that Lady Flora Hastings , whose abdomen had grown large , was pregnant by Conroy . A subsequent medical investigation concluded that Lady Flora was a virgin and she died from liver cancer several months later . This scandal , in tandem with the Bedchamber Crisis , damaged Victoria 's reputation .
In 1842 , Conroy settled at his family home in Arborfield Hall near Reading , Berkshire and became a gentleman farmer , winning prizes for his pig breeding . He founded the Montgomery Regiment of Militia in 1849 . Despite his pensions and ownership of properties and lead mines in Wales , Conroy was in substantial debt when he died on 2 March 1854 at Arborfield . His eldest son Edward succeeded him to the baronetcy . After his death , the Duchess of Kent finally agreed to open her financial accounts and acknowledged that significant funds were missing . She was moved to admit that Conroy had swindled her while at the same time hurting her relationship with Victoria for his own benefit . A rapprochement followed between mother and daughter .
= = = = Finances of Princess Sophia = = = =
Princess Sophia 's substantial income , provided from the civil list , had allowed Conroy to enjoy a wealthy lifestyle . The princess died in 1848 , leaving only £ 1 @,@ 607 19s 7d in her bank accounts despite a lifestyle of savings and low expenses . The Duke of Cambridge and the Duchess of Gloucester had a lawyer write to Conroy demanding that he account for the rest of their sister Sophia 's funds , but Conroy simply ignored it . According to Flora Fraser , the most recent biographer of George III 's daughters , Princess Sophia had in fact personally spent huge sums on Conroy , including heavy contributions to the purchase prices of his residences and supporting his family in a style he judged appropriate to their position . Conroy ultimately received £ 148 @,@ 000 in gifts and money from Sophia .
In 1850 , the Duchess of Kent 's new comptroller , Sir George Couper , studied the old accounts . He found huge discrepancies . No records for her household or personal expenses had been kept after 1829 . There was also no record of nearly £ 50 @,@ 000 the Duchess had received from her brother , Leopold , nor of an additional £ 10 @,@ 000 from William IV .
= = Historiography = =
After Conroy 's departure from Victoria 's service in 1837 , a popular song read :
Conroy goes not to Court , the reason 's plainKing John has played his part and ceased to reign .
Following his death in 1854 , The Times published a positive obituary that declared " the name , person and character of Sir John Conroy are so well and , in many respects , so favourably known in English society that we have no doubt the announcement of his death will be received with feelings of general regret " . The article briefly summarised his lifetime and praised Conroy for " considerable shrewdness , no small knowledge of human nature and a very winning address " as well as " devoting himself with great zeal and assiduity " to members of the Royal Family .
Described in his own lifetime as a " ridiculous fellow " , Conroy has not been the recipient of much recent positive historical opinion . Twentieth @-@ century historian Christopher Hibbert writes that Conroy was a " good @-@ looking man of insinuating charm , tall , imposing , vain , clever , unscrupulous , plausible and of limitless ambition . " For her part , twenty @-@ first century historian Gillian Gill describes Conroy as " a career adventurer , expert manipulator and domestic martinet " who came to England with " small means , some ability and mighty ambition . " In 2004 , Elizabeth Longford wrote that Conroy " was not the arch @-@ villain Victoria painted , but the victim of his own inordinate ambition . "
= = = Suspected lover of the Duchess = = =
Conroy 's relationship with the Duchess was the subject of much speculation both before and after his death in 1854 . When the Duke of Wellington was asked if the Duchess and Conroy were lovers , he replied that he " supposed so " . In August 1829 , Wellington reported to court diarist Charles Greville that Victoria , then ten years old , had caught Conroy and her mother engaged in " some familiarities " . Victoria told her governess , Baroness Lehzen , who in turn told Madame de Spaeth , one of the Duchess 's ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting . De Spaeth confronted the Duchess about the relationship and was immediately dismissed . All of this was recorded by Greville ; his subsequent diary entry has led to the persistent belief that the Duchess and Conroy were lovers . Later , as an aged Queen , Victoria was aghast to discover that many people did indeed believe that her mother and Conroy were intimate and stated that the Duchess ' piety would have prevented this .
= = = Rumour that Conroy was Queen Victoria 's father = = =
During Victoria 's lifetime and after her death in 1901 , there have been rumours that Conroy or someone else , and not the Duke of Kent , was her biological father . Historians have continued to debate the accuracy and validity of these claims . In his 2003 work The Victorians , biographer A. N. Wilson suggests that Victoria was not actually descended from George III because several of her descendants had haemophilia , which was unknown among her recognised ancestors . Haemophilia is a genetic disease that impairs the body 's ability to control blood clotting , which is used to stop bleeding when a blood vessel is broken ; it is carried in the female line but the symptoms manifest mostly in males . Wilson proposes that the Duchess of Kent took a lover ( not necessarily Conroy ) to ensure that a Coburg would sit on the British throne .
Likewise , medical historian W. T. W. Potts considers it a possibility that the Duchess took a lover under pressure from her brother Leopold . He cites the rarity of genetic mutations as evidence , as well as the " remarkable " circumstances surrounding Victoria 's conception . Potts makes no mention of Conroy specifically , only that the father would have been a haemophiliac himself or would have had a mutated gene .
Haemophilia B has been known to arise spontaneously in the children of older fathers , and Victoria 's father was fifty @-@ one when she was born . Nicholas Wright Gillham proposes that the haemophilia mutation could have first occurred with either Victoria or the Duke of Kent . Gillian Gill and her son Christopher , an infectious disease specialist , also view a genetic mutation as the most likely possibility ; Gillian Gill writes that " a few historians in recent years have found it seductive " to doubt Victoria 's stated paternity because a random mutation is " an unexciting solution " . Helen Rappaport concurs , remarking that " the best and most logical " explanation is that haemophilia first appeared in Victoria as a mutation .
Alan Rushton adds that no one in the household of the newly married Duchess of Kent , including Conroy , is known to have had haemophilia , and that her probable awareness of the scandals surrounding the behaviour of Caroline of Brunswick and Caroline Matilda of Great Britain would have deterred her from seeking an affair elsewhere . Furthermore , Princess Victoria was said to have borne a strong family resemblance to her father and grandfather George III .
There is evidence that some of Victoria 's descendants did have mild porphyria , most notably Princess Feodora of Saxe @-@ Meiningen . This disease may have affected her grandfather , George III and this could give credence to Victoria 's legitimate birth . There is more reliable documentation that one of her great @-@ great @-@ grandsons , Prince William of Gloucester , was diagnosed with the disease shortly before his death when his aircraft crashed during an air race . Concrete evidence on the origins of the disease and paternity of Victoria could be achieved with a DNA test of her or her parents ' remains , but no such study has been sanctioned by the Royal Family .
= = In popular culture = =
Conroy has been portrayed numerous times in film and television . Herbert Wilcox 's Victoria the Great ( 1937 ) depicted Conroy as a " smarmy character " who is not well developed in the film . The baronet was played by Stefan Skodler in 1954 's The Story of Vickie , and Herbert Hübner in Mädchenjahre einer Königin ( 1936 ) . Patrick Malahide played Conroy in Victoria & Albert , a 2001 TV miniseries that depicted Victoria 's early influences . English actor Mark Strong played him in the 2009 film The Young Victoria . The film depicts Conroy as a maniacal controlling pseudo @-@ father to the young Victoria during the year preceding her ascension even going so far as depicting him assaulting the princess twice . The film goes on to depict Conroy 's expulsion from Queen Victoria 's household .
Conroy also appears in numerous historical fiction novels about Queen Victoria . Writing under the pen names Jean Plaidy and Eleanor Burford , author Eleanor Hibbert published a series of novels in the 1970s and 1980s , which included The Captive of Kensington Palace ( 1972 ) , The Queen and Lord M ( 1973 ) and Victoria Victorious : The Story of Queen Victoria ( 1985 ) . A. E. Moorat released the parody novel Queen Victoria : Demon Hunter in 2009 .
= = Patrilineal Descent = =
Conroy was descended from the Ó Maolconaire family of Elphin , Co.Roscommon. The family had been the hereditary Ollamhs to the O 'Connor Kings of Connacht . He was descended from Maoilin Ó Maolchonaire who was the last recognised Chief of the Sept .
Torna Mór Ó Maolchonaire , Chief of the Sept , d . 1435
Seán Rua Ó Maolchonaire
Domhnall Rua Ó Maolchonaire , d . 1504
Conchobhar Ó Maolchonaire , Chief of the Sept , d . 1533
Maolmhuire Ó Maolchonaire , Chief of the Sept
Maoilin Ó Maolchonaire , Last Chief of the Sept , d . 1637
Torna Ó Maolchonaire
Seán Ó Maolchonaire , d . 1672 fighting for the French during the Franco @-@ Dutch War
Ferfeasa Conry , d . 1746
John Conry of Elphin , d . 1769
John Conry , d . 1795
Sir John Ponsonby Conroy , 1st Baronet ( 1786 -1854 )
= Hurricane Diane =
Hurricane Diane was the costliest Atlantic hurricane of its time . One of three hurricanes to hit North Carolina during the 1955 Atlantic hurricane season , it formed on August 7 from a tropical wave between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . Diane initially moved west @-@ northwestward with little change in its intensity , but began to strengthen rapidly after turning to the north @-@ northeast . On August 12 , the hurricane reached peak sustained winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) , making it a Category 2 hurricane . Gradually weakening after veering back west , Diane made landfall near Wilmington , North Carolina , as a strong tropical storm on August 17 , just five days after Hurricane Connie struck near the same area . Diane weakened further after moving inland , at which point the United States Weather Bureau noted a decreased threat of further destruction . The storm turned to the northeast , and warm waters from the Atlantic Ocean helped produce record rainfall across the northeastern United States . On August 19 , Diane emerged into the Atlantic Ocean southeast of New York City , becoming extratropical two days later and completely dissipating by August 23 .
The first area affected by Diane was North Carolina , which suffered coastal flooding but little wind and rain damage . After the storm weakened in Virginia , it maintained an area of moisture that resulted in heavy rainfall after interacting with the Blue Ridge Mountains , a process known as orographic lift . Flooding affected roads and low @-@ lying areas along the Potomac River . The northernmost portion of Delaware also saw freshwater flooding , although to a much lesser extent than adjacent states . Diane produced heavy rainfall in eastern Pennsylvania , causing the worst floods on record there , largely in the Poconos and along the Delaware River . Rushing waters demolished about 150 road and rail bridges and breached or destroyed 30 dams . The swollen Brodhead Creek virtually submerged a summer camp , killing 37 people . Throughout Pennsylvania , the disaster killed 101 people and caused an estimated $ 70 million in damage ( 1955 USD ) . Additional flooding spread through the northwest portion of neighboring New Jersey , forcing hundreds of people to evacuate and destroying several bridges , including one built in 1831 . Storm damage was evident but less significant in southeastern New York .
Damage from Diane was heaviest in Connecticut , where rainfall peaked at 16 @.@ 86 in ( 428 mm ) near Torrington . The storm produced the state 's largest flood on record , which effectively split the state into two by destroying bridges and cutting communications . All major streams and valleys were flooded , and 30 stream gauges reported their highest levels on record . The Connecticut River at Hartford reached a water level of 30 @.@ 6 ft ( 9 @.@ 3 m ) , the third highest on record there . The flooding destroyed a large section of downtown Winsted , much of which was never rebuilt . Record @-@ high tides and flooded rivers heavily damaged Woonsocket , Rhode Island . In Massachusetts , flood water levels surpassed those during the 1938 Long Island hurricane , breaching multiple dams and inundating adjacent towns and roads . Throughout New England , 206 dams were damaged or destroyed , and about 7 @,@ 000 people were injured . Nationwide , Diane killed at least 184 people and destroyed 813 houses , with another 14 @,@ 000 homes heavily damaged . Monetary losses totaled $ 754 @.@ 7 million , although the inclusion of loss of business and personal revenue increased the total to over $ 1 billion . In the hurricane 's wake , eight states were declared federal disaster areas , and the name Diane was retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Diane originated in a tropical wave first observed as a tropical depression on August 7 between the Lesser Antilles and Cape Verde . The system moved generally to the west @-@ northwest , intensifying into a tropical storm on August 9 . By the time the Weather Bureau first classified the storm on August 10 , Diane was south of the Bermuda high , a semi @-@ permanent ridge in the jet stream just east of Nova Scotia . Ships in the region of the storm reported winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . During the next day , the Hurricane Hunters reported no increase in strength , and Diane initially remained disorganized . The storm interacted with Hurricane Connie to its northwest in a process known as the Fujiwhara effect , in which Diane turned toward the north . Quick intensification ensued , potentially due to interaction with a cold @-@ core low that increased atmospheric instability . On August 12 , the storm rapidly intensified into a hurricane . The intensification was so quick that a ship southeast of the center believed Diane was undergoing a loop due to a steady drop in barometric pressure , despite moving away from the hurricane .
At its peak , Diane developed a well @-@ defined eye about 30 mi ( 48 km ) in diameter , described by reconnaissance aircraft as taking the shape of an " inverted teacup " . The strongest winds were located in the northeast quadrant , where there was a secondary pressure minimum located 62 mi ( 100 km ) northeast of the eye . After moving to the north for about a day , Diane resumed its westward motion on August 13 , after Hurricane Connie to the northwest had weakened . That day , Diane reached its lowest pressure of 969 mbar ( 28 @.@ 6 inHg ) , and peak winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) ; originally the hurricane was analyzed to reach peak winds of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) , although the large size and slow forward speed suggested the lower winds . It maintained its peak winds for about 12 hours , after which it weakened due to cooler air in the region . By August 15 , the eye had become poorly defined , and winds steadily weakened . As it approached land , its center deteriorated , with minimal precipitation near the center ; the eye was observed on a radar installed in July 1955 . On August 17 , Diane made landfall on the coast of North Carolina near Wilmington . Pressure at landfall was estimated at 986 millibars ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) , accompanied by winds just under hurricane intensity . Diane struck the state only five days after Hurricane Connie struck the same general area .
Diane quickly weakened as a tropical storm over the mountainous terrain of central North Carolina . The associated area of precipitation expanded and spread away from the center to the north and northeast . The weakening system turned to the north and recurved toward the northeast through Virginia after a ridge built in from the west . It did not interact much with the non @-@ tropical westerlies , and as a result it remained a distinct tropical cyclone over land . Convection redeveloped as the storm approached the Atlantic coast once again . Diane passed through the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , exiting New Jersey on August 19 into the Atlantic Ocean southeast of New York City . Paralleling the southern coast of New England , the storm later accelerated east @-@ northeastward , becoming extratropical on August 21 . Passing south and east of Newfoundland , the remnants of Diane accelerated and restrengthened slightly while moving to the northeast . Late on August 23 , the storm dissipated between Greenland and Iceland .
= = Preparations and background = =
Late on August 14 , more than two days before Diane made landfall , the United States Weather Bureau issued a hurricane alert from Georgia through North Carolina . On August 15 , the agency issued a hurricane warning from Brunswick , Georgia to Wilmington , North Carolina , although the warning was later extended to the south and north to Fernandina , Florida and Cape Hatteras , North Carolina , respectively . The agency also issued storm warnings southward to Saint Augustine , Florida and northward to Atlantic City , New Jersey , including the Chesapeake and Delaware bays . Throughout the warned region , small ships were advised to remain at port . Before Diane made landfall , the North Carolina National Guard assisted in evacuating people near the Pamlico River , and 700 residents left their homes near New Bern ; thousands of tourists also evacuated . The threat of the hurricane forced the planned retirement ceremony for Admiral Robert Carney to be transferred from an aircraft carrier in Norfolk , Virginia to an academy dormitory . All aircraft at Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point were flown to safer locations further inland .
All hurricane warnings were dropped after Diane moved inland . Forecasters downplayed the threat of Diane after it weakened over Virginia ; the Weather Bureau agreed they did not foresee the extent of the rain that would occur , instead calling for just " some local flooding " . The agency later admitted they " goofed " in downplaying the storm 's destructive potential after weakening , noting their lack of experience with extreme rainfall events . Once
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ixed routes = =
NY 33 has one current alternate route and one former spur designation that has been reused multiple times .
NY 33A ( 17 @.@ 15 miles or 27 @.@ 60 kilometres ) is an alternate route in the Rochester area that was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York .
NY 33B is a designation that has been used for three different routes since the 1930s .
The original NY 33B was an alternate route of NY 33 through eastern Monroe and western Wayne counties . It was assigned c . 1931 and mostly renumbered to NY 31F when NY 33 was truncated to Rochester in 1949 .
The second NY 33B was assigned to Brooks Avenue and Genesee Park Boulevard between NY 33A and NY 383 in Gates and Rochester . It was assigned c . 1962 and removed c . 1965 . The Gates portion of its former routing is now part of NY 204 .
The third alignment was a spur in the Buffalo area that followed NY 33 's pre @-@ Kensington Expressway routing on Genesee Street . It was assigned c . 1965 and removed in the mid @-@ 1970s . The section of former NY 33B between current NY 33 and the Buffalo city line is now NY 952A , an unsigned reference route .
= = Major intersections = =
= There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill =
" There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " is the twelfth episode of the third season of the American mystery television series Veronica Mars , and the fifty @-@ sixth episode overall . Directed by Tricia Brock , with a story by Jonathan Moskin and David Mulei and a teleplay by Moskin , Phil Klemmer , and John Enbom , the episode premiered on The CW on February 6 , 2007 . The series depicts the adventures of Veronica Mars ( Kristen Bell ) as she deals with life as a college student while moonlighting as a private detective .
In this episode , Veronica aids a conservative Christian student named Bonnie Capistrano ( Carlee Avers ) in finding out who slipped her mifepristone , which caused a miscarriage . Meanwhile , Veronica becomes obsessed with Madison Sinclair ( Amanda Noret ) after becoming enraged that Madison and Logan ( Jason Dohring ) had sex while they were broken up . In addition , Veronica and Keith ( Enrico Colantoni ) discover new information about Dean O 'Dell 's death .
Series creator Rob Thomas had planned this case of the week for " There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " since the beginning of the season as one of what he considered " college @-@ age crimes " . In addition , the subplot involving Logan and Veronica 's breakup triggered a discussion in the writers ' room about Veronica 's character traits . The episode received 2 @.@ 40 million viewers in its original broadcast and mixed reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN thought it was indicative of a general upward trend in the show 's quality , while Rowan Kaiser of The A.V. Club thought it was uneven .
= = Synopsis = =
Veronica has a dream that she woke up in the middle of the winter with Logan , but she is plagued with visions of Madison . When she wakes up , she goes to the Hearst library , where Tim Foyle ’ s ( James Jordan ) girlfriend , Bonnie , asks her to investigate who slipped her RU @-@ 486 , which caused a miscarriage . When Veronica presses Bonnie further , she reveals that Tim or Dick ( Ryan Hansen ) could be the father , although Tim has been very supportive . Veronica asks Logan point @-@ blank whether Logan had sex with Madison over the winter , and he says yes , leading to a major fight , with Veronica saying she ’ ll never forgive him . Veronica speaks to Bonnie ’ s roommate , Phyllis ( Toni Trucks ) , who reiterates that Tim is being very supportive . Veronica successfully breaks into Tim ’ s office to investigate before realizing she doesn ’ t have the password . After Keith comforts Veronica due to her breakup , she bugs Tim ’ s office .
In her spare time , Veronica trails Madison out of envy . After ascertaining Tim ’ s password , Veronica finds out that Tim is also investigating the Dean ’ s suicide and that he was browsing a site named “ Neptune Women ’ s Clinic ” . Veronica visits the ministry of Bonnie ’ s father , Ted ( Chris Ellis ) as well as the clinic , although neither really help in the case . She also questions Anthony , one of the witnesses of the Dean ’ s death ( he heard the gunshot ) . Returning home , Veronica is greeted by Keith , who has received a letter with images of Veronica exiting the clinic . For revenge , they visit the publisher of the photos , but it doesn ’ t go well . Nevertheless , she does see a picture of one of Dick ’ s paramours , although she was not as intimate with him as Veronica thought . In the middle of the night , Mindy O ’ Dell ( Jaime Ray Newman ) contact Keith , telling him to hurry . It turns out that Steve Botando ( Richard Grieco ) was trying to break in , and while he is there , Keith finds out that Cyrus was planning on sending the O ’ Dell son to a disciplinary school and that Mindy was at the scene of Dean O ’ Dell ’ s death .
Veronica starts to suspect one of the church officials , and a bookmark shows her that Bonnie ’ s roommate was behind the RU @-@ 486 . Bonnie begins to lash out at Phyllis , but her father holds her back and says that she should not be quick to anger . Veronica had previously hired Weevil to destroy Madison ’ s car , but right before it is about to be crushed , she calls it off .
= = Production = =
" There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " features a story by Jonathan Moskin and David Mulei and a teleplay by Moskin , Phil Klemmer , and John Enbom , marking Moskin and Mulei 's second writing credits for the series , Klemmer 's thirteenth writing credit for the show , and Enbom 's fourteenth credit . It was directed by Tricia Brock , her only episode of Veronica Mars . The actor who played the witness to Dean O 'Dell 's death had previously appeared as an extra in " Spit & Eggs " during a party scene , nonverbally interacting with Piz ( Chris Lowell ) . Series creator Rob Thomas enjoyed the cameo so much that he cast the actor as the witness character in this episode .
The scene in which Veronica rebuffs Logan for sleeping with Madison over winter break was the subject of a continuing debate in the writers ' room about Veronica 's character . Specifically , Enbom and Klemmer , two writers for the episode thought that Veronica should be less mistrustful , paranoid and jealous , while executive producers Thomas and Diane Ruggiero advocated for these traits in Veronica . Thomas illustrated their creative differences by stating that he enjoyed the film Chasing Amy , while Enbom did not .
Thomas drew inspiration for his point of view about Veronica 's character from his own life , stating , " I 've sort of gotten past this , but I certainly lived in that space for a long time . " Thomas had had the idea for this mystery of the week since the beginning of the season ; in an interview , he stated that he would like to include several " college @-@ age crimes " such as " this idea of a college girl getting pregnant , and someone getting the idea they 're doing her a favor by slipping her RU @-@ 486 . " The promos for the episode made it seem as though Veronica was pregnant .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In its original broadcast , " There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " received 2 @.@ 40 million viewers , ranking 99th of 100 in the weekly rankings . This was a slight decrease from the previous episode , " Poughkeepsie , Tramps and Thieves " , which garnered 2 @.@ 69 million viewers .
= = = Reviews = = =
" There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill " received mixed reviews from television critics . Eric Goldman of IGN awarded the episode an 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , indicating that it was " great . " He thought that it was indicative of an overall upward trend in the quality of Veronica Mars and praised the episode 's balance between the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week and the Dean O 'Dell story arc . " Like last week 's episode , ' There 's Got to Be a Morning After Pill ' benefited from integrating already established characters into a mystery of the week . " He was positive towards the mystery of the week in general , stating that it made him realize that it was possible to make good episodes with only a stand @-@ alone mystery . However , he was critical of the development of Veronica and Logan 's relationship , particularly Logan 's new character traits . " Let 's just hope they don 't get back together again next week , or anytime soon , because this horse has been beaten to death as it is . " Kelly West of Cinema Blend was positive towards the episode , calling it " jam @-@ packed with drama " . However , she stated that she would have enjoyed the episode more if Mac , Piz , Wallace , or Parker had made an appearance . Reviewer Alan Sepinwall enjoyed the pairing of Bonnie and her father , played by Chris Ellis .
Rowan Kaiser , writing for The A.V. Club gave a mixed review , criticizing the case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week and finding it indicative of a " wobbly " season . He thought that the case of the week was predictable , stating that it was clear that Bonnie 's best friend was the culprit when the character was introduced . He also called the mystery " one of the weakest that the show has ever done . " However , he thought that there were some interesting character development possibilities stemming from the episode . Television Without Pity gave the episode a " C + " .
= Hurricane Odile ( 1984 ) =
Hurricane Odile was the second of three tropical storms to make landfall in Mexico during the 1984 Pacific hurricane season . The fifteenth named storm and twelfth hurricane of the active season , it developed from a tropical disturbance about 185 miles ( 300 km ) south of Acapulco on September 17 . Curving towards the northwest , Odile became a Category 1 hurricane on September 19 . The tropical cyclone reached its peak intensity with winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) two days later ; however , Hurricane Odile began to weaken as moved erratically it encountered less favorable conditions and was downgraded to a tropical storm shortly before making landfall northwest of Zihuatanejo . Over land , the storm rapidly weakened , and dissipated on September 23 . The storm caused significant rainfall accumulations of 24 @.@ 73 inches ( 628 @.@ 1 mm ) in Southern Mexico , resulting in severe damage to tourism resorts . Flooding from Odile resulted in the evacuation of 7 @,@ 000 people , 21 deaths , and the damage of about 900 homes .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical disturbance was first noted about 150 mi ( 240 km ) south of Acapulco on September 16 . After tracking over 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) waters , the disturbance began to strengthen , and became a depression at 1800 UTC on September 17 . The depression began to curve more towards the northwest beneath a narrow ridge located over southern Mexico and south of an upper @-@ level low over northern Mexico . About 24 hours after developing into a tropical cyclone , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Odile . By 0000 UTC September 20 , the EPHC reported that Odile had attained hurricane status while turning towards the east between the ridge and an upper @-@ level low .
Late on September 21 , Hurricane Odile reached its peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) ( a Category 2 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) as it approached Acapulco . Due to a combination of an upper level trough that moved southward over the Baja California Peninsula and the weakening of the ridge , the hurricane began to turn more northwestward . After maintaining peak intensity for 12 hours , Odile started to weaken , as the storm began to encounter cooler sea surface temperatures . The hurricane rapidly weakened to tropical storm status while approaching the coast of Mexico ; within a six @-@ hour period , the winds diminished from 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . By late on September 22 , Odile made landfall about 50 miles ( 80 km ) northwest of Zihuatanejo , with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Less than six hours later , at 0000 UTC on September 23 , Odile ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone . While its surface circulation rapidly weakened over the mountains of western Mexico , the remnants of Odile moved northwest , passing east of Manzanillo before weakening as it re @-@ curved towards Texas .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Heavy rainfall was recorded across Southern Mexico , with the maximum rainfall totals in Costa Azul and Acapulco , where it caused 24 @.@ 73 in ( 628 mm ) of rainfall . In all , Odile and a few other systems brought the heaviest rains to the region since 1978 . Acapulco Mayor Alfonso Arugdin Alcaraz reported that flooding damaged roughly 900 homes , inundated 30 miles ( 50 km ) of highways , triggered an evacuation of 7 @,@ 000 people , and left 20 @,@ 000 families without water service . However , these reports were not confirmed because telephone circuits between Acapulco and Mexico City were down .
Commercial flights in Acapulco were suspended on September 21 , only to be resumed on September 23 , though the airline terminal remained flooded by more than 3 ft ( 910 mm ) of water . Cites such as Zihuatanejo along the coast were left without electricity since the hurricane had knocked down two high @-@ tension towers . A total of 44 riverbanks and 30 @,@ 000 residents were isolated due to flooding . Eighteen passengers and three crewman drowned on the Atoyac River . In addition , tourism resorts in Acapulco and Ixtapa @-@ Zihuatenejo suffered severe damage . Officials estimated that hotels were only 5 % full .
= Hubert Brooks =
Hubert Brooks MC ( December 29 , 1921 – February 1 , 1984 ) was a Canadian RCAF officer and ice hockey player who won a gold medal at the 1948 Winter Olympics in St. Moritz . He joined the RCAF in 1940 and served during World War II , being shot down during his second mission over Germany in 1942 . He was taken as a prisoner of war to Stalag VIII @-@ B , from where he tried several unsuccessful escape attempts prior to making it to occupied Poland and joining the Polish Underground State as a guerrilla . He rose through the ranks of the rebel force , undertaking raids and assassinations against the Nazi occupation until the end of the conflict . He was one of only five RCAF members to receive the Military Cross for his actions and his award carried the longest citation of them all .
Brooks returned to Canada by way of Russia in 1945 , and worked for the Missing Research and Enquiry Service for two years . He was then selected to join the Ottawa RCAF Flyers , who represented Canada at the 1948 Winter Olympics and captured the gold medal in the ice hockey tournament . After a series of exhibition games in Europe , he returned to Canada and entered military intelligence , serving at various posts until 1971 , at which point he retired to take up an administrative position at the University of Ottawa . He died in 1984 and one of the student dorms , the Brooks Residence , is named in his honour .
= = Early life = =
Brooks was born on December 29 , 1921 in Bluesky , Alberta . During the Great Depression his family moved out of the prairie provinces to Ottawa and Montreal , where he received an education in French and first learned to play ice hockey . In July 1940 , he applied to join the Royal Canadian Air Force and was accepted that August into the special reserve at the rank of Air Craftsman 2 . The " special reserve " was created at the onset of World War II as a section whose members could be terminated at any time , so that the force could easily return to its pre @-@ conflict size at the end of hostilities .
Brooks trained in Brandon , Manitoba through October prior to being sent to a Winnipeg equipment depot to serve as a guard . He then undertook several training phases across the country in Regina , Saskatchewan , London , Toronto , Malton , and Fingal , Ontario , and finally Rivers , Manitoba , prior to graduating in August 1941 as a Navigator - Bomb Aimer . Arriving in Britain at the end of September , he was sent to RAF Kinloss the following month and trained there until February 1942 , when he joined the 419 Tactical Fighter Training Squadron . On April 8 – 9 , during only his second mission , he was shot down during a bombing raid and landed near Oldenburg , Germany , where he was quickly taken as a prisoner of war and sent to Dulag Luft .
= = Activities in Germany and Poland = =
Brooks arrived in Stalag VIII @-@ B in April 1942 , and switched identities with a New Zealand army private , Frederick Cole , so that he would be available to be placed on work detail ( members of the air force were not permitted to be part of working parties ) . In June he was able to escape from a coal @-@ mining work camp with an Irish soldier , and fled to occupied Poland , but was soon captured in Kraków and returned to Stalag VIII @-@ B by the end of the month . He was sentenced to two weeks of solitary confinement , but retained his secret identity .
By September Brooks was back at a work camp , this time in Svitavy in the Sudetenland . He escaped that month with five other men , this time making it to Lüneburg inside a coal train prior to his recapture . Sent to a prisoner of war camp near Wiener Neustadt , he once more tried to escape but failed , suffered a severe beating at the hands of the Germans , and was again sent back to Stalag VIII @-@ B for two weeks of solitary confinement . Working as a truck helper from a saw mill in Toszek , he slowly acquired maps of Europe and the surrounding region as well as contact information for the Polish Underground State . Having escaped twice already , he risked transfer to a special punishment camp if caught again but , nevertheless , he fled his detention once more , this time with a Scottish soldier by the name of John Duncan , in May 1943 .
The duo was eventually smuggled into occupied Poland where they contacted the Polish Underground in Częstochowa and joined the guerrilla movement Armia Krajowa . Posing as a Polish laborer working in a jam factory , he served on patrols , raided food convoys , and assassinated members of the Gestapo during a probationary period . After the camp was attacked in December , which not only killed several resistance members but also caused a split in the group , the reduced force continued its operations until February 1944 , when retaliation for a raid on a police garrison lowered their membership to a critical point .
By March , however , Brooks ' unit had grown to 110 men and he was promoted to Second Lieutenant and put in charge of a band of 40 soldiers , including Duncan . His guerrilla activities expanded to include larger raids , reprisal attacks , and the assassination of more important members of the Nazi regime . He would later earn the Polish Cross of Valor for helping lead over 100 of his men out of a German encirclement to safety without a single casualty . He made his way to the Russian front line in January 1945 , and was eventually transferred from Lviv to Odessa , Port Said , Cairo , and finally London , where he arrived in March 1945 .
Promoted to the rank of Warrant Officer during his tenure as a prisoner of war , Brooks was informed upon his arrival that his father had died in May of the previous year . He returned to Canada in June . He was awarded the Military Cross for his actions during the conflict , as well several other campaign and achievement medals such as the 1967 Canadian Centennial Medal and the silver Polish Cross of Merit with Swords . He was one of only five RCAF members to receive the Military Cross during World War II ( as it is primarily granted to soldiers serving in Army units ) and his citation was the longest .
= = MRES and 1948 Winter Olympics = =
Eventually promoted to Temporary Flying Officer , Brooks began working for the Missing Research and Enquiry Service ( MRES ) , which was an initiative to locate individuals from the Commonwealth of Nations who were missing or killed in action during World War II over hostile territory . He worked with the service for nearly two years , from November 1945 through July 1947 , as a Search Officer in Denmark , Norway , and as a Section Leader in the American Zone of Germany . Brooks and a colleague sailed a fishing smack around Cape Nordkinn in the Arctic Circle , the most northerly coastal point of the mainland of Europe , in the search for missing airmen . It was during his tenure with MRES that he met his wife Birthe . He also played ice hockey during his downtime in Scandinavia with the U.S. Army Allstars , and was selected to be a member of Canada 's national delegation to the 1948 Winter Olympics . This squad , known as the Ottawa RCAF Flyers , consisted entirely of members of the Royal Canadian Air Force .
The team 's first exhibition game , a 7 @-@ 0 defeat for the Flyers against the McGill Redmen , led to calls for the squad being scrapped and replaced with collegiate players . After a subsequent 6 @-@ 2 loss against the Army , several players from the Ottawa New Edinburghs were added to the lineup and , by the time that the team was set to depart for St. Moritz , ten of the original eighteen members had been replaced , although Brooks remained .
In the end the Canadians captured the gold medal at the Olympic tournament . Although Brooks remained a reserve player and did not see any time on the ice , he did receive a gold medal and was selected to be his nation 's flag bearer during the opening ceremonies . On February 9 , the day after the final , he was finally afforded the opportunity to marry his fiancee Birthe in a ceremony that included Barbara Ann Scott , a Canadian Olympic gold medalist in figure skating , as a bridesmaid . He then joined the rest of the squad on an exhibition series across Europe , winning thirty @-@ four and drawing five of forty @-@ four games prior to returning to Canada in April . Brooks , along with the rest of the Flyers , was inducted into the Canadian Olympic Hall of Fame in 2008 .
= = Later life = =
Following the Olympics , Brooks returned to the RCAF to work in the field of military intelligence . He was first posted in the Maritimes in 1954 , and stayed there for several years until heading to Paris , France to be a staff officer at Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe ( SHAPE ) . He then returned to Canada to work at an RCAF station in Moisie , Quebec from 1965 through 1967 , as the first fully bilingual RCAF officer . From there he served at the Canadian Armed Forces Headquarters in Ottawa from 1967 through 1971 , during which time he was sent to assess the severity of Quebec 's 1970 October Crisis . Following his 1971 retirement from the Armed Forces , he took up a position as an administrator at the University of Ottawa , eventually rising to the position of Housing Director . Brooks died on February 1 , 1984 of a heart attack while sitting at his desk . Four years later , the university named one of the student residences in his honour .
= Aaliyah ( album ) =
Aaliyah is the third and final studio album by American R & B singer Aaliyah . It was released on July 7 , 2001 , by Blackground Records and Virgin Records America . After raising her profile with hit soundtrack singles during the late 1990s , Aaliyah started to work on the album in 1998 , but rescheduled its recording around her developing film career . She resumed recording the record in 2000 at Sing Sing Studios in Australia , where she shot her role for the 2002 film Queen of the Damned during the day and recorded songs at night . Aaliyah worked primarily with Blackground 's in @-@ house crew of writers and producers , including Bud 'da , J. Dub , Rapture , and Eric Seats , as well as longtime collaborator Timbaland .
Aaliyah is an R & B and neo soul record with music drawing from funk , hip hop , alternative rock , and electronica , among other styles . The producers incorporated synthesizer melodies , fragmented beats , distorted guitar , and eccentrically manipulated vocals and song structures . Much of Aaliyah dealt with the complexities of romantic love and different stages in a relationship . Most of the songs were written by lyricist Static Major , who shared a close friendship and strong rapport with Aaliyah . She viewed the album as a reflection of herself as both a young adult and a matured vocalist .
Aaliyah received highly positive reviews from critics and debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 , but sold diminishingly afterwards . When Blackground and Virgin wanted a high charting single to increase the album 's sales , Aaliyah shot a music video for the song " Rock the Boat " in the Bahamas , but died in a plane crash on a return flight to the United States on August 25 , 2001 . After her death , sales of the album skyrocketed and propelled it to number one on the Billboard 200 . Aaliyah was released during a period of peak activity in contemporary R & B and , since its initial reception , has been cited by critics as one of the best R & B records of its time .
= = Background = =
Aaliyah released her second album One in a Million in 1996 , and graduated from high school the following year . She gained further exposure with radio hits from film soundtracks , including her 1998 single " Are You That Somebody ? " . After it became the biggest hit of her career at that point , Aaliyah wanted to keep a lower profile and avoid overexposure . A follow @-@ up record was planned for February 1999 , but she postponed its recording to develop an acting career , which led to a starring role in the 2000 film Romeo Must Die . The film heightened her profile significantly , while the soundtrack 's single " Try Again " became her first number @-@ one pop hit . Her label Blackground Records used the film and its soundtrack to set up a distribution deal with Virgin Records America , which would distribute Blackground 's subsequent releases globally , including her self @-@ titled third album .
= = Recording and production = =
Aaliyah began recording the album in 1998 . She recorded a few songs , including two with longtime collaborator Timbaland , before working on Romeo Must Die . In 1999 , while working on the record in New York City , Aaliyah called and asked Trent Reznor , one of her musical idols , to produce a song , but they could not coordinate their schedules . She intended to finish the album by the end of 2000 and resumed its recording while filming in Australia for Queen of the Damned ( 2002 ) , as she shot her part for the film during the day and recorded songs at night . She said in an interview for Billboard , " there were nights when I didn 't go into the studio — I was too tired . On the weekends , I always made it . " Jomo Hankerson , Blackground president and Aaliyah 's cousin , said that he had to " bribe the producers " , who did not want to " go halfway around the world ! " , but ultimately had " a beautiful time ... making hot music " .
Most of the album 's songs were recorded at either Sony Studios in New York City or Sing Sing Studios in Melbourne , including " Loose Rap " , which was done at both studios . Aaliyah recorded " More Than a Woman " at Manhattan Center Studios , " U Got Nerve " at Soundtracks Studios in New York City , " We Need a Resolution " at Westlake Studios , and " I Care 4 U " at Magic Mix Studios and Music Grinder Studios in Los Angeles . She had first recorded " I Care 4 U " , written by past collaborator Missy Elliott , in 1996 for One in a Million , but scrapped it after that album 's completion . Aaliyah worked with Blackground Records ' in @-@ house crew of musicians , songwriters , and producers , including novice producers Bud 'da , J. Dub , Rapture , and Eric Seats . Music manager Jimmy Henchman , a friend of Aaliyah 's manager Barry Hankerson , helped coordinate the record 's production and arranged for the producers and writers to work with Aaliyah .
Static from the R & B band Playa wrote most of the album 's lyrics . While his band was growing apart , he was invited by Blackground to be a lead writer for the album after writing " Are You That Somebody ? " and " Try Again " . Static was a part of Aaliyah 's close group of friends , which included Missy Elliott and Timbaland , and shared an infatuation with her . He found Aaliyah to be ideal for his songwriting style , while she believed that he could accurately portray her feelings . A subtly sexual lyricist , he wrote " Rock the Boat " for her in 1999 , but Blackground felt she was not ready for the song . Barry Hankerson said of his songwriting , " We always were protective over every lyric ... But he did things where you never felt offended . You just felt like you overheard someone thinking ... he was clever ... Aaliyah depended on him [ and ] he depended on her . " Elliott said that he was " a part of that bridge of Aaliyah growing up lyrically " . While she discussed the lyrics with Static , Aaliyah consulted Bud 'da about the sound and musical direction of the album . She was interested in learning about the UK garage scene at the time .
In March 2001 , Aaliyah finished recording the album after having filmed her part in Queen of the Damned for four months , which ultimately delayed the album 's release . In Australia , she also did a photo shoot for Aaliyah with photographers Jeff Dunas , Jonathan Mannion , David LaChapelle , and Albert Watson . Aaliyah handled five pythons at the shoot and developed an affinity for snakes , finding them " dangerous , but quite beautiful " and representative of her on the album . She revisited the snake theme in her music video for " We Need a Resolution " in April and told MTV , " They live in solitude , [ and ] there are times in my life [ when ] I just want to be by myself . There are times I can 't even figure myself out . I feel they are very complex creatures , [ but ] at the same time , they 're sexy , too . That 's why they represent Aaliyah pretty well . " She described the record as " a good reflection of [ myself ] and the person [ I am ] today " , saying in an interview for Jet magazine , " I am a young adult now , and I think this album shows my growth vocally . " Aaliyah was mastered by Bernie Grundman at his studio in Los Angeles .
= = Music and lyrics = =
An R & B and neo soul album , Aaliyah featured midtempo funk songs , hip hop @-@ textured uptempo tracks , and slow jams that draw on older soul influences . Along with contemporary urban sounds , its music incorporated Middle @-@ Eastern influences , muted alternative rock , and , particularly on Timbaland 's songs for the album , Latin timbres . " Never No More " mixed both older soul and modern hip hop sounds with string arrangements by producer Bud 'da , while " Read Between the Lines " was a rhythmic digital samba with Latin percussion . Aaliyah 's production featured synthesizer melodies , vintage syndrums , distorted guitar , staccato arrangements , and layered , eccentrically manipulated vocals . John Mulvey of NME found its sound subtle and lacking " bombast and histrionics " , while the magazine 's Alex Needham likened its " otherworldly " , high frequency production to dub reggae and the dark , spacious dance music of Dr. Dre and Massive Attack . In Stephen Thomas Erlewine 's opinion , the album was distinct from the older soul leanings of Macy Gray and Jill Scott , as its music was unconventional yet modern , " turning out a pan @-@ cultural array of sounds , styles , and emotions " .
Aaliyah 's beats were produced to sound fragmented , exhibiting techno and electro textures . Tracks such as " Loose Rap " , " Extra Smooth " , and " What If " featured unconventional song structures experimenting with resolution . " I Can Be " and " What If " incorporated 2 @-@ step and rock elements , although the latter song drew particularly from Detroit techno and industrial rock . On the club @-@ influenced " More Than a Woman " , Aaliyah sang over harsh @-@ sounding synthesizer and guitar sounds , while " Loose Rap " featured underwater noises , low @-@ key electronica in the style of the Neptunes , and harmonically soft vocals declaring " it ain 't just rhythm and blues " . Ernest Hardy of Rolling Stone compared the album 's experimentation to the sounds on OutKast 's Stankonia ( 2000 ) , Sade 's Lovers Rock ( 2000 ) , and Missy Elliott 's Miss E ... So Addictive ( 2001 ) . According to Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani , " like Elliott 's genre @-@ bending So Addictive , Aaliyah provides a missing link between hip @-@ hop and electronica . "
The lyrics on Aaliyah explored the intricacies of romantic love and phases in a relationship such as heartache , frivolous infatuation , and issues near the end of a relationship . Subtle , lighthearted humor and witty sound effects such as comical vocal manipulation interspersed the themes of heartbreak and eroticism . According to Citysearch 's Justin Hartung , the record " transforms the confusion of young adulthood into exhilarating freedom " . Bob Waliszewski of Plugged In observed female empowerment @-@ themed songs that showed a " healthy self @-@ respect " by Aaliyah , who " doesn 't put up with unfaithful cads ( ' You Got Nerve ' ) , mind games ( ' I Refuse ' ) , self @-@ impressed hunks ( ' Extra Smooth ' ) , gossip and envy ( ' Loose Rap ' ) , or physical abuse ( ' Never No More ' ) " . The key @-@ shifting , drum and bass @-@ influenced " Extra Smooth " addressed an enthusiastic courtship and was inspired by a conversation between Aaliyah and Static about how men try to act suave , while " Loose Rap " was titled after the slang phrase of the same name and dismissed romantic admirers who use trite pick @-@ up lines . " Those Were the Days " dispassionately dismissed a male lover , while " What If " angrily threatened an unfaithful lover and by extension similar men . On " I Care 4 U " , the narrator tried to console a friend who is heartbroken , but found herself distressed by unrequited feelings she has for him .
Aaliyah sang with restrained soprano vocals throughout the album . Vibe magazine 's Hyun Kim argued that its songs drew focus to her singing more than her previous records , " bringing it to the forefront as opposed to hiding it behind the layered production " . " Rock the Boat " was sung with breathless vocals by Aaliyah , who instructed her lover on how to please her sexually and equated her erotic high to a drug high . Ballads such as " I Care 4 U " , " Never No More " , and " I Refuse " were sung more emotively , expressing melancholy qualities and hurt . On " I Can Be " , Aaliyah sang from the perspective of an adulterous man 's mistress who wanted to be his foremost girlfriend . Alex Macpherson from The Guardian wrote that " Aaliyah 's blank , numbed delivery " on the song " makes being the other woman seem like an emotionally masochistic form of self @-@ medication " . Biographer Christopher John Farley said she " emotionally detailed a song " unlike on her previous albums and that " her gentle voice now seemed like something elemental , a kindly wind blowing through the branches of a big tree . " According to Joshua Clover , Aaliyah pushed musical notes " into strange corners of syncopation 's shifty architecture " on the more " shape @-@ defying " tracks . He wrote that " she makes the sonics tell the story , creating meaning outside the lyrics , pleasure beyond the hooks . "
= = Release and reception = =
After Aaliyah was released in July 2001 , it debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 albums chart , selling 187 @,@ 000 copies in the week of August 4 . Although it was the highest sales week of Aaliyah 's career , the album initially sold slower than her previous record , One in a Million . Blackground and Virgin , which had invested heavily in Aaliyah 's commercial performance , wanted a single with a high chart placement to help increase sales . " We Need a Resolution " had been released as the lead single on April 13 , but underperformed on radio and only reached number fifty @-@ nine on the Billboard Hot 100 . In August , Aaliyah shot a music video for " More Than a Woman " in Los Angeles and then travelled to the Bahamas to shoot a video for " Rock the Boat " . But after its completion , she and several crew members who were returning to the United States died in a plane crash on August 25 . Blackground executives were uncertain when they would release the album 's next single and video .
The album 's sales skyrocketed after Aaliyah 's death . Before her death , its sales had been diminishing since the album 's release in July and stood at more than 447 @,@ 000 copies sold . News of her death was reported on the last day of Nielsen SoundScan 's sales tracking week , during which Aaliyah sold 62 @,@ 000 copies , a 41 @.@ 5 % increase from its past week 's sales . The following week , it sold 305 @,@ 500 copies and ascended from number 19 to number one on the Billboard 200 . It was the record 's highest sales week and marked the first time a recording artist climbed to number one posthumously since John Lennon in 1980 with his album Double Fantasy . It was also Aaliyah 's only album to top any of Billboard 's charts . The record sold more than one million copies by September 19 and 2 @.@ 06 million copies by February 25 , 2002 . In the US , Aaliyah spent 68 weeks on the Billboard 200 and , by December 2009 , had sold 2 @.@ 6 million copies .
Blackground , which had ended its joint deal with Virgin in November , wanted to send the video for " More Than a Woman " to domestic outlets , but it required both labels to work together . Blackground subsequently moved to Universal Records , and the video was first aired in Europe . In the United Kingdom , " More Than a Woman " was released as a single on January 7 , 2002 , and entered the singles chart at number one , while Aaliyah re @-@ entered the albums chart at number 65 ; it had originally entered the chart at number 25 on July 28 , 2001 . Two weeks after " More Than a Woman " reached number one , the album jumped 17 spots to number five on January 27 , 2002 . Aaliyah went on to spend 31 weeks on the British charts . It also reached number nine on the record charts in France , Germany , and the Netherlands , where it charted for 33 , 41 , and 46 weeks , respectively .
Aaliyah received highly positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 76 , based on 14 reviews . Michael Odell of The Guardian called it a flawless blend of pop and R & B that was " as much a brochure for the current state of R & B production facilities " as it was a showcase for Aaliyah 's singing . He found the music 's textures " scintillating " and believed its distinguishing characteristic to be " a playful and confident reworking of the [ R & B ] canon " . In the Chicago Tribune , Brad Cawn wrote that Aaliyah demonstrated Sade 's grace and Missy Elliott 's daring with fashionable neo soul that was " equal parts attitude and harmony , and all urban music perfection " , while Russell Baillie from The New Zealand Herald deemed the music innovative dance @-@ pop on what he called " a cohesive , detailed and disarmingly enticing album " . Simon Price , writing for The Independent , cited the record as " further evidence that black pop is the avant garde " . In a review for The A.V. Club , Nathan Rabin argued that the album established Aaliyah as a significant artist unobscured by her collaborators , while Hardy from Rolling Stone called it " a near @-@ flawless declaration of strength and independence " in which Aaliyah explored her " fantasies and strengths " . Writing for Spin , Clover viewed the record as her most profound work and said she had made " art " out of Timbaland and Static 's " formal finesse " by " investing sound schemes with urgency and emotional intricacy " .
In a less enthusiastic review , Connie Johnson from the Los Angeles Times found the production unadventurous and felt the lyrics lacked the depth and " personal revelation that gives music some immediacy " . Mulvey deemed Aaliyah " graceful " and " satisfying rather than extraordinary " in his review for NME , saying although it was redeemed by Static 's consistent songwriting , Timbaland should have contributed more songs . Like Mulvey , Q remarked that its music was decent rather than innovative , with some filler . In Entertainment Weekly , Craig Seymour wrote that there were a few songs that strayed from her musical strengths , but elsewhere she " skillfully portrays love as part woozy thrill , part pulse @-@ racing terror " . Robert Christgau gave the record a three @-@ star honorable mention , indicating " an enjoyable effort consumers attuned to its overriding aesthetic or individual vision may well treasure " . In his column for The Village Voice , he named " We Need a Resolution " and " U Got Nerve " as highlights and called Aaliyah " a slave to her beats , but a proud slave " .
Aaliyah was named the best album of 2001 by Slant Magazine and one of the ten best records of the year by The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution and Time magazine . NME ranked it at number 39 on their year @-@ end list . The album finished 73rd in the Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics published by The Village Voice . Christgau , who created and supervised the poll , said Aaliyah finally " developed material nobody can deny " on " a good album " . The record also finished 37th in the annual poll run by German music magazine Spex . For the album , Aaliyah was posthumously awarded an NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Female Artist . At the 2002 American Music Awards , it won in the category of Favorite R & B / Soul Album . In 2002 , Aaliyah received a Grammy Award nomination for Best R & B Album . " Rock the Boat " was nominated for Best Female R & B Vocal Performance . " More Than a Woman " was nominated in the same category in 2003 . In 2005 , Aaliyah was ranked number 66 on GQ 's 2005 list of the " 100 Coolest Albums in the World " . Stylus Magazine ranked it 47 on their list of the " Top 50 Albums of 2000 – 2005 " ; the publication 's David Drake ranked it eighth on his own list . Vibe included it as one of their " 150 Essential Albums of the Vibe Era " in 2007 . A few years later , Aaliyah was named by Slant Magazine as the 72nd best record of the 2000s decade .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Along with Aaliyah 's burgeoning film career , the album was a part of her rising mainstream success in 2001 . In a retrospective review , Steve Huey from AllMusic called it her most consummate record and said it " completed the singer 's image overhaul into a sensual yet sensitive adult " . Erlewine , the website 's senior editor , called the album " a statement of maturity and a stunning artistic leap forward " , while BBC Music 's Daryl Easlea felt it made Aaliyah 's two previous accomplished albums " look like exercises in juvenilia " . According to PopMatters critic Quentin B. Huff , she had never used her singing to complement her music 's innovative production before with as much variety , conviction , and success as on Aaliyah , which he said was also known as " The Red Album " because of its red artwork . Huff believed the record showcased the growing rapport between Aaliyah and her collaborators , and disproved questions about how she would continue recording music while broadening her profile . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Keith Harris wrote " Aaliyah had grown from studio puppet to a powerful R & B archetype — a more self @-@ aware Ronnie Spector for a time that requires more self @-@ awareness of its young adults . "
Before her death , Aaliyah had planned to embark on the largest concert tour of her career to support the album . Her recording sessions for Aaliyah produced many leftover tracks that were posthumously archived by Blackground and mostly left unreleased because of internal conflicts and legal complications between the label , Aaliyah 's family , and the producers . The compilation album I Care 4 U was released in 2002 and featured six previously unreleased songs from the sessions for Aaliyah .
Aaliyah 's re @-@ emergence with the album in mid @-@ 2001 had coincided with a period of peak activity in contemporary R & B , as well as the popularity of neo soul . According to Erlewine , Aaliyah was " one of the strongest urban soul records of its time " , while The Guardian cited it as the peak of R & B 's golden age at the " turn of the century " . Alexis Petridis , the newspaper 's lead critic , believed Aaliyah had recorded her most engaging music in a year when R & B and hip hop demonstrated the most creativity in popular music . The Guardian 's Rebecca Nicholson attributed Timbaland 's subsequent commercial success with singers such as Justin Timberlake and Nelly Furtado to his experience producing Aaliyah , writing that he " hasn 't come close to creating anything as sonically stunning since " . Although Jon Caramanica from Vibe believed it " redefines the category " , he said Aaliyah " may be the best
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soul album of the young millenium " , calling its music " daring in construction , gorgeous from conception ... damn near post @-@ R & B " . Q journalist Eve Barlow credited the album for " creating a blueprint that can be heard across pop music today " with acts such as R & B singers Beyoncé and The Weeknd , and indie pop band The xx .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Anna of East Anglia =
Anna ( or Onna ; killed 653 or 654 ) was king of East Anglia from the early 640s until his death . He was a member of the Wuffingas family , the ruling dynasty of the East Angles . He was one of the three sons of Eni who ruled the kingdom of East Anglia , succeeding some time after Ecgric was killed in battle by Penda of Mercia . Anna was praised by Bede for his devotion to Christianity and was renowned for the saintliness of his family : his son Jurmin and all his daughters – Seaxburh , Æthelthryth , Æthelburh and possibly a fourth , Wihtburh – were canonised .
Little is known of Anna 's life or his reign , as few records have survived from this period . In 631 he may have been at Exning , close to the Devil 's Dyke . In 645 Cenwalh of Wessex was driven from his kingdom by Penda and , due to Anna 's influence , he was converted to Christianity while living as an exile at the East Anglian court . Upon his return from exile , Cenwalh re @-@ established Christianity in his own kingdom and the people of Wessex then remained firmly Christian .
Around 651 the land around Ely was absorbed into East Anglia , following the marriage of Anna 's daughter Æthelthryth . Anna richly endowed the monastery at Cnobheresburg . In 651 , in the aftermath of an attack by Penda on Cnobheresburg , Anna was forced to flee into exile , perhaps to the western kingdom of the Magonsæte . He returned to East Anglia in about 653 , but soon afterwards the kingdom was attacked again by Penda and at the Battle of Bulcamp the East Anglian army , led by Anna , was defeated by the Mercians , and Anna and his son Jurmin were both killed . Anna was succeeded by his brother , Æthelhere . Botolph 's monastery at Iken may have been built in commemoration of the king . After Anna 's reign , East Anglia seems to have been eclipsed by its more powerful neighbour , Mercia .
= = Early life and marriage = =
Anna was the son of Eni , a member of the ruling Wuffingas family , and nephew of Rædwald , king of the East Angles from 600 to 625 . East Anglia was an early and long @-@ lived Anglo @-@ Saxon kingdom in which a duality of a northern and a southern part existed , corresponding with the modern English counties of Norfolk and Suffolk .
Anna was married , according to Bede , who refers to the saint Sæthryth as " daughter of the wife of Anna , king of the East Angles " . In Abbott Folcard 's Life of St Botolph , written in the 11th century , Botolph is described as having been at one time the chaplain to the sisters of a king , Æthelmund , whose mother was named Sæwara . Folcard names two of Sæwara 's kinsmen as Æthelhere and Æthelwold . Since these are the names of two of Anna 's brothers , Steven Plunkett suggests that it is " tempting " to consider that Sæwara was married to Anna , and that Æthelmund might either be Anna 's full name , or the name of an otherwise unknown East Anglian sub @-@ king . The Liber Eliensis names Hereswith , the sister of Hild , abbess of Whitby , as Anna 's wife and the mother of Sæthryth , Seaxburh of Ely and Æthelthryth . However , the Liber Eliensis is regarded with caution by historians : Rosalind Love says that the mediaeval writers who interpreted Bede 's information about Hereswith made an " erroneous assumption " regarding her connection with Anna and his family . Historians now believe that Hereswith was Anna 's sister @-@ in @-@ law and that around the time that she married into the East Anglian royal family , Anna had already been king for a decade .
In 631 Anna was probably at the Suffolk village of Exning , an important settlement with royal connections , and , according to the Liber Eliensis , the birthplace of his daughter Æthelthryth . By tradition , Æthelthryth is said to have been baptised at Exning in a pool known as St Mindred 's Well . Exning was an important place strategically , as it stood just on the East Anglian side of the Devil 's Dyke , a major earthwork stretching between the Fen edge and the headwaters of the River Stour , built at an earlier date to defend the East Anglian region from attack . An early Anglo @-@ Saxon cemetery discovered there suggests the existence of an important site nearby , possibly a royal estate or regio .
= = King of the East Angles = =
= = = Accession and rule = = =
During 632 or 633 Edwin of Northumbria , with his centre of Christian power north of the River Humber , was overthrown . Edwin was slain and Northumbria was ravaged by Cadwallon ap Cadfan , supported by the Mercian king , Penda . The Mercians then turned on the kingdom of the East Angles and their king , Ecgric . At an unknown date ( possibly in the early 640s ) , they routed the East Anglian army and Ecgric and his predecessor Sigeberht were both slain . D. P. Kirby has suggested that as Sigeberht was alive when the Irish monk Fursey left for Gaul and found Erchinoald , ( which happened after Erchinoald became Mayor of the Neustrian palace in 641 ) , Sigeberht was probably killed around 640 or 641 . Penda 's victory marked the end of the line of kings of the East Angles who were directly descended from Rædwald . Some time after Penda 's victory , Anna became king of the East Angles , though the date of his accession is quite uncertain . The Liber Eliensis says that Anna died in the nineteenth year of his reign , and since he died in the mid @-@ 650s this would indicate a date around 635 . However , the Liber Eliensis is regarded by some historians as unreliable on this point , and Barbara Yorke suggests a possible date in the early 640s for Anna 's accession , noting that it could not have been after 645 as Anna is recorded as giving refuge to Cenwalh of Wessex in that year . It is probable that Anna became king with the assistance of the northern Angles . Throughout his reign he was the victim of Mercian aggression under Penda , but he also seems to have challenged the rise of Penda 's power . The British medievalist David Dumville has written that due to their rivalry for control over the Middle Anglian people , Mercia and East Anglia probably became hereditary enemies and Penda repeatedly attacked the East Angles from the mid @-@ 630s to 654 .
Anna arranged an important diplomatic marriage between his daughter Seaxburh and Eorcenberht of Kent , cementing an alliance between the two kingdoms . It was by means of marriages such as this that the kings of Kent could become well @-@ connected to other royal dynasties . Not all of Anna 's daughters were married into other royal families . During the 640s Anna 's daughter Æthelburg and his stepdaughter Sæthryth entered Faremoutiers Abbey in Gaul to live religious lives under abbess Fara . The first royal Anglo @-@ Saxons to become nuns , they made religious seclusion " an acceptable and desirable vocation for ex @-@ queens and royal princesses " , according to Barbara Yorke .
D. P. Kirby uses the presence of East Anglian princesses living under the veil in Gaul as evidence of the Frankish orientation of Anna 's kingdom at this time , continued since the reign of his predecessor Rædwald . The Wuffingas dynasty may have been connected with monastic foundations in the area around Faramoutiers through Anna 's predecessor Sigeberht , who had spent several years as an exile in Gaul and had become a devout and learned Christian due to his experiences of monastic life .
In 641 Oswald of Northumbria was slain in battle by Penda ( probably at Oswestry in Shropshire ) . Due to his death , Northumbria was split into two . The northern part , Bernicia , accepted Oswald 's brother Oswiu as their new king , but the southern Deirans refused to accept him and were ruled instead by a king of the original Deiran house , Oswine . Soon afterwards Cenwalh of Wessex , the brother of Oswald 's widow and himself married to Penda 's sister , renounced his wife . In 645 , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , Penda drove Cenwalh from his kingdom and into exile . During the following year , while a refugee at Anna 's court , he was converted to Christianity , returning in 648 to rule Wessex as a Christian king . Anna probably provided military support for Cenwalh 's return to his throne .
Anna 's hold on the western limits of his kingdom , which bordered on the Fen lands that surrounded the Isle of Ely , was strengthened by the marriage in 651 ( or slightly later ) of his daughter Æthelthryth to Tondberht , a prince of the South Gyrwe , a people living in the fens who may have been settled in the area around Ely . Æthelthryth , accompanied by her minister Owine , travelled from Ely to Northumbria when she married for the second time , to Ecgfrith .
= = = Exile = = =
During his reign Anna endowed the monastery at Cnobheresburg with rich buildings and objects . The monastery was built in about 633 by Fursey after he arrived in East Anglia . In time , weary of attacks on the kingdom , Fursey left East Anglia for good , leaving the monastery to his brother Foillan . When in 651 Penda attacked the monastery , Anna and his men arrived and held the Mercians back . This gave Foillan and his monks enough time to escape with their books and valuables , but Penda defeated Anna and drove him into exile , possibly to the kingdom of Merewalh of the Magonsætan , in western Shropshire . He returned to East Anglia in about 654 .
= = = Death , burial place and successors = = =
Soon after 653 , when Penda made his son Peada the ruler of the Middle Angles ( but still continued to rule his own country ) , the Mercian assault on East Anglia was repeated . The opposing armies of Penda and Anna met at Bulcamp , near Blythburgh in Suffolk . The East Anglians were defeated and many were slain , including King Anna and his son Jurmin . Anna 's death is mentioned in the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle in the entry for 653 or 654 , " Her Anna cining werð ofslagen ... " – ' Here Anna was killed ' – but no other details of the battle in which he died are given .
Blythburgh , a mile from Bulcamp and situated near the fordable headwaters of the Blyth estuary , was afterwards believed to be the location of the tombs of Anna and Jurmin . It is a candidate for a monastic site or a royal regio ( estate ) . According to Peter Warner , the Latin derivation of part of the nearby place @-@ name ' Bulcamp ' indicates its ancient origins , and mediaeval sources which claim continuous Christian worship at Blythburgh throughout the Anglo @-@ Saxon period provide circumstantial evidence of its connections with East Anglian royalty and Christianity . Part of an 8th @-@ century whalebone diptych or writing @-@ tablet , used for liturgical purposes , has been found near the site .
Saint Botolph began to build his monastery at Icanho , now conclusively identified as Iken , Suffolk , in the year that Anna was killed , possibly to commemorate the king . Anna was succeeded in turn by his two brothers Æthelhere and Æthelwold , who may have ruled jointly . It is possible that Æthelhere was set up as a puppet ruler by Penda or was his ally , as he was one of the 30 duces that accompanied Penda when he attacked Oswiu of Northumbria at an unidentified location called the Winwæd in 655 or 656 . Penda himself was killed at the Winwæd , after having steadily increased his power over a period of 13 years . Æthelhere ( who was also slain at the Battle of the Winwæd ) and Æthelwold were succeeded by the descendants of Anna 's youngest brother , Æthelric .
Bede praised Anna 's piety in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People , and modern historians have since regarded Anna as a devout king , but his reputation as a devoted Christian is mainly because he produced a son and four daughters who were all made into Anglo @-@ Saxon saints . Five hundred years after his death , his tomb at Blythburgh was ( according to the Liber Eliensis ) still " venerated by the pious devotion of faithful people " .
= = Descendants = =
Anna 's children were all canonised . The eldest , Seaxburh , was the wife of Eorcenberht of Kent . She ruled Kent from 664 until her son Ecgberht came of age . Æthelthryth , according to the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , founded the monastery at Ely in 673 . Another daughter , Æthelburh , spent her life at the nunnery of Faremoutiers . Anna 's son , Jurmin , was of warrior age in 653 when he was killed in battle .
By tradition , Anna is said to have had a fourth daughter , Wihtburh , an abbess at Dereham ( or possibly West Dereham ) , where there was a royal double monastery . She may never have existed : Bede fails to mention her and she first appears in a calendar in the late 10th century Bosworth Psalter . She may have been a character specifically created by the religious community at Ely , where her remains were supposed to have been taken after being stolen from Dereham and subsequently used as visual proof of the incorruptibility of a saint 's body , a substitute for her sister Æthelthryth , whose body had to remain unexamined in her tomb . Manuscript F of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , which dates from about 1100 , mentions Wihtburh 's death when it records that her body was found uncorrupted in 798 , 55 years after she died . The resulting date for her death of 743 is too far too late for her to have been a sister of Æthelthryth , who was born in 636 .
= Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes =
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes ( Japanese : マーヴル VS . カプコン クラッシュ オブ スーパー ヒーローズ , Hepburn : Māvuru bāsasu Kapukon : Kurasshu obu Sūpā Hīrōzu ) is a crossover fighting game developed and published by Capcom . It is the third installment in the Marvel vs. Capcom series , which features characters from Capcom 's video game franchises and comic book series published by Marvel Comics . The game debuted in Japanese arcades in January 1998 . It was ported to the Dreamcast and PlayStation , which were released from 1999 through 2000 . The game was re @-@ released in 2012 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 as part of the Marvel vs. Capcom Origins collection .
Players select a team of characters from the Marvel and Capcom universes to engage in combat and attempt to knock out their opponents . In contrast to the series ' previous entry , Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter , the game features characters from numerous Capcom video game franchises , rather than strictly Street Fighter characters . While the gameplay is largely identical to its predecessor , Clash of Super Heroes features two distinct changes : the removal of the traditional character assist system and the introduction of the " Variable Cross " attack .
The Dreamcast version of the game was praised for its visuals , gameplay , and translation of the original arcade experience . Due to the PlayStation 's limited RAM capacity , Capcom removed tag team battles in an attempt to preserve the game 's speed and graphical integrity . Consequently , the PlayStation port received mixed reviews . A sequel to Clash of Super Heroes , Marvel vs. Capcom 2 : New Age of Heroes , was released in 2000 .
= = Gameplay = =
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes is the third entry in the Marvel vs. Capcom series of 2D fighting games . The game utilizes similar tag team @-@ based game mechanics to its predecessor , Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter . Before starting each match , the player selects a team of two fighters to compete in one @-@ on @-@ one combat . The player is free to swap between their characters at any point during battle . While one character fights , their teammate resting off @-@ screen slowly regenerates their life gauge . The first team to exhaust their opponent 's vitality wins the match ; however , if the timer runs out before either team is knocked out , the player with the most remaining health is declared the winner .
Clash of Super Heroes features two significant gameplay changes from Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter . The game removes the " Variable Assist " feature used in the previous installment , which allows the player to summon their offscreen teammate to perform a special attack , in favor of the " Guest Character / Special Partner " system . While similar in function , guest characters are randomly allocated to each player at the beginning of a match . They are also limited to a few uses per round . Clash of Super Heroes introduces a new technique called the " Variable Cross " , also known as a " Duo Team Attack " . When executing a Variable Cross , the player can attack their opponent with both characters simultaneously for a limited time . In addition , the player is given unlimited use of the " Hyper Combo Gauge " , a colored meter towards the bottom of the screen which allows the player to perform several special techniques , allowing them to pull off multiple Hyper Combos , moves which deliver heavy damage to the opponent , in quick succession .
= = = Modes = = =
The Dreamcast version of Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes includes five game modes : Arcade , Versus , Training , Survival , and Cross Fever . In Arcade Mode , the player must defeat several artificial intelligence @-@ controlled teams to reach the final boss character , Onslaught , a character from the X @-@ Men comic book series . Upon completion , the player views a cinematic ending unique to each playable fighter . In Versus Mode , two players can choose their characters , handicap level , and stages before competing against each other in battle locally . The player can practice moves and combos in Training Mode , where they can also adjust certain settings , such as AI difficulty , and the number of bars available in the Hyper Combo Gauge . In Survival Mode , the player fights through waves of enemies with a time limit ; in addition , the player 's life gauge is carried over through each round . Cross Fever Mode allows four players to simultaneously compete in a two @-@ on @-@ two match . In place of Cross Fever , the PlayStation version features an exclusive mode called Cross Over . Cross Over is the only mode in the PlayStation port that permits tag team gameplay , which was removed due to the console 's limited RAM capacity .
= = = Playable characters = = =
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes features a roster of 15 playable fighters . Unlike Marvel Super Heroes vs. Street Fighter , which limited itself to characters from the Street Fighter series , Clash of Super Heroes uses characters from other Capcom video game franchises , such as Darkstalkers , Mega Man , and Strider . The game features 20 unplayable guest characters , drawn from the Marvel and Capcom universes , which are used for support during battle . Guest characters from Marvel Comics include Cyclops , Jubilee , and Thor , while the Capcom side includes Arthur from Ghosts ' n Goblins , the Unknown Soldier from Forgotten Worlds , and Saki Omokane from Quiz Nanairo Dreams . The roster also contains six secret characters , which are accessed by inputting codes on the character select screen . Most of the secret characters are palette swaps of existing fighters with different moveset properties , such as Shadow Lady , a modified version of Chun @-@ Li ; the sole exception to this trend is Roll from the Mega Man series .
= = Development and release = =
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes was originally developed for the CP System II arcade system board . A direct Dreamcast port was revealed by the Computer Entertainment Software Association at the 1998 Tokyo Game Show . The Dreamcast version added the new game mode , Cross Fever , which permitted four @-@ player gameplay . The game later received a PlayStation port . However , the console 's RAM limitations required the developer to remove certain features , most notably the game 's tag team element ; thus , most game modes were restricted to two @-@ character battles , instead of four . This reduced the player 's secondary character to an assist role , similar to guest characters . To overcome the limitations , the PlayStation version had to implement a new gameplay mode called Cross Over . Cross Over Mode allows tag team play by forcing the players to fight with identical teams . For example , if Player 1 chooses Spider @-@ Man and Player 2 chooses Ryu , then Ryu and Spider @-@ Man would automatically be selected as Player 1 and Player 2 's secondary characters , respectively . The game also added an art gallery , where players could view game art and ending animations . Many frames of animation were also omitted as a result of insufficient RAM , particularly in larger character sprites .
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes debuted in Japanese arcades on January 23 , 1998 . The game was released on the Dreamcast on March 25 , 1999 in Japan , and October 7 , 1999 in North America . A European version for the Dreamcast , published by Virgin Interactive , was released on June 23 , 2000 . The game was ported to the PlayStation on November 11 , 1999 in Japan , where it was renamed Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes EX Edition . North America received the PlayStation version later on January 27 , 2000 .
A high @-@ definition version of the game was released , alongside Marvel Super Heroes , as part of the Marvel vs. Capcom Origins collection . Built using the arcade ROM , the compilation sought to maintain the original 's gameplay experience , while adding new features such as online multiplayer , challenges , and replay saving . It was released through the PlayStation Network on September 25 , 2012 in North America and October 10 , 2012 in Europe . The Xbox Live Arcade version was released in both North America and Europe on September 26 , 2012 . Following the apparent expiration of Capcom 's licensing contracts with Marvel Comics in 2013 , Marvel vs. Capcom Origins was removed from online stores in December 2014 .
= = Reception = =
Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes was released to generally favorable reviews . Aggregating review site GameRankings gave the Dreamcast and PlayStation versions scores of 80 % and 75 % , respectively .
Upon its release on the Dreamcast , Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes received positive reviews for its animation quality and fast gameplay . Game Informer lauded the game for its " seamless animation , in @-@ your @-@ face effects , and lightning @-@ quick gameplay " . In addition , the magazine praised the Dreamcast version for being a " flawless " translation of the original arcade version . Jeff Gerstmann of GameSpot also praised the visuals and combat , stating that it was " everything you 'd expect from an over @-@ the @-@ top , ultra @-@ flashy fighter " . Game Revolution , on the other hand , felt that Clash of Super Heroes lacked depth . The site criticized the Dreamcast port for not adding any significantly new features from the arcade version .
The PlayStation port received more mixed reviews than its Dreamcast counterpart . Gerstmann heavily faulted the game for its removal of tag team battles . He claimed that while it had " the same moves as the original game ... the shell surrounding those moves [ was ] completely different " . Doug Perry of IGN labeled the PlayStation version as " an average game " , praising its gameplay and lasting appeal , while criticizing its selection of fighting styles and soundtrack . GamePro praised the developer for making the decision to remove features in order to keep the speed and graphical integrity of the game without overloading the system ; however , they still recommended the Dreamcast version over it .
= = Sequel = =
A sequel to Marvel vs. Capcom : Clash of Super Heroes was announced by Capcom on December 1 , 1999 . The game , titled Marvel vs. Capcom 2 : New Age of Heroes , was initially developed for the Sega NAOMI arcade board , marking Capcom 's first attempt at a fighting game outside of the CP System II and III hardware systems . It features several significant gameplay changes from Clash of Super Heroes , such as three @-@ on @-@ three tag team battles , a new character assist system , and a more simplified control scheme . Marvel vs. Capcom 2 also includes a roster of 56 playable fighters , drawing numerous character sprites from Capcom 's previous Marvel @-@ licensed fighting games . Following its release in Japanese arcades in 2000 , the game received ports to the Dreamcast , PlayStation 2 , PlayStation 3 , Xbox , Xbox 360 , and iOS devices over the course of twelve years .
= Galaxy Supernova =
" Galaxy Supernova " is the eighth Japanese single by South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation . It was included on the group 's third Japanese studio album Love & Peace and was released as the second single from the album on September 18 , 2013 . The song was written by Frederik Tao Nordsø Schjoldan , Fridolin Nordsø Schjoldan , Kamikaoru , and Martin Hoberg Hedegaard , whilst production was handled by Nozomu Tsuchiya . Musically , " Galaxy Supernova " is an electropop song .
The song received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who praised its music styles and compared the song to the group 's previous Japanese singles " Mr. Taxi " and " Paparazzi " . The song peaked at number three on the Japanese Oricon Singles Chart and number four on the Japan Hot 100 . A music video for the track was released on September 5 , 2013 . To promote the song , Girls ' Generation performed live on music shows Secret Live and Live Monster in Japan .
= = Background and release = =
" Galaxy Supernova " was written by Frederik Tao Nordsø Schjoldan , Fridolin Nordsø Schjoldan , Kamikaoru , and Martin Hoberg Hedegaard , whilst production was handled by Nozomu Tsuchiya . It is an electropop song that features " pulsing " synthesizers in its composition . It was released as the second single from Girls ' Generation 's third Japanese album Love & Peace on September 18 , 2013 . The album was subsequently released in December 2013 .
It was released as a CD single in Japan by Nayutawave Records , and includes the B @-@ side track " Do the Catwalk " . Meanwhile , the digital single was released in several Asian countries including Japan , Hong Kong , Singapore and Taiwan by Universal Music Group . A limited CD + DVD edition of the single , which included a bonus music video for " Galaxy Supernova " , was released in Japan by Nayutawave Records . " Galaxy Supernova " was used in an advertisement campaign for Samantha Thavasa Jeans , the first jeans line from Japanese fashion company Samantha Thavasa , in conjunction with the group 's endorsement deal with the brand .
= = Reception = =
" Galaxy Supernova " received generally favorable reviews from music critics . Jeff Benjamin from Billboard praised the song 's catchy " earworm hooks " and compared it to the group 's previous Japanese singles " Mr. Taxi " and " Paparazzi " for the same electropop production . Patrick St. Michael , writing for The Japan Times , picked " Galaxy Supernova " as one of the outstanding songs that " play to [ the group ] ' s strengths " on its parent album Love & Peace and labelled it a successor to " Mr. Taxi " .
" Galaxy Supernova " was a commercial success in Japan . The single took the number four spot on its first day of release on Oricon Daily Singles Chart . The following day , it rose to the number one spot on the Daily Chart , selling 14 @,@ 565 physical copies . It peaked at number three on the Oricon Weekly Singles Chart , and became the eighth best @-@ selling physical single of September in Japan , selling 62 @,@ 371 copies .
" Galaxy Supernova " debuted at number 39 on the Japan Hot 100 — a chart operated by Billboard magazine — on September 23 , 2013 . The following week , it rose to number four on the chart , which later became its peak . It dropped to number nine on the chart the following week . On the Japan Adult Contemporary Airplay chart , the single debuted at number 75 on September 23 , 2013 , and later peaked at number six on September 30 , 2013 . " Galaxy Supernova " also peaked at number 22 on the Hot Top Airplay , and number two on the Hot Singles Sales . The song 's music video was the sixth most @-@ viewed K @-@ pop music video on YouTube in 2013 .
= = Music video and promotion = =
The accompanying music video for " Galaxy Supernova " , directed by Toshiyuki Suzuki , was released on September 5 , 2013 . The video features the members wearing multicolored jeans and outfits , dancing in a " flashy virtual reality world " , as described by Benjamin . A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes video was released on September 20 , 2013 , featuring scenes from the photo shoot for the Samantha Thavasa Jeans collection as well as the group practicing their choreography .
To promote the song in Japan , the group gave a Secret Live performance of " Galaxy Supernova " and " Gee " to 200 fans in Tokyo on the release day of the single and held a " Premium Talk " event on September 19 in Osaka . On November 4 , 2013 , the group held a live event in Tokyo for 500 people who bought the single . The group performed the song and the Japanese version of " Genie " on the Japanese television music show Live Monster on January 12 , 2014 .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the single 's liner notes .
= = Charts and sales = =
= = Release history = =
= Richard Riot =
The Richard Riot was a riot on March 17 , 1955 ( Saint Patrick 's Day ) in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . The riot was named after Maurice Richard , the star ice hockey player for the Montreal Canadiens of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Following a violent altercation on March 13 in which Richard hit a linesman , NHL president Clarence Campbell suspended him for the remainder of the 1954 – 55 NHL season , including the playoffs . Montreal fans protested that the suspension was too severe ; the team 's largely Francophone fan base claimed the length of the suspension was motivated by Richard 's French Canadian ethnicity . Outside of Montreal , however , the suspension was seen as justified and , if anything , too short .
On March 17 , Campbell appeared at the Montreal Forum for the Canadiens ' first game after Richard 's suspension . His presence provoked a riot at the Forum that spilled into the streets . The riot caused an estimated $ 100 @,@ 000 in property damage , thirty @-@ seven injuries , and 100 arrests . Tensions eased after Richard made a personal plea accepting his punishment and promising to return the following year to help the team win the Stanley Cup . The incident likely cost Richard the 1954 – 55 scoring title ( an honour Richard never achieved in his NHL career ) and played a role in the off @-@ season departure of longtime Canadiens head coach Dick Irvin .
= = Background = =
Maurice Richard was the star player for the Montreal Canadiens , and it was common for opponents to provoke him during games . Teams reportedly sent players onto the ice to purposefully annoy him by yelling ethnic slurs , hooking , slashing , and holding him as much as possible . Throughout his career , Richard was fined and suspended several times for retaliatory assaults on players and officials , including a $ 250 fine for slapping a linesman in the face less than three months before the March 13 , 1955 incident . Richard was considered the embodiment of French @-@ Canadians and was a hero during a time when they were seen as second @-@ class citizens . He was revered when he fought the " damn English " during games . In his book , The Rocket : A Cultural History of Maurice Richard , Benoît Melançon compares Richard to Major League Baseball 's Jackie Robinson by stating that both players represented the possibility for their minority groups to succeed in North America .
During the 1950s , Quebec 's industries and natural resources were controlled primarily by English Canadians or Americans . French @-@ speaking Quebecers were the lowest @-@ paid ethnic group in Quebec , which resulted in a sense that control rested with the Anglophone minority . Because of this and other factors , there had been growing discontent in the years before the riot . In early 1954 , Richard 's teammate , Bernie Geoffrion , was suspended in a move seen as anti @-@ Francophone . Following the suspension , Richard , who had a weekly column in the Samedi @-@ Dimanche newspaper , called President Campbell a " dictator " in print . The League in turn forced Richard to retract his statement and discontinue his column . In his 1976 biography of Richard , Jean @-@ Marie Pellerin wrote that his humiliation was shared by all Francophone Quebecers , who were sent running once more by the " English boot " . This was reflected in a Montreal newspaper 's editorial cartoon ( pictured ) , which portrayed Richard as an unruly schoolboy made to write lines by Campbell , shown as the teacher ; the cartoon had a deeper meaning as an example of the societal hierarchy that existed between English and French Canadians .
= = Incident = =
On March 13 , 1955 , an on @-@ ice episode sparked one of the worst incidents of hockey @-@ related violence in history . On that date in Boston , Richard was part of a violent confrontation in a game in between the Canadiens and their rival Boston Bruins . The Bruins ' Hal Laycoe , who had previously played defence for the Canadiens , high @-@ sticked Richard in the head during a Montreal power play . Richard required five stitches to close a cut that resulted from the high @-@ stick . Referee Frank Udvari signaled a delayed penalty , but allowed play to continue because the Canadiens had possession of the puck . When the play ended , Richard skated up to Laycoe , who had dropped his stick and gloves in anticipation of a fight , and struck him in the face and shoulders with his stick . The linesmen attempted to restrain Richard , who repeatedly broke away from them to continue his attack on Laycoe , eventually breaking a stick over his opponent 's body before linesman Cliff Thompson corralled him . Richard broke loose again and punched Thompson twice in the face , knocking him unconscious . Richard then left the ice with the Canadiens ' trainer . According to Montreal Herald writer Vince Lunny , Richard 's face resembled a " smashed tomato . " Richard was given a match penalty and an automatic $ 100 fine , and Laycoe a five @-@ minute major penalty plus a ten @-@ minute misconduct for the high stick .
Boston police attempted to arrest Richard in the dressing room after the game ended , but were turned back by Canadiens players who barred the door , preventing any arrest . Bruins management finally persuaded the officers to leave with a promise that the NHL would handle the issue . Richard was never arrested for the incident . He was instead sent to the hospital by team doctors after complaining of headaches and stomach pains .
The Laycoe incident was Richard 's second altercation with an official that season , after having slapped a linesman in the face in Toronto the previous December , for which he was fined $ 250 . Upon hearing the referee 's report , league president Clarence Campbell ordered all parties to appear at a March 16 hearing at his office in Montreal .
= = Hearing = =
The game 's on @-@ ice officials , Richard , Laycoe , Montreal assistant general manager Ken Reardon , Boston general manager Lynn Patrick , Montreal coach Dick Irvin , and NHL referee @-@ in @-@ chief Carl Voss attended the March 16 hearing . In his defence , Richard contended that he was dazed and thought Thompson was one of Boston 's players . He did not deny punching or attacking Laycoe .
After the hearing , Campbell issued a 1200 @-@ word statement to the press :
… I have no hesitation in coming to the conclusion that the attack on Laycoe was not only deliberate but persisted in the face of all authority and that the referee acted with proper judgment in awarding a match penalty . I am also satisfied that Richard did not strike linesman Thompson as a result of a mistake or accident as suggested … Assistance can also be obtained from an incident that occurred less than three months ago in which the pattern of conduct of Richard was almost identical , including his constant resort to the recovery of his stick to pursue his opponent , as well as flouting the authority of and striking officials . On the previous occasion he was fortunate that teammates and officials were more effective in preventing him from doing injury to anyone and the penalty was more lenient in consequence . At the time he was warned there must be no further incident … The time for probation or leniency is past . Whether this type of conduct is the product of temperamental instability or willful defiance of the authority in the games does not matter . It is a type of conduct which cannot be tolerated by any player — star or otherwise . Richard will be suspended from all games both league and playoff for the balance of the current season .
The suspension — the longest that Campbell ever issued during his thirty @-@ one @-@ year tenure as league President — was considered by many in Montreal to be unjust and unduly severe . Within minutes of the judgment 's dispensation , the NHL head office ( then in Montreal ) was deluged with hundreds of calls from enraged fans , many of whom made death threats against Campbell .
The general feeling around the league was that the punishment could have been more severe . Detroit Red Wings general manager Jack Adams said that Campbell " could do no less " and " I thought he would be suspended until January 1 of next season . " Red Wings forward Ted Lindsay , whom the league had disciplined earlier the same season for an incident in Toronto in which he attacked a Maple Leafs fan who had been threatening teammate Gordie Howe , expressed the stronger opinion that Richard was lucky not to get a life suspension : " In baseball , football or almost anything else that much would be almost automatic . I say they should have suspended him for life . " Bruins president Walter A. Brown agreed with Adams , saying " That 's the least they could do " ; Bruins player Fleming Mackell said , " If they had thrown the book at Richard in 1947 when he cut Bill Ezinicki and Vic Lynn , it might have stopped him and made him an even greater hockey player because of it . " Interest was high in the hockey world ; the Detroit Free Press reported its switchboard was swamped with calls .
= = Riot = =
Public outrage from Montreal poured in about what residents felt was excessive punishment . Many Québécois regarded the suspension as the English minority further attempting to subjugate the French majority and an attempt to humiliate French Canadians by " excessively punishing their favorite player " . Campbell , who received death threats , stated that he would not back down and announced his intention to attend the Canadiens ' next home game against the Red Wings on March 17 , despite advice that he not do so . Hundreds of demonstrators gathered in the Montreal Forum lobby two hours before the game . Attempts to " crash the gate " by these fans without tickets were denied by police . They then began to gather at Cabot Square across from the Forum . The crowd of demonstrators grew to 6 @,@ 000 . Some carried signs that denounced Campbell , and others had signs reading , among other things , " Vive Richard " ( Long live Richard ) , " No Richard , no Cup " , and " Our national sport destroyed " . The crowd , originally described as " jovial " , turned " surly " after police intervened at the ticket gate . After the mood turned foul , some members of the crowd began smashing windows and throwing ice chunks at passing streetcars .
The game against Detroit was a battle for first place , but the suspension unsettled the Canadiens . Goaltender Jacques Plante later recalled that the game seemed secondary , and players and officials were " casting worried glances at the sullen crowd " . Likewise , Dick Irvin said later , " The people didn 't care if we got licked 100 – 1 that night . "
Midway through the first period , with Montreal already down 2 – 0 , Campbell arrived with three secretaries from his office ( one of whom he would later marry ) . The 15 @,@ 000 spectators immediately started booing Campbell . Some fans began pelting him and his group with eggs , vegetables , and various debris for six straight minutes . At the end of the first period , Detroit had taken a 4 – 1 lead , and the barrage began again . Despite police and ushers ' attempts to keep fans away from Campbell , one fan , pretending to be a friend of Campbell 's , managed to elude security . As he approached , the fan extended his hand as if to shake Campbell 's . When Campbell reached out to shake his hand , the fan slapped him . As Campbell reeled from the attack , the fan reached back and delivered a punch . Police dragged the attacker away while he attempted to kick the NHL president . Shortly after the fan attack , a tear gas bomb was set off inside the Forum , not far from Campbell 's seat . Montreal Fire Chief Armand Pare mandated that the game be suspended for " the protection of the fans " , and the Forum was evacuated . Following the evacuation , Campbell took refuge in the Forum clinic , where he met with Canadiens general manager Frank Selke . The two wrote a note to Adams declaring the Red Wings the winner of the game due to the Forum 's ordered closure .
The departing crowd joined the demonstrators , and a riot ensued outside the Forum . Rioters were heard chanting " À bas Campbell " ( Down with Campbell ) and " Vive Richard " while they smashed windows , attacked bystanders , ignited newsstands , and overturned cars . More than fifty stores within a fifteen @-@ block radius of the Forum were looted and vandalized . Twelve police officers and twenty @-@ five civilians were injured . The riot continued well into the night , eventually ending at three A.M. , and it left Montreal 's Saint Catherine Street in shambles . Police estimated between forty @-@ one and 100 individuals were arrested . Damage was estimated to be $ 100 @,@ 000 ( $ 899 @,@ 291 in 2016 dollars ) to the neighborhood and the Forum itself . One jewelry store alone estimated its losses at $ 7 @,@ 000 ( $ 62 @,@ 950 in 2016 dollars ) .
Adams blamed Montreal officials after the game : " If they hadn 't pampered Maurice Richard , built him up as a hero until he felt he was bigger than hockey itself , this wouldn 't have happened . "
The incident was national news in Canada . Reporters lined up to see both Campbell and Richard on March 18 . Richard was reluctant to make a statement , fearing it could start another riot , but he eventually gave the following statement , both in French and English , over television to a national audience :
Because I always try so hard to win and had my troubles in Boston , I was suspended . At playoff time it hurts not be in the game with the boys . However , I want to do what is good for the people of Montreal and the team . So that no further harm will be done , I would like to ask everyone to get behind the team and to help the boys win from the New York Rangers and Detroit . I will take my punishment and come back next year to help the club and the younger players to win the Cup .
Campbell was unapologetic . He said that he considered it his duty as president to attend the game . Montreal mayor Jean Drapeau was livid at Campbell for attending , and he laid the blame for the riot on Campbell . A Montreal city councilor wanted Campbell arrested for inciting the riot . Years later , Canadiens player Jean Béliveau stated that , although he disagreed with Campbell 's decision to attend the game , as well as feeling Campbell might have been using his appearance to make a statement , he concluded that Campbell may have felt that if he did not attend he could appear to be hiding . He also noted that Campbell 's absence might not have made much of a difference .
= = Aftermath = =
The suspension came when Richard was leading the NHL in scoring and the Canadiens were battling Detroit for first place . Richard 's suspension also cost him the 1954 – 55 scoring title , the closest he ever came to winning it . When Richard 's teammate Bernie Geoffrion surpassed Richard in scoring by one point on the last day of the regular season , the Canadiens ' fans booed him .
The points from the forfeiture provided Detroit with the margin it needed to win first place overall and be guaranteed home @-@ ice advantage throughout the Stanley Cup playoffs . That season , the Canadiens lost the Cup Finals to Detroit in seven games , with the home team winning all seven games of a final for the first time . Richard retired in 1960 after the Canadiens ' fifth consecutive Stanley Cup , a record that still stands .
The episode was a prelude to the off @-@ season departure of coach Dick Irvin . Selke felt Irvin had riled Richard , thereby contributing to his " periodic eruptions " . Selke offered Irvin a job for life with the Canadiens , as long as it was in a non @-@ coaching capacity . Irvin turned him down and moved on to coach the Chicago Black Hawks , where he had begun his coaching career in 1930 – 31 . He was replaced by former Canadiens player Toe Blake . Irvin coached only one more season before succumbing to bone cancer .
= = Historical interpretation = =
The Richard Riot has taken on a significance greater than a mere sports riot in the fifty years since it happened . The sight of French Quebecers rioting over the perceived slight to a Quebec cultural icon like Richard led many commentators to believe it was a significant factor in Quebec 's Quiet Revolution of the 1960s . Furthermore , the cause of the riot has been suggested not to be as a result of the severity of the suspension ; what mattered was that the anglophone president of an anglophone league had suspended a Quebec player . French Canadians saw themselves as inherently disadvantaged within Canada and North America as a whole . Richard was seen as a hero by French Canadians , and almost a sort of a " revenge " against the anglophone establishment . The riot was a clear sign of rising ethnic tensions in Quebec . In an article published four days after the riot , journalist André Laurendeau was the first to suggest the riot was a sign of growing nationalism in Quebec . Entitled " On a tué mon frère Richard " ( My brother Richard has been killed ) , Laurendeau suggested the riot " betrayed what lay behind the apparent indifference and long @-@ held passiveness of French Canadians " .
On the other hand , Benoît Melançon argues that the riot has become part of the " Rocket Richard myth " and has taken on an importance that , in retrospect , is far greater than it actually had when it happened . He asserts , " Had there been no Riot , it is doubtful there would ever have been a Maurice Richard myth . " The riot ended up taking on greater significance as time passed , but not for the reasons many nonacademic commentators believe . Richard was in danger of being forgotten in the years immediately after his retirement , so he promoted himself , and his nascent myth , excessively :
There were Maurice Richard skates and jackets , but there were also Rocket ashtrays , Rocket transistor radios , and Rocket Richard Condensed Tomato Soup . Moreover , these products changed throughout history . " The principal impact of the trade in Richard … has been the transformation of Maurice Richard into a product , then into a label , and ultimately into a myth . "
He concludes by suggesting that the riot is now something it was not : " The riot has become the key event in turning Richard from a mere hockey player to a symbol of political resistance ( even if Richard himself was publicly apolitical and , according to this book , definitely not for an independent Quebec ) … According to this popular narrative , for the first time the people of Quebec stood up for themselves ; especially English Canada delights in anachronistically announcing that this was the beginning of the 1960s Quiet Revolution . " Perhaps the best way to explain how the interpretation of the riot changed is by looking at the change in the public perceptions of its antagonist : " It was necessary to overlook some of [ Richard 's ] character traits and to rewrite several episodes of his career " in order to elevate him into a mythical figure .
= Ontario Highway 525 =
Secondary Highway 525 , commonly referred to as Highway 525 , is a provincially maintained secondary highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . It is a short , remote secondary highway that links Highway 596 to the Wabaseemoong First Nations reserve . It is the second @-@ westernmost secondary highway in the province , Highway 673 being the first . The route was commissioned by 1982 along what was formerly Highway 596 ; a former use of the route number existed between 1956 and 1973 in Gravenhurst .
= = Route description = =
Highway 525 is a very remote highway in northwestern Ontario . There are no settlements along its 35 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 22 @.@ 1 mi ) length , and the closest human habitation is Minaki near its southern terminus and Whitedog near its northern terminus . The route begins west of Minaki , branching off from Highway 596 , which travels south to Kenora . It travels north along a wide strip of land bounded by Sand Lake to the east , and by Swan Lake and Tetu Lake to the west , all part of the Winnipeg River watershed . Zig @-@ zagging in a generally northward direction , the highway passes through thick boreal forest . At approximately its midpoint , the route meets the Cygnet Lake road , which provides access to a remote camp . The highway continues north , curving west immediately before ending at the entrance to the Wabaseemoong ( Islington ) reserve . The road continues into the reserve to provide access to Caribou Falls and Whitedog .
= = History = =
The current Highway 525 is not the original usage of the number . In 1956 , the number was one of several dozen Secondary Highways designated by the Department of Highways to improve connections between King 's Highways . The highway followed the route of present @-@ day Muskoka District Road 18 north from Highway 11 to the Muskoka Centre . It was decommissioned between early 1972 and late 1973 , shortly after the establishment of the District Municipality of Muskoka .
The current Highway 525 was designated by 1982 . Prior to that , the road it followed was an extension of Highway 596 that was designated in the mid @-@ 1970s . The route was gravel surfaced when it was assumed , but has since been paved .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 525 . The entirety of the route is located within Kenora District .
= Minuscule 543 =
Minuscule 543 in the Gregory @-@ Aland numbering ( ε 257 in Soden 's numbering and labelled 556 by Scrivener ) is a Greek minuscule manuscript of the New Testament , on parchment . Palaeographically it has been assigned to the 12th century .
The manuscript contains text of the four Gospels with unusual grammar forms and numerous errors . Textually it does not belong to any of the main text @-@ types , and is a member of the textual family Family 13 , known also as Ferrar Group . The lacunose manuscript is housed at the University of Michigan .
= = Description = =
= = = Contents = = =
The codex contains the text of the four Gospels , on 184 thick parchment leaves ( size 28 cm by 23 cm ) , with several lacunae ( Matthew 12 : 11 @-@ 13 : 10 ; Mark 8 : 4 @-@ 28 ; Luke 15 : 20 @-@ 16 : 9 ; John 2 : 22 @-@ 4 : 6 ; 4 : 52 @-@ 5 : 43 ; 11 : 21 @-@ 47 ) . One leaf was misplaced in binding . The parchment is coarse and yellowed by age .
The text of the codex was written two columns per page , 27 @-@ 30 lines per page , 17 letters per line , in minute hand , in brown ink . The same scribe wrote all four Gospels . There are breathings and accents used in regular form , but in some sort of system . There is not found iota subscript , iota adscriptum occurs very often ( especially in Mark ) .
The titles to the Gospels of Matthew and Mark run : Ευαγγέλιον εκ του κατά Ματθαίου ( Μάρκου ) . The titles to the Luke and John are usual : Ευαγγέλιον κατά Λουκάν ( Ιωάννην ) .
The lists of the κεφαλαια ( chapters ) are placed before every Gospel , numbers of the κεφαλαια are given at the left margin , with their τιτλοι ( titles ) in red at the top of pages . There is a division according to the Ammonian Sections , with a references to the Eusebian Canons . It contains lectionary markings , Synaxarion , Menologion , subscriptions , ρηματα , and στιχοι . The list of κεφαλαια to
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has been called a " specialised insectivore " because it does not prey upon certain insects , particularly those that feed upon C4 plants . Diet appears to be ontogenetic ( varying with age ) ; small fish do not consume any vegetative matter , whilst it comprises one @-@ fourth of the diet of larger fish . Diet also varies with location ; when upstream , T. chatareus feed on insects , but when in the estuary , they feed on crustaceans .
= = = Breeding = = =
Toxotes chatareus reproduce by spawning . Spawning in T. chatareus are homochronal ( females only spawn once per season ) and iteroparous ( spawning occurs more than once in a fish 's lifespan ) . Breeding in Toxotes chatareus occurs in the wet season . T. chatareus breed both in brackish and in fresh water . Spawning occurs in shallow , muddy lagoons . Females lay about 20 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 buoyant eggs , each 0 @.@ 4 millimetres in diameter . Females become mature at about 19 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) , and males become mature at about 18 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) . T. chatareus become reproductively active at 24 months . When they first hatch , larvae may be less than 4 mm in length ; when they first feed , they are 5 mm and their mouthparts have become well @-@ developed . There is no parental care in this species . Breeding in this species does not involve travelling downstream ; nonetheless , populations may be affected by the construction of obstacles along rivers they inhabit . T. chatareus has not been bred in captivity .
= = Distribution = =
Toxotes chatareus are found in India , Burma , Indonesia and New Guinea , and northern Australia . They are generally found in temperature ranges of 25 to 30 ° C ( 77 to 86 ° F ) , though they have been recorded at temperatures as high as 36 ° C ( 97 ° F ) in the Alligator Rivers region and as low as 20 @.@ 5 ° C ( 68 @.@ 9 ° F ) in the Burdekin river region ; these are believed to be the upper and lower limits of their tolerance , respectively . Brackish mangrove swamps form its main habitat , but T. chatareus are also found in freshwater rivers and streams . It occurs in rivers of the Kimberley region of Western Australia , the Kakadu area of the Northern Territory and Arnhem Land in Australia . On the Mekong river , it may be found as far north as Thailand and Laos . They are also found in the upper parts of the Burdekin river , somehow having overcome the Burdekin Falls . T. chatareus are distributed more " patchily " in eastern Australia , and are less abundant .
T. chatareus are known to occur in shaded areas with vegetation overhead , usually at the top layer of the water column . They are found only where there is an intact riparian area , as this is a major source of their food . T. chatareus are usually not found in fast @-@ flowing streams .
= = Relationship to humans = =
Toxotes chatareus have a minor part in fisheries . They are sometimes caught by anglers and are described as " reasonable eating " . T. chatareus are caught and sold in markets , where they are often grouped with the banded archerfish and simply sold as " archerfish " .
T. chatareus are sometimes kept in the aquarium . In aquaria , they can reach about 20 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) in length , compared to 40 centimetres ( 16 in ) in the wild . They are one of only three archerfish species to be commonly traded ( the others being T. jaculatrix and T. microlepis ) . They are placed in an aquarium in a minimum size of 100 centimetres ( 39 in ) deep with a volume of 170 to 209 litres ( 37 to 46 imp gal ; 45 to 55 US gal ) . T. chatareus prefer brackish water and need a tall aquarium . T. chatareus have the ability to " jump " out of the water , which in the wild is used to capture prey on low @-@ hanging branches ; they are capable of jumping out of an aquarium that is too short or uncovered . They are compatible with others of their species of similar size , but larger individuals may harass smaller individuals . T. chatareus is fed live food at the surface , though it does occasionally take flake food ; because of this , caring for them is not done by beginners in most home aquaria .
T. chatareus are fairly common and not considered endangered . However , the destruction of their mangrove swamp habitat and increased fishing pressure may pose a risk in the future . The construction of weirs and tidal barrages within its habitat may affect populations in rivers . The growing population in Southeast Asia is also causing pollution to its habitat .
A study found increased ( greater than 0 @.@ 5 μg / g ) levels of mercury in four out of ten specimens sampled at Lake Murray in Papua New Guinea . This may have contributed to increased mercury levels in locals who consumed several species of fish from the lake , T. chatareus included . Compared to the other fishes tested , T. chatareus displayed a high level of mercury . Sediments from the nearby Porgera gold and silver mine are the source of this mercury ; the cause of the high level at which the mercury was accumulated in T. chatareus is not known .
= USS West Lianga ( ID @-@ 2758 ) =
USS West Lianga ( ID @-@ 2758 ) was a cargo ship for the United States Navy during World War I. She was later known as SS Helen Whittier and SS Kalani in civilian service under American registry , as SS Empire Cheetah under British registry , and as SS Hobbema under Dutch registry .
West Lianga was launched for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) in May 1918 as a part of the West boats , a series of steel @-@ hulled cargo ships built on the West Coast of the United States for the World War I war effort . West Lianga briefly had the distinction of being the fastest @-@ launched and fastest @-@ completed ocean @-@ going ship in the world . Pressed into cargo service for the US Navy , USS West Lianga was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) and completed four round @-@ trip voyages to France for the Navy . After decommissioning in mid 1919 , she was briefly in cargo service out of Seattle before being laid up in late 1921 .
West Lianga was sold to the Los Angeles Steamship Company ( LASSCO ) in early 1929 , refurbished , and renamed Helen Whittier for intercoastal cargo service . When Matson Navigation Company purchased LASSCO in 1931 , Helen Whittier frequently sailed on Matson 's Hawaiian sugar routes . She was renamed Kalani in 1938 and continued in Hawaiian service until 1940 when she was sold to British interests to help fill the United Kingdom 's urgent need for merchant ships .
After sailing to the UK as Kalani , the ship was renamed Empire Cheetah and sailed in transatlantic convoys , making three round trips between February 1941 and May 1942 . At that time , Empire Cheetah was transferred to Dutch interests and renamed Hobbema . She successfully completed one transatlantic roundtrip under Dutch registry and was on the homeward leg of her second in Convoy SC 107 , when that convoy was attacked by a wolf pack of German submarines . Shortly after midnight on 4 November 1942 , Hobbema was struck in the engine room by a single torpedo fired by German submarine U @-@ 132 . Of Hobbema 's complement of 44 men and British gunners aboard , only 16 survived the attack . Hobbema was one of 19 Allied ships in the convoy sunk by German submarines .
= = Design and construction = =
The West ships were cargo ships of similar size and design built by several shipyards on the West Coast of the United States for the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) for emergency use during World War I. All were given names that began with the word West , like West Lianga , one of some 24 West ships built by Skinner & Eddy of Seattle , Washington . West Lianga ( Skinner & Eddy No. 21 ; USSB No. 1176 ) was laid down on 14 February 1918 . When she was launched on 20 April with an elapsed time of 55 working days — 65 calendar days — from keel laying to launch , it was in world @-@ record time , beating the launch of Columbia River Shipbuilding 's West Grove , launched after 61 working days in March .
When West Lianga was completed on 4 May , 67 working days after her keel laying , it was another world record , shaving 18 days off of Columbia River Shipbuilding 's previous record . By 1920 , West Lianga had fallen to third @-@ fastest when Edward N. Hurley , the wartime chairman of the USSB , compiled a list of the ten fastest @-@ constructed ocean @-@ going vessels for his 1920 book The New Merchant Marine . Skinner & Eddy received a $ 71 @,@ 600 bonus for completing the ship early .
West Lianga was 5 @,@ 673 gross register tons ( GRT ) , and was 409 feet 5 inches ( 124 @.@ 79 m ) long ( between perpendiculars ) and 54 feet 2 inches ( 16 @.@ 51 m ) abeam . West Lianga had a steel hull and a deadweight tonnage of 8 @,@ 800 DWT . The ship had a single steam turbine that drove her single screw propeller which moved the ship at an 11 @.@ 5 @-@ knot ( 21 @.@ 3 km / h ) pace .
= = World War I = =
West Lianga 's activities after her 4 May delivery to the USSB are not entirely clear . Many West ships , to avoid sailing empty to the East Coast , loaded grain products intended for the United Kingdom , France , and Italy and sailed to Europe without unloading or transferring their cargo , but it is not known whether West Lianga did so or not . Whatever her early activities , West Lianga was handed over to the United States Navy at Brooklyn in August 1918 and assigned the identification number 2758 . USS West Lianga was commissioned into the Naval Overseas Transportation Service ( NOTS ) on 19 August with Lieutenant Commander Louis Laverge , USNRF , in command .
At New York , West Lianga took on a load of 6 @,@ 882 tons of materiel for the United States Army and a deck @-@ load of 32 trucks and departed for France in a convoy . After unloading her cargo at Bordeaux , she returned to New York on 16 October . After voyage repairs , she loaded another 6 @,@ 685 tons of cargo for the Quartermaster Corps and departed for Europe on 3 November . West Lianga was en route to France when the Armistice that ended fighting was signed on 11 November . West Lianga delivered her cargo to Saint @-@ Nazaire and took on a load of 1 @,@ 700 tons for delivery to the United States . After departing from France on 21 December , West Lianga arrived at New York on 4 January 1919 .
After shifting to New Orleans and taking on a load of cargo there , West Lianga began her third voyage to France . After making her delivery at Brest , the cargo ship took on a load of steel rails and sand as ballast and sailed for Newport News , Virginia , where she arrived on 21 March . She loaded railroad supplies for the Quartermaster Corps and sailed on 4 April on what would be her final NOTS trip to France . After delivery at La Pallice , West Lianga returned to New York on 10 June . Two weeks later , she was decommissioned , struck from the Navy list , and returned to the USSB .
= = Interwar career = =
After her return to the United States Shipping Board ( USSB ) in June 1919 , West Lianga returned to Seattle and was based out of there for several years of operation . The United States Official Number 216274 was allocated . On 7 September 1921 , the ship was laid up in the reserve fleet at Norfolk . On 19 February 1929 , the USSB sold West Lianga to the Los Angeles Steamship Company ( LASSCO ) for $ 100 @,@ 000 on the basis of unrestricted operation . LASSCO , which announced plans for a $ 50 @,@ 000 overhaul and reconditioning of the ship for operation on its Arrow Line intercoastal cargo service , paid ten percent in cash and signed a note for the balance to be paid over the next ten years .
On 12 March , LASSCO changed West Lianga 's port of registry from Seattle to Los Angeles , and on 26 March , announced that the ship had been renamed Helen Whittier after the daughter of California oil pioneer Max Whittier . The Code Letters LKQR were allocated . LASSCO also announced that Helen Whittier , to be operated by Sudden and Christenson Steamship Company for LASSCO , was scheduled to sail from Baltimore on 25 April to begin her intercoastal service .
Helen Whittier 's activities over the next two years were not recorded in contemporary newspaper accounts , but she was affected by the absorption of LASSCO into its former competitor , Matson Navigation Company , on 1 January 1931 . In late August 1931 , Helen Whittier was added to Matson 's Hawaiian sugar service to Gulf Coast and North Atlantic ports .
Helen Whittier had returned to intercoastal service by early 1934 when The New York Times reported that she had sailed from San Francisco on 23 March and arrived at New York on 25 April . In June that same year , Helen Whittier was one of the Matson ships added to carry food cargo to Hawaii . Shipments of food from the mainland — which accounted for up to 90 % of Hawaii 's needs — had been curtailed as a coastwise strike had affected all ports except Los Angeles . Helen Whittier sailed on her first food delivery on 23 June with 2 @,@ 500 tons of food from Los Angeles to Honolulu .
Duringh 1935 , her Code Letters were change to LKAO . In February 1935 , Helen Whittier was returned to the Hawaiian sugar service full @-@ time . During her time on this service , Helen Whittier often called at New York . One typical voyage , as tracked in The New York Times , began when she departed New York on 23 November for Honolulu , passed through the Panama Canal on 4 December , and arrived at Honolulu . Helen Whittier departed there on 11 January 1936 and arrived at New York again on 16 February . Occasionally , Helen Whittier would make side trips to Baltimore for voyage repairs between her arrival at New York and her next departure for Hawaii . The cargo ship continued her Honolulu – New York service through September 1936 .
In 1938 , Matson renamed the ship Kalani , and continued using her in Hawaiian service through 1940 . On 15 July 1940 , Matson received the permission of the United States Maritime Commission , a successor to the USSB , to sell Kalani to Sir R. Ropner & Co . , Ltd . , of West Hartlepool . Six days after the approval , Kalani , now under British registry , departed from Los Angeles for New York .
= = World War II = =
Kalani , acquired to fill the United Kingdom 's urgent need for merchant vessels , was operated by Ropner under the authority of the Ministry of War Transport . After departing Panama on 4 August , Kalani arrived at New York on 13 August . Kalani shuttled between New York , Albany , and Boston , ending up at Baltimore on 25 August . Sailing from there on 15 September with a load of pig iron , she arrived at Halifax five days later . She departed from Halifax for Liverpool as a part of convoy HX 78 on 4 October but had to turn back and put in at Sydney , Nova Scotia . Kalani set out again on 15 October as a part of Convoy SC 8 , a Sydney – Liverpool convoy . Kalani departed the convoy and arrived at Clyde on 31 October .
= = = Empire Cheetah = = =
Kalani was renamed Empire Cheetah on 12 November , two weeks into a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ month stay at Clyde . Her port of registry was London . The United Kingdom Official Number 168041 and Code Letters GMJT were allocated . Empire Cheetah departed on her first transatlantic voyage under her new name when she sailed with convoy OB 288 on 18 February 1941 . After the convoy came under attack by German bombers and the convoy escorts departed , the convoy dispersed . Although nine convoy ships were sunk by six German and two Italian submarines on 23 – 24 February , Empire Cheetah safely reached her destination of Philadelphia on 10 March .
After taking on a load of steel , Empire Cheetah sailed for Halifax , and then on to Newport , Monmouthshire as a part of convoy HX 122 , arriving on 9 May . She sailed for Swansea on 27 May , and on to Milford Haven on 9 June . On 26 June , she sailed as a part of convoy OB 339 but put back into Milford Haven with defects . Empire Cheetah tried again as a part of convoy OB 343 on 6 July but had to return once again , putting in at Clyde on 9 July .
After a month at Clyde , Empire Cheetah set out a third time for North America in convoy ON 7 which , although dispersed mid @-@ ocean , lost no ships to submarines . Empire Cheetah successfully reached her destination of Boston on 3 September . From there she made her way to Philadelphia on 3 October , and on to Sydney on 23 October . There she joined convoy SC 51 sailing for Holyhead and Manchester the same day with a cargo of grain , steel , and cotton . She arrived at Holyhead on 8 November , but departed for Liverpool three days later . After returning to Holyhead later in the month , Empire Cheetah sailed in convoy BB 106 to Barry , where she arrived on 1 December .
Empire Cheetah spent two and a half months at Barry before sailing to Swansea on 14 February 1942 . Heading to Milford Haven on 23 February , she sailed the next day as a part of convoy ON 70 headed to Portland , Maine , where she safely arrived on 20 March after an intermediate stop at Halifax from 15 – 18 March . Four days later , Empire Cheetah sailed for Boston . She departed Boston on 12 April for Halifax and departed from there in convoy SC 80 five days later for Hull with a general cargo . Empire Cheetah arrived at Loch Ewe on 2 May and sailed the next day for Methil . After arriving at Methil on 6 May , she headed to her destination of Hull on 7 May .
= = = Hobbema = = =
On 18 May at Hull , Empire Cheetah was transferred to the Dutch government and assigned to the Netherlands Shipping & Trading Committee . The ship 's name was changed to Hobbema and the port of registry changed to Den Haag , even though the Netherlands were under German occupation . Hobbema was placed under the management of the British & Continental Shipping Agency Ltd .
Hobbema departed Hull on 23 May and called at Methil and Loch Ewe before sailing for New York as a part of convoy ON 100 on 2 June . After an intermediate stop at Halifax , Hobbema arrived at the Cape Cod Canal on 19 June and proceeded on to New York where she arrived the next day . After making two trips to Philadelphia and back , she departed for Cape Cod Bay to form up with convoy BX 28 for Halifax , where she arrived on 11 July . Hobbema sailed from Halifax to Sydney , Nova Scotia , in convoy HS 28 , and from there sailed on 17 July for Liverpool with convoy SC 92 . After her arrival on 31 July , she spent nearly a month at Liverpool before joining convoy ON 126 for New York , arriving at that destination on 19 September .
Hobbema sailed the next day for Newport News and took on 7 @,@ 000 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) of general cargo and ammunition and returned to New York on 15 October . She sailed nine days later as a part of convoy SC 107 headed for Liverpool . On 30 October , German submarine German submarine U @-@ 522 sighted the eastbound convoy and relayed the convoy 's position to the Wolf pack Veilchen of thirteen U @-@ boats and to two other U @-@ boats — U @-@ 522 and U @-@ 521 — patrolling nearby . After getting into position and dodging convoy escorts over the next two days , the wolf pack attacked the convoy on the night of 1 – 2 November and sank seven ships . Another ship was sunk during the day on 2 November . On the night of 2 – 3 November the convoy sailed through thick fog that concealed its location and kept the U @-@ boats at bay . At dawn the fog had lifted and another ship was sunk .
After dark , the wolf pack struck again . At 00 : 10 on 4 November U @-@ 132 closed in and torpedoed Hobbema , Empire Lynx and Hatimura . At 00 : 15 , a single torpedo from U @-@ 132 hit Hobbema on the starboard side in the engine room , immediately knocking out power to the ship , and caused her to begin rapidly sinking . The lifeboats and several life rafts from the port side were launched with 16 men on board . The ship 's master and 20 crewmen along with 7 British gunners died in the attack and sinking . US Navy tugs Uncas and Pessacus rescued Hobbema 's survivors .
At 00 : 40 the entire convoy and nearby U @-@ boats were jolted by a very heavy explosion thought to have been one of the largest prior to atomic bomb testing . The explosion stopped the engine of the tug Uncas rescuing survivors six miles astern of the convoy . SS Titus was rescuing survivors from Empire Lynx when the explosion lifted her bow so violently the crew believed Titus had been torpedoed . The crew abandoned ship before the master realized Titus was undamaged and reboarded to sail to England with a skeleton crew including some Empire Lynx and Hatimura survivors . Titus was drydocked upon arrival in England , but the only damage found was a small dent in her port side . U @-@ 132 is believed to have been destroyed by the explosion . The cause of the explosion is unknown , but it is assumed to have resulted from detonation of the ammunition cargo aboard either Hobbema or Hatimura . In all , 19 Allied ships were sunk from convoy SC 107 .
= Super Mario 3D Land =
Super Mario 3D Land ( スーパーマリオ3Dランド , Sūpā Mario Surī Dī Rando ) is a platform game in the Super Mario series developed by Nintendo EAD Tokyo , with development assistance from Brownie Brown , for the Nintendo 3DS . The game was the first in the series to be released for the system , and was released worldwide in November 2011 . It was revealed at Nintendo 's Keynote Conference during the 2011 Game Developers Conference held in San Francisco . A sequel , titled Super Mario 3D World , was released for the Wii U in 2013 .
Super Mario 3D Land is unique from other games in the Mario series , as it combines elements from both traditional 2D Mario side @-@ scrolling games and modern free @-@ roaming 3D Mario games . It also introduces new elements into the series , including new power @-@ ups and gameplay mechanics . The main story is similar to previous Super Mario titles , centering on Mario 's efforts to rescue Princess Peach , who has been kidnapped by Bowser , utilizing the aid of the Tanooki Suit amongst other power @-@ ups . The game consists of 96 distinct levels allotted among the 16 worlds .
The game was released to critical acclaim , with gaming critics praising the amount of creativity and technical design presented within the game , though the utilization of 3D into the gameplay was met with a more polarizing reception . The game was a commercial success , and has sold 10 @.@ 73 million copies worldwide as of March 31 , 2016 , making it the fourth best @-@ selling game for the 3DS . It was also the first 3DS game to sell over 5 million copies .
Nintendo re @-@ released the game as a downloadable title via Nintendo eShop . The downloadable version was released in the PAL region on October 4 , 2012 , October 18 , 2012 in North America , and November 1 , 2012 in Japan .
= = Gameplay = =
Super Mario 3D Land is a platform game that has been described by game designer Shigeru Miyamoto as a " 3D Mario that plays as a 2D Mario game " . As such , Super Mario 3D Land combines the elements of traditional side @-@ scrolling video game titles , such as linear @-@ based levels , with those of the modern open world titles , such as moving Mario in three dimensions and performing a variety of actions . Similar to the older side @-@ scrolling Mario games , the health system revolves around Mario shrinking upon taking damage from enemies or hazards , having a dedicated " Dash " button as opposed to using analog input to determine travel speed , and damage while as " Small Mario " results in losing a life . Mario has also learned two new moves : a barrel roll and a roll jump , the former of which can be used to break blocks in a similar manner to jumping at blocks from below or ground pounding , and the latter allowing Mario to cover much horizontal ground in one jump . Super Mario 3D Land utilizes a similar level objective to those games , in which the point of each level is to reach and grab the " Goal Pole " located at the end of the course before the time limit expires .
The game offers a number of traditional Mario items , such as the Super Mushroom , Fire Flower , and Starman , along with new power @-@ ups that bestow special suits onto Mario and grant him new abilities . Returning from Super Mario Bros. 3 is the Super Leaf power @-@ up , which gives Mario the Tanooki suit , allowing him to float in the air and attack with his tail , with a later variant also allowing him to transform into a statue upon performing a ground pound . The player is able to reserve an extra power @-@ up , which can be retrieved by tapping the item visible on the touchscreen .
Other items include the Boomerang Flower , which allows Mario to throw boomerangs that can collect out @-@ of @-@ reach items as well as attack enemies ; the Propeller Box , which allows Mario to reach high places ; and the rare Prize Box , which gives Mario extra Coins while walking around in it . The Invincibility Leaf , which appears after the player dies five times in a level , gives Mario invincibility and Tanooki Suit abilities ; while the P @-@ Wing , which appears after the player dies ten times in a level , sends the player right to the end of the level , near the Goal Pole . ( The invincibility leaf and the P @-@ wing are only available in regular worlds . ) Each course contains three hidden Star Medals that are required to unlock certain levels . The map screen also contains Toad Houses where players can visit Toad and receive additional items , and Mystery Boxes where more Star Medals can be earned . After clearing the game once , a set of " Special " levels are unlocked , some of which contain additional challenges , such as a 30 @-@ second time limit . Clearing the S1 castle unlocks Luigi as a playable character , who has slightly different handling to Mario .
Super Mario 3D Land utilizes the Nintendo 3DS 's autostereoscopic technology , allowing players to perceive depth when viewing the game screen . While the game is designed to not require the 3D effect , some obstacles or points of interest are deliberately more noticeable or easier when the 3D is switched on . Super Mario 3D Land also utilizes optional use of the 3DS gyroscope , which can be used to control cannons and binoculars . The game also features StreetPass functionality , allowing players to exchange Mystery Boxes containing bonus items . StreetPass also gives players another Toad house so they can get items .
= = Plot = =
During a heavy thunderstorm , a tail @-@ like branched tree called the " Tail Tree " , which stands on Princess Peach 's castle grounds , is stripped of all its leaves . The leaves , which turn out to be Super Leaves , were in reality taken by Bowser who is using them to bestow Tanooki Tails on his minions gifting them with new abilities . Unaware of this situation at first , when Mario and the Toads go to inspect the tree the next day they discover a letter from Bowser , learning that he has kidnapped the princess . Mario sets off in pursuit to locate and rescue the princess , learning in the process of Bowser 's intentions for using the aforementioned stolen Super Leaves . After rescuing her , the Toads and Mario return to the Mushroom Kingdom with Tanooki Suits while Mario carries the princess . Mario 's actions lead to the restoration of the Tail Tree . However , a photo falls to the ground revealing Luigi behind bars with a Koopa Troopa and Peepa , beginning Mario 's quest into the eight Special Worlds .
After rescuing Luigi ( who is rescued after Mario beats a certain level ) the two brothers continue on their quest in completing the Special worlds . After they have completed the Special 8 Castle level , a new letter falls to the ground far away in an open plain . The three Toads who helped Mario earlier on investigating the letter and discover that Bowser has kidnapped Peach once again , thus starting Mario 's quest once over . After Mario rescues Peach for the second time , another photo is found with Peach in a Tanooki suit .
= = Development = =
Super Mario 3D Land was developed by Nintendo EAD Tokyo , which had previously developed Super Mario Galaxy and Super Mario Galaxy 2 , with assistance from Brownie Brown , another subsidiary of Nintendo . Super Mario Galaxy 2 game director Koichi Hayashida directed the game , and the game music was composed by Takeshi Hama , Mahito Yokota and Asuka Hayazaki ( formally known as Asuka Ohta ) . Super Mario 3D Land took two years to develop , starting from a development team of two people and ending with a team of 30 . The game was first announced by Shigeru Miyamoto in November 2010 , stating that both the 3D Mario game as well as a 2D Mario title were in the works for the Nintendo 3DS . Miyamoto described the 3D game as " completely original " and a cross between Super Mario Galaxy and Super Mario 64 .
Super Mario 3D Land was designed to bridge the gap between 2D Mario games and 3D Mario games , and influenced by Miyamoto 's philosophy of keeping the games fun in nature and making sure the player had the utmost opportunity to enjoy the experience of the game . A main concern during development was making a game that would appeal to fans of the 2D Super Mario games as well as the 3D games ; levels were designed so that the player would not get lost , moving Mario in one general direction towards each level 's goal .
One of the inspirations behind the creation of the game was technological advances that made it possible to implement certain elements that could not be done in previous Mario games . Satoru Iwata explained that " since 1996 , when Mario appeared in 3D in Super Mario 64 , it 's always been hard for players to judge how to jump and hit a block floating in a 3D space , " musing that the Nintendo 3DS autostereoscopy allowed for this issue to be fixed . The development team , which only had experience developing on consoles rather than handhelds , first tried playing Super Mario Galaxy 2 on a small television monitor . When it was found that Mario was too small to see and thus difficult to control , 3D Land 's camera system and level terrain needed to be designed for viewing on the small Nintendo 3DS screen , making it easier for players to keep track of Mario . Certain aspects of gameplay were inspired by Nintendo 's The Legend of Zelda franchise , including the way that the camera functioned during certain moments . Ideas that were ultimately not incorporated into 3D Land included a pro skater suit for Mario , the ability to change Mario 's size to the extreme , and a feature that replaces Princess Peach 's face with a photographed face . The game 's title was chosen as an homage to the Super Mario Land games released on the Game Boy .
Super Mario 3D Land development was heavily affected by the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami that occurred on March 11 , 2011 . The disaster caused public transportation to shut down , preventing Nintendo staff from being able to commute to work , and the Tokyo office remained closed for about a week . Hayashida was inspired by the disaster to encourage his team to communicate more , setting up the office such that staff members could easily see and discuss each other 's work . The team also started holding group meetings to play @-@ test 3D Land 's levels . Hayashida later mentioned that the team expressed hope that the game would inspire joy in spite of the tragedy .
Satoru Iwata revealed the game at the 2011 Game Developer 's Conference and pointed out that the game 's tentative logo sported a tail , stating that its purpose would be revealed at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2011 . Miyamoto later stated that " it 's what you think it is " , alluding to the Tanooki Suit , a power @-@ up originally from Super Mario Bros. 3 . While no exact release date was announced , Miyamoto stated that he hoped to release the game during 2011 . The game was showcased at Nintendo 's press conference at E3 2011 , where a 2011 release date was confirmed , along with the appearance of the Tanooki Suit . While the power @-@ up allows Mario to float down gently , unlike Super Mario Bros. 3 he cannot fly .
Super Mario 3D Land was first released in Japan on November 3 , 2011 . It was then released in North America on November 13 , Europe on November 18 , and in Australia on November 24 .
= = Reception = =
Super Mario 3D Land has received critical acclaim . It received an aggregated score of 90 @.@ 09 % on GameRankings and 90 / 100 on Metacritic . The game sold over 343 @,@ 000 copies in its first week in Japan , helping to move over 145 @,@ 000 Nintendo 3DS units . Famitsu awarded Super Mario 3D Land a score of 38 / 40 , praising level design , accessibility for beginners and the use of 3D . IGN gave the game a score of 9 @.@ 5 and an Editor 's Choice award , calling it " brilliant and addictive " and stating that " 3D gaming has never been fully realized before this " . GamesRadar gave the game a score of 9 / 10 , praising its wealth of content , although criticising the inclusion of a run button and some easy difficulty . Game Informer gave 3D Land a 9 @.@ 5 / 10 , saying " it lives up to the level of quality set by previous entries and is easily the best reason to own a 3DS " . They also complimented the use of both a run button and the 3D effects while criticising the " lack of variety in boss battles " .
1UP.com 's Jeremy Parish gave the game a less favorable review , noting that certain aspects of the game were too easy in nature , musing a " moderately skilled player is never in danger of running out of lives in Super Mario 3D Land " . He however noted that the game was creative in its presentation , and offered " clever new twists on the familiar to the knuckle @-@ biting intensity of the final stages . " Justin Haywald of GamePro gave the game 5 / 5 , writing that Nintendo successfully captured the nostalgic aesthetic of the series , while still maintaining technical innovation . He reported , " for every familiar bit of music or a level background that reminds you of Mario games past , you have new abilities to use and deviously designed platforming sections that feel completely unique " , while stating that the inclusion of 3D was mostly a gimmick .
GameSpot stated that the game lacked some of the more creative aspects of the best of the series , stating that the 3D was mostly optional , though praised the gameplay as entertaining and fast @-@ paced . X @-@ Play 's Russ Frushtick felt that Super Mario 3D Land was the best game yet released for the 3DS , praising the content as surprisingly vast in nature and claiming that the game was twice as long as initially gauged . The game won the " Best Handheld Game " award in the 2011 Spike Video Game Awards . Super Mario 3D Land was awarded the " Best Platform Game Award " , and Nintendo 3DS Game of the Year 2011 by GameTrailers .
Super Mario 3D Land sold 3 @.@ 09 million units in the U.S. as of August 2014 . In Japan , the game has sold over 1 @.@ 66 million units as of August 1 , 2012 . The game was released to commercial success and has sold 10 @.@ 73 million copies worldwide as of March 31 , 2016 .
= History of the Swiss Air Force =
The history of the Swiss Air Force began in 1914 with the establishment of an ad hoc force consisting of a handful of men in outdated and largely civilian aircraft . It was only in the 1930s that an effective air force was established at great cost , capable of inflicting several embarrassing defeats on the Nazi Luftwaffe in the course of an initially vigorous defence of neutral Swiss airspace . The Swiss Air Force as an autonomous military service was created in October 1936 . After World War II it was renamed the Swiss Air Force and Anti @-@ Aircraft Command ( Schweizerische Flugwaffe Kommando der Flieger und Fliegerabwehrtruppen ) and in 1996 became a separate service independent from the Army , under its present name Schweizer Luftwaffe .
The mission of the Swiss Air Force historically has been to support ground troops ( erdkampf ) in repelling invasions of neutral Swiss territory , with a secondary mission of defending the sovereignty of Swiss airspace . During World War II this doctrine was severely tested when Switzerland was literally caught in the middle of an air war and subjected to both attacks and intrusions by aircraft of all combatants . Its inability to prevent such violations of its neutrality led for a period to a complete cessation of air intercepts , followed by a practice of coercing small numbers of intruders to submit to internment .
At the end of the 1950s , reflecting both the threat of possible invasion by the Soviet Union and the realities of nuclear warfare , Swiss military doctrine changed to that of a dynamic ( mobile ) defense that included missions for the Swiss Air Force outside of its territory , in order to defeat standoff attacks and nuclear threats , including the possibility of defensive employment of air @-@ delivered nuclear weapons . However the inability to field an air force of sufficient capability to carry out such missions led to a return of traditional doctrine .
In 1995 the Swiss abandoned traditional doctrine and implemented a defensive plan that made control of Swiss airspace its highest and main priority . Modernization of the Swiss Air Force to achieve this mission was subject to popular referenda challenging its cost and practice .
= = Swiss balloon forces = =
Swiss military aviation began in 1900 with the creation of an observation balloon force . Swiss balloonists were first engaged in combat on 7 October 1918 , near the end of World War I , when a German airplane accidentally attacked a Swiss observation balloon stationed close to the German border and killed the observer , Lieutenant Werner Flury . The balloon force was eventually disestablished in 1938 when developments in aviation made it obsolete .
= = Heavier @-@ than @-@ air aviation in World War I = =
Military trials with civilian airplanes were first conducted in 1911 , resulting in many crashes that failed to persuade Swiss authorities of the military utility of the airplane . From September 4 to 6 , 1911 , Failloubaz participated as pilot ( his friend Gustave Lecoultre as observer ) to an exercise with the 1st Swiss Army Corps and demonstrated the military possibilities of aircraft with his Dufaux 5 ; the beginning of the military aviation in Switzerland . Only after the Swiss Officers ' Society collected approximately 1 @,@ 723 @,@ 000 Swiss francs in 1912 – a very large sum for the time – in a national fund drive to the create an air force , did the Swiss Federal Council order the establishment of a Fliegerabteilung on 3 August 1914 . The government also decreed that only bachelors could become military pilots , to avoid the payment of expensive widow 's pensions in the event of casualties .
The outbreak of World War I , in which neutral Switzerland did not take part , and an indifference to air power of the part of the Swiss military establishment prevented the purchase of modern airplanes required to build an effective air force . By the end of 1914 , the force consisted of only eight men flying privately owned airplanes , and by July 1916 , four pilots had been killed in crashes . Swiss aircraft were armed only with carbines and flechettes , ineffective pointed iron spikes that were to be dropped on ground targets . The nominal commander of the Swiss air arm , cavalry captain Theodor Real , resigned his post in November 1916 when the army refrained from using its rudimentary air force to defend Swiss airspace against frequent German intrusions , even after Porrentruy was accidentally bombed by German aircraft on 11 October 1916 .
The first purpose @-@ built military aircraft in the Swiss air force was a Fokker D.II seized after a German pilot made a forced landing in foul weather near Bettlach on 13 October 1916 . In June 1917 , five Nieuport 23 C.1 fighter planes were acquired from France . Swiss industry manufactured more than 100 Häfeli DH @-@ 3 observation aircraft , but efforts to build a Swiss fighter ( the Häfeli DH @-@ 4 ) were halted in 1918 because of the prototypes ' poor performance . By the end of the war , the Swiss air force had only 62 pilots and 68 aircraft of nine different makes , almost all of which were suitable only for observation missions . Its wartime budget of CHF 15 million amounted to just 1 @.@ 25 % of Swiss military expenditures .
= = Interwar years = =
With continuing budgetary restraints , the air force remained in an overall state of neglect during the 1920s . 27 Twenty @-@ seven Fokker D.VII , 16 Hanriot HD.1 , and 15 Nieuport 28 Bébé war surplus airplanes were acquired in 1920 ( as were 20 Zeppelin LZ C.11 reconnaissance biplanes obtained on the postwar black market ) but were soon obsolete , and further efforts to develop indigenous aircraft ( MA @-@ 6 , MA @-@ 7 , and MA @-@ 8 ) were unsuccessful . Seven pilots were killed in 1925 and 1926 before all Swiss military aircraft were equipped with parachutes . By 1929 , only 17 of its 213 airplanes were considered fit for service . The air force consisted of 18 aviation companies ( Flieger @-@ Kompagnien ) , three aerial photography platoons and one airfield company . In the decade following World War I , 162 pilots and 165 observers were trained , and the full complement of the air force was 196 officers , 499 NCOs and 2241 enlisted men . The only aircraft purchased in any quantity were the Potez XXV , and the Swiss @-@ built Häfeli DH @-@ 5 .
The difficulty of maintaining an air force with little funding during a time of rapid technological development was compounded by the Swiss militia system : all but a handful of military personnel were citizen soldiers who served only a few weeks each year following their initial recruitment phase . Military pilot candidates underwent the same recruit training , NCO school and officer candidate school as other Swiss army officers , followed by a pilot school of 173 days , then re @-@ entered civilian life . During his first two years of service , a pilot 's training continued with ten logged flight hours per month , and thereafter he was required to fly fifty hours per year at his convenience .
However , in 1930 the military and civilian leadership decided to establish an effective air force . On 13 December 1929 , in what was in retrospect referred to as the " bill to create an air force " , the Federal Council asked the Swiss Federal Assembly to approve the spending of 20 million francs for the purchase of 65 French Dewoitine D.27 fighters and the manufacture of 40 Dutch ( Fokker C.V @-@ E ) reconnaissance planes under licence . Although the opposition Social Democratic Party collected 42 @,@ 000 signatures in a petition opposing the bill , Parliament passed it handily and declined to allow a referendum on the issue , optional at that time for spending bills .
This was the start of a massive armament programme that would consume more than a billion francs over the next ten years , but after Hitler 's rise to power in Nazi Germany , the Social Democrats added their support to the efforts . They also supported Gottlieb Duttweiler 's 1938 popular initiative calling for the purchase of a thousand aircraft and the training of three thousand pilots . After 92 @,@ 000 citizens signed in support , nearly twice the number necessary for a national popular vote , the federal government offered a referendum proposal in 1939 that was nearly as extensive , which was accepted by a 69 percent majority .
In large part , the money was used to acquire modern aircraft , most notably , 90 state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art Messerschmitt Bf 109D and E fighters from Germany in 1938 for 36 @.@ 6 million francs , the last of which were delivered in April 1940 , eight months after the outbreak of World War II . However , the need to expand the size of the pilot corps resulted in the acquisition of 146 trainers from Germany , the Bücker Bü 131 basic and Bücker Bü 133 advanced trainers .
In addition , Swiss factories licence @-@ built 82 Morane @-@ Saulnier D @-@ 3800 and 207 D @-@ 3801 fighters between 1939 and 1945 , and manufactured 152 domestically designed C @-@ 36 fighter @-@ bombers between 1942 and 1948 . Both of these types remained in service well into the 1950s as trainers .
On 19 October 1936 , the air arm was reorganised , and renamed the Schweizerische Flugwaffe ( Department of Aviation and Anti @-@ Aircraft Defense ) , becoming an autonomous service under the Swiss Federal Military Department , analogous to the organizational autonomy of the United States Army Air Forces within the U.S. Army . The Bambini @-@ Code was developed from the need to communicate via radio links in bad quality in noisy environments , of the aircraft who were used from the Swiss Air Force before the start of the second world war .
= = World War II = =
See also Messerschmitt Bf 109 : Combat Service with Switzerland
The Swiss Air Force mobilized on 28 August 1939 , three days before Germany attacked Poland and initiated World War II , with 96 fighter and 121 observation aircraft ; by some accounts the country possessed only eight antiaircraft searchlights . Of the 21 units of the Swiss Air Force , only three were judged combat @-@ ready and five were not yet equipped with aircraft . The Air Force relied on 40 single @-@ seat interceptors for first @-@ line air defense .
This deficiency was addressed by procuring further German Bf 109 , Italian Macchi MC.202 , and French Morane D @-@ 3800 fighters . In 1942 , the Swiss @-@ built F + W C @-@ 36 multipurpose aircraft was introduced into service , and in 1943 , Switzerland opened its own aircraft factory , Flugzeugwerk Emmen . Caverns were built in which to shelter aircraft and maintenance personnel from air attack , for example in Alpnach , Meiringen and Turtmann . In 1942 @-@ 43 , an air gunnery range at Ebenfluh @-@ Axalp was opened for training . The Surveillance Squadron ( Überwachungsgeschwader ) was formed in 1941 and made combat @-@ ready in 1943 . A night fighter squadron was formed for evaluation purposes in 1944 and disbanded in 1950 .
The role of the Swiss Air Force during World War II went through four distinct phases :
September 1939 to May 1940 : Air patrol , in an attempt to enforce a comprehensive no @-@ fly ban issued by the Swiss government to the combatants , made largely ineffective by a 5 – kilometer buffer along the border which Swiss fighters were forbidden to enter .
May to June 1940 : Air combat between Switzerland and Germany in which the Luftwaffe pilots tested Swiss air defenses , and were defeated .
July 1940 to October 1943 : A total ban on air operations , and a release of interned German aircraft and pilots , resulting from the encirclement of Swiss territory by the Axis , the implementation of the Réduit strategy , and recognition that the Air Force would be overwhelmed by the Germans in a sustained campaign .
October 1943 to May 1945 : Resumption of air patrols ,
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territory over which the Queen of New Zealand is sovereign and comprises New Zealand , Tokelau , the Ross Dependency , the Cook Islands and Niue . The Cook Islands and Niue are self @-@ governing states in free association with New Zealand . The New Zealand Parliament cannot pass legislation for these countries , but with their consent can act on behalf of them in foreign affairs and defence . Tokelau is a non @-@ self @-@ governing territory that uses the New Zealand flag and anthem , but is administered by a council of three elders ( one from each Tokelauan atoll ) . The Ross Dependency is New Zealand 's territorial claim in Antarctica , where it operates the Scott Base research facility . New Zealand citizenship law treats all parts of the realm equally , so most people born in New Zealand , the Cook Islands , Niue , Tokelau and the Ross Dependency before 2006 are New Zealand citizens . Further conditions apply for those born from 2006 onwards .
= = Environment = =
= = = Geography = = =
See also : Atlas of New Zealand at Wikimedia Commons
New Zealand is located near the centre of the water hemisphere and is made up of two main islands and a number of smaller islands . The two main islands ( the North Island , or Te Ika @-@ a @-@ Māui , and the South Island , or Te Waipounamu ) are separated by the Cook Strait , 22 kilometres ( 14 mi ) wide at its narrowest point . Besides the North and South Islands , the five largest inhabited islands are Stewart Island , the Chatham Islands , Great Barrier Island ( in the Hauraki Gulf ) , d 'Urville Island ( in the Marlborough Sounds ) and Waiheke Island ( about 22 km ( 14 mi ) from central Auckland ) . The country 's islands lie between latitudes 29 ° and 53 ° S , and longitudes 165 ° and 179 ° E.
New Zealand is long and narrow ( over 1 @,@ 600 kilometres ( 990 mi ) along its north @-@ north @-@ east axis with a maximum width of 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) ) , with about 15 @,@ 000 km ( 9 @,@ 300 mi ) of coastline and a total land area of 268 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 103 @,@ 500 sq mi ) . Because of its far @-@ flung outlying islands and long coastline , the country has extensive marine resources . Its Exclusive Economic Zone is one of the largest in the world , covering more than 15 times its land area .
The South Island is the largest landmass of New Zealand , and is divided along its length by the Southern Alps . There are 18 peaks over 3 @,@ 000 metres ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) , the highest of which is Aoraki / Mount Cook at 3 @,@ 754 metres ( 12 @,@ 316 ft ) . Fiordland 's steep mountains and deep fiords record the extensive ice age glaciation of this south @-@ western corner of the South Island . The North Island is less mountainous but is marked by volcanism . The highly active Taupo Volcanic Zone has formed a large volcanic plateau , punctuated by the North Island 's highest mountain , Mount Ruapehu ( 2 @,@ 797 metres ( 9 @,@ 177 ft ) ) . The plateau also hosts the country 's largest lake , Lake Taupo , nestled in the caldera of one of the world 's most active supervolcanoes .
The country owes its varied topography , and perhaps even its emergence above the waves , to the dynamic boundary it straddles between the Pacific and Indo @-@ Australian Plates . New Zealand is part of Zealandia , a microcontinent nearly half the size of Australia that gradually submerged after breaking away from the Gondwanan supercontinent . About 25 million years ago , a shift in plate tectonic movements began to contort and crumple the region . This is now most evident in the Southern Alps , formed by compression of the crust beside the Alpine Fault . Elsewhere the plate boundary involves the subduction of one plate under the other , producing the Puysegur Trench to the south , the Hikurangi Trench east of the North Island , and the Kermadec and Tonga Trenches further north .
New Zealand and Australia are both part of the wider regions known as Australasia and Oceania . The term Oceania is often used to denote the region encompassing the Australian continent , New Zealand and various islands in the Pacific Ocean that are not included in the seven @-@ continent model .
Landscapes of New Zealand
= = = Climate = = =
New Zealand has a mild and temperate maritime climate ( Köppen : Cfb ) with mean annual temperatures ranging from 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) in the south to 16 ° C ( 61 ° F ) in the north . Historical maxima and minima are 42 @.@ 4 ° C ( 108 @.@ 32 ° F ) in Rangiora , Canterbury and − 25 @.@ 6 ° C ( − 14 @.@ 08 ° F ) in Ranfurly , Otago . Conditions vary sharply across regions from extremely wet on the West Coast of the South Island to almost semi @-@ arid in Central Otago and the Mackenzie Basin of inland Canterbury and subtropical in Northland . Of the seven largest cities , Christchurch is the driest , receiving on average only 640 millimetres ( 25 in ) of rain per year and Wellington the wettest , receiving almost twice that amount . Auckland , Wellington and Christchurch all receive a yearly average of more than 2 @,@ 000 hours of sunshine . The southern and south @-@ western parts of the South Island have a cooler and cloudier climate , with around 1 @,@ 400 – 1 @,@ 600 hours ; the northern and north @-@ eastern parts of the South Island are the sunniest areas of the country and receive about 2 @,@ 400 – 2 @,@ 500 hours . The general snow season is about early June until early October in the South Island . Snowfall is less common on the North Island , although it does occur .
Climates of New Zealand
The table below lists climate normals for the warmest and coldest month in the six largest cities of New Zealand . The North Island cities are generally slightly warmer in February , but the South Island cities are warmest in January .
= = = Biodiversity = = =
New Zealand 's geographic isolation for 80 million years and island biogeography has influenced evolution of the country 's species of animals , fungi and plants . Physical isolation has not caused biological isolation , and this has resulted in a dynamic evolutionary ecology with examples of very distinctive plants and animals as well as populations of widespread species . About 82 percent of New Zealand 's indigenous vascular plants are endemic , covering 1 @,@ 944 species across 65 genera and includes a single endemic family . The number of fungi recorded from New Zealand , including lichen @-@ forming species , is not known , nor is the proportion of those fungi which are endemic , but one estimate suggests there are about 2 @,@ 300 species of lichen @-@ forming fungi in New Zealand and 40 percent of these are endemic . The two main types of forest are those dominated by broadleaf trees with emergent podocarps , or by southern beech in cooler climates . The remaining vegetation types consist of grasslands , the majority of which are tussock .
Before the arrival of humans an estimated 80 percent of the land was covered in forest , with only high alpine , wet , infertile and volcanic areas without trees . Massive deforestation occurred after humans arrived , with around half the forest cover lost to fire after Polynesian settlement . Much of the remaining forest fell after European settlement , being logged or cleared to make room for pastoral farming , leaving forest occupying only 23 percent of the land .
The forests were dominated by birds , and the lack of mammalian predators led to some like the kiwi , kakapo , weka and takahē evolving flightlessness . The arrival of humans , associated changes to habitat , and the introduction of rats , ferrets and other mammals led to the extinction of many bird species , including large birds like the moa and Haast 's eagle .
Other indigenous animals are represented by reptiles ( tuataras , skinks and geckos ) , frogs , spiders ( katipo ) , insects ( weta ) and snails . Some , such as the wrens and tuatara , are so unique that they have been called living fossils . Three species of bats ( one since extinct ) were the only sign of native land mammals in New Zealand until the 2006 discovery of bones from a unique , mouse @-@ sized land mammal at least 16 million years old . Marine mammals however are abundant , with almost half the world 's cetaceans ( whales , dolphins , and porpoises ) and large numbers of fur seals reported in New Zealand waters . Many seabirds breed in New Zealand , a third of them unique to the country . More penguin species are found in New Zealand than in any other country .
Since human arrival almost half of the country 's vertebrate species have become extinct , including at least fifty @-@ one birds , three frogs , three lizards , one freshwater fish , and one bat . Others are endangered or have had their range severely reduced . However , New Zealand conservationists have pioneered several methods to help threatened wildlife recover , including island sanctuaries , pest control , wildlife translocation , fostering , and ecological restoration of islands and other selected areas . According to the 2012 Environmental Performance Index , New Zealand is considered a " strong performer " in environmental protection , ranking 14th out of 132 assessed countries .
= = Economy = =
New Zealand has a modern , prosperous and developed market economy with an estimated gross domestic product ( GDP ) at purchasing power parity ( PPP ) per capita of roughly NZ $ 47 @,@ 784 . The currency is the New Zealand dollar , informally known as the " Kiwi dollar " ; it also circulates in the Cook Islands ( see Cook Islands dollar ) , Niue , Tokelau , and the Pitcairn Islands . New Zealand was ranked sixth in the 2013 Human Development Index , fourth in The Heritage Foundation 's 2012 Index of Economic Freedom , and 13th in INSEAD 's 2012 Global Innovation Index .
Historically , extractive industries have contributed strongly to New Zealand 's economy , focussing at different times on sealing , whaling , flax , gold , kauri gum , and native timber . With the development of refrigerated shipping in the 1880s meat and dairy products were exported to Britain , a trade which provided the basis for strong economic growth in New Zealand . High demand for agricultural products from the United Kingdom and the United States helped New Zealanders achieve higher living standards than both Australia and Western Europe in the 1950s and 1960s . In 1973 , New Zealand 's export market was reduced when the United Kingdom joined the European Community and other compounding factors , such as the 1973 oil and 1979 energy crisis , led to a severe economic depression . Living standards in New Zealand fell behind those of Australia and Western Europe , and by 1982 New Zealand had the lowest per @-@ capita income of all the developed nations surveyed by the World Bank . Since 1984 , successive governments engaged in major macroeconomic restructuring ( known first as Rogernomics and then Ruthanasia ) , rapidly transforming New Zealand from a highly protectionist economy to a liberalised free @-@ trade economy .
Unemployment peaked above 10 percent in 1991 and 1992 , following the 1987 share market crash , but eventually fell to a record low of 3 @.@ 4 percent in 2007 ( ranking fifth from twenty @-@ seven comparable OECD nations ) . However , the global financial crisis that followed had a major impact on New Zealand , with the GDP shrinking for five consecutive quarters , the longest recession in over thirty years , and unemployment rising back to 7 percent in late 2009 . At May 2012 , the general unemployment rate was around 6 @.@ 7 percent , while the unemployment rate for youth aged 15 to 21 was 13 @.@ 6 percent . In the September 2014 quarter , unemployment was 5 @.@ 4 % . New Zealand has experienced a series of " brain drains " since the 1970s that still continue today . Nearly one quarter of highly skilled workers live overseas , mostly in Australia and Britain , which is the largest proportion from any developed nation . In recent years , however , a " brain gain " has brought in educated professionals from Europe and less developed countries .
= = = Trade = = =
New Zealand is heavily dependent on international trade , particularly in agricultural products . Exports account for 24 percent of its output , making New Zealand vulnerable to international commodity prices and global economic slowdowns . Food products made up 55 % of the value of all the country 's exports in 2014 ; wood was the second largest earner ( 7 % ) . Its major export partners are Australia , United States , Japan , China , and the United Kingdom . On 7 April 2008 , New Zealand and China signed the New Zealand – China Free Trade Agreement , the first such agreement China has signed with a developed country . The service sector is the largest sector in the economy , followed by manufacturing and construction and then farming and raw material extraction . Tourism plays a significant role in New Zealand 's economy , contributing $ 15 @.@ 0 billion to New Zealand ’ s total GDP and supporting 9 @.@ 6 percent of the total workforce in 2010 . International visitors to New Zealand increased by 3 @.@ 1 percent in the year to October 2010 and are expected to increase at a rate of 2 @.@ 5 percent annually up to 2015 .
In 1984 New Zealand eliminated agricultural subsidies .
Wool was New Zealand ’ s major agricultural export during the late 19th century . Even as late as the 1960s it made up over a third of all export revenues , but since then its price has steadily dropped relative to other commodities and wool is no longer profitable for many farmers . In contrast dairy farming increased , with the number of dairy cows doubling between 1990 and 2007 , to become New Zealand 's largest export earner . In the year to June 2009 , dairy products accounted for 21 percent ( $ 9 @.@ 1 billion ) of total merchandise exports , and the country 's largest company , Fonterra , controls almost one @-@ third of the international dairy trade . Other agricultural exports in 2009 were meat 13 @.@ 2 percent , wool 6 @.@ 3 percent , fruit 3 @.@ 5 percent and fishing 3 @.@ 3 percent . New Zealand 's wine industry has followed a similar trend to dairy , the number of vineyards doubling over the same period , overtaking wool exports for the first time in 2007 .
= = = Infrastructure = = =
In 2014 , renewable energy generated 39 @.@ 5 percent of New Zealand 's gross energy supply , primarily hydroelectric power and geothermal power .
New Zealand 's transport network comprises 93 @,@ 805 kilometres ( 58 @,@ 288 mi ) of roads , including 199 kilometres ( 124 mi ) of motorways , and 4 @,@ 128 kilometres ( 2 @,@ 565 mi ) of railway lines . Most major cities and towns are linked by bus services , although the private car is the predominant mode of transport . The railways were privatised in 1993 , but were re @-@ nationalised by the government in stages between 2004 and 2008 . The state @-@ owned enterprise KiwiRail now operates the railways , with the exception of Auckland commuter services which are operated by Transdev . Railways run the length of the country , although most lines now carry freight rather than passengers . Most international visitors arrive via air and New Zealand has six international airports , but currently only the Auckland and Christchurch airports connect directly with countries other than Australia or Fiji .
The New Zealand Post Office had a monopoly over telecommunications until 1987 when Telecom New Zealand was formed , initially as a state @-@ owned enterprise and then privatised in 1990 . Telecom was rebranded as Spark New Zealand in 2014 . Chorus , which was split from Telecom in 2011 , still owns the majority of the telecommunications infrastructure , but competition from other providers has increased . The United Nations International Telecommunication Union ranks New Zealand 12th in the development of information and communications infrastructure , having moved up four places between 2008 and 2010 .
= = = = Water supply and sanitation = = = =
Water supply and sanitation in New Zealand is universal and of good quality in urban areas . It is provided by local government called Territorial Authorities in New Zealand . Territorial Authorities consist of 14 city councils in urban areas and 53 district councils in rural areas . The legal framework includes the Health Act 1956 amended in 2007 , the Local Government Act 2002 and the Resource Management Act 1991 .
= = Demography = =
As of June 2015 , the population of New Zealand is estimated at 4 @.@ 597 million . New Zealand is a predominantly urban country , with 72 percent of the population living in 16 main urban areas and 53 percent living in the four largest cities of Auckland , Christchurch , Wellington , and Hamilton . New Zealand cities generally rank highly on international livability measures . For instance , in 2010 Auckland was ranked the world 's 4th most liveable city and Wellington the 12th by the Mercer Quality of Life Survey .
Life expectancy for New Zealanders in 2012 was 84 years for females , and 80 @.@ 2 years for males . Life expectancy at birth is forecast to increase from 80 years to 85 years in 2050 and infant mortality is expected to decline . New Zealand 's fertility rate of 2 @.@ 1 is relatively high for a developed country , and natural births account for a significant proportion of population growth . Consequently , the country has a young population compared to most industrialized nations , with 20 percent of New Zealanders being 14 years old or younger . By 2050 the population is forecast to reach 5 @.@ 3 million , the median age to rise from 36 years to 43 years and the percentage of people 60 years of age and older to rise from 18 percent to 29 percent . Despite the high life expectancy , mortality from heart disease is higher in New Zealand than it is in various other developed Western countries such as Australia , the United Kingdom and Canada .
= = = Ethnicity and immigration = = =
In the 2013 census , 74 @.@ 0 % of New Zealand residents identified ethnically as European , and 14 @.@ 9 % as Māori . Other major ethnic groups include Asian ( 11 @.@ 8 % ) and Pacific peoples ( 7 @.@ 4 % ) , of which two @-@ thirds live in the Auckland region . The population has become more diverse in recent decades : in 1961 , the census reported that the population of New Zealand was 92 percent European and 7 percent Māori , with Asian and Pacific minorities sharing the remaining 1 percent .
While the demonym for a New Zealand citizen is New Zealander , the informal " Kiwi " is commonly used both internationally and by locals . The Māori loanword Pākehā has been used to refer to New Zealanders of European descent , although others reject this appellation . The word Pākehā today is increasingly used to refer to all non @-@ Polynesian New Zealanders .
The Māori were the first people to reach New Zealand , followed by the early European settlers . Following colonisation , immigrants were predominantly from Britain , Ireland and Australia because of restrictive policies similar to the white Australian policies . There was also significant Dutch , Dalmatian , Italian , and German immigration , together with indirect European immigration through Australia , North America , South America and South Africa . Following the Great Depression policies were relaxed and migrant diversity increased . In 2009 – 10 , an annual target of 45 @,@ 000 – 50 @,@ 000 permanent residence approvals was set by the New Zealand Immigration Service — more than one new migrant for every 100 New Zealand residents . Just over 25 % of New Zealand 's population was born overseas , with the majority ( 52 % ) living in the Auckland region . The United Kingdom remains the largest source of New Zealand 's overseas population , with a quarter of all overseas @-@ born New Zealanders born there ; other major sources of New Zealand 's overseas @-@ born population are China , India , Australia , South Africa , Fiji and Samoa . The number of fee @-@ paying international students increased sharply in the late 1990s , with more than 20 @,@ 000 studying in public tertiary institutions in 2002 .
= = = Language = = =
English is the predominant language in New Zealand , spoken by 98 percent of the population . New Zealand English is similar to Australian English and many speakers from the Northern Hemisphere are unable to tell the accents apart . The most prominent differences between the New Zealand English dialect and other English dialects are the shifts in the short front vowels : the short- " i " sound ( as in " kit " ) has centralised towards the schwa sound ( the " a " in " comma " and " about " ) ; the short- " e " sound ( as in " dress " ) has moved towards the short- " i " sound ; and the short- " a " sound ( as in " trap " ) has moved to the short- " e " sound . Hence , the New Zealand pronunciation of words such as " bad " , " dead " , " fish " and " chips " sound like " bed " , " did " , " fush " and " chups " to non @-@ New Zealanders .
After the Second World War , Māori were discouraged from speaking their own language ( te reo Māori ) in schools and workplaces and it existed as a community language only in a few remote areas . It has recently undergone a process of revitalisation , being declared one of New Zealand 's official languages in 1987 , and is spoken by 4 @.@ 1 percent of the population . There are now Māori language immersion schools and two Māori Television channels , the only nationwide television channels to have the majority of their prime @-@ time content delivered in Māori . Many places have both their Māori and English names officially recognised . Samoan is the most widely spoken non @-@ official language in New Zealand ( 2 @.@ 3 percent ) , followed by Hindi , Mandarin Chinese , French , and Yue Chinese ( Cantonese ) . New Zealand Sign Language is used by about 28 @,@ 000 people . It was declared one of New Zealand 's official languages in 2006 .
= = = Education = = =
Primary and secondary schooling is compulsory for children aged 6 to 16 , with the majority attending from the age of 5 . There are 13 school years and attending state ( public ) schools is free to New Zealand citizens and permanent residents from a person 's 5th birthday to the end of the calendar year following their 19th birthday . New Zealand has an adult literacy rate of 99 percent , and over half of the population aged 15 to 29 hold a tertiary qualification . There are five types of government @-@ owned tertiary institutions : universities , colleges of education , polytechnics , specialist colleges , and wānanga , in addition to private training establishments . In the adult population 14 @.@ 2 percent have a bachelor 's degree or higher , 30 @.@ 4 percent have some form of secondary qualification as their highest qualification and 22 @.@ 4 percent have no formal qualification . The OECD 's Programme for International Student Assessment ranks New Zealand 's education system as the 7th best in the world , with students performing exceptionally well in reading , mathematics and science .
= = = Religion = = =
Christianity is the predominant religion in New Zealand , although its society is among the most secular in the world . In the 2013 Census , 55 @.@ 0 percent of the population identified with one or more religions , including 49 @.@ 0 percent identifying as Christians . Another 41 @.@ 9 percent indicated that they had no religion . The main Christian denominations are Roman Catholicism ( 12 @.@ 6 percent ) , Anglicanism ( 11 @.@ 8 percent ) , Presbyterianism ( 8 @.@ 5 percent ) and " Christian not further defined " ( i.e. people identifying as Christian but not stating the denomination , 5 @.@ 5 percent ) . The Māori @-@ based Ringatū and Rātana religions ( 1 @.@ 4 percent ) are also Christian . Other significant minority religions include Hinduism ( 2 @.@ 3 percent ) , Buddhism ( 1 @.@ 5 percent ) and Islam ( 1 @.@ 2 percent ) . The indigenous Māori Christians tend to be associated with the Anglican and Catholic churches , while Pacific people tend to be Presbyterian , Methodist , Catholic and Latter @-@ day Saint adherents .
= = = Culture = = =
Early Māori adapted the tropically based east Polynesian culture in line with the challenges associated with a larger and more diverse environment , eventually developing their own distinctive culture . Social organisation was largely communal with families ( whanau ) , sub @-@ tribes ( hapu ) and tribes ( iwi ) ruled by a chief ( rangatira ) whose position was subject to the community 's approval . The British and Irish immigrants brought aspects of their own culture to New Zealand and also influenced Māori culture , particularly with the introduction of Christianity . However , Māori still regard their allegiance to tribal groups as a vital part of their identity , and Māori kinship roles resemble those of other Polynesian peoples . More recently American , Australian , Asian and other European cultures have exerted influence on New Zealand . Non @-@ Māori Polynesian cultures are also apparent , with Pasifika , the world 's largest Polynesian festival , now an annual event in Auckland .
The largely rural life in early New Zealand led to the image of New Zealanders being rugged , industrious problem solvers . Modesty was expected and enforced through the " tall poppy syndrome " , where high achievers received harsh criticism . At the time New Zealand was not known as an intellectual country . From the early 20th century until the late 1960s Māori culture was suppressed by the attempted assimilation of Māori into British New Zealanders . In the 1960s , as higher education became more available and cities expanded urban culture began to dominate . Even though the majority of the population now lives in cities , much of New Zealand 's art , literature , film and humour has rural themes . From around the middle of the 20th century , many cultural icons called Kiwiana , started to emerge that now help to define what it means to be a New Zealander ; such as the silver fern and the paua shell .
= = = Art = = =
As part of the resurgence of Māori culture , the traditional crafts of carving and weaving are now more widely practised and Māori artists are increasing in number and influence . Most Māori carvings feature human figures , generally with three fingers and either a natural @-@ looking , detailed head or a grotesque head . Surface patterns consisting of spirals , ridges , notches and fish scales decorate most carvings . The pre @-@ eminent Māori architecture consisted of carved meeting houses ( wharenui ) decorated with symbolic carvings and illustrations . These buildings were originally designed to be constantly rebuilt , changing and adapting to different whims or needs .
Māori decorated the white wood of buildings , canoes and cenotaphs using red ( a mixture of red ochre and shark fat ) and black ( made from soot ) paint and painted pictures of birds , reptiles and other designs on cave walls . Māori tattoos ( moko ) consisting of coloured soot mixed with gum were cut into the flesh with a bone chisel . Since European arrival paintings and photographs have been dominated by landscapes , originally not as works of art but as factual portrayals of New Zealand . Portraits of Māori were also common , with early painters often portraying them as " noble savages " , exotic beauties or friendly natives . The country 's isolation delayed the influence of European artistic trends allowing local artists to developed their own distinctive style of regionalism . During the 1960s and 70s many artists combined traditional Māori and Western techniques , creating unique art forms . New Zealand art and craft has gradually achieved an international audience , with exhibitions in the Venice Biennale in 2001 and the " Paradise Now " exhibition in New York in 2004 .
Māori cloaks are made of fine flax fibre and patterned with black , red and white triangles , diamonds and other geometric shapes . Greenstone was fashioned into earrings and necklaces , with the most well @-@ known design being the hei @-@ tiki , a distorted human figure sitting cross @-@ legged with its head tilted to the side . Europeans brought English fashion etiquette to New Zealand , and until the 1950s most people dressed up for social occasions . Standards have since relaxed and New Zealand fashion has received a reputation for being casual , practical and lacklustre . However , the local fashion industry has grown significantly since 2000 , doubling exports and increasing from a handful to about 50 established labels , with some labels gaining international recognition .
= = = Literature = = =
Māori quickly adopted writing as a means of sharing ideas , and many of their oral stories and poems were converted to the written form . Most early English literature was obtained from Britain and it was not until the 1950s when local publishing outlets increased that New Zealand literature started to become widely known . Although still largely influenced by global trends ( modernism ) and events ( the Great Depression ) , writers in the 1930s began to develop stories increasingly focused on their experiences in New Zealand . During this period literature changed from a journalistic activity to a more academic pursuit . Participation in the world wars gave some New Zealand writers a new perspective on New Zealand culture and with the post @-@ war expansion of universities local literature flourished . Dunedin is a UNESCO City of Literature .
= = = Media and entertainment = = =
New Zealand music has been influenced by blues , jazz , country , rock and roll and hip hop , with many of these genres given a unique New Zealand interpretation . Māori developed traditional chants and songs from their ancient South @-@ East Asian origins , and after centuries of isolation created a unique " monotonous " and " doleful " sound . Flutes and trumpets were used as musical instruments or as signalling devices during war or special occasions . Early settlers brought over their ethnic music , with brass bands and choral music being popular , and musicians began touring New Zealand in the 1860s . Pipe bands became widespread during the early 20th century . The New Zealand recording industry began to develop from 1940 onwards and many New Zealand musicians have obtained success in Britain and the United States . Some artists release Māori language songs and the Māori tradition @-@ based art of kapa haka ( song and dance ) has made a resurgence . The New Zealand Music Awards are held annually by Recorded Music NZ ; the awards were first held in 1965 by Reckitt & Colman as the Loxene Golden Disc awards . Recorded Music NZ also publishes the country 's official weekly record charts .
Radio first arrived in New Zealand in 1922 and television in 1960 . The number of New Zealand films significantly increased during the 1970s . In 1978 the New Zealand Film Commission started assisting local film @-@ makers and many films attained a world audience , some receiving international acknowledgement . The highest grossing New Zealand movies include : Hunt for the Wilderpeople , Boy , The World 's Fastest Indian , Once Were Warriors , and Whale Rider . Deregulation in the 1980s saw a sudden increase in the numbers of radio and television stations . New Zealand television primarily broadcasts American and British programming , along with a large number of Australian and local shows . The country 's diverse scenery and compact size , plus government incentives , have encouraged some producers to film big budget movies in New Zealand , including Avatar , The Lord of the Rings , The Hobbit , The Chronicles of Narnia , King Kong and The Last Samurai . The New Zealand media industry is dominated by a small number of companies , most of which are foreign @-@ owned , although the state retains ownership of some television and radio stations . Between 2003 and 2008 , Reporters Without Borders consistently ranked New Zealand 's press freedom in the top twenty . As of 2011 , New Zealand was ranked 13th worldwide in press freedom by Freedom House , with the 2nd freest media in the Asia @-@ Pacific region after Palau .
= = = Sports = = =
Most of the major sporting codes played in New Zealand have British origins . Rugby union is considered the national sport and attracts the most spectators . Golf , netball , tennis and cricket have the highest rates of adult participation , while netball , rugby union and football ( soccer ) is popular among young people . Around 54 percent of New Zealand adolescents participate in sports for their school . Victorious rugby tours to Australia and the United Kingdom in the late 1880s and the early 1900s played an early role in instilling a national identity . Horseracing was also a popular spectator sport and became part of the " Rugby , Racing and Beer " culture during the 1960s . Māori participation in European sports was particularly evident in rugby and the country 's team performs a haka , a traditional Māori challenge , before international matches .
New Zealand has competitive international teams in rugby union , netball , cricket , rugby league , and softball and has traditionally done well in triathlons , rowing , yachting and cycling . New Zealand participated at the Summer Olympics in 1908 and 1912 as a joint team with Australia , before first participating on its own in 1920 . The country has ranked highly on a medals @-@ to @-@ population ratio at recent Games . The All Blacks , the national men 's rugby union team , are the most successful in the history of international rugby and the reigning World Cup champions . New Zealand is known for its extreme sports , adventure tourism and strong mountaineering tradition , as seen in the success of notable New Zealander Sir Edmund Hillary . Other outdoor pursuits such as cycling , fishing , swimming , running , tramping , canoeing , hunting , snowsports and surfing are also popular . The Polynesian sport of waka ama racing has increased in popularity and is now an international sport involving teams from all over the Pacific .
= = = Cuisine = = =
New Zealand 's cuisine has been described as Pacific Rim , drawing inspiration from Europe , Asia and Polynesia . For dishes that have a distinctly New Zealand style , there 's lamb , pork and cervena ( venison ) , salmon , crayfish ( lobster ) , Bluff oysters , whitebait , paua ( abalone ) , mussels , scallops , pipis and tuatua ( both are types of New Zealand shellfish ) , kumara ( sweet potato ) , kiwifruit , tamarillo and pavlova , the national dessert . A Hāngi is a traditional New Zealand Māori method of cooking food using heated rocks buried in a pit oven . New Zealand food 's distinctiveness is more in the way New Zealanders eat , generally preferring as relaxed and unaffected as possible , in keeping with the laidback Kiwi psyche . New Zealand 's climate is ideal for fine wine growing , wineries and vineyards .
= The Hustler ( film ) =
The Hustler is a 1961 American drama film directed by Robert Rossen from Walter Tevis 's 1959 novel of the same name , adapted for the screen by Rossen and Sidney Carroll . It tells the story of small @-@ time pool hustler " Fast Eddie " Felson and his desire to break into the " major league " of professional hustling and high @-@ stakes wagering by high @-@ rollers that follows it . He throws his raw talent and ambition up against the best player in the country ; seeking to best the legendary pool player " Minnesota Fats . " After initially losing to Fats and getting involved with unscrupulous manager Bert Gordon , Eddie returns to try again , but only after paying a terrible personal price .
The film was shot on location in New York City . It stars Paul Newman as " Fast " Eddie Felson , Jackie Gleason as Minnesota Fats , Piper Laurie as Sarah , and George C. Scott as Bert .
The Hustler was a major critical and popular success , gaining a reputation as a modern classic . Its exploration of winning , losing , and character garnered a number of major awards ; it is also credited with helping to spark a resurgence in the popularity of pool . Real @-@ life pool player Rudolf Wanderone , known at the time as " New York Fats " and " Chicago Fats " , claimed to be the real life inspiration for Gleason 's character , Minnesota Fats , and adopted the name as his own .
= = Plot = =
Small @-@ time pool hustler " Fast Eddie " Felson travels cross @-@ country with his partner Charlie to challenge the legendary player " Minnesota Fats " . Arriving at Fats ' home pool hall , Eddie declares he will win $ 10 @,@ 000 that night . Fats arrives and he and Eddie agree to play straight pool for $ 200 a game . After initially falling behind , Eddie surges back to being $ 1 @,@ 000 ahead and suggests raising the bet to $ 1 @,@ 000 a game ; Fats agrees . He sends out a runner , Preacher , to Johnny 's Bar , ostensibly for whiskey , but really to get professional gambler Bert Gordon to the hall . Eddie gets ahead $ 11 @,@ 000 and Charlie tries to convince him to quit , but Eddie insists the game will end only when Fats says it is over . Fats agrees to continue after Bert labels Eddie a " loser . " After 25 hours and an entire bottle of bourbon , Eddie is ahead over $ 18 @,@ 000 , but loses it all along with all but $ 200 of his original stake . At their hotel later , Eddie leaves half of the remaining stake with a sleeping Charlie and leaves .
Eddie stashes his belongings at the local bus terminal , where he meets Sarah Packard , an alcoholic who is supported by her father , attends college part @-@ time , and walks with a limp . He meets her again at a bar . They go back to her place but she refuses to let him in , saying he is " too hungry " . Eddie moves into a rooming house and starts hustling for small stakes . He finds Sarah again and this time she takes him in , but with reservations . Charlie finds Eddie at Sarah 's and tries to persuade him to go back out on the road . Eddie refuses and Charlie realizes he plans to challenge Fats again . Eddie realizes that Charlie held out his percentage and becomes enraged , believing that with that money he could have rebounded to beat Fats . Eddie dismisses Charlie as a scared old man and tells him to " go lie down and die " by himself .
At Johnny 's Bar , Eddie joins a poker game where Bert is playing , and loses $ 20 . Afterward , Bert tells Eddie that he has talent as a pool player but no character . He figures that Eddie will need at least $ 3 @,@ 000 to challenge Fats again . Bert calls him a " born loser " but nevertheless offers to stake him in return for 75 % of his winnings ; Eddie refuses .
Eddie humiliates a local pool shark , exposing himself as a hustler , and the other players punish him by breaking his thumbs . As he heals , Sarah cares for him and tells him she loves him , but he cannot say the words in return . When Eddie is ready to play , he agrees to Bert 's terms , deciding that a " 25 % slice of something big is better than a 100 % slice of nothing " .
Bert , Eddie , and Sarah travel to the Kentucky Derby , where Bert arranges a match for Eddie against a wealthy local socialite named Findley . The game turns out to be carom billiards , not pool . When Eddie loses badly , Bert refuses to keep staking him . Sarah pleads with Eddie to leave with her , saying that the world he is living in and its inhabitants are " perverted , twisted , and crippled " ; he refuses . Seeing Eddie 's anger , Bert agrees to let the match continue at $ 1 @,@ 000 a game . Eddie comes back to win $ 12 @,@ 000 . He collects his $ 3 @,@ 000 share and decides to walk back to the hotel . Bert arrives first and subjects Sarah to a humiliating sexual encounter . After , she scrawls " PERVERTED " , " TWISTED " , and " CRIPPLED " in lipstick on the bathroom mirror . Eddie arrives back at the hotel to learn that she has killed herself .
Eddie returns to challenge Fats again , putting up his entire $ 3 @,@ 000 stake on a single game . He wins game after game , beating Fats so badly that Fats is forced to quit . Bert demands a share of Eddie 's winnings and threatens that Eddie will be injured unless he pays . But Eddie says that if he is not killed he will kill Bert when he recovers ; invoking the memory of Sarah , he shames Bert into giving up his claim . Instead , Bert orders Eddie never to walk into a big @-@ time pool hall again . Eddie and Fats compliment each other as players , and Eddie walks out .
= = Cast = =
Cast notes
Pool champion Willie Mosconi has a cameo appearance as Willie , who holds the stakes for Eddie and Fats 's games . Mosconi 's hands also appear in many of the closeup shots .
= = Production = =
The Tevis novel had been optioned several times , including by Frank Sinatra , but attempts to adapt it for the screen were unsuccessful . Director Rossen 's daughter Carol Rossen speculates that previous adaptations focused too much on the pool aspects of the story and not enough on the human interaction . Rossen , who had hustled pool himself as a youth and who had made an abortive attempt to write a pool @-@ themed play called Corner Pocket , optioned the book and teamed with Sidney Carroll to produce the script .
According to Bobby Darin 's agent , Martin Baum , Paul Newman 's agent turned down the part of Fast Eddie . Newman was originally unavailable to play Fast Eddie regardless , being committed to star opposite Elizabeth Taylor in the film Two for the Seesaw . Rossen offered Darin the part after seeing him on The Mike Wallace Interview . When Taylor was forced to drop out of Seesaw because of shooting overruns on Cleopatra , Newman was freed up to take the role , which he accepted after reading just half of the script . No one associated with the production officially notified Darin or his representatives that he had been replaced ; they found out from a member of the public at a charity horse race .
Rossen filmed The Hustler over six weeks , entirely in New York City . Much of the action was filmed at two now @-@ defunct pool halls , McGirr 's and Ames Billiard Academy . Other shooting locations included a townhouse on East 82nd Street , which served as the Louisville home of Murray Hamilton 's character Findley , and the Manhattan Greyhound bus terminal . The film crew built a dining area that was so realistic that confused passengers sat there and waited to place their orders . Willie Mosconi served as technical advisor on the film and shot a number of the trick shots in place of the actors . All of Gleason 's shots were his own ; they were filmed in wide @-@ angle to emphasize having the actor and the shot in the same frames . Rossen , in pursuit of the style he termed " neo @-@ neo @-@ realistic " , hired actual street thugs , enrolled them in the Screen Actors Guild and used them as extras . Scenes that were included in the shooting script but did not make it into the final film include a scene at Ames pool hall establishing that Eddie is on his way to town ( originally slated to be the first scene of the film ) and a longer scene of Preacher talking to Bert at Johnny 's Bar which establishes Preacher is a junkie .
Early shooting put more focus on the pool playing , but during filming Rossen made the decision to place more emphasis on the love story between Newman and Laurie 's characters . Despite the change in emphasis , Rossen still used the various pool games to show the strengthening of Eddie 's character and the evolution of his relationship to Bert and Sarah , through the positioning of the characters in the frame . For example , when Eddie is playing Findley , Eddie is positioned below Bert in a two shot but above Findley while still below Bert in a three shot . When Sarah enters the room , she is below Eddie in two shot while in a three shot Eddie is still below Bert . When Eddie is kneeling over Sarah 's body , Bert again appears above him but Eddie attacks Bert , ending up on top of him . Eddie finally appears above Bert in two shot when Eddie returns to beat Fats .
= = Themes = =
The Hustler is fundamentally a story of what it means to be a human being , couched within the context of winning and losing . Describing the film , Robert Rossen said : " My protagonist , Fast Eddie , wants to become a great pool player , but the film is really about the obstacles he encounters in attempting to fulfill himself as a human being . He attains self @-@ awareness only after a terrible personal tragedy which he has caused — and then he wins his pool game . " Roger Ebert concurs with this assessment , citing The Hustler as " one of the few American movies in which the hero wins by surrendering , by accepting reality instead of his dreams . "
The film was also somewhat autobiographical for Rossen , relating to his dealings with the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee . A screenwriter during the 1930s and ' 40s , he had been involved with the Communist Party in the 1930s and refused to name names at his first HUAC appearance . Ultimately he changed his mind and identified friends and colleagues as party members . Similarly , Felson sells his soul and betrays the one person who really knows and loves him in a Faustian pact to gain character .
Film and theatre historian Ethan Mordden has identified The Hustler as one of a handful of films from the early 1960s that re @-@ defined the relationship of films to their audiences . This new relationship , he writes , is " one of challenge rather than flattery , of doubt rather than certainty . " No film of the 1950s , Mordden asserts , " took such a brutal , clear look at the ego @-@ affirmation of the one @-@ on @-@ one contest , at the inhumanity of the winner or the castrated vulnerability of the loser . " Although some have suggested the resemblance of this film to classic film noir , Mordden rejects the comparison based on Rossen 's ultra @-@ realistic style , also noting that the film lacks noir 's " Treacherous Woman or its relish in discovering crime among the bourgeoisie , hungry bank clerks and lusty wives . " Mordden does note that while Fast Eddie " has a slight fifties ring " , the character " makes a decisive break with the extraordinarily feeling tough guys of the ' rebel ' era ... [ b ] ut he does end up seeking out his emotions " and telling Bert that he is a loser because he 's dead inside .
= = Reception = =
The Hustler had its world premiere in Washington , D.C. on September 25 , 1961 . Prior to the premiere , Richard Burton hosted a midnight screening of the film for the casts of the season 's Broadway shows , which generated a great deal of positive word of mouth . Initially reluctant to publicize the film , 20th Century Fox responded by stepping up its promotional activities .
The film was well received by critics , although with the occasional caveat . Variety praised the performances of the entire main cast but felt that the " sordid aspects " of the story prevented the film from achieving the " goal of being pure entertainment . " Variety also felt the film was far too long . Stanley Kauffmann , writing for The New Republic , concurred in part with this assessment . Kauffmann strongly praised the principal cast , calling Newman " first @-@ rate " and writing that Scott 's was " his most credible performance to date . " Laurie , he writes , gives her part " movingly anguished touches " ( although he also mildly criticizes her for over @-@ reliance on Method acting ) . While he found that the script " strains hard to give an air of menace and criminality to the pool hall " and also declares it " full of pseudo @-@ meaning " , Kauffmann lauds Rossen 's " sure , economical " direction , especially in regard to Gleason who , he says , does not so much act as " [ pose ] for a number of pictures which are well arranged by Rossen . It is the best use of a manikin by a director since Kazan photographed Burl Ives as Big Daddy . " The New York Times , despite finding that the film " strays a bit " and that the romance between Newman and Laurie 's characters " seems a mite far @-@ fetched " , nonetheless found that The Hustler " speaks powerfully in a universal language that spellbinds and reveals bitter truths . "
The Hustler received nine Academy Award nominations . The film won two , for Best Art Direction @-@ Set Decoration , Black @-@ and @-@ White ( Harry Horner and Gene Callahan ) and Best Cinematography , Black @-@ and @-@ White ( Eugen Schüfftan ) . The film was also nominated for Best Picture and Newman was nominated for Best Actor in a Leading Role . Gleason and Scott were both nominated for Best Actor in a Supporting Role ; Scott refused the nomination . Laurie was nominated for Best Actress in a Leading Role . Rossen received nominations for Best Director and , with Carroll , for Best Writing , Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium .
Newman was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor . Gleason and Scott were each nominated for Best Supporting Actor and Scott was also nominated as Best New Star of the Year . At the 1962 BAFTA Awards , The Hustler tied with the Soviet film Ballad of a Soldier for Best Film from Any Source . Newman won for Best Foreign Actor and Piper Laurie was nominated for Best Foreign Actress . Gleason was honored as Best Supporting Actor by the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures and the film was named among the Board 's ten best films of 1961 . Rossen was named Best Director by the New York Film Critics Circle Awards and Rossen and Carroll shared the Writers Guild of America Award for Best Written Drama .
American Film Institute Lists
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Thrills - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Heroes and Villains :
Bert Gordon - Nominated Villain
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes :
" Eddie , you 're a born loser . " - Nominated
AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) - Nominated
AFI 's 10 Top 10 - # 6 Sports Film
= = Legacy = =
In the decades since its release , The Hustler has cemented its reputation as a classic . Roger Ebert , echoing earlier praise for the performances , direction , and cinematography and adding laurels for editor Dede Allen , cites the film as " one of those films where scenes have such psychic weight that they grow in our memories . " He further cites Fast Eddie Felson as one of " only a handful of movie characters so real that the audience refers to them as touchstones . " TV Guide calls the film a " dark stunner " offering " a grim world whose only bright spot is the top of the pool table , yet [ with ] characters [ who ] maintain a shabby nobility and grace . " The four leads are again lavishly praised for their performances and the film is summed up as " not to be missed . "
Paul Newman reprised his role as Fast Eddie Felson in the 1986 film The Color of Money , for which he won the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role . A number of observers and critics have suggested that this Oscar was in belated recognition for his performance in The Hustler . In 1997 , the Library of Congress selected The Hustler for preservation in the United States National Film Registry as " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant . " Carroll and Rossen 's screenplay was selected by the Writers Guild of America in 2006 as the 96th best motion picture screenplay of all time . In June 2008 , AFI released its " Ten top Ten " — the best ten films in ten " classic " American film genres — after polling over 1 @,@ 500 people from the creative community . The Hustler was acknowledged as the sixth best film in the sports genre .
The Hustler is credited with sparking a resurgence in the popularity of pool in the United States , which had been on the decline for decades . The film also brought recognition to Willie Mosconi , who , despite having won multiple world championships , was virtually unknown to the general public . Perhaps the greatest beneficiary of the film 's popularity was a real @-@ life pool hustler named Rudolf Wanderone . Mosconi claimed in an interview at the time of the film 's release that the character of Minnesota Fats was based on Wanderone , who at the time was known as " New York Fatty " . Wanderone immediately adopted the Minnesota Fats nickname and parlayed his association with the film into book and television deals and other ventures . Author Walter Tevis denied for the rest of his life that Wanderone had played any role in the creation of the character . Other players would claim , with greater or lesser degrees of credibility , to have served as models for Fast Eddie , including Ronnie Allen , Ed Taylor , Ed Parker , and Eddie Pelkey .
= Brittany Pierce =
Brittany Susan Pierce is a fictional character from the Fox musical comedy @-@ drama series Glee . The character is portrayed by actress Heather Morris , and first appeared in the show 's second episode , " Showmance " . Brittany was developed by Glee creators Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk , and Ian Brennan . In Glee , Brittany is a cheerleader , or " Cheerio " for the fictional William McKinley High School , and a member of the school 's glee club led by Will Schuester . Morris was originally hired to teach Beyoncé 's " Single Ladies " dance to the Glee cast . The show at the time was looking for a third cheerleader , and Morris landed the role . Morris was upgraded to a series regular in the series ' second season , in which Brittany is given a larger storyline , solos and dance routines to perform .
Morris plays Brittany as " literally insane " , but also entirely well @-@ meaning and goodhearted . She has said that Brittany " love [ s ] everybody , no matter who they are " ; she is frequently smiling and being nice to people . Brittany 's character traits include her finding recipes confusing , cheating off intellectually disabled classmates , thinking her cat , Lord Tubbington , is reading her diary , and not knowing her right hand from her left . These facts are often presented in one @-@ liners delivered by Morris , many of which she has ad @-@ libbed . Brittany 's one @-@ liners are regularly celebrated in reviews of Glee . The character 's lack of intelligence and forthright manner of speaking means , as Morris puts it , that " Brittany is used by the series ' writers to say things no other character would " . The character has also received positive reviews related to her romantic storyline with her closeted best friend Santana ( Naya Rivera ) . While Brittany is bisexual , and is unashamed of that , Santana has trouble accepting her lesbianism . Brittany has continued to support Santana and urged her to be true to herself .
The character has been received favorably with television critics . Jarrett Wieselman of the New York Post has compared Morris as Brittany to Lynch as Sue , and has opined that she has " emerged as one of the funniest second bananas on TV right now " . Wieselman wrote that since her introduction , Brittany has been given " more and more to do [ and ] less and less to think " , and that the result has been " one of the most clueless characters that 's ever figured out how to dress herself in the morning . " Snarker called Brittany and Santana her " new favourite Glee pairing " , and commented : " While Heather Morris ( Brittany ) and Naya Rivera ( Santana ) have had minimal screen time , they ’ ve made it count . Heather in particular has brought the laughs as the Cheerio least likely to get a Mensa invitation . " Brittany has attracted comparison to Amanda Seyfried 's character from the 2004 hit teen comedy Mean Girls . Morris also receives acclaim for her dancing and her portrayal as Brittany .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Season 1 = = =
Brittany first appears in Glee during the show 's second episode , as a member of William McKinley High 's cheerleading team , the Cheerios . She joins the glee club , New Directions , with her friends and fellow cheerleaders Quinn Fabray ( Dianna Agron ) and Santana Lopez ( Naya Rivera ) . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) then enlists the three of them to help her destroy the club from the inside . When the club is due to compete at the sectionals round of show choir competition , Brittany unknowingly leaks their set list to Sue , who leaks the routines to competing glee clubs . New Directions put a new set list together at the last minute , and go on to win the competition regardless . Brittany also reveals that she and Santana have had sex , but are not dating . Following the club 's victory at sectionals , Sue renews her effort to bring them down , and enlists Brittany and Santana to break up co @-@ captains Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) and Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) . They invite Finn on a date with the both of them , but ignore him throughout the evening and ultimately request that he sit in the car and leave them to finish their meal alone . She mentions in the episode " Bad Reputation " that she has made out with almost everyone in the school – guys and girls alike , and the school janitor . She also briefly dates Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) in the episode " Laryngitis " as he wants to appear more masculine to impress his father and he is the only guy she has not made out with in the school .
= = = Season 2 = = =
In the second season episode " Duets " , she asks Santana to be her partner for the duet competition while they are making out . Santana rejects her , so Brittany attempts to make her jealous by dating fellow glee club member Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) . She sleeps with Artie , but Santana tells him that Brittany was just using him for his voice , so he breaks up with her , to Brittany 's dismay . Brittany 's relationship with Artie continues to develop ; in " Never Been Kissed " , he gets her to go out with him again . As of " Furt " , they are officially dating . In " Sexy " , following her performance of " Landslide " with Santana and Holly Holliday ( Gwyneth Paltrow ) , Santana admits her true feelings for Brittany . Although Santana fears being ostracized by the McKinley High student body for being in a same @-@ sex relationship , she confesses her romantic love to Brittany , feelings which are reciprocated . However , Brittany states that she loves Artie too , and would never do anything to hurt him , even if it means not being able to be with Santana . She says that if she and Artie ever break up , she would be Santana 's , proudly so .
= = = Season 3 = = =
Brittany runs for senior class president in the third season , starting in " I Am Unicorn " , and wins the election in " I Kissed A Girl " , defeating Kurt in the balloting . She and Santana join the Troubletones , a rival all @-@ girls show choir at McKinley , and formally begin dating ; after Santana is outed by Finn , they are open about their relationship . The two rejoin New Directions after the Troubletones lose to them at Sectionals . Santana sends Brittany a singing valentine in " Heart " , and the two publicly kiss afterward . In " Saturday Night Glee @-@ ver " , concerned about Santana 's future plans , Brittany gets the idea to ask Sue to arrange for Santana to get a full scholarship to the top college cheerleading program in the country . After a year of being a do @-@ nothing class president , Brittany puts on a dinosaur @-@ themed senior prom . In the season finale , Brittany reveals that her grades are so bad she is not graduating , but will have to repeat her senior year .
= = = Season 4 = = =
In the first episode of the fourth season , Brittany competes to become the lead singer of New Directions , but loses to Blaine ( Darren Criss ) . She then loses to him again when she runs to be a second @-@ term senior class president . Santana formally breaks up with Brittany because she feels that their long @-@ distance relationship is not working , though the two remain friends . She then becomes ' blonde buddies ' with Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) , and then starts to date him . Santana comes back to try and break them up , however fails . Brittany visits MIT , where she is dubbed a mathematical genius . Returning to Lima , she becomes arrogant , refuses to perform at Regionals , leaves the Cheerios , and breaks up with Sam . After Will and Sue fail to get Brittany to change her attitude , Sam gets Santana to return to Lima to intervene . After talking with Santana , Brittany decides to perform at Regionals . Brittany reveals to the glee club she has been offered early admission to MIT and delivers an emotional goodbye , as she will be leaving after Regionals .
= = = Season 5 = = =
Brittany returns to McKinley in " 100 " along with other New Directions alumni following the closure of the Glee club . Brittany states her unhappiness at being a math genius and kisses her ex @-@ girlfriend Santana . In " New Directions " , Brittany agrees to dropping out of MIT before going on a trip to Lesbos with Santana . Santana asks Brittany to go with her to New York after their trip , Brittany accepts . Brittany finally graduates in the episode , one year late . Brittany returns to New York in the last episode of the season " The Untitled Rachel Berry Project " but she finds out that Santana is out of town shooting another Yeast @-@ I @-@ Stat commercial .
= = = Season 6 = = =
At the beginning of season six , Brittany returns with Santana and the rest of Glee club alumni to McKinley High School in " Homecoming " to help Rachel and Kurt recruit for New Directions . In " Jagged Little Tapestry " , while the alumni stick around for another week , Brittany is surprised by Santana 's marriage proposal and gladly accepts . Brittany and Santana then return in " What The World Needs Now " to deal with Santana 's disapproving grandmother Alma – with whom she hasn ’ t spoken since coming out as a lesbian . Brittany takes matters into her own hands and tries to invite Alma to the wedding , but Alma 's prejudice is too strong and she rejects their engagement , and Brittany tells her off for doing so . Later the New Directions serenade them in an attempt to be invited to their upcoming wedding . Brittany and Santana are wed in a double ceremony with Kurt and Blaine in the eighth episode " A Wedding " . Before the ceremony , Sue arrives with Alma , who she has helped to realize that although she may not believe females should marry each other , family is the most important thing , leading her and Santana to reconcile . Brittany and Santana return briefly in the last minutes of the series finale " Dreams Come True " for a last performance with the rest of the Glee Cast to take a bow .
= = Creation and casting = =
Brittany first appears as a guest character in the second episode of the first season of Glee . She was brought in as a member of William McKinley High 's cheerleading team , the Cheerios . Brittany is regularly played by actress Heather Morris . Morris grew up with a strong background in choreography . She was taking acting classes and actively pursuing an acting career when she was offered a spot on recording artist Beyoncé Knowles world tour as a dancer . Morris , however , turned down the job . Shortly thereafter , she was asked by Glee 's choreographer Zach Woodlee to teach the choreography for Beyoncé 's " Single Ladies " dance to the Glee actors . At the same time , the show was looking for a third cheerleader , they originally wanted to have the third be African American , but Morris ended up landing the role of Brittany Pierce . Initially a background character who hardly ever spoke , the role grew as writers discovered Morris had a gift for delivering one @-@ liners . In an interview with Brandon Voss of The Advocate.com , Morris said of her casting :
" About six months after I first moved to L.A. , I got a job doing Beyoncé 's tour . After I finished the tour , I started working with choreographer Zach Woodlee , who started hiring me to do things like Fired Up ! and Eli Stone . Prior to the Single Ladies tour I was supposed to move to New York to do West Side Story , but then I dropped dancing and started acting classes because I didn 't want to dance anymore and I really wanted to fulfill my lifelong dream of acting . Zach called me and was like , ' Are you in New York ? ' I was like , ' No , I 'm still here in L.A. and I ’ m acting . ' He was like , ' OK , I need you to come in and teach the " Single Ladies " dance to Chris Colfer and Jenna Ushkowitz for this TV show I 'm doing , Glee . Since you 're acting now , I know Ryan Murphy would love to consider you for a part . Look as cute as you can so he 'll love you even more . ” So I went in to teach the kids with a full @-@ on outfit . I was scheduled to read with Ryan Murphy twice , but he canceled both times . After that , Zach called me and said they might not hire me anyway because they wanted the third cheerleader to be black , so my hopes were shot . But then my agent called a week later and said , ' You 're now cast as Brittany in Glee . ' So it was nuts . "
Brittany 's role in the show was initially intended to be minor , but grew towards the end of the first season . She does not have any solo musical performances during season one , but Morris hoped she would have one in the second season . On April 27 , 2010 , Michael Ausiello of Entertainment Weekly reported that Morris would be upgraded to a series regular for season two . Speaking to E ! Online , Morris commented : " It 's so fun . I literally just stand there and doze off and then I 'm like , ' Oh yeah , I have to speak now ! ' " At the 2010 Television Critics Association Summer Press Tour , Murphy stated that Brittany would have " big storylines " in the new season , as viewers want to know more about her .
= = Characterization = =
Some of Brittany 's most memorable lines are unscripted , and are instead devised by Murphy during filming , or improvised by Morris . Morris portrays Brittany as being " literally insane . " She is used by the series ' writers to say things no other character would , to the point that Morris considers some of her lines nonsensical . Brittany 's character traits include her finding recipes confusing , cheating off intellectually disabled classmates , thinking her cat is reading her diary , and not knowing her right hand from her left . She is friendly towards all the other characters , and Morris has explained that Brittany " love [ s ] everybody , no matter who they are " , so she is frequently smiling and being nice to people . Morris bases her portrayal of Brittany on the character Karen Smith from the film Mean Girls . She plays Brittany as being very innocent , rather than stupid . In the episode " A Night of Neglect " , Brittany participates in an academic decathlon as a seat warmer , but surprisingly ends up contributing to the win due to the fact that she is somewhat of an idiot savant on the topic of cat diseases . It is also revealed in " Britney / Brittany " that Brittany is also " Britney Spears " as her middle initial is " S " making her " Brittany S. Pierce . "
At the Paley Festival Glee panel in March 2010 , Murphy stated that Brittany and Santana would be seen to make out during the show 's first season . Morris and Rivera only became aware of this after reading a Paley Festival report online . When they asked Murphy about the development , he claimed to have made the statement " to get a kick " out of the " dirty guy " asking about them . Murphy told Morris and Rivera that Glee would not push relationships to appease the show 's fans , but would only pursue those which were " organic and natural . " While there are moments on the show which depict Brittany and Santana as being very close to one another , Morris attributes these to her close relationship with Rivera : " that is just Naya and I joking around with each other and being really close . It 's always her and I just messing around and they end up using it . "
Later in 2010 , when interviewed by After Ellen and discussing the large lesbian audience of Glee , Ryan Murphy confirmed that season two would contain at least one kiss between Brittany and Santana . In January 2011 , several months after Brittany and Santana are seen in bed together , Glee co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk further confirmed that " Brittana is on . Brittana was always on . "
= = Musical performances = =
Brittany performs in many of the series ' musical numbers , though she does not have a solo line until the second season . In that season 's second episode " Britney / Brittany " , Brittany performs " I 'm a Slave 4 U " as a solo and " Me Against the Music " as a duet with Santana . Songs by Morris as Brittany have been released as singles , available for digital download , and have also featured on the show 's soundtrack albums . Brittany sings lead for Kesha 's " Tik @-@ Tok " in the episode " Blame It on the Alcohol " . Candace Bulter of ScreenCrave praised the New Directions performance of the song and wrote , " Ke $ ha might be able to out @-@ drink the Glee members , but their cover of her song was phenomenal . " She went on to praise Brittany 's choreography and voice , calling it " mad " and " awesome " . Sandra Gonzalez of Entertainment Weekly praised all of the musical performances and covers of that episode . In the season finale , she sings solo lines in the glee club 's Nationals performance of the original song " Light Up the World " . In the third season , Brittany 's first major performance was in the third episode " Asian F " , where she sings lead on Beyoncé 's " Run the World ( Girls ) " , which garnered superlatives from many reviewers including Kevin Fallon of The Atlantic , who wrote , " Brittany 's performance of ' Run the World ( Girls ) ' was thrilling . It was the most adrenaline @-@ pumping musical number the series has produced : intricately choreographed , expertly shot and edited , perfectly woven into the story , and performed exquisitely by Heather Morris . " She also performs a duet with Santana on " I Wanna Dance With Somebody ( Who Loves Me ) " in the Whitney Houston tribute episode " Dance With Somebody " .
= = Critical reception = =
Jarrett Wieselman of the New York Post has compared Morris as Brittany to Lynch as Sue , and noted that she has " emerged as one of the funniest second bananas on TV right now " . Wieselman wrote that since her introduction , Brittany has been given " more and more to do [ and ] less and less to think " , and that the result has been " one of the most clueless characters that 's ever figured out how to dress herself in the morning . " E ! Online 's Megan Masters has also compared Brittany to Sue , and stated that Brittany 's one @-@ liners " easily rival " Sue 's . She deemed Brittany " brainlessly brilliant " , and thanked the Glee producers for creating her : " Never before have we had the pleasure of enjoying such a ridiculously dumb — yet always loveable — character on television . " When a promotional clip for the episode " Sectionals " indicated that Brittany and Santana had slept together , Dorothy Snarker , when writing for lesbian entertainment website AfterEllen.com , praised the pairing and referred to it by the portmanteau " Brittana " . Snarker called the two her " new favourite Glee pairing " , and commented : " While Heather Morris ( Brittany ) and Naya Rivera ( Santana ) have had minimal screen time , they ’ ve made it count . Heather in particular has brought the laughs as the Cheerio least likely to get a Mensa invitation . Never mind
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programme in its timeslot , with 7 @.@ 5 million viewers . The episode was the second most @-@ watched programme of the day , beaten by Britain 's Got Talent , and was the twelfth most watched programme of the week . The episode 's Appreciation Index was 87 ( considered Excellent ) .
Scott Matthewman , writing for The Stage , gave a mixed review of the episode . He thought that " pretty much the only surprise in the way the humans who made up the Ood Corporation were presented came as PR girl Solana ( Ayesha Dharker ) escaped with the Doctor and Donna , only to betray their position by calling for the guards , " and " the revelation that Ryder ( Adrian Rawlins ) has been working to infiltrate the Corporation is thrown away ... as quickly as it is revealed . " However , he thought Donna was becoming " fast ... one of the strongest and most well @-@ rounded companions in the series ’ history " , and " there were some nice interpretations of the Ood ’ s natural development " . Caitlin Moran of The Times thought the episode was " really really good ... – one that will have you staring at your screen and asking , once again , ' How can something so good be happening so early on a Saturday night , in my own front room ? ' " . She enjoyed the scene where the Doctor and Donna talk about slaves in contemporary culture , saying that Tate " really , really isn ’ t that bad when she says [ " We don 't have slaves . " ] " . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy gave the episode five stars out of five . Rawson @-@ Jones opened his review by saying " Doctor Who can occasionally transcend the properties of a mere family television show to reach out and give viewers a poignant , beautiful epiphany and greater sense of the world they inhabit , " citing Donna 's reaction on seeing the uncultivated Ood as the moving part of the episode . He thought the episode as a whole " exemplifies just how powerful and emotive Doctor Who can be when writing , direction and performance are all harmonious and complete their own Ood @-@ like circle " , and was appreciative of the acting . The episode 's only flaw was when Donna said " Why do you say ' Miss ' ? Do I look single ? " , but was otherwise " an extremely impressive , contemplative examination of the abhorrent nature of humanity " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Planet of the Ood " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe =
Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe ( née Clemm ; August 15 , 1822 – January 30 , 1847 ) was the wife of American writer Edgar Allan Poe . The couple were first cousins and married when Virginia Clemm was 13 and Poe was 27 . Biographers disagree as to the nature of the couple 's relationship . Though their marriage was loving , some biographers suggest they viewed one another more like a brother and sister . In January 1842 she contracted tuberculosis , growing worse for five years until she died of the disease at the age of 24 in the family 's cottage , at that time outside New York City .
Along with other family members , Virginia Clemm and Edgar Allan Poe lived together off and on for several years before their marriage . The couple often moved to accommodate Poe 's employment , living intermittently in Baltimore , Philadelphia , and New York . A few years after their wedding , Poe was involved in a substantial scandal involving Frances Sargent Osgood and Elizabeth F. Ellet . Rumors about amorous improprieties on her husband 's part affected Virginia Poe so much that on her deathbed she claimed that Ellet had murdered her . After her death , her body was eventually placed under the same memorial marker as her husband 's in Westminster Hall and Burying Ground in Baltimore , Maryland . Only one image of Virginia Eliza Clemm Poe has been authenticated : a watercolor portrait painted several hours after her death .
The disease and eventual death of his wife had a substantial effect on Edgar Allan Poe , who became despondent and turned to alcohol to cope . Her struggles with illness and death are believed to have affected his poetry and prose , where dying young women appear as a frequent motif , as in " Annabel Lee " , " The Raven " , and " Ligeia " .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Virginia Eliza Clemm was born in 1822 and named after an older sister who had died as an infant only ten days earlier . Her father William Clemm , Jr. was a hardware merchant in Baltimore . He had married Maria Poe , Virginia 's mother , on July 12 , 1817 , after the death of his first wife , Maria 's first cousin Harriet . Clemm had five children from his previous marriage and went on to have three more with Maria . After his death in 1826 , he left very little to the family and relatives offered no financial support because they had opposed the marriage . Maria supported the family by sewing and taking in boarders , aided with an annual $ 240 pension granted to her mother Elizabeth Cairnes , who was paralyzed and bedridden . Elizabeth received this pension on behalf of her late husband , " General " David Poe , a former quartermaster in Maryland who had loaned money to the state .
Edgar Poe first met his cousin Virginia in August 1829 , four months after his discharge from the Army . She was seven at the time . In 1832 , the family – made up of Elizabeth , Maria , Virginia , and Virginia 's brother Henry – was able to use Elizabeth 's pension to rent a home at what was then 3 North Amity Street in Baltimore . Poe 's older brother William Henry Leonard Poe , who had been living with the family , had recently died on August 1 , 1831 . Poe joined the household in 1833 and was soon smitten by a neighbor named Mary Devereaux . The young Virginia served as a messenger between the two , at one point retrieving a lock of Devereaux 's hair to give to Poe . Elizabeth Cairnes Poe died on July 7 , 1835 , effectively ending the family 's income and making their financial situation even more difficult . Henry died around this time , sometime before 1836 , leaving Virginia as Maria Clemm 's only surviving child .
In August 1835 , Poe left the destitute family behind and moved to Richmond , Virginia to take a job at the Southern Literary Messenger . While Poe was away from Baltimore , another cousin , Neilson Poe , the husband of Virginia 's half @-@ sister Josephine Clemm , heard that Edgar was considering marrying Virginia . Neilson offered to take her in and have her educated in an attempt to prevent the girl 's marriage to Edgar at such a young age , though suggesting that the option could be reconsidered later . Edgar called Neilson , the owner of a newspaper in Baltimore , Maryland , his " bitterest enemy " and interpreted his cousin 's actions as an attempt at breaking his connection with Virginia . On August 29 , 1835 , Edgar wrote an emotional letter to Maria , declaring that he was " blinded with tears while writing " , and pleading that she allow Virginia to make her own decision . Encouraged by his employment at the Southern Literary Messenger , Poe offered to provide financially for Maria , Virginia and Henry if they moved to Richmond .
= = = Marriage = = =
Marriage plans were confirmed and Poe returned to Baltimore to file for a marriage license on September 22 , 1835 . The couple might have been quietly married as well , though accounts are unclear . Their only public ceremony was in Richmond on May 16 , 1836 , when they were married by a Presbyterian minister named Rev. Amasa Converse . Poe was 27 and Virginia was 13 , though her age was listed as 21 . This marriage bond was filed in Richmond and included an affidavit from Thomas W. Cleland confirming the bride 's alleged age . The ceremony was held in the evening at the home of a Mrs. James Yarrington , the owner of the boarding house in which Poe , Virginia , and Virginia 's mother Maria Clemm were staying . Yarrington helped Maria Clemm bake the wedding cake and prepared a wedding meal . The couple then had a short honeymoon in Petersburg , Virginia .
Debate has raged regarding how unusual this pairing was based on the couple 's age and blood relationship . Noted Poe biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn argues it was not particularly unusual , nor was Poe 's nicknaming his wife " Sissy " or " Sis " . Another Poe biographer , Kenneth Silverman , contends that though their first @-@ cousin marriage was not unusual , her young age was . It has been suggested that Clemm and Poe had a relationship more like that between brother and sister than between husband and wife . Biographer Arthur Hobson Quinn disagreed with this view , citing a fervent love letter to argue that Poe " loved his little cousin not only with the affection of a brother , but also with the passionate devotion of a lover and prospective husband . " Some scholars , including Marie Bonaparte , have read many of Poe 's works as autobiographical and have concluded that Virginia died a virgin . It has been speculated that she and her husband never consummated their marriage , although no evidence is given . This interpretation often assumes that Virginia is represented by the title character in the poem " Annabel Lee " : a " maiden ... by the name of Annabel Lee " . Poe biographer Joseph Wood Krutch suggests that Poe did not need women " in the way that normal men need them " , but only as a source of inspiration and care , and that Poe was never interested in women sexually . Friends of Poe suggested that the couple did not share a bed for at least the first two years of their marriage but that , from the time she turned 16 , they had a " normal " married life until the onset of her illness .
Virginia and Poe were by all accounts a happy and devoted couple . Poe 's one @-@ time employer George Rex Graham wrote of their relationship : " His love for his wife was a sort of rapturous worship of the spirit of beauty . " Poe once wrote to a friend , " I see no one among the living as beautiful as my little wife . " She , in turn , by many contemporary accounts , nearly idolized her husband . She often sat close to him while he wrote , kept his pens in order , and folded and addressed his manuscripts . She showed her love for Poe in an acrostic poem she composed when she was 23 , dated February 14 , 1846 :
= = = Osgood / Ellet scandal = = =
The " tattling of many tongues " in Virginia 's Valentine poem was a reference to actual incidents . In 1845 , Poe had begun a flirtation with Frances Sargent Osgood , a married 34 @-@ year @-@ old poet . Virginia was aware of the friendship and might even have encouraged it . She often invited Osgood to visit them at home , believing that the older woman had a " restraining " effect on Poe , who had made a promise to " give up the use of stimulants " and was never drunk in Osgood 's presence .
At the same time , another poet , Elizabeth F. Ellet , became enamored of Poe and jealous of Osgood . Though , in a letter to Sarah Helen Whitman , Poe called her love for him " loathsome " and wrote that he " could do nothing but repel [ it ] with scorn " , he printed many of her poems to him in the Broadway Journal while he was its editor . Ellet was known for being meddlesome and vindictive and , while visiting the Poe household in late January 1846 , she saw one of Osgood 's personal letters to Poe . According to Ellet , Virginia pointed out " fearful paragraphs " in Osgood 's letter . Ellet contacted Osgood and suggested she should beware of her indiscretions and asked Poe to return her letters , motivated either by jealousy or by a desire to cause scandal . Osgood then sent Margaret Fuller and Anne Lynch Botta to ask Poe on her behalf to return the letters . Angered by their interference , Poe called them " Busy @-@ bodies " and said that Ellet had better " look after her own letters " , suggesting indiscretion on her part . He then gathered up these letters from Ellet and left them at her house .
Though these letters had already been returned to her , Ellet asked her brother " to demand of me the letters " . Her brother , Colonel William Lummis , did not believe that Poe had already returned them and threatened to kill him . In order to defend himself , Poe requested a pistol from Thomas Dunn English . English , Poe 's friend and a minor writer who was also a trained doctor and lawyer , likewise did not believe that Poe had already returned the letters and even questioned their existence . The easiest way out of the predicament , he said , " was a retraction of unfounded charges " . Angered at being called a liar , Poe pushed English into a fistfight . Poe later claimed he was triumphant in the fight , though English claimed otherwise , and Poe 's face was badly cut by one of English 's rings . In Poe 's version , he said , " I gave E. a flogging which he will remember to the day of his death . " Either way , the fight further sparked gossip over the Osgood affair .
Osgood 's husband stepped in and threatened to sue Ellet unless she formally apologized for her insinuations . She retracted her statements in a letter to Osgood saying , " The letter shown me by Mrs Poe must have been a forgery " created by Poe himself . She put all the blame on Poe , suggesting the incident was because Poe was " intemperate and subject to acts of lunacy " . Ellet spread the rumor of Poe 's insanity , which was taken up by other enemies of Poe and reported in newspapers . The St. Louis Reveille reported : " A rumor is in circulation in New York , to the effect that Mr. Edgar A. Poe , the poet and author , has been deranged , and his friends are about to place him under the charge of Dr. Brigham of the Insane Retreat at Utica . " The scandal eventually died down only when Osgood reunited with her husband . Virginia , however , had been very affected by the whole affair . She had received anonymous letters about her husband 's alleged indiscretions as early as July 1845 . It is presumed that Ellet was involved with these letters , and they so disturbed Virginia that she allegedly declared on her deathbed that " Mrs. E. had been her murderer . "
= = = Illness = = =
By this time , Virginia had developed consumption , first seen sometime in the middle of January 1842 . While singing and playing the piano , Virginia began to bleed from the mouth , though Poe said she merely " ruptured a blood @-@ vessel " . Her health declined and she became an invalid , which drove Poe into a deep depression , especially as she occasionally showed signs of improvement . In a letter to a friend , Poe described his resulting mental state : " Each time I felt all the agonies of her death — and at each accession of the disorder I loved her more dearly & clung to her life with more desperate pertinacity . But I am constitutionally sensitive — nervous in a very unusual degree . I became insane , with long intervals of horrible sanity . "
Virginia 's condition might have been what prompted the Poe family to move , in the hopes of finding a healthier environment for her . They moved several times within Philadelphia in the early 1840s and their last home in that city is now preserved as the Edgar Allan Poe National Historic Site in Spring Garden . In this home , Virginia was well enough to tend the flower garden and entertain visitors by playing the harp or the piano and singing . The family then moved to New York sometime in early April 1844 , traveling by train and steamboat . Virginia waited on board the ship while her husband secured space at a boarding house on Greenwich Street . By early 1846 , family friend Elizabeth Oakes Smith said that Virginia admitted , " I know I shall die soon ; I know I can 't get well ; but I want to be as happy as possible , and make Edgar happy . " She promised her husband that after her death she would be his guardian angel .
= = = Move to Fordham = = =
In May 1846 , the family ( Poe , Virginia , and her mother , Maria ) moved to a small cottage in Fordham , about fourteen miles outside the city , a home which is still standing today . In what is the only surviving letter from Poe to Virginia , dated June 12 , 1846 , he urged her to remain optimistic : " Keep up your heart in all hopelessness , and trust yet a little longer . " Of his recent loss of the Broadway Journal , the only magazine Poe ever owned , he said , " I should have lost my courage but for you — my darling little wife you are my greatest and only stimulus now to battle with this uncongenial , unsatisfactory and ungrateful life . " But by November of that year , Virginia 's condition was hopeless . Her symptoms included irregular appetite , flushed cheeks , unstable pulse , night sweats , high fever , sudden chills , shortness of breath , chest pains , coughing and spitting up blood .
Nathaniel Parker Willis , a friend of Poe 's and an influential editor , published an announcement on December 30 , 1846 , requesting help for the family , though his facts were not entirely correct :
Illness of Edgar A. Poe . — We regret to learn that this gentleman and his wife are both dangerously ill with the consumption , and that the hand of misfortune lies heavily on their temporal affairs . We are sorry to mention the fact that they are so far reduced as to be barely able to obtain the necessaries of life . That is , indeed , a hard lot , and we do hope that the friends and admirers of Mr. Poe will come promptly to his assistance in his bitterest hour of need .
Willis , who had not corresponded with Poe for two years and had since lost his own wife , was one of his greatest supporters in this period . He sent Poe and his wife an inspirational Christmas book , The Marriage Ring ; or How to Make a Home Happy .
The announcement was similar to one made for Poe 's mother , Eliza Poe , during her last stages of tuberculosis . Other newspapers picked up on the story : " Great God ! " , said one , " is it possible , that the literary people of the Union , will let poor Poe perish by starvation and lean faced beggary in New York ? For so we are led to believe , from frequent notices in the papers , stating that Poe and his wife are both down upon a bed of misery , death , and disease , with not a ducat in the world . " The Saturday Evening Post asserted that Virginia was in a hopeless condition and that Poe was bereft : " It is said that Edgar A. Poe is lying dangerously with brain fever , and that his wife is in the last stages of consumption — they are without money and without friends . " Even editor Hiram Fuller , whom Poe had previously sued for libel , attempted in the New York Mirror to garner support for Poe and his wife : " We , whom he has quarrelled with , will take the lead " , he wrote .
Virginia was described as having dark hair and violet eyes , with skin so pale it was called " pure white " , causing a " bad complexion that spoiled her looks " . One visitor to the Poe family noted that " the rose @-@ tint upon her cheek was too bright " , possibly a symptom of her illness . Another visitor in Fordham wrote , " Mrs. Poe looked very young ; she had large black eyes , and a pearly whiteness of complexion , which was a perfect pallor . Her pale face , her brilliant eyes , and her raven hair gave her an unearthly look . " That unearthly look was mentioned by others who suggested it made her look not quite human . William Gowans , who once lodged with the family , described Virginia as a woman of " matchless beauty and loveliness , her eye could match that of any houri , and her face defy the genius of a Canova to imitate " . She might have been a little plump . Many contemporary accounts as well as modern biographers remark on her childlike appearance even in the last years of her life .
While dying , Virginia asked her mother : " Darling ... will you console and take care of my poor Eddy — you will never never leave him ? " Her mother stayed with Poe until his own death in 1849 . As Virginia was dying , the family received many visitors , including an old friend named Mary Starr . At one point Virginia put Starr 's hand in Poe 's and asked her to " be a friend to Eddy , and don 't forsake him " . Virginia was tended to by 25 @-@ year @-@ old Marie Louise Shew . Shew , who served as a nurse , knew medical care from her father and her husband , both doctors . She provided Virginia with a comforter as her only other cover was Poe 's old military cloak , as well as bottles of wine , which the invalid drank " smiling , even when difficult to get it down " . Virginia also showed Poe a letter from Louisa Patterson , second wife of Poe 's foster @-@ father John Allan , which she had kept for years and which suggested that Patterson had purposely caused the break between Allan and Poe .
= = = Death = = =
On January 29 , 1847 , Poe wrote to Marie Louise Shew : " My poor Virginia still lives , although failing fast and now suffering much pain . " Virginia died the following day , January 30 , after five years of illness . Shew helped in organizing her funeral , even purchasing the coffin . Death notices appeared in several newspapers . On February 1 , The New York Daily Tribune and the Herald carried the simple obituary : " On Saturday , the 30th ult . , of pulmonary consumption , in the 25th year of her age , VIRGINIA ELIZA , wife of EDGAR A. POE . " The funeral was February 2 , 1847 . Attendees included Nathaniel Parker Willis , Ann S. Stephens , and publisher George Pope Morris . Poe refused to look at his dead wife 's face , saying he preferred to remember her living . Though now buried at Westminster Hall and Burying Ground , Virginia was originally buried in a vault owned by the Valentine family , from whom the Poes rented their Fordham cottage .
Only one image of Virginia is known to exist , for which the painter had to take her corpse as model . A few hours after her death , Poe realized he had no image of Virginia and so commissioned a portrait in watercolor . She is shown wearing " beautiful linen " that Shew said she had dressed her in ; Shew might have been the portrait 's artist , though this is uncertain . The image depicts her with a slight double chin and with hazel eyes . The image was passed down to the family of Virginia 's half @-@ sister Josephine , wife of Neilson Poe .
In 1875 , the same year in which her husband 's body was reburied , the cemetery in which she lay was destroyed and her remains were almost forgotten . An early Poe biographer , William Gill , gathered the bones and stored them in a box he hid under his bed . Gill 's story was reported in the Boston Herald twenty @-@ seven years after the event : he says that he had visited the Fordham cemetery in 1883 at exactly the moment that the sexton Dennis Valentine held Virginia 's bones in his shovel , ready to throw them away as unclaimed . Poe himself had died in 1849 , and so Gill took Virginia 's remains and , after corresponding with Neilson Poe and John Prentiss Poe in Baltimore , arranged to bring the box down to be laid on Poe 's left side in a small bronze casket . Virginia 's remains were finally buried with her husband 's on January 19 , 1885 — the seventy @-@ sixth anniversary of her husband 's birth and nearly ten years after his current monument was erected . The same man who served as sexton during Poe 's original burial and his exhumations and reburials was also present at the rites which brought his body to rest with Virginia and Virginia 's mother Maria Clemm .
= = Effect and influence on Poe = =
Virginia 's death had a significant effect on Poe . After her death , Poe was deeply saddened for several months . A friend said of him , " the loss of his wife was a sad blow to him . He did not seem to care , after she was gone , whether he lived an hour , a day , a week or a year ; she was his all . " A year after her death , he wrote to a friend that he had experienced the greatest evil a man can suffer when , he said , " a wife , whom I loved as no man ever loved before " , had fallen ill . While Virginia was still struggling to recover , Poe turned to alcohol after abstaining for quite some time . How often and how much he drank is a controversial issue , debated in Poe 's lifetime and also by modern biographers . Poe referred to his emotional response to his wife 's sickness as his own illness , and that he found the cure to it " in the death of my wife . This I can & do endure as becomes a man — it was the horrible never @-@ ending oscillation between hope & despair which I could not longer have endured without the total loss of reason " .
Poe regularly visited Virginia 's grave . As his friend Charles Chauncey Burr wrote , " Many times , after the death of his beloved wife , was he found at the dead hour of a winter night , sitting beside her tomb almost frozen in the snow " . Shortly after Virginia 's death , Poe courted several other women , including Nancy Richmond of Lowell , Massachusetts , Sarah Helen Whitman of Providence , Rhode Island , and childhood sweetheart Sarah Elmira Royster in Richmond . Even so , Frances Sargent Osgood , whom Poe also attempted to woo , believed " that [ Virginia ] was the only woman whom he ever loved " .
= Star Trek : Enterprise ( season 2 ) =
The second season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise commenced airing on UPN in the United States on September 18 , 2002 and concluded on May 21 , 2003 after 26 episodes . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . The second season saw the series continue a concentration on stand @-@ alone episodes as seen in the debut season , but the decision was made to start an ongoing story @-@ arc to run into the third season with the second season finale episode " The Expanse " . The second season also saw the return of executive producer Rick Berman to writing duties after he had been working on the film Star Trek : Nemesis .
The season continued the Temporal Cold War story @-@ arc with the opening episode " Shockwave " ( part two ) , and the producers sought to include further appearances by the Andorians and the Vulcans . It also introduced the Romulans in their earliest appearance in the Star Trek timeline with the episode " Minefield " , and the Borg made an appearance in the series in " Regeneration " . Berman and Brannon Braga sought to bring Patrick Stewart in to direct an episode of Enterprise , and it was also suggested that either he or Whoopi Goldberg could appear on @-@ screen as their Star Trek : The Next Generation characters . Berman also said he was open to an appearance by William Shatner .
According to the Nielsen Ratings received for the episodes , the season stayed steady above four percent with the exception of two dips below that level . One of these dips included the episode " Horizon " , which with its 2 @.@ 2 percent rating , was the lowest viewed episode of the series at that point . The critical reception to the second season was mixed , with one reviewer stating that the series did not learn from the mistakes of the first season and another calling it childish for the lack of consequences being seen in the episodes . However , the introduction of the ongoing story @-@ line in the season finale was met with praise . The series was nominated for five Emmy Awards , four Saturn Awards and two Hugo Awards but did not win in any categories .
= = Plot overview = =
The second season continues the Human exploration of interstellar space by the crew of Enterprise , and further mention is made of the Temporal Cold War . The early encounters and historic culture of familiar Star Trek franchise races , such as the Vulcans , Andorians , Klingons , Romulans , Tholians , Borg , and Tellarites , are also explored further . The season ends with a cliffhanger that sets up the Xindi story arc , set in the Delphic Expanse , of the third season .
= = Cast = =
= = = Main cast = = =
= = = Recurring cast = = =
= = Episodes = =
In the following table , episodes are listed by the order in which they aired .
= = Production = =
Production on the second season of Enterprise began on June 24 , 2002 , on a location shoot for the second episode of the season , " Carbon Creek " . Once production on that episode was complete , the crew moved onto the second part of " Shockwave " , which would be broadcast first . It was produced in that order as " Carbon Creek " only required Scott Bakula , Connor Trinneer and Jolene Blalock from the main cast to appear . The remaining cast returned on July 10 , for the first day of production for the second half of " Shockwave " .
Executive producer Rick Berman was looking forward to resuming writing with Brannon Braga on episodes of Enterprise as he had been previously busy with work on the film Star Trek : Nemesis . He was also in talks to bring Patrick Stewart in to direct an episode of the series , saying that the pair had discussed this and Stewart was interested but was busy at the time filming X2 in Canada . He added that once Stewart had a few weeks spare in his schedule , that they would see if he could be brought in to direct an episode .
Two other Star Trek alumni returned to Enterprise to direct . These were Roxann Dawson and LeVar Burton . Dawson had previously played B 'Elanna Torres on Star Trek : Voyager , and had directed the episodes " The Andorian Incident " and " Vox Sola " during the first season of Enterprise as well as two episodes of Voyager . She said that after a season of working together , the cast of Enterprise were finding their characters " beautifully " . Prior to the second season cast members Linda Park and Connor Trinneer undertook the same directing course that Dawson previously took during her time on Voyager .
Burton had played Geordi La Forge in Star Trek : The Next Generation , before moving into directing with the 100th episode of Voyager , " Timeless " . He had directed two episodes of Enterprise during the first season , and filmed a further two during the second season including " First Flight " . This episode was the 50th episode of the series and featured guest appearances from three members of the crew of the United States Navy aircraft carrier USS Enterprise ( CVN @-@ 65 ) .
There were several links in promotion between Star Trek : Nemesis and Enterprise , as season two saw Enterprise form half of a two @-@ hour block called " Out of This World Wednesdays on UPN " , with a new series of The Twilight Zone forming the second half . This promotion had a Nemesis competition tied into it , offering the chance for five winners to take a trip to Los Angeles to attend the premiere of the film . Another competition linked Nemesis back to Enterprise , with participating Loews Cinemas offering the chance to win a walk @-@ on role on the series .
= = Themes = =
Brannon Braga said that the production team sought to increase the tempo of season two compared to the first season . He said at a press junket held by the Television Critics Association in July 2002 that " We 're just starting . We want to capitalise more on the fact that [ Enterprise ] is a sequel . We want to have a season that maybe has more action in it than it had last season . " He predicted that possible storylines would include Jonathan Archer fulfilling more of his potential as Captain of the Enterprise , as well as further instalments in the Temporal Cold War story @-@ arc and further interactions between the crew and both the Andorians and the Vulcans .
Braga said that they wanted to avoid overloading the Temporal Cold War but instead they wanted to create an ongoing element to the series during season two . He expected that it would feature in the first episode of the season , " Shockwave " ( part two ) , but then there would be a break before it was featured again . He also revealed that the recurring character of Daniels wasn 't entirely human , and that this would be revealed during the second season while at a panel discussion at the Official Star Trek Convention in Las Vegas in August 2002 . Berman , said that the revelation of who was controlling the Suliban would not be shown during the second season , but he promised a " really good " season and was open to William Shatner appearing in the show . Scott Bakula also referred to a previous discussion with Berman where the producer suggested that Patrick Stewart or Whoopi Goldberg could appear on @-@ screen in the second season through the means of time travel from their time on Star Trek : The Next Generation .
Perhaps the biggest announcement made prior to the start of the season was the return of the Romulans to Star Trek . They had not previously been seen on Enterprise , and Braga was well aware that they would have to carefully consider the continuity as the crew of James T. Kirk 's Enterprise were the first to see a Romulan in the episode " Balance of Terror " . He said " The continuity is airtight . Believe me . We know . We know ... " . The species were due to make their first appearance in the Star Trek timeline in the episode " Minefield " , which was written by former The X @-@ Files writer John Shiban . At the same time that the Romulans were due to appear in Enterprise , work was underway on the Romulan @-@ centric film , Star Trek : Nemesis . The second season also saw an appearance by the Borg in the episode " Regeneration " , which was intended to follow up on the events in Star Trek : First Contact .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
The season opened with Nielsen ratings of 4 @.@ 9 / 8 percent for " Shockwave " ( part two ) . This means that it was seen by 4 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 8 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The ratings received for the season rose over the next few episodes to 5 @.@ 4 / 8 percent for " Dead Stop " - the most watched episode of the season . " Vanishing Point " was the first episode of the season to drop below a 4 percent rating , but not the last as " Judgment " , " The Breach " and " Horizon " also received ratings below the season average . The ratings received by " Horizon " of 2 @.@ 2 percent were a series low at that point . But the ratings increased following that trio of episodes , and the season ended with " The Expanse " receiving ratings of 4 @.@ 4 / 7 percent .
= = = Critical response = = =
At the time of the broadcast of the final episode of the season , Scott D. Pierce for the Deseret News described Enterprise as not " an awful show , it 's just , well , boring . " He called the new story arc introduced in " The Expanse " a " promising idea " . But also added , " it 's pretty hard to get your hopes up too high for Enterprise . "
Randy Miller III , in his review of the Blu @-@ ray release of the second season for DVD Talk , said that the memory of this season was worse than it actually was . He criticised the studio 's instance at stand @-@ alone episodes but said that there was a marked improvement about halfway through the season , calling the finale " game @-@ changing " . He added that at the time of the DVD release , he did not feel so positively towards the season and agreed with Holly Ordway 's opinion at the time . Ordway had said that the second season sought to be more realistic , but that it feels childish as no one gets hurt or killed - even in the episode " Marauders " which saw a group of colonists defend themselves from renegade Klingons . She called the finale a " giant reset button " on the series , adding that it seemed that the show was about to become a sequel to Voyager but squandering the premise it had been given .
Michael Simpson , while writing for SciFiNow , suggested that the second season of Enterprise " suggests a fatal failure to recognise what went wrong " with the first season . He said that the inclusion of the Borg in the episode " Regeneration " lacked fresh ideas as a similar idea had previously appeared in season one with the Ferengi making first contact but not being named in " Acquisition " . He was frustrated with the season due to the " unfulfilled potential " , and praised episodes such as " Carbon Creek " , " Singularity " and " Cogenitor " . James Hunt at the website Den of Geek placed three second season episodes in his top ten list of Enterprise . In ninth place , " First Flight " was chosen as it demonstrated that Jonathan Archer was " the most Kirk @-@ esque Captain since the original " . " Regeneration " was placed in third position , while " Carbon Creek " was the runner @-@ up for the best episode because it was an early episode in which the series found its feet .
= = = Awards = = =
Enterprise received five nominations in three categories at the 55th Primetime Emmy Awards . Three of these were in the " Outstanding Special Visual Effects For A Series " category ; " Dead Stop " , " The Crossing " and " The Expanse " . The series had won that category at the 54th Emmy Awards , for the pilot " Broken Bow " . Michael Westmore 's team was nominated for " Outstanding Makeup For A Series ( Prosthetic ) " for their work on the episode " Canamar " and Dennis McCarthy musical score for " The Expanse " was nominated for " Outstanding Music Composition For A Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) " .
Both " Carbon Creek " and " A Night in Sickbay " were nominated at the 2003 Hugo Awards for " Best Dramatic Presentation , Short Form " , but lost to " Conversations with Dead People " - an episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . At the 29th Saturn Awards , the series was nominated for " Best Network Television Series " and Scott Bakula , Joelene Blalock and Connor Trinneer were nominated for " Best Actor on Television " , " Best Supporting Actress on Television " and " Best Supporting Actor on Television " , respectively . However , the series did not win any of the awards it was nominated for .
= = Media information = =
As part of the releases of Enterprise on Blu @-@ ray announced in early 2013 , a box set featuring the episodes of the second season was released on August 19 in the United Kingdom and a day later in the United States and Canada .
= Pilot ( Glee ) =
" Pilot " is the pilot episode of the American television series Glee , which premiered on the Fox network on May 19 , 2009 . An extended director 's cut version aired on September 2 , 2009 . The show focuses on a high school show choir , also known as a glee club , set within the fictional William McKinley High School in Lima , Ohio . The pilot episode covers the formation of the club and introduces the main characters . The episode was directed by series creator Ryan Murphy , and written by Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan . Murphy selected the music featured in the episode , with the intention of maintaining a balance between showtunes and chart hits .
The episode achieved 9 @.@ 619 million viewers on first broadcast , and 4 @.@ 2 million when the director 's cut version aired . Critical response was mixed , with The New York Times 's Alessandra Stanley highlighting the episode 's unoriginality and stereotyped characters , but praising the showmanship and talent of the cast . The Daily News 's David Hinckley opined that the show was imperfect and implausible but " potentially heartwarming , " while USA Today 's Robert Bianco noted casting and tone problems , but commented positively on the show 's humor and musical performances . Mary McNamara for the LA Times wrote that the show had a wide audience appeal , calling it : " the first show in a long time that 's just plain full @-@ throttle , no @-@ guilty @-@ pleasure @-@ rationalizations @-@ necessary fun . "
= = Plot = =
Spanish teacher Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) learns that Sandy Ryerson ( Stephen Tobolowsky ) , the head of William McKinley High School 's glee club has been fired for inappropriate sexual behavior toward student Hank Saunders ( Ben Bledsoe ) . The school principal , Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , gives Will permission to take over the club , and he plans to revitalize it , naming the group New Directions . The club consists of fame @-@ hungry Rachel Berry ( Lea Michele ) , diva Mercedes Jones ( Amber Riley ) , flamboyant countertenor Kurt Hummel ( Chris Colfer ) , paraplegic electric guitar player Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) and stuttering goth Tina Cohen @-@ Chang ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) . Will 's efforts are derided by Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , head of the school 's successful cheerleading team , the Cheerios who soon plans to abolish the Glee club to restore her money funded towards the spoilt Cheerios . His wife Terri ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) is also unsupportive , suggesting that Will become an accountant to increase their income and give up teaching . Rachel threatens to leave the club if Will cannot find a male vocalist with talent comparable to hers . When the school 's football coach Ken Tanaka ( Patrick Gallagher ) allows Will to try to recruit football team members , in return that he put a good word for Emma for him ( because Ken likes her ) , he discovers that quarterback Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) is secretly a talented singer . He plants marijuana in Finn 's locker , and blackmails him into joining New Directions . Finn , determined not to disappoint his widowed mother , complies .
Will takes New Directions to see Vocal Adrenaline , a rival club , perform . He is accompanied by Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , the school 's mysophobic guidance counselor , who has a crush on him . Vocal Adrenaline perform an impressive rendition of Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " , which leaves New Directions worried about their chances of competing in the regional show choir competition . When Will returns from the performance , Terri informs him she is pregnant . Believing he needs to support his family , Will regretfully tells the club he is resigning , and applies for a job as an accountant . Finn is attacked by the football team for his involvement with New Directions , and initially decides to quit the club . The team traps Artie in a portable toilet which they intend to tip over , however , Finn refuses to take part . He apologizes to the Glee club members , and the group resolves to continue without Will . Emma urges Will to reconsider his decision to leave by showing him a video of him in Glee Club when he was at McKinley High , and when he comes across New Directions performing " Don 't Stop Believin ' " he decides to stay , telling the club he couldn 't bear to see them win Nationals without him .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk , and Ian Brennan created Glee . Murphy drew inspiration from his own childhood , which saw him play the lead role in all of his high school 's musicals . Brennan and producer Mike Novick were also highly involved in their own schools ' glee clubs . Brennan originally wrote a script for a Glee movie , but Murphy believed the concept would work better as a TV series . Fox picked up the series pilot within 15 hours of receiving the script , which Murphy attributes in part to the success of the network 's American Idol , commenting : " It made sense for the network with the biggest hit in TV , which is a musical , to do something in that vein " . Murphy intended the show to be a form of escapism , explaining : " There 's so much on the air right now about people with guns , or sci @-@ fi , or lawyers running around . This is a different genre , there 's nothing like it on the air at the networks and cable . Everything 's so dark in the world right now , that 's why ' Idol ' worked . It 's pure escapism . " With regards to Glee 's audience , Murphy intended for it to be a family show which would appeal to adults as well as children , with adult characters starring equally alongside the teenage leads . Glee is set in Lima , Ohio . Murphy chose a Midwest setting as he himself originates from Indiana , and recalls childhood visits to Ohio to the Kings Island theme park . Although set in Lima , the show is actually filmed at Paramount Studios in Hollywood .
= = = Music = = =
The episode features covers of numerous songs sung on @-@ screen by the characters . Musical segments take the form of performances , as opposed to the characters singing spontaneously , as the intention is for the series to remain reality @-@ based . Murphy has commented that his interest lay in creating a " postmodern musical " , rather than " doing a show where people burst into song " , drawing on the format of Chicago . Murphy is responsible for selecting all of the songs used , and strives to maintain a balance between show tunes and chart hits , as : " I want there to be something for everybody in every episode . That 's a tricky mix , but that 's very important – the balancing of that . "
Songs featured in the pilot are " Where is Love ? " from Oliver ! , Aretha Franklin 's " Respect " , " Mister Cellophane " from Chicago , Katy Perry 's " I Kissed a Girl " , " On My Own " from Les Misérables , " Sit Down , You 're Rockin ' the Boat " from Guys and Dolls , " You 're the One That I Want " from Grease , REO Speedwagon 's " Can 't Fight This Feeling " , Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " and " Don 't Stop Believin ' " and " Lovin ' , Touchin ' , Squeezin ' " by Journey . The director 's cut version also includes an acoustic rendition of John Denver 's " Leaving on a Jet Plane " . Murphy was surprised at the ease with which use of songs was approved by the record labels approached , and explained : " I think the key to it is they loved the tone of it . They loved that this show was about optimism and young kids , for the most part , reinterpreting their classics for a new audience . " The score of the episode features a cappella covers of instrumental songs provided by The Swingle Singers . Dance routines were choreographed by Zach Woodlee .
Four of the songs featured in the episode were released as singles , available for digital download . " On My Own " charted at number 42 in Ireland and 73 in the UK , and " Can 't Fight This Feeling " charted at number 117 in the UK . " Rehab " charted at number 93 in Australia , 38 in Ireland , 62 in the UK and 98 in America . " Don 't Stop Believin ' " reached number 2 in the UK , 4 in America , 50 in Canada , 5 in Australia , 4 in Ireland and 16 in New Zealand . It sold 177 @,@ 000 copies in the US in its first week , and went on to sell the most copies of any Glee single : it was certified gold with 500 @,@ 000 sales in the US in October 2009 , and reached one million in sales and platinum certification in March 2011 ; it has also been certified platinum in Australia .
= = = Casting = = =
In casting Glee , Murphy sought out actors who could identify with the rush of starring in theatrical roles . Instead of using traditional network casting calls , he spent three months on Broadway , where he found Morrison , who had previously starred on stage in Hairspray and The Light in the Piazza , Michele , who starred in Spring Awakening , and Ushkowitz , from the Broadway revival of The King and I. The role of Rachel was written specifically for Michele . Colfer had no previous professional experience , but reminded Ryan of the character of Kurt from The Sound of Music , and was thus cast as Kurt Hummel . He originally auditioned for Artie with the song " Mr. Cellophane " , however Murphy was so impressed by his performance that the role of Kurt was created for him . Colfer commented on his casting : " I 'm so happy to be a part of something that is so new and different and so needed at this time . It 's good to have something positive , especially for kids in small towns , like myself , who need a little pick @-@ me @-@ up . It 's true : You can be famous – even if there 's no money left in the world . "
Auditioning actors with no theatrical experience were required to prove they could sing and dance as well as act . Mays auditioned with the song " Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch @-@ a , Touch Me " from The Rocky Horror Show , while Monteith initially submitted a tape of himself acting only , and was requested to submit a second , musical tape , in which he sang " a cheesy , ' 80s music @-@ video @-@ style version " of REO Speedwagon 's " Can 't Fight This Feeling " . " Monteith has deemed his casting " spot on " as : " I 'm just like my character . I 've never trained or had any lessons . I can just do it – with some adjustments , obviously . " McHale came from a boy @-@ band background , having previously been part of the group Not Like Them . He auditioned with the song " Let It Be " and tested alongside Colfer and Ushkowitz . He explained that the diversity of the cast 's backgrounds reflects the range of different musical styles within the show itself : " It 's a mix of everything : classic rock , current stuff , R & B. Even the musical theater stuff is switched up . You won 't always recognize it . " Lynch was originally intended to be a guest star , but became a series regular when a Damon Wayans pilot she was working on for ABC fell through .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Over the hour of broadcast , the first airing of the episode drew an average of 9 @.@ 619 million US viewers . It began with 12 @.@ 518 million , dropping after the first half @-@ hour from first place in the ratings to third , retaining only 8 @.@ 917 million viewers . The episode ranked fourteenth in the weekly program ratings , and was the fourth most viewed show on the Fox network for the week . It received a 3 @.@ 9 / 7 rating / share in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . The director 's cut version of the episode attained 4 @.@ 2 million viewers , and a 1 @.@ 8 / 5 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The episode was the nineteenth highest viewed show in Canada for the week of broadcast , with 1 @.@ 04 million viewers . It was watched by 278 @,@ 000 viewers in the United Kingdom , a 1 @.@ 3 % audience share , and by a further 100 @,@ 000 on timeshift , a 0 @.@ 6 % share . The director 's cut was aired on January 11 , 2010 , followed by Showmance , and was watched by 1 @.@ 76 million viewers , becoming the most @-@ watched show on E4 for the week , and the most @-@ watched show on cable for the week .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Following the first broadcast of the episode , Glee was nominated for three Teen Choice Awards : Choice TV : Breakout Series , Choice TV : Breakout Star Male ( Cory Monteith ) and Choice TV : Breakout Star Female ( Lea Michele ) . Murphy was nominated for the 2009 Directors Guild of America Award for Outstanding Directing of a Comedy Series for his work on the episode . Robert J. Ulrich , Eric Dawson , Carol Kritzer and Jim Carnahan won an Artios Award for casting of a comedy series , Mark Hutman was nominated for the " Single Camera Television Series " Art Directors Guild Award , and David Klotz won a Golden Reel Award for " Best Sound Editing : Short Form Music in Television " for his work on the episode . At the 62nd Primetime Emmy Awards , Murphy , Falchuk and Brennan were nominated for the " Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series " award for their work on the episode . Murphy was additionally nominated for the " Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series " award , and Hutman , Christopher Brown and Barbara Munch were nominated for the " Outstanding Art Direction for a Single @-@ Camera Series " award .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Entertainment Weekly 's Ken Tucker gave the episode an A , posing the question : " Has there ever been a TV show more aptly named than Glee ? It both embodies and inspires exactly that quality . " Glee was the top ranked topic on social networking site Twitter on the night of its initial airing . Alessandra Stanley for the New York Times called the show " blissfully unoriginal in a witty , imaginative way " , saying the characters are " high school archetypes " but noted " a strong satiric pulse that doesn ’ t diminish the characters ’ identities or dim the showmanship of a talented cast " . The Daily News ' David Hinckley wrote that the show " isn 't close to perfect " but " has likable characters , a good sense of humor and a reasonably deft touch with music . " He called the pilot episode " not very plausible " but " potentially heartwarming " , writing of the musical choices : " The duet of " You 're the One That I Want " from Grease may be a little obvious , but setting a group dance routine to Amy Winehouse 's " Rehab " shows some inspiration . Whether Glee can hold that note remains a very unanswered question . But it will at least be worth watching to see . " USA Today 's Robert Bianco assessed : " There 's a lot to like here : the exuberance of the musical numbers , the bite to the comedy and the joy of seeing something different . It has casting and tone problems , but it has all summer to fix them . "
The Baltimore Sun 's David Zurawik was critical of the show 's characterization and comedy , but was impressed by the staging of " Don 't Stop Believin ' " , calling it " so elevating and inspirational that it almost redeems all the stereotypes and lame humor that come before . Grit my teeth as I did at how one @-@ dimensionally empty @-@ headed the writing could be , I will still be back for the start of this series in the fall because of its musical punch . " Tom Jicha for The Sun Sentinel similarly claimed of the episode that : " A lively score and appealing performers somewhat compensate for overly familiar characters and plotting " , while Rob Owen for the Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette agreed : " It 's the music that makes Glee a gleeful delight . Without the song @-@ and @-@ dance production numbers , this Fox pilot would be just another high @-@ school @-@ set comedy @-@ drama . "
The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan commented that : " the two biggest musical numbers are tremendously entertaining . They 're shot and performed with verve , and they put to shame those medleys contestants often perform on the Wednesday edition of American Idol " , but again observed : " Whether it will work as a satirical dramedy about the cutthroat social environment of high school is another matter . " Of the principal cast , Ryan said : " Casting Matthew Morrison as Will Schuester [ ... ] was a wise move ; the actor not only has a sweet voice but a hangdog hopefulness that gives a needed anchor to the show 's more satirical elements . Cory Monteith gives quarterback Finn Hudson a jock @-@ ish authority mixed with an appealingly square naivete , and Lea Michele not only has an amazing voice but manages to make her character , spoiled diva Rachel Berry , more than a humorless stereotype . " She was critical , however , of Gilsig as Terri , calling her " the worst thing about Glee " and opining : " As written by Murphy and played by Gilsig , the character is screechy , unfunny and deeply unpleasant . It 's as if Ryan didn 't trust that the audience would get behind Will and the saga of his ragtag glee club and so saw fit to give the teacher the shrewish , nagging wife from hell . "
In contrast , Tom Shales for The Washington Post criticized Morrison as Will , writing : " Morrison is definitely not gleeful and doesn 't seem particularly well equipped to be a high @-@ school impresario ; as pipers go , he 's not even marginally pied . " Shales was more positive regarding Lynch 's performance , and concluded that : " Dramatic tension isn 't exactly plentiful , but pleasingly staged songs and a general aura of retro ingenuousness come through , and seem awfully if fitfully refreshing " . Variety 's Brian Lowry also highlighted acting and characterization issues with the show , writing that : " It 's among the adults , alas – who are mostly over @-@ the @-@ top buffoons – where Glee nearly sails off the rails , from Jane Lynch 's tyrannical cheer matron to the salivating football coach , a bit like the Rydell High gang in Grease . " Lowry felt that : " Modest redemption comes from the stammering Emma ( Heroes ' Jayma Mays ) , who has a clear crush on Will , even though he 's married to his high @-@ school sweetheart . Perhaps to foster a rooting interest ( or at least sympathy ) for a Will @-@ Emma pairing , said wife ( Jessalyn Gilsig ) is initially presented as a ditsy shrew . " Mary McNamara for the Los Angeles Times has called Glee : " the first show in a long time that 's just plain full @-@ throttle , no @-@ guilty @-@ pleasure @-@ rationalizations @-@ necessary fun . " She praised Lynch as Sue , writing that " Lynch alone makes Glee worth watching " , and claimed that overall : " The music , though by no means edgy , is energetic with a wide audience appeal , like the show itself .
= I Ching =
The I Ching ( [ î tɕíŋ ] or Classic of Changes , is an ancient divination text and the oldest of the Chinese classics . Possessing a history of more than two and a half millennia of commentary and interpretation , the I Ching is an influential text read throughout the world , providing inspiration to the worlds of religion , psychoanalysis , business , literature , and art . Originally a divination manual in the Western Zhou period ( 1000 – 750 BC ) , over the course of the Warring States period and early imperial period ( 500 – 200 BC ) it was transformed into a cosmological text with a series of philosophical commentaries known as the " Ten Wings . " After becoming part of the Five Classics in the 2nd century BC , the I Ching was the subject of scholarly commentary and the basis for divination practice for centuries across the Far East , and eventually took on an influential role in Western understanding of Eastern thought .
The I Ching uses a type of divination called cleromancy , which produces apparently random numbers . Four numbers , 6 to 9 , are turned into a hexagram , which can then be looked up in the I Ching book , arranged in an order known as the King Wen sequence . The interpretation of the readings found in the I Ching is a matter of centuries of debate , and many commentators have used the book symbolically , often to provide guidance for moral decision making as informed by Taoism and Confucianism . The hexagrams themselves have often acquired cosmological significance and paralleled with many other traditional names for the processes of change such as yin and yang and Wu Xing .
= = The divination text : Zhou yi = =
The core of the I Ching is a Western Zhou divination text called the Changes of Zhou ( 周易 Zhōu yì ) . Various modern scholars suggest dates ranging between the 10th and 4th centuries BC for the assembly of the text in approximately its current form . Based on a comparison of the language of the Zhou yi with dated bronze inscriptions , Edward Shaughnessy dated its compilation in its current form to the early decades of the reign of King Xuan of Zhou , in the last quarter of the 9th century BC . A copy of the text in the Shanghai Museum corpus of bamboo and wooden slips ( recovered in 1994 ) shows that the Zhou yi was used throughout all levels of Chinese society in its current form by 300 BC , but still contained small variations as late as the Warring States period . It is possible that other divination systems existed at this time ; the Rites of Zhou name two other such systems , the Lianshan and the Guizang .
= = = Name and origins = = =
The name Zhou yi literally means the " changes " ( Chinese : 易 ; pinyin : Yì ) of the Zhou dynasty . The " changes " involved have been interpreted as the transformations of hexagrams , of their lines , or of the numbers obtained from the divination . Feng Youlan proposed that the word for " changes " originally meant " easy " , as in a form of divination easier than the oracle bones , but there is little evidence for this . There is also an ancient folk etymology that sees the character for " changes " as containing the sun and moon , the cycle of the day . Modern Sinologists believe the character to be derived either from an image of the sun emerging from clouds , or from the content of a vessel being changed into another .
Traditionally , the Zhou yi is associated with the legendary world ruler Fu Xi . According to the canonical Great Commentary , Fu Xi observed the patterns of the world and created the eight trigrams ( Chinese : 八卦 ; pinyin : bāguà ) , " in order to become thoroughly conversant with the numinous and bright and to classify the myriad things . " The Zhou yi itself does not contain this legend and indeed says nothing about its own origins . The Rites of Zhou , however , also claims that the hexagrams of the Zhou yi were derived from an initial set of eight trigrams . During the Han dynasty there were various opinions about the historical relationship between the trigrams and the hexagrams . Eventually , a consensus formed around 2nd century AD scholar Ma Rong 's attribution of the text to the joint work of Fu Xi , King Wen of Zhou , the Duke of Zhou , and Confucius , but this traditional attribution is no longer generally accepted .
= = = Structure = = =
The basic unit of the Zhou yi is the hexagram ( 卦 guà ) , a figure composed of six stacked horizontal lines ( 爻 yáo ) . Each line is either broken or unbroken . The received text of the Zhou yi contains all 64 possible hexagrams , along with the hexagram 's name ( 卦名 guàmíng ) , a short hexagram statement ( 彖 tuàn ) , and six line statements ( 爻辭 yáocí ) . The statements were used to determine the results of divination , but the reasons for having two different methods of reading the hexagram are not known , and it is not known why hexagram statements would be read over line statements or vice versa .
The book opens with the first hexagram statement , yuán hēng lì zhēn ( 元亨利貞 ) . These four words , translated traditionally by James Legge as " originating and penetrating , advantageous and firm , " are often repeated in the hexagram statements and were already considered an important part of I Ching interpretation in the 6th century BC . Edward Shaughnessy describes this statement as affirming an " initial receipt " of an offering , " beneficial " for further " divining " . The word zhēn ( 貞 , ancient form ) was also used for the verb " divine " in the oracle bones of the late Shang dynasty , which preceded the Zhou . It also carried meanings of being or making upright or correct , and was defined by the Eastern Han scholar Zheng Xuan as " to enquire into the correctness " of a proposed activity .
The names of the hexagrams are usually words that appear in their respective line statements , but in five cases ( 2 , 9 , 26 , 61 , and 63 ) an unrelated character of unclear purpose appears . The hexagram names could have been chosen arbitrarily from the line statements , but it is also possible that the line statements were derived from the hexagram names . The line statements , which make up most of the book , are exceedingly cryptic . Each line begins with a word indicating the line number , " base , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , top " , and either the number 6 for a broken line , or the number 9 for a whole line . Hexagrams 1 and 2 have an extra line statement , named yong . Following the line number , the line statements may make oracular or prognostic statements . Some line statements also contain poetry or references to historical events .
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cover charge and stayed open longer than most of the others , including the Cotton Club . At Smalls Paradise , patrons could also reserve a seat at the club by paying a yearly fee . Many regular visitors of Harlem 's night clubs also found the food better at Smalls Paradise than at either The Cotton Club or Connie 's Inn . While most of the night spots shut their doors between 3 and 4 am , Smalls Paradise began breakfast dances at 6 am with a floor show of up to 30 dancers and a full jazz band .
Smalls Paradise celebrated its fourth anniversary in 1929 and by 1930 , it began an arrangement with WMCA Radio to have twice weekly broadcasts from the club . During Ed Small 's ownership of the club , he organized many gala charity events which were held at Smalls Paradise with the proceeds donated to help the needy of the Harlem community . One memorable gala in 1931 featured Bill " Bojangles " Robinson . Entertainers from both the Cotton Club and Connie 's Inn made appearances at the event with the permission of the clubs ' management . Ed Smalls was doing well enough at the time of the club 's tenth year in business to greatly expand the Smalls Paradise floor space by moving the club 's bar upstairs . Smalls continued to expand the club on street level , opening his Orchid Room in 1942 .
In the early 1930s , a female singer with Charlie Johnson 's band arranged an audition with the band for a young hopeful at Smalls Paradise . When the girl was asked what key she sang in , she replied that she did not know , and the audition was unsuccessful . This was Billie Holiday 's first try as a professional singer . Jazz musician Fats Waller was a frequent visitor to Smalls Paradise . With a new Victor recording contract in 1934 , Waller was in need of sidemen to record with . Playing in the house band at Smalls Paradise were Harry Dial and Herman Autrey ; both were recruited by Waller at Smalls Paradise and recorded with him as Fats Waller and His Rhythm .
A young Malcolm X , who enjoyed the atmosphere at Smalls Paradise , worked there as a waiter between 1942 and 1943 . Civil rights activist Doctor W. E. B. Du Bois celebrated his 83rd birthday at Smalls Paradise on February 23 , 1951 . The banquet , sponsored by Albert Einstein , Mary McLeod Bethune , Paul Robeson and others , was originally to be held at New York 's Essex House . This was during the era of McCarthyism ; a pro @-@ McCarthy group circulated a newsletter labeling Du Bois , Einstein and others connected with the dinner as being pro @-@ Communist . When the Essex House canceled the banquet , it was held at Smalls Paradise .
= = New ownership = =
= = = Tommy Smalls = = =
Founder and long @-@ time owner Ed Smalls sold the club to popular disc jockey Tommy Smalls in late 1955 . Smalls , known as " Dr. Jive " , was an early enthusiast of rock ' n ' roll . Like his contemporary , Alan Freed , Smalls also organized rock ' n ' roll shows held at New York area theaters . He held a grand opening gala at the club on December 13 , 1955 , which was attended by many prominent people in the music industry . A special guest was baseball star Willie Mays . He began broadcasting his WWRL radio program from the club shortly after his ownership .
= = = Wilt Chamberlain = = =
By the late 1950s , Smalls Paradise was in trouble as it had lost substantial business . Basketball star Wilt Chamberlain , who had always wanted to own a night club ; was able to purchase Smalls Paradise with a business partner in 1961 . After purchasing the club , Chamberlain spent up to 18 hours a day at Smalls Paradise , as a celebrity host and learning the night club business . He renamed the venue Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise and changed the club 's style of music from jazz to rhythm and blues for economic reasons . One of the first performers at Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise was Ray Charles . Chamberlain also began booking African @-@ American comedians ; Redd Foxx played at Big Wilt 's in December 1961 . Smalls Paradise had been a place for African @-@ American baseball players to gather during the time it was owned by Tommy Smalls . Under Chamberlain 's ownership , it now became a place where African American basketball players would meet .
A number of white jazz musicians regularly performed at the club alongside blacks . Jazz guitarist Pat Martino recalls that he began playing at the club as a teenager ( in the late 1950s ) , and would often play until 4am in the morning . After the clubs closed he would then join guitarists such as Wes Montgomery and Grant Green for breakfast .
= = Dances renew popularity = =
Smalls Paradise played a role in popularizing the Madison in 1960 , but the night club 's burst of popularity in the early 1960s came from the later dance craze , the Twist . Since Tuesday nights were exceptionally slow at Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise , the club looked for a way to bring in more business . Someone came up with the idea to hold Twist dance contests on Tuesday evenings and the club 's weekly contest started in December 1961 . A hostess for the Paris night club , the Blue Note , visited Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise shortly after the contest began ; she was there to learn the Twist and take the dance back to the Paris club ,
By the beginning of 1962 , BBC @-@ TV came with a crew to film the twisting at the night spot for broadcast in the UK and journalists from many foreign newspapers visited to take photos and file news stories . Delegates from the United Nations had also found their way to the night club for the Tuesday night contest . Those participating in the contest were patrons of Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise . The only dance professionals doing the twist at the club were Mama Lou Parks and the Parkettes , who were there to provide lessons to novices . The Tuesday night twist contest brought patrons in limousines from downtown just as the entertainment at Smalls Paradise had done years before . As King Curtis played , Chamberlain was greeting royalty , as well as various show business and political figures . Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise saw over 250 @,@ 000 guests in the year since its weekly Twist contest began . The club was continually at capacity on Tuesday evenings until it closed at 4 am . Many people had to be turned away each week because they did not have the necessary reservations .
When author James Baldwin 's 1962 novel Another Country appeared in print , his publisher held a twist party for him at Baldwin 's favorite night club , Smalls Paradise . The guest list included many of Baldwin 's friends as well as literary figures . Despite the fact that many in @-@ town celebrities were also invited , some of those who were not on the guest list crashed the party .
= = After the Twist = =
In 1968 , a group of Tuskegee University students arrived in New York hoping to make a musical impression . They auditioned at Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise but were turned down by one of the owners who believed the music genre funk was on the way out . A few days later , the group received a call from Big Wilt 's , asking if they would be able to fill in for a last @-@ minute performance cancellation at the club . Even though this was to be a one @-@ night performance , the Commodores agreed to play at Big Wilt 's . The engagement was extended substantially , with the group winning praise from the club 's talent manager , along with an invitation to play at Big Wilt 's anytime .
Singer Millie Jackson , a guest at Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise , began heckling a female vocalist onstage . When the vocalist challenged Jackson by asking her to do better . Jackson accepted the dare by singing Don 't Play It No More . This was Jackson 's first public appearance as a singer ; she was hired for an engagement within two weeks of stepping onto the stage at Smalls .
By the early 1970s , it was necessary to revamp Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise once more . Some of the club 's patrons were using the night spot for illicit activities , such as drug dealing . The night club was cleared of those engaging in undesirable activities . Changes in the entertainment policy brought in acts like Jerry Butler and The Dells and the Vilmac Room was built for those who preferred to dance to a disco beat .
= = Last dance = =
By 1983 , the club was known as the New Smalls Paradise . This version of Smalls Paradise offered everything from music and dancing to craft shows and political speeches . By 1986 , the club , which was the longest @-@ operating night club in Harlem , had fallen vacant . Before its closure it had undergone a transition from a jazz to a disco club . Just prior to the club 's demise , the New York Swing Dance Society brought the Lindy Hop back to the dance floor at Smalls .
The structure was purchased by the Abyssinian Development Corporation . The nonprofit corporation , affiliated with the Abyssinian Baptist Church , planned to completely renovate the building and add three floors to it . Further plans for the building were to lease the structure for 50 years to the New York Board of Education to house its Thurgood Marshall Academy and to lease space for an International House of Pancakes restaurant . The school opened in 2004 ; all traces of Smalls Paradise were wiped out with the renovation .
= = In popular culture = =
Photographer and writer Carl Van Vechten was a frequent patron of Harlem 's night clubs for some years . Van Vechten had been a guest at Ed Smalls ' Sugar Cane Club as well as at Smalls Paradise . Van Vechten 's 1926 novel , Nigger Heaven , was based on some of his observations of Harlem 's night life ; he referred to Smalls Paradise as The Black Venus in the novel . After the book was published , Smalls ' employees were offended enough by Van Vechten 's portrayal of Harlem to bar Van Vechten from the night club permanently .
In 1932 , Elmer Snowden with his Smalls Paradise band and some of the club 's entertainers , were hired by Warner Brothers to star in a film short called Smash Your Baggage . The entire group was credited as " Smalls Paradise Entertainers " and not by individual names . The film 's plot involved a group of Pullman porters who decided to hold a benefit for one of their own . The ten @-@ minute film was shot at the Atlantic Avenue station of the Long Island Rail Road and it is the only recording of these musicians playing together ; this group produced no records together .
Smalls Paradise was the subject of a 1945 film , It Happened in Harlem , produced by All American News . The plot revolves around Ed Smalls ' singer drawing record crowds at Smalls Paradise until the singer receives his draft notice . Smalls begins auditions to try to replace his star vocalist . A little @-@ known young man with a following tries to audition for Smalls , but is turned away . One of the young man 's ardent fans then persuades Smalls to give him an audition . Actor George Wiltshire plays the role of Ed Smalls .
= = Albums recorded at Smalls Paradise = =
Groovin ' at Smalls ' Paradise Jimmy Smith 1957
Cool Blues Jimmy Smith 1958
Live At Small 's Paradise Babs Gonzales 1953
Live at Small 's Paradise King Curtis 1966
= Hydnum repandum =
Hydnum repandum , commonly known as the sweet tooth , wood hedgehog or hedgehog mushroom , is an edible mushroom with no poisonous lookalikes . A basidiomycete fungus of the family Hydnaceae , it is the type species of the genus Hydnum . The fungus produces fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) that are characterized by their spore @-@ bearing structures — in the form of spines rather than gills — which hang down from the underside of the cap . The cap is dry , colored yellow to light orange to brown , and often develops an irregular shape , especially when it has grown closely crowded with adjacent fruit bodies . The mushroom tissue is white with a pleasant odor and a spicy or bitter taste . All parts of the mushroom stain orange with age or when bruised .
A mycorrhizal fungus , Hydnum repandum is broadly distributed in Asia , Australia , North America and Europe where it fruits singly or in close groups in coniferous or deciduous woodland . This is a choice edible species , although mature specimens can develop a bitter taste . Mushrooms are collected and sold in local markets of Europe , Mexico , and Canada .
= = Taxonomy = =
First officially described by Carl Linnaeus in his 1753 Species Plantarum , Hydnum repandum was sanctioned by Elias Fries in 1821 . The species has been shuffled to several genera : Hypothele by Jean @-@ Jacques Paulet in 1812 ; Dentinum by Samuel Frederick Gray in 1821 ; Tyrodon by Petter Karsten in 1881 Sarcodon by Lucien Quélet in 1886 . After a 1977 nomenclatural proposal by mycologist Ronald H. Petersen was accepted , Hydnum repandum became the official type species of the genus Hydnum . Previously , supporting arguments for making H. repandum the type were made by Marinus Anton Donk ( 1958 ) and Petersen ( 1973 ) , while Zdeněk Pouzar ( 1958 ) and Kenneth Harrison ( 1971 ) thought that H. imbricatum should be the type .
Several forms and varieties of H. repandum have been described . Forms albidum and rufescens , found in Russia , were published by T.L. Nikolajeva in 1961 ; the latter taxon is synonymous with H. rufescens . Form amarum , published from Slovenia by Zlata Stropnik , Bogdan Tratnik and Garbrijel Seljak in 1988 , is illegitimate as per article 36 @.@ 1 of the International Code of Nomenclature for algae , fungi , and plants , as it was not given a sufficiently comprehensive description . Jean @-@ Baptiste Barla described H. repandum var. rufescens in 1859 . Carleton Rea described the white fruit bodied version as a variety — H. repandum var. album — in 1922 .
Molecular studies have shown that the current species concept for H. repandum may need revision as there is a poor overlap between morphological and molecular species concepts . Phylogenetic analysis of European specimens , based on internal transcribed spacer and 5.8S DNA sequences , indicates that H. repandum specimens form two distinct clades , whose only consistent morphological distinction is cap size . These genetic differences may indicate the presence of undescribed cryptic species , and that the taxon may currently be undergoing intensive speciation .
The specific epithet repandum means " bent back " , referring to the wavy cap margin . The varietal epithet album means " white as an egg " . Hydnum repandum has been given several vernacular names : " sweet tooth " , " yellow tooth fungus " , " wood urchin " , " spreading hedgehog " , " hedgehog mushroom " , or " pig 's trotter " . The variety alba is known as " white wood " .
= = Description = =
The orange- , yellow- or tan @-@ colored pileus ( cap ) is up to 17 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) wide , although specimens measuring 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) have been documented . It is generally somewhat irregular in shape ( it may be convex or concave at maturity ) , with a wavy margin that is rolled inward when young . Caps grow in a distorted shape when fruit bodies are closely clustered . The cap surface is generally dry and smooth , although mature specimens may show cracking . Viewed from above , the caps of mature specimens resemble somewhat those of chanterelles . The flesh is thick , white , firm , brittle , and bruises yellow to orange @-@ brown . The underside is densely covered with small , slender whitish spines measuring 2 – 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 1 – 0 @.@ 3 in ) long . These spines sometimes run down at least one side of the stipe . The stipe , typically 3 – 10 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 3 @.@ 9 in ) long and 1 – 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 in ) thick , is either white or the same color as the cap , and is sometimes off @-@ center . It is easy to overlook the mushrooms when they are situated amongst gilled mushrooms and boletes , because the cap and stipe are fairly nondescript and the mushrooms must be turned over to reveal their spines . The pure white variety of this species , H. repandum var. album , is smaller than the main variety , with a cap measuring 2 – 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) wide and a stipe that is 1 – 3 in ( 2 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 6 cm ) long .
The spore print is pale cream . Spores are smooth , thin @-@ walled and hyaline ( translucent ) , roughly spherical to broadly egg @-@ shaped , and measure 5 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 by 4 @.@ 5 – 5 @.@ 5 µm . They usually contain a single , large refractive oil droplet . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are club @-@ shaped , four @-@ spored , and measure 30 – 45 by 6 – 10 µm . The cap cuticle is a trichodermium ( where the outermost hyphae emerge roughly parallel , like hairs , perpendicular to the cap surface ) of narrow , club @-@ shaped cells that are 2 @.@ 5 – 4 µm wide . Underneath this tissue is the subhymenial layer of interwoven hyphae measuring 10 – 20 µm in diameter . The spine tissue is made of narrow ( 2 – 5 µm diameter ) , thin @-@ walled hyphae with clamp connections .
= = = Similar species = = =
North American lookalikes include the white hedgehog ( Hydnum albidum ) and the giant hedgehog ( Hydnum albomagnum ) . H. albidum has a white to pale yellowish grey fruit body that bruises yellow to orange . H. albomagnum is large and paler than H. repandum . Hydnum umbilicatum is smaller , with caps measuring 3 – 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , and thinner stipes that are 0 @.@ 5 – 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) wide . Its caps are umbilicate ( with a navel @-@ like cavity ) , sometimes with a hole in the center of the cap , unlike the flattened or slightly depressed caps of H. repandum . Microscopically , H. umbilicatum has spores that are larger and more elliptical than those of H. repandum , measuring 7 @.@ 5 – 9 by 6 – 7 @.@ 5 µm . A European lookalike , Hydnum rufescens , is also smaller than H. repandum , and has a deeper apricot to orange color . Hydnum ellipsosporum , described as a new species from Germany in 2004 , differs from H. repandum by the shape and length of its spores , which are ellipsoid and measure 9 – 11 by 6 – 7 @.@ 5 µm . Compared to H. repandum , it has smaller fruit bodies , with cap diameters ranging from 3 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
Hyndum repandum is a mycorrhizal fungus . The fruit bodies grow singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground or in leaf litter in both coniferous and deciduous forests . They can also grow in fairy rings . Fruiting occurs from summer to autumn . The species is widely distributed in the northern temperate zone , and is one of the most common of the tooth fungi . It has been recorded from Australia , Europe , northern Asia , and North America . In Europe , it has been listed as a vulnerable species in the Red Data Lists of the Netherlands , Belgium , and Germany ; Sweden lists it as being of Least Concern .
= = Edibility = =
The hedgehog mushroom is considered to be a good edible , having a sweet , nutty taste and a crunchy texture . Some consider it the culinary equivalent of the chanterelle . Author Michael Kuo gives it an edibility rating of " great " and notes that there are no poisonous lookalikes , and that they are unlikely to be infested with maggots . Delicately brushing the cap and stipe of specimens immediately after harvest will help prevent soil from getting lodged between the teeth . Hydnum repandum mushrooms can be cooked by pickling , simmering in milk or stock , and sautéeing , which creates a " tender , meaty texture and a mild flavor . " The mushroom tissue absorbs liquids well and assumes the flavors of added ingredients . The firm texture of the cooked mushroom makes it suitable for freezing . Its natural flavor is reportedly similar to the peppery taste of watercress , or oysters . Older specimens may have a bitter taste , but boiling can remove the bitterness . Specimens found under conifers can taste " unpleasantly strong " . The form amarum , locally common in Slovakia , is reportedly inedible because its fruit body has a bitter taste at all developmental stages .
Hydnum repandum is frequently sold with chanterelles in Italy , and in France , it is one of the officially recognized edible species sold in markets . In Europe , it is usually sold under its French name Pied @-@ de @-@ Mouton ( mutton 's foot ) . It is also collected and sold in local markets of Mexico , Spain and British Columbia , Canada . H. repandum mushrooms are also used as a food source by the red squirrel ( Sciurus vulgaris ) .
As a widespread edible species , Hydnum repandum has been the subject of several scientific studies determining its nutritional and chemical composition . H. repandum fruit bodies contain 10 @.@ 7 % moisture and 9 @.@ 2 % ash . The organic acid composition includes malic acid ( 0 @.@ 31 grams per 100 g of mushroom , dry weight ) and citric acid ( 0 @.@ 65 % ) . One study assessed the proportion of essential amino acids ( value expressed as a percentage of the total amino acids ) : valine , 3 @.@ 9 % ; leucine , 14 @.@ 5 % ; isoleucine , 3 @.@ 2 % ; threonine , 4 @.@ 4 % ; methionine , 1 % ; lysine , 4 @.@ 2 % ; phenylalanine , 3 @.@ 4 % ; tryptophan , 1 @.@ 4 % . Lipid content is 4 @.@ 7 % ( expressed as a percent of dry matter ) . Major fatty acids include palmitate ( 15 @.@ 7 % ) , stearate ( 0 @.@ 9 % ) , oleate ( 26 @.@ 4 % ) , lineoleate ( 47 @.@ 5 % ) , and linolenate ( 20 @.@ 3 % ) . The mycosterol content has been recorded as 628 milligrams of ergosterol and 85 mg of fungisterol ( both values per 100 grams of dry matter ) .
= = Chemistry = =
Both H. repandum and the variety album contain the diepoxide compound repandiol ( 2R , 3R , 8R , 9R ) -4,6 @-@ decadiyne @-@ 2 @,@ 3 : 8 @,@ 9 @-@ diepoxy @-@ 1 @,@ 10 @-@ diol ) , which was shown to have potent cytotoxic activity against various tumor cells in laboratory culture . At the molecular level , repandiol is an alkylating agent . It inserts crosslinks between strands of DNA , making it difficult for the genetic material to be expressed or replicated .
The volatile chemicals responsible for the fruity aroma of the mushroom are known . The 12 compounds include eight @-@ carbon derivatives such as 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ ol , ( E ) -2 @-@ octenol , and ( E ) -1,3 @-@ octadiene .
European studies conducted after the 1986 Chernobyl disaster have shown that the fruit bodies have a high rate of accumulation of the radioactive isotope cesium .
= = = Cited literature = = =
Dugan FM . ( 2011 ) . " Conspectus of World Ethnomycology " . St. Paul , Minnesota : American Phytopathological Society . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 89054 @-@ 395 @-@ 5 .
= Hanlon Expressway =
The Hanlon Expressway or Hanlon Parkway is a high @-@ capacity at @-@ grade suburban limited @-@ access road connecting Highway 401 with the city of Guelph in the Canadian province of Ontario . The 17 km ( 11 mi ) route travels in a generally north @-@ south direction in the city 's west end . It is signed as Highway 6 for its entire length ; from Wellington Street to Woodlawn Road it is concurrent with Highway 7 . The speed limit alternates between 70 and 80 km / h ( 45 and 50 mph ) .
Though the road was originally designed to be a freeway , budget limitations precluded the construction of overpasses ; apart from the interchanges with Highway 401 , Laird Road , and Wellington Street West ( Highway 7 and former Highway 24 ) , all junctions are at @-@ grade intersections . There are also two railway crossings near the northern terminus , though both are for spur lines . The Hanlon is graded and landscaped similarly to a freeway , with broad flat shoulders and an open median .
It was initially built between 1972 and 1975 , after years of planning and engineering . The first interchange , at Wellington Street , was opened 25 years later in 2001 . In late 2013 , a second interchange was completed at Laird Road . The Government of Ontario has announced plans to build a new Highway 7 freeway bypass joining the current northern terminus of the Hanlon Expressway to the Conestoga Parkway in Kitchener ; in @-@ line with this work , the Hanlon Expressway will be upgraded to 400 @-@ series standards . Long @-@ term plans call for a potential extension south of Highway 401 to meet Highway 6 south of Freelton .
= = Route description = =
The Hanlon Expressway begins at a trumpet interchange with Highway 401 and cuts through several farms northward before curving slightly westward to follow along the west side of the right @-@ of @-@ way of Hanlon Road . It enters Guelph at Maltby Road , skirting the outskirts of urban development . At the Laird Road interchange , opened in late 2013 , the expressway encounters the Hanlon Creek Business Park . As it progresses into residential subdivisions , the Hanlon Expressway encounters an at @-@ grade intersection , with Downey Road travelling to the west and Kortright Road West to the east . Continuing north , the route crosses to the east side of the Hanlon Road right @-@ of @-@ way as it intersects Stone Road West to the west of the Stone Road Mall . Before crossing the Speed River , the expressway meets College Avenue West , an at @-@ grade intersection at the southwest corner of Centennial Park Arena .
The Hanlon Expressway crosses the Speed River as it swerves to the west and meets Wellington Street , the only other interchange along the route . To the east , Wellington Road is Highway 7 , which follows the Hanlon Expressway north from the interchange ; to the west it was formerly Highway 24 . North of the Wellington Road the expressway was built slightly west of what is now Silvercreek Parkway . It passes beneath the a line of the Goderich – Exeter Railway , a sideline of the Canadian Pacific Railway , before encountering three at @-@ grade intersections : Paisley Road , Willow Road and Speedvale Avenue West . This section also features two at @-@ grade rail crossings . Shortly thereafter , it ends at Woodlawn Road West ; Highway 6 travels east from this point while Highway 7 travels west .
The road , like with nearby Hanlon Creek , is named after Felix Hanlon , one of the men who cut the first tree in Guelph along with John Galt . He was one of the original settlers in the area , and his family eventually deeded their land to the city .
= = History = =
Prior to the construction of the Hanlon Expressway , Hanlon Road existed as far north as College Avenue . Edinburgh Road was the westernmost crossing of the Speed River . On the opposite side of the valley , Silvercreek Road continued , as it does today , along the same right @-@ of @-@ way as Hanlon Road . With the rapid suburban expansion of Guelph in the 1950s and 1960s , a revised transportation plan was conceived to handle the increasing traffic load . The Guelph Area Transportation Study was completed in 1967 , and recommended a new controlled @-@ access highway to allow through @-@ traffic on Highway 6 to bypass the city . Route planning , engineering and design began on October 2 , 1967 and was subsequently completed in 1969 . Construction began between Waterloo Avenue and Stone Road in 1970 ;
this section opened on June 28 , 1972 . The next section , from Stone Road to Clair Road , opened in October 1973 . Work on the northern section from Waterloo Avenue to Woodlawn Road began in August 1974 . That section , as well as the final section south to Highway 401 were opened on November 7 , 1975 .
Initially , the Hanlon featured no interchanges . Despite this , this Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) has planned to upgrade the route to a freeway since at least 1994 , when an environmental assessment ( EA ) for the expressway north of the Speed River was completed . Construction of the Wellington Avenue interchange began in October 1998 ; it opened in July 2001 , connecting Wellington Street west of the expressway with the Silvercreek Parkway into downtown Guelph . The interchange cost C $ 13 @.@ 2 million and opened a year later than expected due to a design flaw that resulted in several months of delay and a lawsuit against the MTO resulting in a budget overrun of C $ 3 @.@ 2 million . No further work has been done north of the Speed River , and the 1994 EA now requires updating . On April 30 , 2012 , construction began on the Laird Road interchange . It partially opened on the week of November 11 , 2013 , and was fully opened on November 29 , 2013 , in a public ceremony attended by local officials as well as Guelph MPP Liz Sandals .
= = Future = =
As initially envisioned , the Hanlon Expressway will be upgraded to a controlled @-@ access highway by removing all existing at @-@ grade intersections and improving the highway to 400 @-@ series standards . Planning for this work initially began in the early 1990s with the EA for the section north of the Speed River , which resulted in the construction of the Wellington Street interchange . The EA for the section south of the Speed River began in early 2007 . The Laird Road interchange and associated closing of the Clair Road intersection were the first projects completed as part of this work .
Future projects will result in numerous changes . A full interchange will be constructed between Wellington County Road 34 and Maltby Road ; the intersection with the former will become an overpass while the latter will be closed , with Maltby Road terminating at a cul @-@ de @-@ sac on both sides of the expressway . Further north , a partial @-@ access diamond interchange will be built at Downey Road / Kortright Road West , with ramps from the northbound lanes and to the southbound lanes and the crossroad run beneath the expressway . The lack of ramps on the north side is due to the proximity of Stone Road to the north , where a full interchange will be constructed . A service road will be constructed along the west side of the expressway connecting Downey Road and Stone Road to provide better access to the YMCA , which previous controversial plans had neglected . At College Road , an underpass will be built .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Hanlon Expressway , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in Wellington County .
= Bounded weak echo region =
The bounded weak echo region , also known as a BWER or a vault , is a radar signature within a thunderstorm characterized by a local minimum in radar reflectivity at low levels which extends upward into , and is surrounded by , higher reflectivities aloft . This feature is associated with a strong updraft and is almost always found in the inflow region of a thunderstorm . It cannot be seen visually . The BWER has been noted on radar imagery of severe thunderstorms since 1973 and has a lightning detection system equivalent known as a lightning hole .
= = Description and attributes = =
The BWER is a nearly vertical channel of weak radar echo , surrounded on the sides and top by significantly stronger echoes . The BWER , sometimes called a vault , is related to the strong updraft in a severe convective storm that carries newly formed atmospheric particulates , called hydrometeors , to high levels before they can grow to radar @-@ detectable sizes . BWERs are typically found at mid @-@ levels of convective storms , 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) above the ground , and are a few kilometers in horizontal diameter . Identifying the location of the updraft region is important because it is linked to locations where severe weather normally occurs . The presence of a BWER has been part of a method to diagnose thunderstorm strength as part of the Lemon technique since 1977 . The updraft strength within the BWER supports the growth of large hailstones just above the vault , which can be displaced slightly into the direction of motion of the parent supercell storm .
= = = Detection = = =
The bounded weak echo region ( BWER ) is a region of low radar reflectivity bounded above by an area of higher radar reflectivity which shows evidence of a strong updraft within mesocyclones . Radar analysts have recognized this phenomenon since at least 1973 , using different elevation scans . Methods of objectively corroborating that a BWER is associated with a mesocyclone is done by using a weather radar with Doppler effect to obtain the precipitations velocities . This have been available operationally in United States since 1997 with the NEXRAD network . When using the lightning detection system , lightning holes ( uncovered in 2004 ) correspond to where a BWER would be seen on radar .
A cross @-@ section of the three @-@ dimensional reflectivity of a thunderstorm shows the vault better . Algorithms were developed by the J.S. Marshall Radar Observatory of McGill University in Canada to locate the overhang region in a thunderstorm by the late 1980s . Its radar uses 24 angles , giving it good vertical resolution . In United States , fewer scanning angles are made within the WSR @-@ 88D radar which makes it more difficult to detect the overhang . Once the overhang is located , it is possible to make a cross @-@ section to view if it is related with a BWER . However , since 1997 algorithms have been developed by the National Weather Service to determine regions of reflectivity gradient in three dimensions and the presence of BWER in convection .
The development of a pronounced BWER can lead to tropical cyclone @-@ like radar signatures over land when located with a low angle plan position indicator ( PPI ) . When using the lightning detection system , lightning holes ( uncovered in 2004 ) correspond to where a BWER would be seen on radar .
= Venture Science Fiction =
Venture Science Fiction was an American digest @-@ size science fiction magazine , first published from 1957 to 1958 , and revived for a brief run in 1969 and 1970 . Ten issues were published of the 1950s version , with another six in the second run . It was founded in both instances as a companion to The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction ; Robert P. Mills edited the 1950s version , and Edward L. Ferman was editor during the second run . A British edition appeared for 28 issues between 1963 and 1965 ; it reprinted material from The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction as well as from the US edition of Venture . There was also an Australian edition , which was identical to the British version but dated two months later .
The original version was only moderately successful , although it is remembered for the first publication of Sturgeon 's Law . The publisher , Joseph Ferman ( father of Edward Ferman ) , declared that he wanted well @-@ told stories of action and adventure ; the resulting fiction contained more sex and violence than was usual for the science fiction ( sf ) genre in the late 1950s , and sf historian Mike Ashley has suggested that the magazine was ahead of its time . It succumbed to poor sales within less than two years . The second US version was no more successful , with less attractive cover art and little in the way of notable fiction , though it did publish Vonda McIntyre 's first story . By the end of 1970 , Venture had ceased publication permanently .
= = First US run = =
In late 1949 , publisher Lawrence E. Spivak launched The Magazine of Fantasy , one of many new titles in a crowded field of genre magazines . The title was changed to The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction ( usually abbreviated to F & SF ) with the second issue , and the new magazine rapidly became successful and influential within the science fiction field . The editors were Anthony Boucher and J. Francis McComas , and the managing editor was Robert P. Mills . In 1954 , Joseph Ferman , a partner of Spivak 's , bought the magazine from him . Ferman subsequently decided to launch a companion magazine , and gave it to Mills to edit .
The new magazine was titled Venture Science Fiction , and the first issue was dated January 1957 . Mills was managing editor of F & SF throughout Venture 's first run ; he became editor of F & SF shortly after Venture ceased publishing in July 1958 . The editorial philosophy was laid out by Ferman in the inaugural issue : " strong stories of action and adventure ... There will be two prime requisites for Venture stories : In the first place , each must be a well @-@ told story , with a beginning , middle and end ; in the second place , each must be a strong story — a story with pace , power and excitement . " Ferman hoped to take advantage of a gap in the science fiction magazine market opened up by the demise of Planet Stories , one of the last sf pulps , which had ceased publication in late 1955 . Planet Stories had focused on adventure stories , as opposed to the realistic style becoming more popular in science fiction in the 1950s , and Ferman hoped to combine the virtues of the melodramatic pulp fiction style with the literary values that were key to F & SF 's success . Venture 's bias towards action @-@ oriented adventure led to stories with relatively more sex and violence than those in competing magazines , and sf historian Mike Ashley has commented that it was perhaps five or ten years ahead of its time . One story , " The Girl Had Guts " , by Theodore Sturgeon , involved an alien virus that caused its victims to vomit up their intestines ; Ashley records a reviewer saying that the story made him physically ill .
Ed Emshwiller supplied eight of the ten covers ; he had sold several covers to F & SF by this time , so his work reinforced the sense of connection between the two magazines . Emshwiller also contributed interior illustrations in the first issue , but the main interior artist was John Giunta , with John Schoenherr contributing some of his earliest work to several of the later issues .
Some well @-@ known writers appeared during this incarnation of Venture , including Isaac Asimov , Clifford Simak , Marion Zimmer Bradley , Robert Silverberg , and Damon Knight . Not all the fiction was adventure oriented . For example , Sturgeon 's story " The Comedian 's Children " tells of a telethon host and his relationship with his sponsors , and Leigh Brackett 's " All the Colors of the Rainbow " deals with racism after aliens have contacted humanity . These and other examples can be regarded as stories of character with strong themes , in keeping with Ferman 's stated goals in his inaugural editorial . Venture was also the place that " Sturgeon 's Law " first saw print . This adage is now usually seen in the form " 90 % of everything is crap " . It was formulated by Sturgeon in about 1951 , and a version of it appeared in the March 1958 issue of Venture , under the name " Sturgeon 's Revelation " .
An editorial , " Venturings , " appeared in each issue of the first series ; after Ferman used the first one as a platform for editorial policy , it was usually written by Mills , who occasionally turned the column over to letters from SF figures . The very last editorial , in July 1958 , featured a eulogy of C.M. Kornbluth by Frederik Pohl , and one of Henry Kuttner by Sturgeon . Kornbluth and Kuttner had died within two months of each other earlier that year .
Sturgeon began a book review column , " On Hand . . . Offhand " , in the July 1957 issue that continued for the rest of the magazine 's run . This was Sturgeon 's first review column ; more than a decade later he wrote a similar column for Galaxy Science Fiction . The January 1958 issue saw the first in a series of four science articles by Asimov that also continued until Venture folded . The series was transferred to F & SF , beginning with the November 1958 issue , and eventually ran to 399 consecutive articles ; it is not often remembered that it began in F & SF 's short @-@ lived companion magazine .
Venture kept to a steady bimonthly schedule for ten issues , but its circulation never reached a sustainable level , and it was canceled in mid @-@ 1958 . The large number of competing magazines probably hurt sales , though since many of the competitors lasted for only one or two issues , Venture can be thought of as at least a partial success . An anthology drawn from the magazine 's fictiion , No Limits , was published in 1964 by Ballantine Books , attributed to Joseph Ferman as editor .
= = British and Australian editions = =
In December 1959 , a British edition of F & SF appeared from Atlas Publishing and Distributing Limited , a London @-@ based publisher . Atlas had published a British edition of Analog ( formerly Astounding Science Fiction ) since 1939 . In 1963 the abolition of import restrictions meant that Analog could be directly imported , and since there was no longer a need for a British edition , Atlas decided to start a new sf magazine to replace it . The new Venture Science Fiction drew many of its stories from the US version , but it also reprinted from the late 1950s F & SF , since there had been no British edition of that magazine until the end of 1959 . Within a year Atlas decided to abandon their edition of F & SF as well ; the last issue appeared in June 1964 .
The British version of Venture began in September 1963 , and ran for 28 numbered issues , through December 1965 ; the editor was Ronald R. Wickers . The stories selected from F & SF for the UK edition of Venture did not overlap with material already reprinted in the UK edition of F & SF . The first five issues had pictorial covers , but thereafter the cover simply listed the names of the contributing authors . This unattractive presentation , and the lack of much in the way of interior artwork , probably hurt sales . Atlas 's stated reason for ending the magazine was that it was " due to the expiration of available material " , but there were in fact many stories available to reprint . It is more likely that the real reason was that the US edition of F & SF was by then easily available in the UK , and that circulation was falling .
Atlas also published an Australian edition , which was identical to the British edition except that it was dated two months later ; the issues ran from November 1963 to February 1966 .
= = Second US run = =
A little over ten years after the first US edition ceased , a new version appeared , again as a companion to F & SF . This time the magazine was quarterly . The debut issue was dated May 1969 , and it was edited by Edward L. Ferman — son of Joseph Ferman — who was also the editor of F & SF . There was no statement of editorial intent for this version , but the policy was straightforward : a novel was presented in each issue . Although these were substantially cut , they still took up most of the magazine , with the result that the other stories tended to be very short . As in the first incarnation , the contents were of fairly good quality , with contributions from well @-@ known writers . However , the magazine was no more successful than before , and lasted for only six quarterly issues ; the last issue was August 1970 .
The condensed novels that appeared in this version of Venture included Hour of the Horde , by Gordon R. Dickson ; Plague Ship , by Harry Harrison ; Star Treasure , by Keith Laumer ; and Beastchild , by Dean R. Koontz . The short fiction included little of note , though " The Snows Are Melted , the Snows Are Gone " , an early story by James Tiptree , Jr . , appeared in 1969 , and " Breaking Point " , by Vonda McIntyre , was published in February 1970 . " Breaking Point " was McIntyre 's first published fiction , but , perhaps because it was published as by " V. N. McIntyre " , it has been missed by several bibliographers . There was also a Reginald Bretnor Feghoot story in each issue : these were a series of very short stories , based on bad puns , that had begun in F & SF the previous year .
Ron Goulart contributed a book review column to each issue of the second incarnation , and there was an occasional film review . This version of Venture did not credit the artists , but most of the covers were signed by Bert Tanner , who was listed on the masthead as the art director . Tanner 's cover art was much less distinguished than Emshwiller 's work for the first run of the magazine , and it is likely that this had a negative effect on sales : Tanner 's work has been likened to " pencil sketches overlaid by a single color " . Tanner also contributed much , but not all , of the interior art ; other artists who can by identified by their signatures include Emshwiller , Derek Carter , and Bhob Stewart , who illustrated Tiptree 's story in the November 1969 issue .
= = Bibliographic details = =
For the first incarnation , Venture was priced at 35 cents throughout , and maintained a 128 @-@ page count along with a regular bimonthly schedule , starting with January 1957 and ending with the July 1958 issue . The first volume had six numbers , and the second had four . The British edition was numbered consecutively from 1 to 28 without any volume numbers , and was priced at 2 / 6 ( ₤ 0 @.@ 12 1 ⁄ 2 ) until the July 1964 issue , after which the price was 3 / - ( ₤ 0 @.@ 15 ) . The second US version began in May 1969 with volume 3 number 1 , and maintained a regular quarterly schedule until the last issue in August 1970 . Each issue was priced at 60 cents , and like its predecessor had a page count of 128 .
After the first US edition ceased publication , F & SF added the line " including Venture Science Fiction " to the masthead , in order to ensure that the publisher retained the rights to the title . The line reappeared in February 1971 , several months after the failure of the second US edition , and was finally dropped in February 1990 .
= Southern Adventist University =
Southern Adventist University is a Seventh @-@ day Adventist college in Collegedale , Tennessee , owned and operated by the Southern Union Conference of Seventh @-@ day Adventists . U.S. News & World Report categorizes it as a Southern Regional College , and the magazine has consistently ranked it as one of the top @-@ tier schools in that category . Southern Adventist University occupies a 1 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 km2 ) campus in a rural setting in the Tennessee River Valley .
It was founded in 1892 in Graysville , Tennessee , as Graysville Academy and was the first Adventist school in the southern U.S. Due to the need for additional space for expansion the school relocated in 1916 and was renamed Southern Junior College . In 1944 Southern began awarding baccalaureate degrees and was renamed Southern Missionary College . In 1996 the institution started conferring master 's degrees and adopted its current name .
Southern offers associate , baccalaureate , master 's , and doctoral degrees . It is accredited by multiple organizations including the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools . Its Institute of Archaeology offers an undergraduate degree in biblical archaeology ; Southern is one of only two schools which offer the degree . It is known for its emphasis on Adventist beliefs and conservative religious and social practices , and is considered the most conservative of the Seventh @-@ day Adventist schools in North America . The college operates a radio station ( WSMC @-@ FM ) , a health food store and a wellness center . Enrollment was 3 @,@ 053 students in 2010 , its highest level to date .
= = History = =
Southern 's roots stem from the establishment of Graysville Academy in Graysville , Tennessee , in 1892 , in a part of the South much affected by the American Civil War . The area saw the battle of Chickamauga and the Chattanooga campaign , and was the staging ground for Sherman 's Atlanta campaign . The Academy was privately funded at first , with no financial support from the Adventist church . In 1897 it was renamed the Southern Industrial School and then Southern Training School in 1901 . The school moved to the community of Thatcher 's Switch in 1916 , renaming it Collegedale . In 1943 , Kenneth A. Wright became president of the school . During Wright 's administration , Southern Junior College became accredited as a four @-@ year college . A new name , Southern Missionary College , was adopted in 1944 , and Southern granted its first baccalaureate degrees two years later . When the school became a university in 1996 , the trustees voted on a new name : Southern Adventist University .
= = = Graysville Academy , 1892 @-@ 1897 = = =
The Graysville Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church was organized on September 8 , 1888 , and by the fall of 1890 , the members had dedicated a church building . R.M. Kilgore , former president of the Illinois Conference had been asked to supervise the church 's work in the Southern United States . He had just moved to Graysville and was present for the church dedication . As the superintendent for the church 's work in the South , Kilgore repeatedly advocated the establishment of a school .
Kilgore invited George W. Colcord ( 1843 – 1902 ) , to come to Graysville and establish a school . Colcord was the founder of Milton Academy , which is the forerunner of Walla Walla University . The General Conference Education Secretary , W. W. Prescott , along with Kilgore and Colcord worked together to establish the school at Graysville . Colcord and his wife Ada began the school . The first term began in February , 1892 , with 23 students . The second term began in September of that year . By January 1893 Colcord reported that 62 students were in attendance . By 1893 there were three full @-@ time teachers and three part @-@ time teachers . Prescott considered the positive attitude of the school 's faculty , students and supporters to be indicators of the school 's future success and good reason to start other such schools in the South .
During 1892 , Colcord operated the school privately . Then , at the session of the Seventh @-@ day Adventist General Conference held at Battle Creek , Michigan , February 17 to March 6 , 1893 , the church officially took over the school . This first school in the South inspired the session to recommend that other schools also be established .
In the Fall of 1894 , Graysville Academy faced a crisis . Fourteen of the members of the Graysville Church were indicted for having violated the Tennessee Sunday law . This included Colcord , his nephew , Prof. I. C. Colcord , and M. C. Sturdevant , manager of the boys ' dormitory .
The church members found guilty refused to pay the fines , choosing to go to prison instead . The imprisonment of the school 's leaders resulted in its immediate closing for the rest of the year . The students , some of whom were ready to graduate , returned to their homes .
= = = Southern Industrial School , 1897 @-@ 1901 = = =
In November 1897 , the district conference voted to change the school 's name to Southern Industrial School . The name change reflected a change in the school 's emphasis . Industries were established including a wagon and blacksmith shop , a broom shop , a printshop and a school farm . The farm grew peaches , pears and many types of berries and vegetables .
= = = Southern Training School , 1901 @-@ 1916 = = =
The Southern Union Conference was organized in April 1901 . Kilgore , the superintendent of the Southern District , known as District 2 , was elected the first president of the Southern Union Conference . The headquarters was in Graysville . The General Conference arranged for the Southern Union to take over the operation of the Southern Industrial School . The property was transferred to the Southern Union . They renamed the school the Southern Training School . It offered 14 grades of instruction .
= = = Southern Junior College , 1916 @-@ 1945 = = =
= = = = Relocation = = = =
Eventually the Graysville school outgrew its 7 @-@ acre ( 2 @.@ 8 ha ) site . Church leaders looked for a larger plot of land . They believed " that the only education worth while in these strenuous days is that practical kind which teaches the student to actually do with his hand the things he learns about in books . " To provide for this practical concern , they found a larger property . Plans were made to relocate the college program to a 285 @-@ acre ( 115 ha ) farm at Thatcher 's Switch east of Chattanooga . The move from Graysville to Thatcher 's Switch involved moving most of the school 's equipment , livestock , and implements to the new site fifty miles away . The school moved and opened in its new location by October , 1916 . The community was soon renamed Collegedale and the school as Southern Junior College . The term training school had become associated with reform schools while at the same time the junior college designation had become a popular one .
Graysville Academy continued on at the original site as a church and conference @-@ sponsored secondary boarding academy until 1938 .
= = = = Pioneer years = = = =
In 1916 , the school 's property holdings totaled $ 32 @,@ 000 . Two years later , due mainly to the construction of additional buildings on campus , the school 's holdings increased to $ 113 @,@ 000 . Many students earned their tuition by helping to construct these buildings . Southern was financially supported by two union conferences of the Church 's North American administration . The school organized construction bees . Interested church members came from across the South to help in these bees .
At first , the school taught only students in grades 1 @-@ 12 with a total enrollment of 59 students . In 1918 , three students were taking post @-@ high school level classes . The total student enrollment at this time was 175 .
Southern Junior College served two union conferences of Seventh @-@ day Adventists , the Southern and the Southeastern . Later these two would be reorganized into one , the Southern Union Conference . In 1920 , Lynn H. Wood , the president of the college , presented a major report to meetings for both union conferences . He reviewed the events of the first four years at the Ooltewah location .
According to Wood , enrollment grew quickly because of a tuition work program . Students of limited means realized they could get an education and improve themselves . This put a strain on housing . But the desire for an education motivated the students to cope with those early inadequate facilities , " Students have been willing to live in shacks and tents , to put up with all kinds of inconvenience , in order that they might receive the character development that the school had for them . " Wood referred to these first few years as the " pioneer years . " He wrote that the positive spiritual attitude of the students made these years the most enjoyable that one could wish for .
The college built the girls ' dormitory first . The girls moved in before it was finished , even before there was any heating , doors or chairs . They used " curtains for doors , sat upon their trunks for chairs — any way to get along . "
= = = = Faith community support = = = =
The building of the boys ' dormitory began in the summer of 1918 . The students helped build it , and , in doing so , many earned their way through school . Shortly after the beginning of the school year in 1918 , a " Workers ' Bee " took place . Church workers from all across the South and from church headquarters in Washington , D.C. came to the college to build the boys ' dormitory . For two and a half weeks they worked and associated with the students . They succeeded in putting up most of the framework .
Other help from the Adventist faith community included a $ 6 @,@ 000 donation by the Southern Publishing Association for a water supply system and another " Working Bee " to build a large dairy barn , a blacksmith shop , and a corn crib . People interested in the college 's success bought surrounding properties and donated them to the institution , more than doubling the school 's area to close to 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) . This allowed the school to protect itself from families moving so close that they hindered their young people attending from learning some independence , President Wood wrote . He encouraged families to send their young people to the school , and if the cost was too high for some of them , he advised that church leaders make sure they got the help they needed for their young people to attend and live in the dormitory .
= = = Southern Missionary College , 1944 @-@ 1982 = = =
In 1944 , the Seventh Day Adventist General Conference Spring Council voted for Southern to become a four @-@ year college . The enrollment that first year was the highest ever to date , 436 students . The theology , teaching and pre @-@ nursing departments had the highest enrollments . Industries that helped students earn their tuition included a wood shop , a broom factory , a printing press , and a farm . The name Southern Missionary College was chosen at a combined meeting of the members of the college board , the union educational board , and the college faculty .
= = = Southern College of Seventh @-@ day Adventists , 1982 @-@ 1996 = = =
On July 1 , 1982 , the word " Missionary " was dropped from the school 's name . The reported reasons for the change were that the general population reacted negatively to the term ; foreign countries resisted accepting church workers who were from a " missionary " college ; the name incorrectly identified the school as only a Bible college , rather than a fully accredited , four @-@ year liberal arts institution ; and , graduates found the name " missionary " made it more difficult for them to get a job . Southern was the last Adventist college in North America to retain " missionary " in its title . The others changed their names many years earlier .
In their official announcement of the name change , the Board of Trustees of Southern Missionary College explained that a shorter name would help popularize it . They also stated that , " The word ' Southern ' has been associated with the College since its beginning — Southern Industrial School , Southern Training School , Southern Junior College , Southern Missionary College , and now Southern College . "
= = = Early 1980s controversy = = =
Southern College found itself drawn into a wider church controversies involving Desmond Ford who was dismissed from ministry in the Adventist church in 1980 , and Walter Rae , and Ronald Numbers 's book , The Prophetess of Health . It began after a visit to the campus by a leading Bible scholar and theologian of the Seventh @-@ day Adventist Church , Edward Heppenstall , on his understanding of the church 's " investigative judgment " teaching , and who was also mentor to Desmond Ford . Then grew when a teacher from the theology department made a comment that seemed to disagree with statements made by church pioneer Ellen G. White . The incident along with other concerns led to accusations that faculty at the school did not believe in White as a prophet and led to calls for their dismissal . Southern President Frank Knittel and Board of Trustees member Tom Zwemer resigned , and Jerry Gladson , a professor of
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to capture fugitive slaves , and a popular vote on the matter . He abandoned the bill when it failed to garner sufficient Whig supporters .
On foreign and military policy , Lincoln spoke out against the Mexican – American War , which he attributed to President Polk 's desire for " military glory — that attractive rainbow , that rises in showers of blood " . Lincoln also supported the Wilmot Proviso , which , if it had been adopted , would have banned slavery in any U.S. territory won from Mexico .
Lincoln emphasized his opposition to Polk by drafting and introducing his Spot Resolutions . The war had begun with a Mexican slaughter of American soldiers in territory disputed by Mexico and the U.S. Polk insisted that Mexican soldiers had " invaded our territory and shed the blood of our fellow @-@ citizens on our own soil " . Lincoln demanded that Polk show Congress the exact spot on which blood had been shed and prove that the spot was on American soil .
Congress never enacted the resolution or even debated it , the national papers ignored it , and it resulted in a loss of political support for Lincoln in his district . One Illinois newspaper derisively nicknamed him " spotty Lincoln " . Lincoln later regretted some of his statements , especially his attack on the presidential war @-@ making powers .
Realizing Clay was unlikely to win the presidency , Lincoln , who had pledged in 1846 to serve only one term in the House , supported General Zachary Taylor for the Whig nomination in the 1848 presidential election . Taylor won and Lincoln hoped to be appointed Commissioner of the General Land Office , but that lucrative patronage job went to an Illinois rival , Justin Butterfield , considered by the administration to be a highly skilled lawyer , but in Lincoln 's view , an " old fossil " . The administration offered him the consolation prize of secretary or governor of the Oregon Territory . This distant territory was a Democratic stronghold , and acceptance of the post would have effectively ended his legal and political career in Illinois , so he declined and resumed his law practice .
= = Prairie lawyer = =
Lincoln returned to practicing law in Springfield , handling " every kind of business that could come before a prairie lawyer " . Twice a year for 16 years , 10 weeks at a time , he appeared in county seats in the midstate region when the county courts were in session . Lincoln handled many transportation cases in the midst of the nation 's western expansion , particularly the conflicts arising from the operation of river barges under the many new railroad bridges . As a riverboat man , Lincoln initially favored those interests , but ultimately represented whoever hired him . In fact , he later represented a bridge company against a riverboat company in a landmark case involving a canal boat that sank after hitting a bridge . In 1849 , he received a patent for a flotation device for the movement of boats in shallow water . The idea was never commercialized , but Lincoln is the only president to hold a patent .
In 1851 , he represented the Alton & Sangamon Railroad in a dispute with one of its shareholders , James A. Barret , who had refused to pay the balance on his pledge to buy shares in the railroad on the grounds that the company had changed its original train route . Lincoln successfully argued that the railroad company was not bound by its original charter extant at the time of Barret 's pledge ; the charter was amended in the public interest to provide a newer , superior , and less expensive route , and the corporation retained the right to demand Barret 's payment . The decision by the Illinois Supreme Court has been cited by numerous other courts in the nation . Lincoln appeared before the Illinois Supreme Court in 175 cases , in 51 as sole counsel , of which 31 were decided in his favor . From 1853 to 1860 , another of Lincoln 's largest clients was the Illinois Central Railroad . Lincoln 's reputation with clients gave rise to his nickname " Honest Abe . "
Lincoln 's most notable criminal trial occurred in 1858 when he defended William " Duff " Armstrong , who was on trial for the murder of James Preston Metzker . The case is famous for Lincoln 's use of a fact established by judicial notice in order to challenge the credibility of an eyewitness . After an opposing witness testified seeing the crime in the moonlight , Lincoln produced a Farmers ' Almanac showing the moon was at a low angle , drastically reducing visibility . Based on this evidence , Armstrong was acquitted .
Lincoln rarely raised objections in the courtroom ; but in an 1859 case , where he defended a cousin , Peachy Harrison , who was accused of stabbing another to death , Lincoln angrily protested the judge 's decision to exclude evidence favorable to his client . Instead of holding Lincoln in contempt of court as was expected , the judge , a Democrat , reversed his ruling , allowing the evidence and acquitting Harrison .
= = Republican politics 1854 – 60 = =
= = = Slavery and a " House Divided " = = =
By the 1850s , slavery was still legal in the southern United States , but had been generally outlawed in the northern states , including Illinois , whose original 1818 Constitution forbade slavery , as required by the Northwest Ordinance . Lincoln disapproved of slavery , and the spread of slavery to new U.S. territory in the west . He returned to politics to oppose the pro @-@ slavery Kansas – Nebraska Act ( 1854 ) ; this law repealed the slavery @-@ restricting Missouri Compromise ( 1820 ) . Senior Senator Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois had incorporated popular sovereignty into the Act . Douglas ' provision , which Lincoln opposed , specified settlers had the right to determine locally whether to allow slavery in new U.S. territory , rather than have such a decision restricted by the national Congress .
Eric Foner ( 2010 ) contrasts the abolitionists and anti @-@ slavery Radical Republicans of the Northeast who saw slavery as a sin , with the conservative Republicans who thought it was bad because it hurt white people and blocked progress . Foner argues that Lincoln was a moderate in the middle , opposing slavery primarily because it violated the republicanism principles of the Founding Fathers , especially the equality of all men and democratic self @-@ government as expressed in the Declaration of Independence .
On October 16 , 1854 , in his " Peoria Speech " , Lincoln declared his opposition to slavery , which he repeated en route to the presidency . Speaking in his Kentucky accent , with a very powerful voice , he said the Kansas Act had a " declared indifference , but as I must think , a covert real zeal for the spread of slavery . I cannot but hate it . I hate it because of the monstrous injustice of slavery itself . I hate it because it deprives our republican example of its just influence in the world ... "
In late 1854 , Lincoln ran as a Whig for the U.S. Senate . At that time , senators were elected by the state legislature . After leading in the first six rounds of voting , but unable to obtain a majority , Lincoln instructed his backers to vote for Lyman Trumbull . Trumbull was an antislavery Democrat , and had received few votes in the earlier ballots ; his supporters , also antislavery Democrats , had vowed not to support any Whig . Lincoln 's decision to withdraw enabled his Whig supporters and Trumbull 's antislavery Democrats to combine and defeat the mainstream Democratic candidate , Joel Aldrich Matteson .
Nationally , the Whigs had been irreparably split by the Kansas – Nebraska Act and other efforts to compromise on the slavery issue . Lincoln wrote , " I think I am a Whig , but others say there are no Whigs , and that I am an abolitionist [ ... ] I do no more than oppose the extension of slavery . " Drawing on the antislavery portion of the Whig Party , and combining Free Soil , Liberty , and antislavery Democratic Party members , the new Republican Party formed as a northern party dedicated to antislavery . Lincoln was one of those instrumental in forging the shape of the new party ; at the 1856 Republican National Convention , he placed second in the contest to become its candidate for vice president .
In 1857 – 1858 , Douglas broke with President James Buchanan , leading to a fight for control of the Democratic Party . Some eastern Republicans even favored the reelection of Douglas for the Senate in 1858 , since he had led the opposition to the Lecompton Constitution , which would have admitted Kansas as a slave state . In March 1857 , the Supreme Court issued its decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford ; Chief Justice Roger B. Taney opined that blacks were not citizens , and derived no rights from the Constitution . Lincoln denounced the decision , alleging it was the product of a conspiracy of Democrats to support the Slave Power . Lincoln argued , " The authors of the Declaration of Independence never intended ' to say all were equal in color , size , intellect , moral developments , or social capacity ' , but they ' did consider all men created equal — equal in certain inalienable rights , among which are life , liberty , and the pursuit of happiness ' . "
After the state Republican party convention nominated him for the U.S. Senate in 1858 , Lincoln delivered his House Divided Speech , drawing on Mark 3 : 25 , " A house divided against itself cannot stand . I believe this government cannot endure permanently half slave and half free . I do not expect the Union to be dissolved — I do not expect the house to fall — but I do expect it will cease to be divided . It will become all one thing , or all the other . " The speech created an evocative image of the danger of disunion caused by the slavery debate , and rallied Republicans across the North . The stage was then set for the campaign for statewide election of the Illinois legislature which would , in turn , select Lincoln or Douglas as its U.S. senator .
= = = Lincoln – Douglas debates and Cooper Union speech = = =
The Senate campaign featured the seven Lincoln – Douglas debates of 1858 , the most famous political debates in American history . The principals stood in stark contrast both physically and politically . Lincoln warned that " The Slave Power " was threatening the values of republicanism , and accused Douglas of distorting the values of the Founding Fathers that all men are created equal , while Douglas emphasized his Freeport Doctrine , that local settlers were free to choose whether to allow slavery or not , and accused Lincoln of having joined the abolitionists . The debates had an atmosphere of a prize fight and drew crowds in the thousands . Lincoln stated Douglas ' popular sovereignty theory was a threat to the nation 's morality and that Douglas represented a conspiracy to extend slavery to free states . Douglas said that Lincoln was defying the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court and the Dred Scott decision .
Though the Republican legislative candidates won more popular votes , the Democrats won more seats , and the legislature re @-@ elected Douglas to the Senate . Despite the bitterness of the defeat for Lincoln , his articulation of the issues gave him a national political reputation . In May 1859 , Lincoln purchased the Illinois Staats @-@ Anzeiger , a German @-@ language newspaper which was consistently supportive ; most of the state 's 130 @,@ 000 German Americans voted Democratic but there was Republican support that a German @-@ language paper could mobilize .
On February 27 , 1860 , New York party leaders invited Lincoln to give a speech at Cooper Union to a group of powerful Republicans . Lincoln argued that the Founding Fathers had little use for popular sovereignty and had repeatedly sought to restrict slavery . Lincoln insisted the moral foundation of the Republicans required opposition to slavery , and rejected any " groping for some middle ground between the right and the wrong " . Despite his inelegant appearance — many in the audience thought him awkward and even ugly — Lincoln demonstrated an intellectual leadership that brought him into the front ranks of the party and into contention for the Republican presidential nomination . Journalist Noah Brooks reported , " No man ever before made such an impression on his first appeal to a New York audience . "
Historian Donald described the speech as a " superb political move for an unannounced candidate , to appear in one rival 's ( William H. Seward ) own state at an event sponsored by the second rival 's ( Salmon P. Chase ) loyalists , while not mentioning either by name during its delivery " . In response to an inquiry about his presidential intentions , Lincoln said , " The taste is in my mouth a little . "
= = = 1860 Presidential nomination and campaign = = =
On May 9 – 10 , 1860 , the Illinois Republican State Convention was held in Decatur . Lincoln 's followers organized a campaign team led by David Davis , Norman Judd , Leonard Swett , and Jesse DuBois , and Lincoln received his first endorsement to run for the presidency . Exploiting the embellished legend of his frontier days with his father ( clearing the land and splitting fence rails with an ax ) , Lincoln 's supporters adopted the label of " The Rail Candidate " . In 1860 Lincoln described himself : " I am in height , six feet , four inches , nearly ; lean in flesh , weighing , on an average , one hundred and eighty pounds ; dark complexion , with coarse black hair , and gray eyes . " His biographers added that he had a :
Large head , with high crown of skull ; thick , bushy hair ; large and deep eye @-@ caverns ; heavy eyebrows ; a large nose ; large ears ; large mouth ; thin upper and somewhat thick under lip ; very high and prominent cheek @-@ bones ; cheeks thin and sunken ; strongly developed jawbone ; chin slightly upturned ; a thin but sinewy neck , rather long ; long arms ; large hands ; chest thin and narrow as compared with his great height ; legs of more than proportionate length , and large feet .
On May 18 , at the Republican National Convention in Chicago , Lincoln 's friends promised and manipulated and won the nomination on the third ballot , beating candidates such as William H. Seward and Salmon P. Chase . A former Democrat , Hannibal Hamlin of Maine , was nominated for Vice President to balance the ticket . Lincoln 's success depended on his reputation as a moderate on the slavery issue , and his strong support for Whiggish programs of internal improvements and the protective tariff .
On the third ballot Pennsylvania put him over the top . Pennsylvania iron interests were reassured by his support for protective tariffs . Lincoln 's managers had been adroitly focused on this delegation as well as the others , while following Lincoln 's strong dictate to " Make no contracts that bind me " .
Most Republicans agreed with Lincoln that the North was the aggrieved party , as the Slave Power tightened its grasp on the national government with the Dred Scott decision and the presidency of James Buchanan . Throughout the 1850s , Lincoln doubted the prospects of civil war , and his supporters rejected claims that his election would incite secession . Meanwhile , Douglas was selected as the candidate of the Northern Democrats . Delegates from 11 slave states walked out of the Democratic convention , disagreeing with Douglas ' position on popular sovereignty , and ultimately selected John C. Breckinridge as their candidate .
The Wide Awake Parade was formed in 1860 by Republicans in the Northern states to help nominate Abraham Lincoln as the President of the United States . As Lincoln 's ideas of abolishing slavery grew , so did his supporters . People of the Northern states knew the Southern states would vote against Lincoln because of his ideas of anti @-@ slavery and took action to rally supporters for Lincoln .
As Douglas and the other candidates went through with their campaigns , Lincoln was the only one of them who gave no speeches . Instead , he monitored the campaign closely and relied on the enthusiasm of the Republican Party . The party did the leg work that produced majorities across the North , and produced an abundance of campaign posters , leaflets , and newspaper editorials . There were thousands of Republican speakers who focused first on the party platform , and second on Lincoln 's life story , emphasizing his childhood poverty . The goal was to demonstrate the superior power of " free labor " , whereby a common farm boy could work his way to the top by his own efforts . The Republican Party 's production of campaign literature dwarfed the combined opposition ; a Chicago Tribune writer produced a pamphlet that detailed Lincoln 's life , and sold 100 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Presidency = =
= = = 1860 election and secession = = =
On November 6 , 1860 , Lincoln was elected the 16th president of the United States , beating Democrat Stephen A. Douglas , John C. Breckinridge of the Southern Democrats , and John Bell of the new Constitutional Union Party . He was the first president from the Republican Party . His victory was entirely due to the strength of his support in the North and West ; no ballots were cast for him in 10 of the 15 Southern slave states , and he won only two of 996 counties in all the Southern states .
Lincoln received 1 @,@ 866 @,@ 452 votes , Douglas 1 @,@ 376 @,@ 957 votes , Breckinridge 849 @,@ 781 votes , and Bell 588 @,@ 789 votes . Turnout was 82 @.@ 2 percent , with Lincoln winning the free Northern states , as well as California and Oregon . Douglas won Missouri , and split New Jersey with Lincoln . Bell won Virginia , Tennessee , and Kentucky , and Breckinridge won the rest of the South .
Although Lincoln won only a plurality of the popular vote , his victory in the electoral college was decisive : Lincoln had 180 and his opponents added together had only 123 . There were fusion tickets in which all of Lincoln 's opponents combined to support the same slate of Electors in New York , New Jersey , and Rhode Island , but even if the anti @-@ Lincoln vote had been combined in every state , Lincoln still would have won a majority in the Electoral College .
As Lincoln 's election became evident , secessionists made clear their intent to leave the Union before he took office the next March . On December 20 , 1860 , South Carolina took the lead by adopting an ordinance of secession ; by February 1 , 1861 , Florida , Mississippi , Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , and Texas followed . Six of these states then adopted a constitution and declared themselves to be a sovereign nation , the Confederate States of America . The upper South and border states ( Delaware , Maryland , Virginia , North Carolina , Tennessee , Kentucky , Missouri , and Arkansas ) listened to , but initially rejected , the secessionist appeal . President Buchanan and President @-@ elect Lincoln refused to recognize the Confederacy , declaring secession illegal . The Confederacy selected Jefferson Davis as its provisional President on February 9 , 1861 .
There were attempts at compromise . The Crittenden Compromise would have extended the Missouri Compromise line of 1820 , dividing the territories into slave and free , contrary to the Republican Party 's free @-@ soil platform . Lincoln rejected the idea , saying , " I will suffer death before I consent ... to any concession or compromise which looks like buying the privilege to take possession of this government to which we have a constitutional right . "
Lincoln , however , did tacitly support the proposed Corwin Amendment to the Constitution , which passed Congress before Lincoln came into office and was then awaiting ratification by the states . That proposed amendment would have protected slavery in states where it already existed and would have guaranteed that Congress would not interfere with slavery without Southern consent . A few weeks before the war , Lincoln sent a letter to every governor informing them Congress had passed a joint resolution to amend the Constitution . Lincoln was open to the possibility of a constitutional convention to make further amendments to the Constitution .
En route to his inauguration by train , Lincoln addressed crowds and legislatures across the North . The president @-@ elect then evaded possible assassins in Baltimore , who were uncovered by Lincoln 's head of security , Allan Pinkerton . On February 23 , 1861 , he arrived in disguise in Washington , D.C. , which was placed under substantial military guard . Lincoln directed his inaugural address to the South , proclaiming once again that he had no intention , or inclination , to abolish slavery in the Southern states :
Apprehension seems to exist among the people of the Southern States that by the accession of a Republican Administration their property and their peace and personal security are to be endangered . There has never been any reasonable cause for such apprehension . Indeed , the most ample evidence to the contrary has all the while existed and been open to their inspection . It is found in nearly all the published speeches of him who now addresses you . I do but quote from one of those speeches when I declare that " I have no purpose , directly or indirectly , to interfere with the institution of slavery in the States where it exists . I believe I have no lawful right to do so , and I have no inclination to do so . "
The President ended his address with an appeal to the people of the South : " We are not enemies , but friends . We must not be enemies ... The mystic chords of memory , stretching from every battlefield , and patriot grave , to every living heart and hearthstone , all over this broad land , will yet swell the chorus of the Union , when again touched , as surely they will be , by the better angels of our nature . " The failure of the Peace Conference of 1861 signaled that legislative compromise was impossible . By March 1861 , no leaders of the insurrection had proposed rejoining the Union on any terms . Meanwhile , Lincoln and the Republican leadership agreed that the dismantling of the Union could not be tolerated . Lincoln said as the war was ending :
Both parties deprecated war , but one of them would make war rather than let the Nation survive , and the other would accept war rather than let it perish , and the war came .
= = = Beginning of the war = = =
The commander of Fort Sumter , South Carolina , Major Robert Anderson , sent a request for provisions to Washington , and the execution of Lincoln 's order to meet that request was seen by the secessionists as an act of war . On April 12 , 1861 , Confederate forces fired on Union troops at Fort Sumter , forcing them to surrender , and began the war . Historian Allan Nevins argued that the newly inaugurated Lincoln made three miscalculations : underestimating the gravity of the crisis , exaggerating the strength of Unionist sentiment in the South , and not realizing the Southern Unionists were insisting there be no invasion .
William Tecumseh Sherman talked to Lincoln during inauguration week and was " sadly disappointed " at his failure to realize that " the country was sleeping on a volcano " and that the South was preparing for war . Historian Donald concludes that , " His repeated efforts to avoid collision in the months between inauguration and the firing on Ft . Sumter showed he adhered to his vow not to be the first to shed fraternal blood . But he also vowed not to surrender the forts . The only resolution of these contradictory positions was for the confederates to fire the first shot ; they did just that . "
On April 15 , Lincoln called on all the states to send detachments totaling 75 @,@ 000 troops to recapture forts , protect Washington , and " preserve the Union " , which , in his view , still existed intact despite the actions of the seceding states . This call forced the states to choose sides . Virginia declared its secession and was rewarded with the Confederate capital , despite the exposed position of Richmond so close to Union lines . North Carolina , Tennessee , and Arkansas also voted for secession over the next two months . Secession sentiment was strong in Missouri and Maryland , but did not prevail ; Kentucky tried to be neutral . The Confederate attack on Fort Sumter rallied Americans north of the Mason @-@ Dixon line to the defense of the American nation . Historian Allan Nevins says :
The thunderclap of Sumter produced a startling crystallization of Northern sentiment ... Anger swept the land . From every side came news of mass meetings , speeches , resolutions , tenders of business support , the muster of companies and regiments , the determined action of governors and legislatures . "
States sent Union regiments south in response to Lincoln 's call to save the capital and confront the rebellion . On April 19 , mobs in Baltimore , which controlled the rail links , attacked Union troops who were changing trains , and local leaders ' groups later burned critical rail bridges to the capital . The Army responded by arresting local Maryland officials . Lincoln suspended the writ of habeas corpus in areas the army felt it needed to secure for troops to reach Washington . John Merryman , a Maryland official involved in hindering the U.S. troop movements , petitioned Supreme Court Chief Justice and Marylander , Roger B. Taney , author of the controversial pro @-@ slavery Dred Scott opinion , to issue a writ of habeas corpus , and in June Taney , acting as a circuit judge and not speaking for the Supreme Court , issued the writ , because in his opinion only Congress could suspend the writ . Lincoln continued the army policy that the writ was suspended in limited areas despite the Ex parte Merryman ruling .
= = = Assuming command for the Union in the war = = =
After the Battle of Fort Sumter , Lincoln realized the importance of taking immediate executive control of the war and making an overall strategy to put down the rebellion . Lincoln encountered an unprecedented political and military crisis , and he responded as commander @-@ in @-@ chief , using unprecedented powers . He expanded his war powers , and imposed a blockade on all the Confederate shipping ports , disbursed funds before appropriation by Congress , and after suspending habeas corpus , arrested and imprisoned thousands of suspected Confederate sympathizers . Lincoln was supported by Congress and the northern public for these actions . In addition , Lincoln had to contend with reinforcing strong Union sympathies in the border slave states and keeping the war from becoming an international conflict .
The war effort was the source of continued disparagement of Lincoln , and dominated his time and attention . From the start , it was clear that bipartisan support would be essential to success in the war effort , and any manner of compromise alienated factions on both sides of the aisle , such as the appointment of Republicans and Democrats to command positions in the Union Army . Copperheads criticized Lincoln for refusing to compromise on the slavery issue . Conversely , the Radical Republicans criticized him for moving too slowly in abolishing slavery . On August 6 , 1861 , Lincoln signed the Confiscation Act that authorized judiciary proceedings to confiscate and free slaves who were used to support the Confederate war effort . In practice , the law had little effect , but it did signal political support for abolishing slavery in the Confederacy .
In late August 1861 , General John C. Frémont , the 1856 Republican presidential nominee , issued , without consulting his superiors in Washington , a proclamation of martial law in Missouri . He declared that any citizen found bearing arms could be court @-@ martialed and shot , and that slaves of persons aiding the rebellion would be freed . Frémont was already under a cloud with charges of negligence in his command of the Department of the West compounded with allegations of fraud and corruption . Lincoln overruled Frémont 's proclamation . Lincoln believed that Fremont 's emancipation was political ; neither militarily necessary nor legal . After Lincoln acted , Union enlistments from Maryland , Kentucky , and Missouri increased by over 40 @,@ 000 troops .
Lincoln left most diplomatic matters to his Secretary of State , William Seward . At times Seward was too bellicose , so for balance Lincoln stuck a close working relationship with Senator Charles Sumner , the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee . The Trent Affair of late 1861 threatened war with Great Britain . The U.S. Navy had illegally intercepted a British mail ship , the Trent , on the high seas and seized two Confederate envoys ; Britain protested vehemently while the U.S. cheered . Lincoln ended the crisis by releasing the two diplomats . Biographer James G. Randall has dissected Lincoln 's successful techniques :
his restraint , his avoidance of any outward expression of truculence , his early softening of State Department 's attitude toward Britain , his deference toward Seward and Sumner , his withholding of his own paper prepared for the occasion , his readiness to arbitrate , his golden silence in addressing Congress , his shrewdness in recognizing that war must be averted , and his clear perception that a point could be clinched for America 's true position at the same time that full satisfaction was given to a friendly country .
Lincoln painstakingly monitored the telegraphic reports coming into the War Department headquarters . He kept close tabs on all phases of the military effort , consulted with governors , and selected generals based on their past success ( as well as their state and party ) . In January 1862 , after many complaints of inefficiency and profiteering in the War Department , Lincoln replaced Simon Cameron with Edwin Stanton as War Secretary . Stanton was a staunchly Unionist pro @-@ business conservative Democrat who moved toward the Radical Republican faction . Nevertheless , he worked more often and more closely with Lincoln than any other senior official . " Stanton and Lincoln virtually conducted the war together , " say Thomas and Hyman .
In terms of war strategy , Lincoln articulated two priorities : to ensure that Washington was well @-@ defended , and to conduct an aggressive war effort that would satisfy the demand in the North for prompt , decisive victory ; major Northern newspaper editors expected victory within 90 days . Twice a week , Lincoln would meet with his cabinet in the afternoon , and occasionally Mary Lincoln would force him to take a carriage ride because she was concerned he was working too hard . Lincoln learned from reading the theoretical book of his chief of staff General Henry Halleck , a disciple of the European strategist Jomini ; he began to appreciate the critical need to control strategic points , such as the Mississippi River ; . Lincoln saw the importance of Vicksburg and understood the necessity of defeating the enemy 's army , rather than simply capturing territory .
= = = General McClellan = = =
After the Union defeat at the First Battle of Bull Run and the retirement of the aged Winfield Scott in late 1861 , Lincoln appointed Major General George B. McClellan general @-@ in @-@ chief of all the Union armies . McClellan , a young West Point graduate , railroad executive , and Pennsylvania Democrat , took several months to plan and attempt his Peninsula Campaign , longer than Lincoln wanted . The campaign 's objective was to capture Richmond by moving the Army of the Potomac by boat to the peninsula and then overland to the Confederate capital . McClellan 's repeated delays frustrated Lincoln and Congress , as did his position that no troops were needed to defend Washington . Lincoln insisted on holding some of McClellan 's troops in defense of the capital ; McClellan , who consistently overestimated the strength of Confederate troops , blamed this decision for the ultimate failure of the Peninsula Campaign .
Lincoln removed McClellan as general @-@ in @-@ chief in March 1862 , after McClellan 's " Harrison 's Landing Letter " , in which he offered unsolicited political advice to Lincoln urging caution in the war effort . The office remained empty until July , when Henry Halleck was selected for it . McClellan 's letter incensed Radical Republicans , who successfully pressured Lincoln to appoint John Pope , a Republican , as head of the new Army of Virginia . Pope complied with Lincoln 's strategic desire to move toward Richmond from the north , thus protecting the capital from attack .
However , lacking requested reinforcements from McClellan , now commanding the Army of the Potomac , Pope was soundly defeated at the Second Battle of Bull Run in the summer of 1862 , forcing the Army of the Potomac to defend Washington for a second time . The war also expanded with naval operations in 1862 when the CSS Virginia , formerly the USS Merrimack , damaged or destroyed three Union vessels in Norfolk , Virginia , before being engaged and damaged by the USS Monitor . Lincoln closely reviewed the dispatches and interrogated naval officers during their clash in the Battle of Hampton Roads .
Despite his dissatisfaction with McClellan 's failure to reinforce Pope , Lincoln was desperate , and restored him to command of all forces around Washington , to the dismay of all in his cabinet but Seward . Two days after McClellan 's return to command , General Robert E. Lee 's forces crossed the Potomac River into Maryland , leading to the Battle of Antietam in September 1862 . The ensuing Union victory was among the bloodiest in American history , but it enabled Lincoln to announce that he would issue an Emancipation Proclamation in January . Having composed the Proclamation some time earlier , Lincoln had waited for a military victory to publish it to avoid it being perceived as the product of desperation .
McClellan then resisted the President 's demand that he pursue Lee 's retreating and exposed army , while his counterpart General Don Carlos Buell likewise refused orders to move the Army of the Ohio against rebel forces in eastern Tennessee . As a result , Lincoln replaced Buell with William Rosecrans ; and , after the 1862 midterm elections , he replaced McClellan with Republican Ambrose Burnside . Both of these replacements were political moderates and prospectively more supportive of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief .
Burnside , against the advice of the president , prematurely launched an offensive across the Rappahannock River and was stunningly defeated by Lee at Fredericksburg in December . Not only had Burnside been defeated on the battlefield , but his soldiers were disgruntled and undisciplined . Desertions during 1863 were in the thousands and they increased after Fredericksburg . Lincoln brought in Joseph Hooker , despite his record of loose talk about the need for a military dictatorship .
The mid @-@ term elections in 1862 brought the Republicans severe losses due to sharp disfavor with the administration over its failure to deliver a speedy end to the war , as well as rising inflation , new high taxes , rumors of corruption , the suspension of habeas corpus , the military draft law , and fears that freed slaves would undermine the labor market . The Emancipation Proclamation announced in September gained votes for the Republicans in the rural areas of New England and the upper Midwest , but it lost votes in the cities and the lower Midwest .
While Republicans were discouraged , Democrats were energized and did especially well in Pennsylvania , Ohio , Indiana , and New York . The Republicans did maintain their majorities in Congress and in the major states , except New York . The Cincinnati Gazette contended that the voters were " depressed by the interminable nature of this war , as so far conducted , and by the rapid exhaustion of the national resources without progress " .
In the spring of 1863 , Lincoln was optimistic about upcoming military campaigns to the point of thinking the end of the war could be near if a string of victories could be put together ; these plans included Hooker 's attack on Lee north of Richmond , Rosecrans ' on Chattanooga , Grant 's on Vicksburg , and a naval assault on Charleston .
Hooker was routed by Lee at the Battle of Chancellorsville in May , but continued to command his troops for some weeks . He ignored Lincoln 's order to divide his troops , and possibly force Lee to do the same in Harper 's Ferry , and tendered his resignation , which Lincoln accepted . He was replaced by George Meade , who followed Lee into Pennsylvania for the Gettysburg Campaign , which was a victory for the Union , though Lee 's army avoided capture . At the same time , after initial setbacks , Grant laid siege to Vicksburg and the Union navy attained some success in Charleston harbor . After the Battle of Gettysburg , Lincoln clearly understood that his military decisions would be more effectively carried out by conveying his orders through his War Secretary or his general @-@ in @-@ chief on to his generals , who resented his civilian interference with their own plans . Even so , he often continued to give detailed directions to his generals as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief .
= = = Emancipation Proclamation = = =
Lincoln understood that the Federal government 's power to end slavery was limited by the Constitution , which before 1865 , committed the issue to individual states . He argued before and during his election that the eventual extinction of slavery would result from preventing its expansion into new U.S. territory . At the beginning of the war , he also sought to persuade the states to accept compensated emancipation in return for their prohibition of slavery . Lincoln believed that curtailing slavery in these ways would economically expunge it , as envisioned by the Founding Fathers , under the constitution . President Lincoln rejected two geographically limited emancipation attempts by Major General John C. Frémont in August 1861 and by Major General David Hunter in May 1862 , on the grounds that it was not within their power , and it would upset the border states loyal to the Union .
On June 19 , 1862 , endorsed by Lincoln , Congress passed an act banning slavery on all federal territory . In July , the Confiscation Act of 1862 was passed , which set up court procedures that could free the slaves of anyone convicted of aiding the rebellion . Although Lincoln believed it was not within Congress 's power to free the slaves within the states , he approved the bill in deference to the legislature . He felt such action could only be taken by the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief using war powers granted to the president by the Constitution , and Lincoln was planning to take that action . In that month , Lincoln discussed a draft of the Emancipation Proclamation with his cabinet . In it , he stated that " as a fit and necessary military measure , on January 1 , 1863 , all persons held as slaves in the Confederate states will thenceforward , and forever , be free " .
Privately , Lincoln concluded at this point that the slave base of the Confederacy had to be eliminated . However Copperheads argued that emancipation was a stumbling block to peace and reunification . Republican editor Horace Greeley of the highly influential New York Tribune fell for the ploy , and Lincoln refuted it directly in a shrewd letter of August 22 , 1862 . Although he said he personally wished all men could be free , Lincoln stated that the primary goal of his actions as the U.S. president ( he used the first person pronoun and explicitly refers to his " official duty " ) was that of preserving the Union :
My paramount object in this struggle is to save the Union , and is not either to save or to destroy slavery . If I could save the Union without freeing any slave I would do it , and if I could save it by freeing all the slaves I would do it ; and if I could save it by freeing some and leaving others alone I would also do that . What I do about slavery , and the colored race , I do because I believe it helps to save the Union ; and what I forbear , I forbear because I do not believe it would help to save the Union ... [ ¶ ] I have here stated my purpose according to my view of official duty ; and I intend no modification of my oft @-@ expressed personal wish that all men everywhere could be free .
The Emancipation Proclamation , issued on September 22 , 1862 , and put into effect on January 1 , 1863 , declared free the slaves in 10 states not then under Union control , with exemptions specified for areas already under Union control in two states . Lincoln spent the next 100 days preparing the army and the nation for emancipation , while Democrats rallied their voters in the 1862 off @-@ year elections by warning of the threat freed slaves posed to northern whites .
Once the abolition of slavery in the rebel states became a military objective , as Union armies advanced south , more slaves were liberated until all three million of them in Confederate territory were freed . Lincoln 's comment on the signing of the Proclamation was : " I never , in my life , felt more certain that I was doing right , than I do in signing this paper . " For some time , Lincoln continued earlier plans to set up colonies for the newly freed slaves . He commented favorably on colonization in the Emancipation Proclamation , but all attempts at such a massive undertaking failed . A few days after Emancipation was announced , 13 Republican governors met at the War Governors ' Conference ; they supported the president 's Proclamation , but suggested the removal of General George B. McClellan as commander of the Union Army .
Enlisting former slaves in the military was official government policy after the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation . By the spring of 1863 , Lincoln was ready to recruit black troops in more than token numbers . In a letter to Andrew Johnson , the military governor of Tennessee , encouraging him to lead the way in raising black troops , Lincoln wrote , " The bare sight of 50 @,@ 000 armed and drilled black soldiers on the banks of the Mississippi would end the rebellion at once " . By the end of 1863 , at Lincoln 's direction , General Lorenzo Thomas had recruited 20 regiments of blacks from the Mississippi Valley . Frederick Douglass once observed of Lincoln : " In his company , I was never reminded of my humble origin , or of my unpopular color " .
= = = Gettysburg Address ( 1863 ) = = =
With the great Union victory at the Battle of Gettysburg in July 1863 , and the defeat of the Copperheads in the Ohio election in the fall , Lincoln maintained a strong base of party support and was in a strong position to redefine the war effort , despite the New York City draft riots . The stage was set for his address at the Gettysburg battlefield cemetery on November 19 , 1863 . Defying Lincoln 's prediction that " the world will little note , nor long remember what we say here " , the Address became the most quoted speech in American history .
In 272 words , and three minutes , Lincoln asserted the nation was born not in 1789 , but in 1776 , " conceived in Liberty , and dedicated to the proposition that all men are created equal " . He defined the war as an effort dedicated to these principles of liberty and equality for all . The emancipation of slaves was now part of the national war effort . He declared that the deaths of so many brave soldiers would not be in vain , that slavery would end as a result of the losses , and the future of democracy in the world would be assured , that " government of the people , by the people , for the people , shall not perish from the earth " . Lincoln concluded that the Civil War had a profound objective : a new birth of freedom in the nation .
= = = General Grant = = =
Meade 's failure to capture Lee 's army as it retreated from Gettysburg , and the continued passivity of the Army of the Potomac , persuaded Lincoln that a change in command was needed . General Ulysses S. Grant 's victories at the Battle of Shiloh and in the Vicksburg campaign impressed Lincoln and made Grant a strong candidate to head the Union Army . Responding to criticism of Grant after Shiloh , Lincoln had said , " I can 't spare this man . He fights . " With Grant in command , Lincoln felt the Union Army could relentlessly pursue a series of coordinated offensives in multiple theaters , and have a top commander who agreed on the use of black troops .
Nevertheless , Lincoln was concerned that Grant might be considering a candidacy for President in 1864 , as McClellan was . Lincoln arranged for an intermediary to make inquiry into Grant 's political intentions , and being assured that he had none , submitted to the Senate Grant 's promotion to commander of the Union Army . He obtained Congress 's consent to reinstate for Grant the rank of Lieutenant General , which no officer had held since George Washington .
Grant waged his bloody Overland Campaign in 1864 . This is often characterized as a war of attrition , given high Union losses at battles such as the Battle of the Wilderness and Cold Harbor . Even though they had the advantage of fighting on the defensive , the Confederate forces had " almost as high a percentage of casualties as the Union forces " . The high casualty figures of the Union alarmed the North ; Grant had lost a third of his army , and Lincoln asked what Grant 's plans were , to which the general replied , " I propose to fight it out on this line if it takes all summer . "
The Confederacy lacked reinforcements , so Lee 's army shrank with every costly battle . Grant 's army moved south , crossed the James River , forcing a siege and trench warfare outside Petersburg , Virginia . Lincoln then made an extended visit to Grant 's headquarters at City Point , Virginia . This allowed the president to confer in person with Grant and William Tecumseh Sherman about the hostilities , as Sherman coincidentally managed a hasty visit to Grant from his position in North Carolina . Lincoln and the Republican Party mobilized support for the draft throughout the North , and replaced the Union losses .
Lincoln authorized Grant to target the Confederate infrastructure — such as plantations , railroads , and bridges — hoping to destroy the South 's morale and weaken its economic ability to continue fighting . Grant 's move to Petersburg resulted in the obstruction of three railroads between Richmond and the South . This strategy allowed Generals Sherman and Philip Sheridan to destroy plantations and towns in Virginia 's Shenandoah Valley . The damage caused by Sherman 's March to the Sea through Georgia in 1864 was limited to a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) swath , but neither Lincoln nor his commanders saw destruction as the main goal , but rather defeat of the Confederate armies . Mark E. Neely Jr. has argued that there was no effort to engage in " total war " against civilians which he believed did take place during World War II .
Confederate general Jubal Anderson Early began a series of assaults in the North that threatened the Capital . During Early 's raid on Washington , D.C. in 1864 , Lincoln was watching the combat from an exposed position ; Captain Oliver Wendell Holmes shouted at him , " Get down , you damn fool , before you get shot ! " After repeated calls on Grant to defend Washington , Sheridan was appointed and the threat from Early was dispatched .
As Grant continued to wear down Lee 's forces , efforts to discuss peace began . Confederate Vice President Stephens led a group to meet with Lincoln , Seward , and others at Hampton Roads . Lincoln refused to allow any negotiation with the Confederacy as a coequal ; his sole objective was an agreement to end the fighting and the meetings produced no results . On April 1 , 1865 , Grant successfully outflanked Lee 's forces in the Battle of Five Forks and nearly encircled Petersburg , and the Confederate government evacuated Richmond . Days later , when that city fell , Lincoln visited the vanquished Confederate capital ; as he walked through the city , white Southerners were stone @-@ faced , but freedmen greeted him as a hero . On April 9 , Lee surrendered to Grant at Appomattox and the war was effectively over .
= = = 1864 re @-@ election = = =
While the war was still being waged , Lincoln faced reelection in 1864 . Lincoln was a master politician , bringing together — and holding together — all the main factions of the Republican Party , and bringing in War Democrats such as Edwin M. Stanton and Andrew Johnson as well . Lincoln spent many hours a week talking to politicians from across the land and using his patronage powers — greatly expanded over peacetime — to hold the factions of his party together , build support for his own policies , and fend off efforts by Radicals to drop him from the 1864 ticket . At its 1864 convention , the Republican Party selected Johnson , a War Democrat from the Southern state of Tennessee , as his running mate . To broaden his coalition to include War Democrats as well as Republicans , Lincoln ran under the label of the new Union Party .
When Grant 's 1864 spring campaigns turned into bloody stalemates and Union casualties mounted , the lack of military success wore heavily on the President 's re @-@ election prospects , and many Republicans across the country feared that Lincoln would be defeated . Sharing this fear , Lincoln wrote and signed a pledge that , if he should lose the election , he would still defeat the Confederacy before turning over the White House :
This morning , as for some days past , it seems exceedingly probable that this Administration will not be re @-@ elected . Then it will be my duty to so co @-@ operate with the President elect , as to save the Union between the election and the inauguration ; as he will have secured his election on such ground that he cannot possibly save it afterward .
Lincoln did not show the pledge to his cabinet , but asked them to sign the sealed envelope .
While the Democratic platform followed the " Peace wing " of the party and called the war a " failure " , their candidate , General George B. McClellan , supported the war and repudiated the platform . Lincoln provided Grant with more troops and mobilized his party to renew its support of Grant in the war effort . Sherman 's capture of Atlanta in September and David Farragut 's capture of Mobile ended defeatist jitters ; the Democratic Party was deeply split , with some leaders and most soldiers openly for Lincoln . By contrast , the National Union Party was united and energized as Lincoln made emancipation the central issue , and state Republican parties stressed the perfidy of the Copperheads . On November 8 , Lincoln was re @-@ elected in a landslide , carrying all but three states , and receiving 78 percent of the Union soldiers ' vote .
On March 4 , 1865 , Lincoln delivered his second inaugural address . In it , he deemed the high casualties on both sides to be God 's will . Historian Mark Noll concludes it ranks " among the small handful of semi @-@ sacred texts by which Americans conceive their place in the world " . Lincoln said :
Fondly do we hope — fervently do we pray — that this mighty scourge of war may speedily pass away . Yet , if God wills that it continue , until all the wealth piled by the bond @-@ man 's 250 years of unrequited toil shall be sunk , and until every drop of blood drawn with the lash , shall be paid by another drawn with the sword , as was said 3 @,@ 000 years ago , so still it must be said , " the judgments of the Lord , are true and righteous altogether " . With malice toward none ; with charity for all ; with firmness in the right , as God gives us to see the right , let us strive on to finish the work we are in ; to bind up the nation 's wounds ; to care for him who shall have borne the battle , and for his widow , and his orphan — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and lasting peace , among ourselves , and with all nations .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
Reconstruction began during the war , as Lincoln and his associates anticipated questions of how to reintegrate the conquered southern states , and how to determine the fates of Confederate leaders and freed slaves . Shortly after Lee 's surrender , a general had asked Lincoln how the defeated Confederates should be treated , and Lincoln replied , " Let ' em up easy . " In keeping with that sentiment , Lincoln led the moderates regarding Reconstruction policy , and was opposed by the Radical Republicans , under Rep. Thaddeus Stevens , Sen. Charles Sumner and Sen. Benjamin Wade , political allies of the president on other issues . Determined to find a course that would reunite the nation and not alienate the South , Lincoln urged that speedy elections under generous terms be held throughout the war . His Amnesty Proclamation of December 8 , 1863 , offered pardons to those who had not held a Confederate civil office , had not mistreated Union prisoners , and would sign an oath of allegiance .
As Southern states were subdued , critical decisions had to be made as to their leadership while their administrations were re @-@ formed . Of special importance were Tennessee and Arkansas , where Lincoln appointed Generals Andrew Johnson and Frederick Steele as military governors , respectively . In Louisiana , Lincoln ordered General Nathaniel P. Banks to promote a plan that would restore statehood when 10 percent of the voters agreed to it . Lincoln 's Democratic opponents seized on these appointments to accuse him of using the military to ensure his and the Republicans ' political aspirations . On the other hand , the Radicals denounced his policy as too lenient , and passed their own plan , the Wade @-@ Davis Bill , in 1864 . When Lincoln vetoed the bill , the Radicals retaliated by refusing to seat representatives elected from Louisiana , Arkansas , and Tennessee .
Lincoln 's appointments were designed to keep both the moderate and Radical factions in harness . To fill Chief Justice Taney 's seat on the Supreme Court , he named the choice of the Radicals , Salmon P. Chase , who Lincoln believed would uphold the emancipation and paper money policies .
After implementing the Emancipation Proclamation , which did not apply to every state , Lincoln increased pressure on Congress to outlaw slavery throughout the entire nation with a constitutional amendment . Lincoln declared that such an amendment would " clinch the whole matter " . By December 1863 , a proposed constitutional amendment that would outlaw slavery was brought to Congress for passage . This first attempt at an amendment failed to pass , falling short of the required two @-@ thirds majority on June 15 , 1864 , in the House of Representatives . Passage of the proposed amendment became part of the Republican / Unionist platform in the election of 1864 . After a long debate in the House , a second attempt passed Congress on January 31 , 1865 , and was sent to the state legislatures for ratification . Upon ratification , it became the Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution on December 6 , 1865 .
As the war drew to a close , Lincoln 's presidential Reconstruction for the South was in flux ; having believed the federal government had limited responsibility to the millions of freedmen . He signed into law Senator Charles Sumner 's Freedmen 's Bureau bill that set up a temporary federal agency designed to meet the immediate material needs of former slaves . The law assigned land for a lease of three years with the ability to purchase title for the freedmen . Lincoln stated that his Louisiana plan did not apply to all states under Reconstruction . Shortly before his assassination , Lincoln announced he had a new plan for southern Reconstruction . Discussions with his cabinet revealed Lincoln planned short @-@ term military control over southern states , until readmission under the control of southern Unionists .
Historians agree that it is impossible to predict exactly what Lincoln would have done about Reconstruction if he had lived , but they make projections based on his known policy positions and political acumen . Lincoln biographers James G. Randall and Richard Current , according to David Lincove , argue that :
It is likely that had he lived , Lincoln would have followed a policy similar to Johnson 's , that he would have clashed with congressional Radicals , that he would have produced a better result for the freedmen than occurred , and that his political skills would have helped him avoid Johnson 's mistakes .
Eric Foner argues that :
Unlike Sumner and other Radicals , Lincoln did not see Reconstruction as an opportunity for a sweeping political and social revolution beyond emancipation . He had long made clear his opposition to the confiscation and redistribution of land . He believed , as most Republicans did in April 1865 , that the voting requirements should be determined by the states . He assumed that political control in the South would pass to white Unionists , reluctant secessionists , and forward @-@ looking former Confederates . But time and again during the war , Lincoln , after initial opposition , had come to embrace positions first advanced by abolitionists and Radical Republicans . ... Lincoln undoubtedly would have listened carefully to the outcry for further protection for the former slaves ... It is entirely plausible to imagine Lincoln and Congress agreeing on a Reconstruction policy that encompassed federal protection for basic civil rights plus limited black suffrage , along the lines Lincoln proposed just before his death . "
= = = Redefining the republic and republicanism = = =
The successful reunification of the states had consequences for the name of the country . The term " the United States " has historically been used , sometimes in the plural ( " these United States " ) , and other times in the singular , without any particular grammatical consistency . The Civil War was a significant force in the eventual dominance of the singular usage by the end of the 19th century .
In recent years , historians such as Harry Jaffa , Herman Belz , John Diggins , Vernon Burton and Eric Foner have stressed Lincoln 's redefinition of republican values . As early as the 1850s , a time when most political rhetoric focused on the sanctity of the Constitution , Lincoln redirected emphasis to the Declaration of Independence as the foundation of American political values — what he called the " sheet anchor " of republicanism . The Declaration 's emphasis on freedom and equality for all , in contrast to the Constitution 's tolerance of slavery , shifted the debate . As Diggins concludes regarding the highly influential Cooper Union speech of early 1860 , " Lincoln presented Americans a theory of history that offers a profound contribution to the theory and destiny of republicanism itself . " His position gained strength because he highlighted the moral basis of republicanism , rather than its legalisms . Nevertheless , in 1861 , Lincoln justified the war in terms of legalisms ( the Constitution was a contract , and for one party to get out of a contract all the other parties had to agree ) , and then in terms of the national duty to guarantee a republican form of government in every state . Burton ( 2008 ) argues that Lincoln 's republicanism was taken up by the Freedmen as they were emancipated .
In March 1861 , in Lincoln 's first inaugural address , he explored the nature of democracy . He denounced secession as anarchy , and explained that majority rule had to be balanced by constitutional restraints in the American system . He said " A majority held in restraint by constitutional checks and limitations , and always changing easily with deliberate changes of popular opinions and sentiments , is the only true sovereign of a free people . "
= = = Other enactments = = =
Lincoln adhered to the Whig theory of the presidency , which gave Congress primary responsibility for writing the laws while the Executive enforced them . Lincoln vetoed only four bills passed by Congress ; the only important one was the Wade @-@ Davis Bill with its harsh program of Reconstruction . He signed the Homestead Act in 1862 , making millions of acres of government @-@ held land in the West available for purchase at very low cost . The Morrill Land @-@ Grant Colleges Act , also signed in 1862 , provided government grants for agricultural colleges in each state . The Pacific Railway Acts of 1862 and 1864 granted federal support for the construction of the United States ' First Transcontinental Railroad , which was completed in 1869 . The passage of the Homestead Act and the Pacific Railway Acts was made possible by the absence of Southern congressmen and senators who had opposed the measures in the 1850s .
Other important legislation involved two measures to raise revenues for the Federal government : tariffs ( a policy with long precedent ) , and a new Federal income tax . In 1861 , Lincoln signed the second and third Morrill Tariff , the first having become law under James Buchanan . Also in 1861 , Lincoln signed the Revenue Act of 1861 , creating the first U.S. income tax . This created a flat tax of 3 percent on incomes above $ 800 ( $ 21 @,@ 100 in current dollar terms ) , which was later changed by the Revenue Act of 1862 to a progressive rate structure .
Lincoln also presided over the expansion of the federal government 's economic influence in several other areas . The creation of the system of national banks by the National Banking Act provided a strong financial network in the country . It also established a national currency . In 1862 , Congress created , with Lincoln 's approval , the Department of Agriculture . In 1862 , Lincoln sent a senior general , John Pope , to put down the " Sioux Uprising " in Minnesota . Presented with 303 execution warrants for convicted Santee Dakota who were accused of killing innocent farmers , Lincoln conducted his own personal review of each of these warrants , eventually approving 39 for execution ( one was later reprieved ) . President Lincoln had planned to reform federal Indian policy .
In the wake of Grant 's casualties in his campaign against Lee , Lincoln had considered yet another executive call for a military draft , but it was never issued . In response to rumors of one , however , the editors of the New York World and the Journal of Commerce published a false draft proclamation which created an opportunity for the editors and others employed at the publications to corner the gold market . Lincoln 's reaction was to send the strongest of messages to the media about such behavior ; he ordered the military to seize the two papers . The seizure lasted for two days .
Lincoln is largely responsible for the institution of the Thanksgiving holiday in the United States . Before Lincoln 's presidency , Thanksgiving , while a regional holiday in New England since the 17th century , had been proclaimed by the federal government only sporadically and on irregular dates . The last such proclamation had been during James Madison 's presidency 50 years before . In 1863 , Lincoln declared the final Thursday in November of that year to be a day of Thanksgiving . In June 1864 , Lincoln approved the Yosemite Grant enacted by Congress , which provided unprecedented federal protection for the area now known as Yosemite National Park .
= = = Judicial appointments = = =
= = = = Supreme Court appointments = = = =
Noah Haynes Swayne – 1862
Samuel Freeman Miller – 1862
David Davis – 1862
Stephen Johnson Field – 1863
Salmon Portland Chase – 1864 ( Chief Justice )
Lincoln 's declared philosophy on court nominations was that " we cannot ask a man what he will do , and if we should , and he should answer us , we should despise him for it . Therefore we must take a man whose opinions are known . " Lincoln made five appointments to the United States Supreme Court . Noah Haynes Swayne , nominated January 21 , 1862 and appointed January 24 , 1862 , was chosen as an anti @-@ slavery lawyer who was committed to the Union . Samuel Freeman Miller , nominated and appointed on July 16 , 1862 , supported Lincoln in the 1860 election and was an avowed abolitionist . David Davis , Lincoln 's campaign manager in 1860 , nominated December 1 , 1862 and appointed December 8 , 1862 , had also served as a judge in Lincoln 's Illinois court circuit . Stephen Johnson Field , a previous California Supreme Court justice , was nominated March 6 , 1863 and appointed March 10 , 1863 , and provided geographic balance , as well as political balance to the court as a Democrat . Finally , Lincoln 's Treasury Secretary , Salmon P. Chase , was nominated as Chief Justice , and appointed the same day , on December 6 , 1864 . Lincoln believed Chase was an able jurist , would support Reconstruction legislation , and that his appointment united the Republican Party .
= = = = Other judicial appointments = = = =
Lincoln appointed 32 federal judges , including four Associate Justices and one Chief Justice to the Supreme Court of the United States , and 27 judges to the United States district courts . Lincoln appointed no judges to the United States circuit courts during his time in office .
= = = States admitted to the Union = = =
West Virginia , admitted to the Union June 20 , 1863 , contained the former north @-@ westernmost counties of Virginia that seceded from Virginia after that commonwealth declared its secession from the Union . As a condition for its admission , West Virginia 's constitution was required to provide for the gradual abolition of slavery . Nevada , which became the third State in the far @-@ west of the continent , was admitted as a free state on October 31 , 1864 .
= = Assassination and funeral = =
Abraham Lincoln was assassinated by John Wilkes Booth on Good Friday , April 14 , 1865 , while attending a play at Ford 's Theatre as the American Civil War was drawing to a close . The assassination occurred five days after the surrender of Robert E. Lee and the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia . Booth was a well @-@ known actor and a Confederate spy from Maryland ; though he never joined the Confederate army , he had contacts with the Confederate secret service . In 1864 , Booth formulated a plan ( very similar to one of Thomas N. Conrad previously authorized by the Confederacy ) to kidnap Lincoln in exchange for the release of Confederate prisoners . After attending an April 11 , 1865 , speech in which Lincoln promoted voting rights for blacks , an incensed Booth changed his plans and became determined to assassinate the president . Learning that the President and Grant would be attending Ford 's Theatre , Booth formulated a plan with co @-@ conspirators to assassinate Lincoln and Grant at the theater , as well as Vice President Johnson and Secretary of State Seward at their homes . Without his main bodyguard , Ward Hill Lamon , Lincoln left to attend the play Our American Cousin on April 14 . At the last minute , Grant decided to go to New Jersey to visit his children instead of attending the play .
Lincoln 's bodyguard , John Parker , left Ford 's Theater during intermission to drink at the saloon next door . The now unguarded President sat in his state box in the balcony . Seizing the opportunity , Booth crept up from behind and at about 10 : 13 pm , aimed at the back of Lincoln 's head and fired at point @-@ blank range , mortally wounding the President . Major Henry Rathbone momentarily grappled with Booth , but Booth stabbed him and escaped .
After being on the run for 12 days , Booth was tracked down and found on a farm in Virginia , some 70 miles ( 110 km ) south of Washington . After refusing to surrender to Union troops , Booth was killed by Sergeant Boston Corbett on April 26 .
Doctor Charles Leale , an Army surgeon , found the President unresponsive , barely breathing and with no detectable pulse . Having determined that the President had been shot in the head , and not stabbed in the shoulder as originally thought , he made an attempt to clear the blood clot , after which the President began to breathe more naturally . The dying President was taken across the street to Petersen House . After remaining in a coma for nine hours , Lincoln died at 7 : 22 am on April 15 . Secretary of War Stanton saluted and said , " Now he belongs to the ages . "
Lincoln 's flag @-@ enfolded body was then escorted in the rain to the White House by bareheaded Union officers , while the city 's church bells rang . President Johnson was sworn in at 10 : 00 am , less than 3 hours after Lincoln 's death . The late President lay in state in the East Room , and then in the Capitol Rotunda from April 19 through April 21 . For his final journey with his son Willie , both caskets were transported in the executive coach " United States " and for three weeks the Lincoln Special funeral train decorated in black bunting bore Lincoln 's remains on a slow circuitous waypoint journey from Washington D.C. to Springfield , Illinois , stopping at many cities across the North for large @-@ scale memorials attended by hundreds of thousands , as well as many people who gathered in informal trackside tributes with bands , bonfires , and hymn singing or silent reverence with hat in hand as the railway procession slowly passed by . Poet Walt Whitman composed When Lilacs Last in the Dooryard Bloom 'd to eulogize Lincoln , one of four poems he wrote about the assassinated president . Historians have emphasized the widespread shock and sorrow , but also noted that some Lincoln haters cheered when they heard the news . African @-@ Americans were especially moved ; they had lost ' their Moses ' . In a larger sense , the outpouring of grief and anguish was in response to the deaths of so many men in the war that had just ended .
= = Religious and philosophical beliefs = =
As a young man , Lincoln was a religious skeptic , or , in the words of a biographer , an iconoclast . Later in life , Lincoln 's frequent use of religious imagery and language might have reflected his own personal beliefs or might have been a device to appeal to his audiences , who were mostly evangelical Protestants . He never joined a church , although he frequently attended with his wife . However , he was deeply familiar with the Bible , and he both quoted and praised it . He was private about his beliefs and respected the beliefs of others . Lincoln never made a clear profession of Christian beliefs . However he did believe in an all @-@ powerful God that shaped events and , by 1865 , was expressing those beliefs in major speeches .
In the 1840s , Lincoln subscribed to the Doctrine of Necessity , a belief that asserted the human mind was controlled by some higher power . In the 1850s , Lincoln believed in " providence " in a general way , and rarely used the language or imagery of the evangelicals ; he regarded the republicanism of the Founding Fathers with an almost religious reverence . When he suffered the death of his son Edward , Lincoln more frequently expressed a need to depend on God . The death of his son Willie in February 1862 may have caused Lincoln to look toward religion for answers and solace . After Willie 's death , Lincoln considered why , from a divine standpoint , the severity of the war was necessary . He wrote at this time that God " could have either saved or destroyed the Union without a human contest . Yet the contest began . And having begun He could give the final victory to either side any day . Yet the contest proceeds . " On the day Lincoln was assassinated , he reportedly told his wife he desired to visit the Holy Land .
= = Health = =
Several claims abound that Lincoln 's health was declining before the assassination . These are often based on photographs appearing to show weight loss and muscle wasting . One such claim is that he suffered from a rare genetic disorder , MEN2b , which manifests with a medullary thyroid carcinoma , mucosal neuromas and a Marfanoid appearance . Others simply claim he had Marfan syndrome , based on his tall appearance with spindly fingers , and the association of possible aortic regurgitation , which can cause bobbing of the head ( DeMusset 's sign ) — based on blurring of Lincoln 's head in photographs , which back then had a long exposure time . As of 2009 , DNA analysis was being refused by the Grand Army of the Republic museum in Philadelphia .
= = Historical reputation = =
In surveys of U.S. scholars ranking presidents conducted since the 1940s , Lincoln is consistently ranked in the top three , often as number one . A 2004 study found that scholars in the fields of history and politics ranked Lincoln number one , while legal scholars placed him second after Washington . In presidential ranking polls conducted in the United States since 1948 , Lincoln has been rated at the very top in the majority of polls : Schlesinger 1948 , Schlesinger 1962 , 1982 Murray Blessing Survey , Chicago Tribune 1982 poll , Schlesinger 1996 , CSPAN 1996 , Ridings @-@ McIver 1996 , Time 2008 , and CSPAN 2009 . Generally , the top three presidents are rated as 1 . Lincoln ; 2 . George Washington ; and 3 . Franklin D. Roosevelt , although Lincoln and Washington , and Washington and Roosevelt , are occasionally reversed .
President Lincoln 's assassination increased his status to the point of making him a national martyr . Lincoln was viewed by abolitionists as a champion for human liberty . Republicans linked Lincoln 's name to their party . Many , though not all , in the South considered Lincoln as a man of outstanding ability .
Schwartz argues that Lincoln 's reputation grew slowly in the late 19th century until the Progressive Era ( 1900 – 1920s ) when he emerged as one of the most venerated heroes in American history , with even white Southerners in agreement . The high point came in 1922 with the dedication of the Lincoln Memorial on the National Mall in Washington , D.C. In the New Deal era liberals honored Lincoln not so much as the self @-@
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named the NBA Finals MVP , in addition to regular @-@ season MVP . At the Lakers ' championship celebration in Los Angeles , coach Riley brashly declared that Los Angeles would repeat as NBA champions , which no team had done since the 1968 – 69 Boston Celtics . During the 1987 – 88 season , the Lakers took their seventh consecutive Pacific Division title , and met the Detroit Pistons in the 1988 NBA Finals . Los Angeles took the series in seven games , and James Worthy 's game seven triple double earned him a Finals MVP award . In the 1988 – 89 season , Los Angeles won 57 games . They swept the playoffs up till the NBA Finals , and faced the Detroit Pistons again . The Lakers , hampered by injuries to Byron Scott and Johnson , were swept by Detroit .
= = = 1991 – 96 : Post- " Showtime " dry spell = = =
On June 28 , 1989 , after 20 professional seasons , Kareem Abdul @-@ Jabbar announced his retirement . A year later , 1987 Defensive Player of the Year winner Michael Cooper decided to play in Europe and was waived at his request . The Lakers went 63 – 19 in the 1989 – 90 season , but lost 4 – 1 in the second round of the playoffs . Riley left the team after the season citing burnout , and was replaced by Mike Dunleavy . Riley 's departure received a mixed reaction from the players . They respected his contributions , but some , such as Worthy and Scott , had grown tired of his intense practices and felt he tried to take too much credit for the team 's successes .
The team made another Finals appearance in 1991 , but lost in five games to a Chicago Bulls team led by Michael Jordan . On November 7 , 1991 , Magic Johnson announced he had tested positive for HIV and would retire immediately . In their first season without Johnson , the team won 43 games , but became the first eighth seed to win the opening two games on the road against a number one seed when they took a 2 – 0 lead versus Phoenix . They lost the next two games at home however , then game five in Phoenix in overtime . Randy Pfund was let go as head coach in March 1994 and eventually replaced by Johnson , who coached the club with former teammate Michael Cooper as his lead assistant . Johnson decided not to take the job permanently due to what he felt was a lack of commitment from certain players , and Los Angeles ended the season with a 10 @-@ game losing streak to finish 33 – 49 and out of the playoffs .
The next two seasons , Los Angeles made the playoffs , but was eliminated in the second and first rounds respectively . The team was coached by Del Harris and led by young guards Nick Van Exel and Eddie Jones . Johnson came out of retirement in the 1995 – 96 season to lead the then 24 – 18 Lakers to a 29 – 11 finish . After some run @-@ ins with Van Exel , displeasure with Harris 's strategies , and a first round loss to the Rockets , Johnson decided to retire for the final time after the season .
= = = 1996 – 2016 : The Kobe Bryant era = = =
During the 1996 off @-@ season , the Lakers acquired 17 @-@ year @-@ old Kobe Bryant from the Charlotte Hornets for Vlade Divac ; Bryant was drafted 13th overall out of Lower Merion High School in Ardmore , Pennsylvania in that year 's draft , by Charlotte . Los Angeles also signed free @-@ agent Shaquille O 'Neal . Trading for Bryant was West 's idea , and he was influential in the team 's signing of the all @-@ star center . " Jerry West is the reason I came to the Lakers , " O 'Neal later said . They used their 24th pick in the draft to select Derek Fisher . During the season , the team traded Cedric Ceballos to Phoenix for Robert Horry . O 'Neal led the team to a 56 – 26 record , their best effort since 1990 – 91 , despite missing 31 games due to a knee injury . O 'Neal averaged 26 @.@ 2 ppg and 12 @.@ 5 rpg and finished third in the league in blocked shots ( 2 @.@ 88 bpg ) in 51 games . The Lakers defeated the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round of the 1997 NBA Playoffs . O 'Neal scored 46 points in Game 1 against the Trail Blazers , marking the highest single @-@ game playoff scoring output by a Laker since Jerry West scored 53 against the Celtics in 1969 . In the next round , the Lakers lost four games to one to the Utah Jazz .
In the 1997 – 98 season , O 'Neal and the Lakers had the best start in franchise history , 11 – 0 . O 'Neal missed 20 games due to an abdominal injury . Los Angeles battled Seattle for the Pacific Division title most of the season . In the final two months , the Lakers won 22 of their final 25 games , finishing 61 – 21 , and second to Seattle in the standings . The Lakers defeated Portland three games to one in the first @-@ round . The following round , they faced Seattle . Although the Sonics won the first game , the Lakers responded with four straight wins , taking the series , but were swept by the Jazz in the next round .
During the 1998 – 99 season , All @-@ Star guard Eddie Jones and center Elden Campbell were traded to the Charlotte Hornets . The team also acquired J. R. Reid , B. J. Armstrong , and Glen Rice . Harris was fired in February after a three @-@ game losing streak and replaced on an interim basis by former Laker Kurt Rambis . The team finished 31 – 19 in the shortened season , which was fourth in the Western Conference . Los Angeles defeated Houston in the first round of the playoffs , but were swept by San Antonio in the next round with game 4 being the last game ever played at the Great Western Forum .
Before the 1999 – 2000 season , West was prepared to hire Rambis as the team 's full @-@ time coach before an outcry from fans and members of the organization caused him to seek out a bigger name . Los Angeles hired former Chicago Bulls coach Phil Jackson , who had coached that team to six championships , and gave him a lucrative $ 6 million a year contract . He brought along assistant Tex Winter and they installed Winter 's version of the triangle offense . They signed veterans Brian Shaw , John Salley , Ron Harper , and A. C. Green , who was a Laker during the " Showtime " era . The team also moved to a new arena , the Staples Center . After the season , starters Rice and Green left the team , and Los Angeles signed Horace Grant .
Led by league MVP O 'Neal , the Lakers won 31 of their first 36 games . Los Angeles finished 67 – 15 , their highest total since they won 65 in the 1986 – 87 season . They eliminated the Sacramento Kings and Phoenix in the first two rounds of the playoffs . After the Lakers took a three games to one lead in the Western Conference Finals , the Trail Blazers won the next two games to force a game seven . The Lakers were down by 15 points in the fourth quarter but went on a 19 – 4 run to tie the game . They won 89 – 84 to advance to the NBA Finals . They defeated Reggie Miller and the Indiana Pacers 4 – 2 in the 2000 NBA Finals to win their first title since 1988 . West retired from his spot in the team 's front office after the season after a power struggle between him and Jackson over control of the team 's operations .
The following season , Los Angeles won 11 fewer regular season games , but swept the first three rounds of the playoffs , defeating the Portland , Sacramento , and San Antonio . They met Allen Iverson and the Philadelphia 76ers in the 2001 NBA Finals . Although the Sixers took game one in overtime , the Lakers won the next four games to win their second straight title . Their 15 – 1 postseason record is the best in NBA history .
Los Angeles won 58 games in 2001 – 02 . In the playoffs , they swept the Portland Trail Blazers in the first round , and defeated the Spurs 4 – 1 in the second . They faced the rival Kings in the Western Conference Finals . The series has long been cited as one of the greatest playoff matchups in NBA history . The series extended to all seven games , and ended in a Lakers victory . In game 1 , Bryant scored 30 points as the Lakers won , 106 @-@ 99 . The series would then shift in Sacramento 's favor , with the Kings winning the next two games . Facing a 3 @-@ 1 deficit in game 4 , the Lakers had the ball with under 20 seconds to play . After misses by both Bryant and O 'Neal , Kings center Vlade Divac tapped the ball away from the rim in an attempt to wind down the clock . It went straight into Robert Horry 's hands , who drained a game @-@ winning three with under 3 seconds to play . After the Kings won game 5 on a buzzer beater by Mike Bibby , the Lakers were faced with a must @-@ win game 6 . In one of the most controversial playoff games in league history , the Lakers won by 4 points . The Lakers won game 7 in overtime , with the Kings missing numerous potentially game @-@ saving shots and free throws . The Lakers then achieved a three @-@ peat by sweeping Jason Kidd and the New Jersey Nets in the NBA Finals . O 'Neal won each of the Finals series ' MVP awards , making him the only player besides Michael Jordan to win three consecutive Finals MVPs .
The Lakers started the 2002 – 03 season 11 – 19 . They went 39 – 13 the rest of the way to finish 50 – 32 . They defeated the Minnesota Timberwolves in the first round of the 2003 NBA Playoffs , but were eliminated by San Antonio in six games in the second . During the 2003 – 04 season , the team was the subject of intense media coverage generated by the teaming of four stars and the sexual @-@ assault case involving Kobe Bryant . Before the season , Los Angeles signed two @-@ time MVP Karl Malone formerly of the Jazz , and former Seattle Defensive Player of the Year Gary Payton . Three of the " big four " , however , struggled with injuries : O 'Neal suffered from a strained calf , Malone an injured knee , and Bryant an injured shoulder . The Lakers started 18 – 3 and finished 56 – 26 . They won the Pacific Division title , and entered the playoffs as the number two seed . They defeated the Rockets , Spurs , and Timberwolves in the first three rounds of the 2004 NBA Playoffs , before succumbing to Detroit in five games in the 2004 NBA Finals . During the 2004 offseason , the team entered a rebuilding phase when O 'Neal was traded to the Miami Heat for Lamar Odom , Brian Grant , Caron Butler , and a first @-@ round draft pick . Bryant and O 'Neal had clashed in the past , and the media credited their feud as one of the motivating factors for the trade . Jackson did not return as head coach , and wrote a book about the team 's 2003 – 04 season , in which he heavily criticized Bryant and called him " uncoachable " . The Lakers front office said that the book contained " several inaccuracies " .
= = = = 2004 – 07 : Rebuilding = = = =
The Lakers traded Rick Fox and Gary Payton to Boston , for Chris Mihm , Marcus Banks , and Chucky Atkins before the 2004 – 05 season . Derek Fisher , frustrated with losing playing time , opted out of his contract and signed with the Warriors . The team hired Rudy Tomjanovich to replace Jackson . After sitting out the first half of the 2004 – 05 season , Malone announced his retirement on February 13 , 2005 . Tomjanovich coached the team to a 22 – 19 record before resigning due to health problems . Assistant Frank Hamblen was named interim head coach to replace Tomjanovich for the remainder of the season . Bryant ( ankle ) and Odom ( shoulder ) suffered injuries , and the Lakers finished 34 – 48 , missing the playoffs for the fifth time in franchise history .
With the 10th overall pick in the draft , Los Angeles selected Andrew Bynum , a center from St. Joseph High School in Metuchen , New Jersey . The team also traded Caron Butler and Chucky Atkins to the Washington Wizards for Kwame Brown and Laron Profit . Jackson returned to coach the team after Rudy Tomjanovich resigned midway through the previous season . On January 22 , 2006 , Bryant scored 81 points against the Toronto Raptors , the second @-@ highest total in NBA history . Ending the season 45 – 37 , the team made the playoffs after a one season absence . After taking a three games to one lead in the first round , the Suns came back to take the series in seven games . In the following season , they won 26 of their first 39 games , but lost 27 of their last 43 — including seven in a row at one point — to finish 42 – 40 . They were eliminated in the first round by the Suns again , this time 4 – 1 . Frustrated by the team 's inability to advance in the playoffs , Bryant demanded to be traded in the offseason . Buss initially agreed to seek a trade , but also worked to try to change Bryant 's mind .
= = = = 2007 – 11 : Return to championship form = = = =
After re @-@ acquiring Derek Fisher , Los Angeles started the 2007 – 08 season with a 25 – 11 record , before Andrew Bynum , their center who was leading the league in field @-@ goal percentage , went out for the year due to a knee injury in mid @-@ January . They acquired power forward Pau Gasol from the Memphis Grizzlies in a trade in early February and went 22 – 5 to finish the season . The Lakers ' 57 – 25 record earned them the first seed in the Western Conference . Bryant was awarded the league 's MVP award , becoming the first Laker to win the award since O 'Neal in 2000 . In the playoffs , they defeated the Nuggets in four games , the Jazz in six , and the defending champion Spurs in five , but lost to the Celtics in six games in the NBA Finals .
In the 2008 – 09 season , the Lakers finished 65 – 17 ; the best record in the Western Conference . They defeated the Jazz in five games , the Rockets in seven and the Nuggets in six , to win the Western Conference title . They then won their 15th NBA championship by defeating the Orlando Magic in five games in the NBA finals . Bryant was named the NBA Finals MVP for the first time in his career .
The Lakers , who had added Ron Artest ( now Metta World Peace ) in place of Trevor Ariza in their starting lineup , finished the 2009 – 10 season with the best record in the Western Conference for the third straight time . On January 13 , 2010 , the Lakers became the first team in NBA history to win 3 @,@ 000 regular season games by defeating the Dallas Mavericks 100 – 95 . They defeated the Oklahoma City Thunder , the Utah Jazz , and the Phoenix Suns in the Western Conference playoffs . In the finals , the Lakers played the Boston Celtics for the 12th time . They rallied back from a 3 – 2 disadvantage in the series and erased a 13 @-@ point deficit in the fourth quarter of the seventh game to defeat the Celtics . This series win gave them their 16th NBA title overall and 11th since they moved to Los Angeles . Bryant was named Finals MVP for the second year in a row , despite a 6 – 24 shooting performance in game seven .
After much speculation , head coach Phil Jackson returned for the 2010 – 11 season . In the playoffs , the Lakers defeated the New Orleans Hornets in the first round . But their opportunity for a three @-@ peat was denied by the Dallas Mavericks in a four @-@ game sweep of the second round . After the season , it was announced that Jackson will not be returning to coach the Lakers .
= = = = 2011 – 16 : Post @-@ Jackson era = = = =
After Jackson 's retirement , former Cleveland Cavaliers head coach Mike Brown was hired as head coach on May 25 , 2011 . Before the start of the shortened 2011 – 12 season , the Lakers traded Lamar Odom to the Dallas Mavericks after Odom requested to be traded . On the trade deadline long time Laker Derek Fisher along with a first round draft pick were traded to the Houston Rockets for Jordan Hill . With a 41 – 25 regular season record the Lakers entered the playoffs as the third seed , the team defeated the Denver Nuggets in the first round in seven games but were eliminated by the Oklahoma City Thunder in the second round in five games .
On July 4 , 2012 , Steve Nash of the Phoenix Suns agreed to a sign @-@ and @-@ trade deal that would send him to the Lakers in exchange for the Lakers ' 2013 and 2015 first round draft picks , 2013 and 2014 second round draft picks , and $ 3 million . The trade was made official on July 11 , 2012 , the first day the trade moratorium was lifted . On August 10 , 2012 , in a four @-@ team trade the Lakers traded Andrew Bynum and acquired Dwight Howard . On November 9 , 2012 , Mike Brown was relieved of coaching duties after a 1 – 4 start to the 2012 – 13 season . Assistant Coach Bernie Bickerstaff took over as interim head coach , leading the Lakers to a 5 – 5 record . On November 12 , 2012 , the Lakers hired Mike D 'Antoni as head coach . On February 18 , 2013 , Lakers owner Jerry Buss died from cancer at age 80 . On the court , D 'Antoni coached the Lakers to a 40 – 32 record the rest of the way to finish 45 – 37 , their worst record since 2007 . The Lakers clinched a playoff berth on the final game of the season and finished seventh in the Western Conference after beating the Houston Rockets on April 16 , 2013 . The Lakers battled injuries all season , the most prominent of which is the Achilles tendon rupture to Kobe Bryant that ended his season after 78 games . The absence of Bryant was sorely felt as the Lakers were swept by the San Antonio Spurs in the first round of the 2013 NBA Playoffs . Nevertheless , Bryant passed Lakers legend Wilt Chamberlain to become the fourth all @-@ time leading scorer in NBA history on March 30 , 2013 against the Sacramento Kings .
On March 25 , 2014 , the Lakers scored 51 points in the third quarter against the New York Knicks , the most points scored in a quarter in the history of the franchise . The Lakers went on to miss the NBA playoffs for the first time since 2005 , for just the second time in the last two decades and for just the sixth time in franchise history . On April 30 , 2014 , Mike D 'Antoni resigned from his position as head coach after a 27 @-@ 55 season .
After spending the majority of the off @-@ season without a head coach , the Lakers named former player Byron Scott as the new head coach . After the season , he was the frontrunner to become the new Lakers head coach . Scott interviewed three times for the position , which had become vacant after Mike D 'Antoni 's resignation . On July 28 , 2014 , he signed a multi @-@ year contract to coach the Lakers .
During the first game of the 2014 – 15 season , the 7th overall pick in the 2014 NBA draft , Julius Randle went down with a broken leg which ended his rookie season . The Lakers began their season losing 10 of their first 16 games . After playing only 35 games , Kobe Bryant tore a rotator cuff in his shoulder ending his season . Nick Young was also forced to end his season with a fractured kneecap , leaving the team with a record of 14 – 41 . With 27 games left in the regular season , Byron Scott gave rookie Jordan Clarkson more playing time . Clarkson , the 46th overall pick in the 2014 draft , finished his rookie season with game stats of 11 @.@ 9 ppg , 3 @.@ 2 rpg , 3 @.@ 5 apg , and shooting 44 @.@ 8 % from the field . The Lakers ' season ended with a record of 21 – 61 , the 4th worst record in the league and at the time the worst record in franchise history .
The next season , the Lakers had the second overall pick of the 2015 NBA Draft , which they used to select Ohio State freshman point guard D 'Angelo Russell . On November 30 , 2015 , Bryant announced he would retire at the end of the season after 20 seasons with the team . In Bryant 's last season the team missed the playoffs for the third straight year with a 17 – 65 record , the worst in franchise history .
= = = 2016 – present : Luke Walton era = = =
On April 24 , 2016 , the Lakers announced that they will not to exercise their option on Byron Scott contract for the following season . On April 29 , the Lakers announced another former Laker , Luke Walton , as their new head coach . At the time of his hiring , Walton was an assistant coach for the Golden State Warriors , who were in the playoffs , so Walton could not officially begin his duties as head coach until the Warriors playoff run was over .
= = Rivalries = =
= = = Boston Celtics = = =
The rivalry between the Boston Celtics and the Lakers involves the two most storied basketball franchises in National Basketball Association ( NBA ) history . It has been called the best rivalry in the NBA . The two teams have met a record 12 times in the NBA Finals , starting with their first Finals meeting in 1959 . They would go on to dominate the league in the 1960s and the 1980s , facing each other six times in the 60s and three times in the 80s .
The rivalry had been less intense since the retirements of Magic Johnson and Larry Bird in the early 1990s , but in 2008 it was renewed as the Celtics and Lakers met in the Finals for the first time since 1987 , with the Celtics winning the series 4 – 2 . They faced off once again in the 2010 NBA Finals which the Lakers won in 7 games . Since 1960 , the Lakers are 4 @-@ 2 against their fiercest rival in the Finals .
The two teams have won the two highest numbers of championships , the Celtics 17 , the Lakers 16 ; together , the 33 championships account for almost half of the 67 championships in NBA history .
= = = Los Angeles Clippers = = =
The rivalry between the Lakers and the Los Angeles Clippers is unique because they are the only two NBA teams to share an arena , the Staples Center . It is also one of only two intra @-@ city rivalries in the NBA , the other being the new crosstown rivalry between the New York Knicks and Brooklyn Nets .
Los Angeles fans have historically favored the Lakers . Some contend that the term rivalry is inaccurate until the Clippers become more successful . However , with the addition of Chris Paul and Blake Griffin to the Clippers ' roster and their emergence as playoff contenders , the rivalry has started to develop in earnest , with a recent matchup between the teams garnering ESPN its highest ratings ever for a regular season broadcast in Los Angeles .
= = = San Antonio Spurs = = =
The San Antonio Spurs and the Lakers , developed what some would classify as a rivalry in the late 1990s and early 2000s . Since 1999 , the teams have met in the NBA Playoffs five times , with the clubs combining to appear in seven consecutive NBA Finals ( 1999 – 2005 ) . Additionally , the teams combined to win five NBA championships from 1999 – 2003 . The Spurs won the NBA championship in 1999 , 2003 , 2005 , 2007 and 2014 while the Lakers won the championship in 2000 , 2001 , 2002 , 2009 and 2010 . From 1999 to 2004 the clubs ' rivalry was often considered the premier rivalry in the NBA , and each time the clubs faced each other in the playoffs the winner advanced to the NBA Finals . In 2008 the teams met again in the Western Conference Finals where the Spurs were handily defeated only to beat LA when they met again in 2013 ( though against a Lakers team without an injured Kobe Bryant ) .
= = Ownerships , financial history , and fanbase = =
Berger and Chalfen purchased the NBL 's disbanded Detroit Gems for $ 15 @,@ 000 in 1947 , changed their name to the Lakers and relocated them to Minnesota . Max Winter bought a third of the club in their early years , and sold his share to Mikan in 1954 . Berger bought Mikan 's share in 1956 giving him a controlling ( ⅔ ) interest . After Mikan retired , attendance plummeted and the team lost money for several seasons , leading the ownership group to put the team up for sale in 1957 . Marty Marion , a retired baseball player and manager , and his business partner Milton Fischman attempted to purchase the team with the intention of moving the club to Kansas City , Missouri . Mikan offered to mortgage his home in an attempt to buy the team and keep the club in Minnesota . The Lakers were sold to a group of investors led by Bob Short however . The team was sold to Short 's group with the agreement that it would not be relocated to Kansas City but kept in Minnesota . Short 's ownership group consisted of 117 Minnesota businesses and private citizens , who amassed a total of $ 200 @,@ 000 for the purchase ; $ 150 @,@ 000 to buy the team and $ 50 @,@ 000 to run it . By 1958 Short had become 80 % owner of the team by buying out his partners , but the team was floundering . Attendance remained poor , and the NBA had put the Lakers on " financial probation " , notifying them that if they did not meet certain ticket sales numbers they could be bought out by the league and relocated . Short was forced to move the team to Los Angeles in 1960 ; the club had lost $ 60 @,@ 000 in the first half of the 1959 – 60 season alone . The NBA 's owners originally voted 7 – 1 against the move . When Short indicated that he might take the team to new rival league that was developing however , the owners held another vote that same day and allowed the relocation ( 8 – 0 ) . Aided by Baylor 's drawing power , and the new locale , the team 's finances improved when they arrived in LA . Short sold the team to Washington Redskins owner and publisher Jack Kent Cooke in 1965 for a then league record amount of $ 5 @,@ 175 @,@ 000 . Short insisted the deal be conducted in cash as he was wary of Cooke , so guards transported the money in a cart from one New York bank to another .
Cooke was a more hands @-@ on owner than Short , and overhauled the team 's operations . He personally financed construction of the Forum in 1967 at a cost of $ 16 @.@ 5 million . He owned the team until 1979 when he sold it , the NHL 's Los Angeles Kings , the Forum , and some real estate to Jerry Buss for $ 67 million . Cooke was forced to sell the team as he was undergoing a costly divorce . Buss was a local chemical engineer and former University of Southern California professor who had become wealthy in real estate . Philip Anschutz bought a stake in the team in 1998 , and until October 2010 Magic Johnson was a minority owner as well . Buss started the trend of allowing sponsors to add their name to team 's stadiums when he renamed the Forum the Great Western Forum in 1988 . In 2009 major sponsors included Verizon Wireless , Toyota , Anheuser @-@ Busch , American Express , and Carl 's Jr . , and the team 's $ 113 average ticket price was the highest in the league . Fast food chain Jack in the Box is another major sponsor , the company gives all fans in attendance at home games a coupon for two free tacos if the Lakers hold their opponent under 100 points and win . The company also sponsors the team 's halftime shows on KCAL @-@ TV and Fox Sports West . In 2013 , Buss died at the age of 80 after being hospitalized for 18 months with cancer . His controlling ownership of the team passed to his six children via a trust , with each child receiving an equal vote . Buss ' succession plan had daughter Jeanie Buss assume his title as the Lakers ' governor as well as its team representative at NBA Board of Governors meetings .
Given the team 's proximity to Hollywood , the Lakers fanbase includes numerous celebrities , many of whom can be seen at the Staples Center during home games . Jack Nicholson , for example , has held season tickets since the 1970s , and directors reportedly need to work their shooting schedules around Lakers home games . From 2002 and 2007 the team averaged just over 18 @,@ 900 fans , which placed them in the top ten in the NBA in attendance . Red Hot Chili Peppers ' song " Magic Johnson " from their 1989 album Mother 's Milk is a tribute to the former point guard , and frontman Anthony Kiedis and bassist Michael " Flea " Balzary are frequently seen attending home games . The team has sold out every home game since the 2007 – 08 season . As of 2010 , the Lakers have the most popular team merchandise among all NBA teams , and Bryant the most popular jersey .
= = Name , logo and uniforms = =
The Laker nickname came from the state of Minnesota being the Land of 10 @,@ 000 Lakes . The team 's colors are purple , gold and white . The Lakers logo consists of the team name , " Los Angeles Lakers " written in purple on top of a gold basketball . Purple uniforms are used for road games and gold uniforms are used for home games . The team also wears white jerseys for Sunday and holiday home games .
= = Season @-@ by @-@ season records = =
Since the Lakers were established in 1948 , the team has missed the playoffs just five times . The team has 16 NBA titles and has appeared in the NBA Finals 15 other times . These appearances include eight NBA Finals appearances in the 80s . The best record posted by the team was 69 – 13 , in 1972 ; the worst record was 17 – 65 , in 2015 – 16 .
= = Franchise and NBA records = =
Bryant holds most individual team records for longevity including most games played ( 1333 ) , and most minutes logged ( 48 @,@ 298 ) . Johnson holds all significant assist records for the club including career assists ( 10 @,@ 141 ) , assists in a game ( 24 ) , and highest assist average for a season ( 13 @.@ 1 ) . Johnson also has the most triple doubles , with his 138 over 100 more than the next closest player ( Bryant ; 17 ) . Elmore Smith holds team records for blocks in a game ( 17 ) , blocks per game for a season ( 4 @.@ 85 ) , and career blocks per game ( 3 @.@ 93 ) . The scoring records are mostly shared by Elgin Baylor and Bryant , with Baylor having the highest average for a career ( 27 @.@ 4 ) while Bryant has the highest points scored in a single game ( 81 ) . Baylor , Bryant and West hold the top five single season scoring averages , with Bryant occupying the numbers one ( 35 @.@ 4 ) and four ( 31 @.@ 6 ) spots , while Baylor has the second ( 34 @.@ 8 ) , and third ( 34 @.@ 0 ) , and West the fifth ( 31 @.@ 3 ) .
The Lakers hold several NBA records as a team including most consecutive games won overall ( 33 ) and most consecutive road games won ( 16 ) both of which came during the 1971 – 72 season . Highest field @-@ goal percentage for a season at 54 @.@ 5 % ( 1984 – 85 ) , and highest road winning percentage at 0 @.@ 816 ( 1971 – 72 ) . They also hold records for having ( into the 2009 – 10 season ) the most wins ( 3 @,@ 027 ) , the highest winning percentage ( 61 @.@ 9 % ) , and the most NBA Finals appearances ( 31 ) . The 2000 – 01 team tied the NBA record for best playoff record at 15 – 1 . The 1971 – 72 team holds franchise records in wins ( 69 ) , most points scored , and largest margin of victory ; both of the latter came in the team 's 63 point win versus Golden State ( 162 – 99 ) . They also used to hold the record for most wins at home in the regular season ( going 36 @-@ 5 in 1971 @-@ 72 , then 37 @-@ 4 in both 1976 @-@ 77 and 1979 @-@ 1980 ) before the Boston Celtics set the current record of 40 @-@ 1 in the 1985 @-@ 86 season .
= = Home arenas = =
The Lakers play their home games at Staples Center , located at L.A. Live in Downtown Los Angeles . Staples Center opened in fall 1999 , and seats up to 18 @,@ 997 for Lakers games . The Staples Center is also home to the Los Angeles Clippers , the WNBA 's Los Angeles Sparks , and the NHL 's Los Angeles Kings . The arena is owned and operated by AEG and L.A. Arena Company . Before moving to the Staples Center , for 32 seasons ( 1967 – 1999 ) , the Lakers played their home games at The Forum in Inglewood , California , located approximately 10 miles southwest of the team 's current home at Staples Center . During the 1999 NBA preseason , the Lakers played their home games at the Forum before officially moving into Staples Center , and once again hosted a preseason game versus the Golden State Warriors on October 9 , 2009 , this time to commemorate the team 's 50th anniversary season in Los Angeles .
In the first seven years in Los Angeles , the team played their home games at the Los Angeles Memorial Sports Arena , south of Downtown Los Angeles . While the team played in Minneapolis , the team played their home games at the Minneapolis Auditorium , from 1947 to 1960 .
= = Players = =
= = = Current roster = = =
= = = Retained draft rights = = =
The Lakers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA . A drafted player , either an international draftee or a college draftee who isn 't signed by the team that drafted him , is allowed to sign with any non @-@ NBA teams . In this case , the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non @-@ NBA team ends . This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams .
= = = Draft picks = = =
The Lakers have had three first overall picks in their history : Elgin Baylor ( selected in 1958 ) , Magic Johnson ( selected in 1979 ) and James Worthy ( selected in 1982 ) . The Lakers have also had four Lottery picks in their history : Eddie Jones ( selected 10th overall in 1994 ) , Andrew Bynum ( selected 10th overall in 2005 ) , Julius Randle ( selected 7th overall in 2014 ) and D 'Angelo Russell ( selected 2nd overall in 2015 ) . Other draft picks include Jerry West and Gail Goodrich in the 1960s , Michael Cooper and Norm Nixon in the 1970s , A. C. Green and Vlade Divac in the 1980s , Elden Campbell , Nick Van Exel , Derek Fisher , and Devean George in the 1990s , and Luke Walton , Sasha Vujačić , and Ronny Turiaf in the 2000s .
= = Head coaches = =
There have been 22 head coaches for the Lakers franchise . John Kundla coached the team in Minneapolis when they won their first five BAA / NBA championships , from 1949 to 1954 . Pat Riley is second in franchise history in both regular season and playoff games coached and wins . Phil Jackson broke Riley 's regular season wins record in 2009 , and he passed Riley 's playoff wins and games coached records in 2010 . Jackson , Riley , Kundla , and Bill Sharman have all been inducted into the Basketball Hall of Fame for their coaching careers . George Mikan , Jim Pollard , Jerry West , Pat Riley , Magic Johnson , Kurt Rambis and Byron Scott have all played and head coached for the Lakers . Jackson , who had two stints as head coach , was coach from 2005 – 2006 until 2010 – 2011 . Mike Brown was named his replacement for the 2011 – 2012 season in May 2011 . Brown was fired on November 9 , 2012 , after a 1 – 4 start . Assistant coach Bernie Bickerstaff served as interim head coach for five games before the Lakers selected Mike D 'Antoni as their new head coach . D 'Antoni resigned at the end of the 2013 – 2014 season . In July 2014 , Byron Scott was hired as head coach . After the 2015 – 2016 season ended , Scott was fired . On April 29 , 2016 , former Lakers player Luke Walton was named as Scott 's replacement .
= = Hall of Famers , retired and honored numbers = =
The Lakers have 28 Hall of Famers ( 21 players , 4 head coaches , 1 assistant coach , and 2 contributors ) who contributed to the organization .
On April 4 , 2016 , Beaty and O 'Neal were elected into the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame . They will be inducted in September 2016 .
= = = FIBA Hall of Famers = = =
= = = Retired numbers = = =
The Lakers have retired nine jersey numbers and an honorary microphone in honor of their players and broadcaster :
In addition , several other players and coaches who were instrumental to the franchise 's success during its days in Minneapolis were named Honored Minneapolis Lakers , although their numbers are not retired by the franchise :
17 Jim Pollard , F , 1948 – 1955 , head coach , 1960
19 Vern Mikkelsen , F , 1949 – 1959
22 Slater Martin , G , 1949 – 1956
34 Clyde Lovellette , F / C , 1953 – 1957
99 George Mikan , C , 1948 – 1954 ; 1955 – 1956 , head coach , 1957 – 1958
John Kundla , head coach , 1948 – 1957 ; 1958 – 1959
= = Media = =
Chick Hearn was the team 's broadcaster for 41 years until his death in 2002 . He broadcast 3 @,@ 338 consecutive games between November 21 , 1965 , and December 16 , 2001 . Hearn came up with West 's " Mr. Clutch " nickname . He was a part of the team 's " inner sanctum " when Cooke was owner , and was consulted on basketball decisions . Paul Sunderland , who had filled in for a couple of games while Hearn recuperated in 2001 – 02 , was named the permanent play @-@ by @-@ play announcer . Stu Lantz was retained as the color commentator . Sunderland 's contract expired in the summer of 2005 , and the team chose not to renew it . Joel Meyers moved in alongside Lantz as the television announcer , while Spero Dedes and former Laker player Mychal Thompson on the radio .
For the 2011 – 12 NBA season , Bill Macdonald became the new television play @-@ by @-@ play announcer , joining Lantz who remained as the color analyst . Meanwhile , John Ireland joined Mychal Thompson to call the games on radio .
As of the 2009 – 10 season , Lakers radio broadcasts are heard on KSPN ( Los Angeles ESPN Radio affiliate ) in English and KWKW in Spanish . KLAC had the team 's radio broadcast rights from the 1976 – 77 season until the 2008 – 09 season . Until 2011 , telecasts had been split between KCAL @-@ TV ( road games ) and Fox Sports West ( home games ) , unless they are chosen for national broadcasts on ABC . KCAL had been the Lakers ' over @-@ the @-@ air television broadcaster since 1977 , dating back to when the station was the RKO General @-@ owned KHJ @-@ TV , the longest relationship between an NBA team and a television station . Prior to KHJ , Laker games were televised on KTLA . The Lakers had been on Fox Sports West since 1985 , dating to when it was the original Prime Ticket and owned by Buss .
On February 14 , 2011 , Time Warner Cable and the Lakers announced the formation of two new regional sports networks ( one in English , one in Spanish ) that will exclusively televise the team 's games and related programming for 20 years starting with the 2012 – 13 NBA season . The said networks eventually became Time Warner Cable SportsNet and Time Warner Cable Deportes .
= Ålgård Line =
The Ålgård Line ( Norwegian : Ålgårdbanen ) is a closed , but not abandoned , railway line between Ganddal and Ålgård in Rogaland , Norway . The 12 @.@ 24 @-@ kilometer ( 7 @.@ 61 mi ) line was built as a narrow gauge branch line of the Jæren Line by the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) and opened in 1924 . It runs through the villages of Foss @-@ Eikeland and Figgjo in Sandnes to Ålgård in Gjesdal . Several proposals were made for the Ålgård Line to become the first part of the main line from Stavanger to Oslo , but instead the Sørlandet Line was connected to the Jæren Line in 1944 . At the same time , the Ålgård Line was upgraded to standard gauge .
The line had up to ten daily round trips with diesel multiple units , until passenger traffic was terminated in 1955 . Freight traffic remained until 1988 , when most of the line was abandoned in 1988 , although 3 kilometers ( 2 mi ) was used until 2001 . The line is owned by the Norwegian National Rail Administration . The station at Figgjo has been converted to a museum , and the 3 @-@ kilometer ( 2 mi ) section from there to Ålgård is used for recreational draisines . There have been proposals to reopen the line either as part of the Jæren Commuter Rail or the planned light rail for Greater Stavanger .
= = Route = =
The Ålgård Line runs 12 @.@ 24 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 61 mi ) from Ganddal to Ålgård . The whole line was built with NSB 's standard for main lines , with a maximum gradient of 1 @.@ 5 percent and minimum curve radius of 300 meters ( 980 ft ) . It branches off from the Sørlandet Line ( previously the Jæren Line ) north of Ganddal Station , 18 kilometers ( 11 mi ) south of Stavanger . When the line opened , Ganddal Station was located south of the creek Stokkelandselven , but it was moved further north in 1935 to simplify operations . The line continues over Stokkelandsevlen on a 7 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 25 ft ) long bridge , and follows the creek until it reaches Foss @-@ Eikeland , 3 @.@ 43 kilometers ( 2 @.@ 13 mi ) from Ganddal . Foss @-@ Eikeland had a 91 @-@ meter ( 299 ft ) long passing loop and a 40 @-@ metre ( 130 ft ) long platform . The station building was built in wood , had a single story and was 57 square meters ( 610 sq ft ) .
After Foss @-@ Eikeland , the line crosses Figgjo River on a 30 @-@ meter ( 98 ft ) long truss bridge . It passes Bråstein Station and continues up the steepest gradient at 1 @.@ 5 percent to Figgjo Station . It had a 69 @-@ meter ( 226 ft ) passing loop and a 50 @-@ meter ( 160 ft ) long platform , and a 97 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 1 @,@ 040 sq ft ) single @-@ story station building in wood . Ålgård Station was the largest on the line , with two tracks and a 120 @-@ meter ( 390 ft ) long platform , a 12 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 40 ft ) long turntable and a 66 @-@ square @-@ meter ( 710 sq ft ) depot . The station was built in wood in two stories , and included living quarters for the station master .
The line is , along with the Namsos Line , the only railway line in Norway to holistically employ Neoclassical architecture . All the original stations were designed by R. Werenskiold , who used a simplistic , wooden interpretation of the 1920s Neoclassicism . The station buildings at Figgjo and Ålgård have been preserved by the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage . The line eventually received additional stops , and in 1955 , there were stations at Holane , Vagle , Foss @-@ Eikeland , Kalberg , Bråstein , Figgjo Fajanse , Figgjo , Figgjo fabrikker and Ålgård . Some trains operated to Sandnes Station , whilst others continued all the way to Stavanger Station .
As of 1994 , the line was intact and operational from Ganddal to Foss @-@ Eigeland and the cement factory there . Here , an internal crane track has been welded across the line . From Foss @-@ Eigeland to Figgjo , the track is intact . At Figgjo , a bridge has been demolished , and it is not possible to traverse that section . Except for a number of level crossings where the tracks have been asphalted over , the line remains intact to Ålgård . At Ålgård Station the tracks have been removed , but the station building and depot remains . The station at Foss @-@ Eigeland has been converted to a church , while the station at Figgjo had been taken over by a wholesaler . The line has officially been closed , but has not been abandoned . The Norwegian National Rail Administration retains ownership and can in the future renovate the line for operation .
= = History = =
The first plans to build a railway line along the route of the Ålgård Line was as part of the main route between Stavanger and Oslo . In 1873 , County Engineer Th . Sejersted proposed a line running through Høgsfjord , Dirdal , Hunnedalen , Sirdal and Hylestad and onwards through Telemark to Kongsberg . Through Rogaland , it would run further east than the Jæren Line , which was under construction from Stavanger to Egersund . When the plans for a Sørlandet Line — which would connect Stavanger to Oslo via Kristiansand — started to be developed in 1892 , some of Sjersted 's plans were reconsidered .
On 27 September 1894 , a committee was established to plan a branch from the Jæren Line to Ålgård . The following year , the committee recommended that a line be built branching from Orstad in Klepp , which would cost 348 @,@ 000 Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . Gjesdal Municipality offered NOK 60 @,@ 000 of the capital , on the condition that NSB would build and operate it . The state , on the other hand , wanted the line to be private . Private railways were often largely or entirely owned by municipalities , counties and the state , but would operate independent of NSB and the municipalities would carry the risk for operating deficits .
A new committee was established in 1910 , led by Mayor Sven Nilssen of Gjesdal , who was also director at Ålgårds Ullvarefabrikker . His company paid for traffic counting along the route , and the committee concluded that there was sufficient traffic to build a line . Two routes were proposed : one branching from Sandnes Station and one from Ganddal Station . The Ganddal alternative had lower investment costs , but would give higher operating costs ; in 1913 , investments were stipulated at NOK 787 @,@ 800 . Although NSB 's board supported the line , construction was placed on hold .
In 1919 , local politicians proposed that the line be built administratively as part of the Jæren Line , but this was rejected by the government . Instead , the ministry wanted to again consider the Ålgård Line as part of the Sørlandet Line , and proposed that the Ålgård Line be built with standard gauge — which would be used for the Sørlandet Line — instead of the narrow gauge used by the
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messages and promises they received would give them greater success than they had . The only lesson learnt was for them to be more cautious . The Ottomans , occupied in Hungary , Croatia and the coast , were willing to somewhat leave them alone for the moment being . At this time , none of the prominent leaders in the Ottoman Serb regions were hurt .
= = Aftermath and legacy = =
After the failure of the uprising , many Herzegovinians moved to the Bay of Kotor and Dalmatia . The earliest more significant Serb migrations took place between 1597 and 1600 . Grdan and Patriarch Jovan would continue to plan revolts against the Ottomans in the coming years . Jovan contacted the pope again in 1599 , without success . The Orthodox Christians in the Balkans sought the right moment to revolt against the Ottomans , and Serbian , Greek , Bulgarian and Albanian monks visited European courts for help . In 1607 , Patriarch Jovan Kantul negotiated with Emanuel I to be sent a force for the liberation of the Balkans , in exchange for " the Crown of Macedonia " . Jovan assured him that an army of 20 @,@ 000 , 25 guns and weapons for 25 @,@ 000 more to be distributed in the Balkans would overwhelm the Ottoman sultan . After years of planning , nothing concrete resulted in it , because such an operation " required Spanish naval and logistical support " . The 1596 – 97 uprising would stand as a model for multiple anti @-@ Ottoman uprisings in Bosnia and Herzegovina in the coming centuries .
= = Annotations = =
= Lemington Power Station =
Lemington Power Station is a small , now defunct coal @-@ fired power station , located in North East England . It is situated on the Lemington Gut , a backwater of the River Tyne , at Lemington , 3 @.@ 5 mi ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) west of Newcastle upon Tyne . The station 's main building still stands today and is a rare example of an early power station , dating from before the nationalisation of the United Kingdom 's electrical supply industry .
The station was opened in 1903 with a total generating capacity of 970 kilowatts , the electricity generated being used to power a tram system , and provide local households and streets with electric lighting . The station ceased generating electricity in 1919 , however the structure was retained for use as a sub @-@ station until 1946 when the tram line closed . The station was partially demolished in 1949 , but has since been made a locally listed building and is now owned by construction company Nortland Construction . In March 2012 Norland applied to Newcastle City Council for permission to demolish the building on the grounds of it being at risk of collapse .
= = Background = =
In the early 1900s , an increasing number of areas were being provided with electricity , and train and tram lines were being electrified . In the area around Newcastle upon Tyne , this required the opening of power stations at Wallsend , Forth Banks and The Close . Two supply companies built the stations , the Newcastle @-@ upon @-@ Tyne Electric Supply Company ( NESCo ) to the east of Newcastle , and the Newcastle and District Electric Lighting Company ( DisCo ) to the west .
DisCo built a station at Lemington , in the western outskirts of the city , to provide electricity for a tram line which ran through their supply area , from the City Centre to Throckley . The station was sited amid the derelict buildings of the Tyne Iron Company 's ironworks . They had opened in 1797 and closed in 1886 . The works were largely demolished , but some of the ironworks ' buildings and chimneys still stood unused , and the power station was built amongst them . DisCo opened Lemington Power Station in 1903 .
= = Design and specification = =
The station consists of a parallel boiler house and turbine hall , which creates a large double @-@ gabled building . It is of steel frame construction with brick cladding . Other features include round @-@ headed openings and ridge ventilators . This building originally housed the station 's boilers and turbo generators . Constructed alongside the station was a brick built chimney , to remove gasses from the boilers . The station was first brick built power station in North East England , with corrugated iron being the usual material used prior to this .
The station 's boiler house housed three coal @-@ fired Lancashire boilers , each of 200 HP capacity and each with individual economisers . These boilers provided steam for two 410 kilowatt ( kW ) and one 150 kW direct current Parsons turbo generators . This gave the station a total generating capacity of 970 kW . Before being used in the Lemington power station , these generators had been used in Forth Banks Power Station and in Newburn Steelworks . One of the steam turbines from these sets is now on display at the Electric Power and Historical Museum in Yokohama , Japan , after sitting on display in the entrance to Blyth Power Station for many years .
= = Operations = =
The power station was well situated for coal deliveries as it was only 200 yd ( 180 m ) from Lemington Staithes . The staithes marked the end of the Wylam Waggonway , which brought coal from a number of nearby collieries to the staithes for export . Coal was hauled from the staithes to the power station , before being dumped directly into overhead hoppers in the boiler house . From there it was burned in the boilers to provide steam for the turbo generators . This steam was then cooled after use , using condensers , the water for which was taken from the Lemington Gut . This was a backwater of the River Tyne , created when a new channel was cut in 1876 .
As well as providing power for the tram system , the station was a source of electricity for local homes . The building of a power station brought major environmental improvements to what was a highly polluted area , because electricity represented a much cleaner source of household energy than coal , which was used at the time . Local households gradually switched to the new power source . A partner in the enterprise of the Lemington power station was Sir Matthew White Ridley , who had considerable interests in coal and banking .
= = Closure and present = =
Production of electricity in the station ceased in 1919 , ushered in by the completion of an extension to generating equipment at Newburn Steelworks . The building was retained and continued to be used to supply power to the tram route by housing a sub @-@ station , which used rotary converters . The station also provided a service for local residents who wanted their wireless accumulators recharged . The station continued to operate in this way until 1946 , when the tram route was closed . The station 's chimney was demolished in 1949 , along with remaining structures of the Tyne Iron Works , which had stood next to the power station throughout its operation .
The main turbine and boiler building is now a locally listed building , standing today as a monument to the important role that Tyne and Wear played in the development of electrical supply . The building had been considered for the more protected Listed Building status , but the decision was taken in May 2004 not to promote it . Other early power stations in the area ( such as those at Dunston and Wallsend ) have all been entirely demolished . The Lemington station is partly still standing due to riverside sites becoming less important to industrial development , leading to the site never being redeveloped .
The large remaining building currently stands in amongst a small industrial estate at the foot of the nearby Lemington Glass Cone . Along with the neighbouring Ironworks site , it is owned by Norland Construction , a crane and plant company formerly known as Reeds Cranes and Plant , the building used as storage for their machinery . The site is thought to be contaminated with coal products , fuels and oils such as PCBs , as well as dioxins and furans . In 2003 , Newcastle City Council released plans that they hoped to redevelop the site for heritage tourism in the future .
= Tropical Storm Helene ( 2000 ) =
Tropical Storm Helene was a long @-@ lived tropical cyclone that oscillated for ten days between a tropical wave and a 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) tropical storm . It was the twelfth tropical cyclone and eighth tropical storm of the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season , forming on September 15 east of the Windward Islands . After degenerating into a tropical wave , the system produced flooding and mudslides in Puerto Rico . It reformed into a tropical depression on September 19 south of Cuba , and crossed the western portion of the island the next day while on the verge of dissipation . However , it intensified into a tropical storm in the Gulf of Mexico , reaching its peak intensity while approaching the northern Gulf Coast .
The storm rapidly weakened before moving ashore near Fort Walton Beach , Florida on September 22 . It produced heavy rainfall along the Florida Panhandle that reached 9 @.@ 56 in ( 243 mm ) . The rains flooded hundreds of houses and caused the Sopchoppy River to reach a record crest . Gusty winds left about 5 @,@ 000 people without power , though the rains alleviated drought conditions . In South Carolina , Helene spawned a tornado that killed one person and injured six others ; heavy rainfall in the state also led to a death when a driver hydroplaned into a tree . The rainfall extended northeastward into Delaware . Overall damage in the United States was estimated at $ 16 million . Helene emerged from North Carolina as a tropical storm , and re @-@ intensified to near @-@ hurricane strength before being absorbed by a cold front on September 25 .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave moved off the African coast on September 10 . Shortly thereafter , it lost most of its atmospheric convection and initially showed few signs of development as it moved westward . On September 14 , convection reformed near the center of the system . It continued to organize , and the next day the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified it as Tropical Depression Twelve . At this point , it was located 470 mi ( 765 km ) east of the Leeward Islands . At this point , the depression had a weak circulation and ragged convection . An anticyclone to its north caused the depression to move generally to the west , and upper @-@ level conditions were forecast to be favorable for intensification . However , the circulation moved away from the main area of convection before a Hurricane Hunters flight indicated that the depression degenerated into a tropical wave on September 16 . Although there was not a closed circulation , the flight observed flight @-@ level winds of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) to the north and east of the system .
The remnants of the depression continued westward , moving through the Lesser Antilles on September 17 . Despite favorable conditions for redevelopment including low wind shear and warm ocean temperatures , the system remained a tropical wave as it moved across the Caribbean Sea . Late on September 19 , another reconnaissance plane discovered a closed circulation to the northwest of Grand Cayman . Although there was minimal convection near the center , it organized enough to be re @-@ classified as a tropical depression . Upon redeveloping , the depression was moved west @-@ northwestward around a large anticyclone to the east of Florida . Its circulation was broad , though the NHC anticipated further strengthening . Conditions remained favorable for intensification , but instead the depression weakened as it approached Cuba . Around 1200 UTC on September 20 , it moved across the western tip of Cuba into the Gulf of Mexico with minimal thunderstorms near the center . A few hours later , the NHC noted that " the cyclone [ was ] on the verge of breaking open into an east @-@ west oriented trough " . The agency did not discontinue advisories due to an increase in convection near the center , although no intensification was expected . However , the system 's circulation and convection became better organized , and early on September 21 the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Helene .
Upon becoming a tropical storm , Helene gradually turned to the north while rounding an anticyclone to its east . It rapidly intensified after its upgrade , and reached its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) late on September 21 . The storm was small with an asymmetric wind field , and wind shear displaced the circulation from the deep convection . Increasing wind shear prevented Helene from attaining hurricane status , and the storm began weakening on September 22 as it approached the northern Gulf Coast . By 0900 UTC that day , strong wind shear moved the convection away from the center and toward the north and northeast . This prompted NHC forecaster Lixion Avila to remark , " If I did not have a reconnaissance plane in the area , I would not know there was a tropical cyclone by just observing IR satellite imagery . " The storm made landfall near Fort Walton Beach , Florida at 1200 UTC on September 22 after weakening from its peak intensity to winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) .
After moving ashore , an area of convection redeveloped over Helene 's center and the circulation became well @-@ defined on radar imagery . The storm accelerated to the northeast into the Westerlies , and about six hours following its landfall , Helene weakened to tropical depression status after crossing into southeastern Alabama . A few hours later , the NHC issued the last advisory on the system and transferred warnings to the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center . Hurricane forecast models anticipated restrengthening , and due to the forecast track north of the Gulf Stream , the NHC predicted intensification as an extratropical cyclone . The agency noted that Tropical Storm Danny re @-@ intensified in the same region as a tropical cyclone . Despite strong wind shear , convection increased over Helene 's center as the storm moved through North Carolina . Stations along the Outer Banks reported sustained winds up to 59 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Satellite imagery and buoy data indicated that Helene re @-@ intensified into a tropical storm inland over North Carolina . The storm emerged from the Virginia coast into an area of less wind shear , where conditions were thus more favorable for strengthening . The storm became compact over the northern Atlantic Ocean , with a diameter of 140 mi ( 230 km ) . Strong convection developed over the center on September 24 , and the following day Helene re @-@ attained its peak intensity of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while southeast of Nova Scotia . The wind estimate was based on observations from the Neptune Olivine , a nearby ship that recorded 64 mph ( 103 km / h ) winds and a barometric pressure of 988 mbar ( 29 @.@ 2 inHg ) ; because the ship was located to the south of the center , the storm 's minimum pressure was estimated at 986 mbar ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . Helene continued moving rapidly to the east @-@ northeast , and late on September 25 dissipated as it was absorbed by a cold front .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Caribbean = = =
When Tropical Depression Twelve first formed , several governments across the Lesser Antilles issued a tropical storm watch , including the SSS islands , Antigua and Barbuda , Anguilla , Montserrat , and Saint Kitts and Nevis . The watch was discontinued after the depression degenerated into a tropical wave . As a tropical wave , Helene moved through the Lesser Antilles with strong winds ; gusts on Guadeloupe reached 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . The system also produced heavy rainfall , reaching 3 @.@ 14 in ( 80 mm ) on Antigua . The wave passed to the south of Puerto Rico on September 17 and 18 . Across the southern and eastern portion of the island , the system produced 6 to 12 in ( 150 to 300 mm ) of rainfall , which resulted in flash flooding and mudslides . One house was destroyed and more than 100 houses were affected in Ponce , forcing several families to evacuate . The flooding also destroyed a bridge in Guayama and made many roads impassable . Damage on the island was estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2000 USD ) . After the system redeveloped into a tropical depression , the government of Cuba issued a tropical storm warning for the provinces of Isla de la Juventud , Havana , and Pinar del Río , as well as for the city of Havana .
= = = United States = = =
About 21 hours before Helene made landfall , the NHC issued a tropical storm warning from the border of Louisiana and Mississippi to the mouth of the Aucilla River along the Florida Panhandle . Six hours later , the agency also issued a hurricane watch from the border of Florida and Alabama to the mouth of the Aucilla River . The day before the storm moved ashore , local American Red Cross chapters had 18 emergency shelters on standby to house storm evacuees . One shelter opened in Tallahassee and one in Apalachicola . About 130 people evacuated to shelters in the western portion of the Florida panhandle and planes evacuated military bases in the region . Government buildings were closed in Okaloosa , and schools were closed in Okaloosa , Walton , and Santa Rosa counties .
Despite being a weak tropical cyclone at landfall , Tropical Storm Helene caused $ 16 million in damage ( 2000 USD ) . In Alabama , wind gusts reached 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) at Brookley Air Force Base in Mobile ; the same station recorded the highest rainfall in the state , with a total of 1 @.@ 08 in ( 27 mm ) . The storm also caused minor beach erosion and coastal damage along Dauphin Island .
In neighboring Florida , the storm dropped heavy rainfall along the panhandle , peaking at 9 @.@ 56 in ( 243 mm ) in Apalachicola . The rains caused flooding , notably in Franklin , Wakulla , and Leon counties , all of which closed schools and public buildings . Flood warnings were issued for areas affected by Tropical Storm Gordon five days prior . High rainfall caused the Sopchoppy River to exceed its banks and reach a record crest of 34 @.@ 9 ft ( 10 @.@ 6 m ) , breaking the previous record set in 1970 . Several homes and nearby roads were flooded near the river . About 100 homes were flooded in Leon County , and 70 streets were flooded in Tallahassee . Portions of U.S. Highway 98 were flooded in Port St. Joe and near Carrabelle . About 70 people had to evacuate their homes due to the flooding . Flooding was minimal in the western Florida panhandle due to drought conditions the previous summer . Sustained winds across the state peaked at 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , though gusts reached 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) at Cape San Blas . At that location , there was over $ 100 @,@ 000 in road damage and beach loss . The winds combined with the heavy rainfall caused trees to fall onto power lines , leaving about 5 @,@ 000 people without electricity . The storm spawned 6 tornadoes along the panhandle , one of which destroyed several mobile homes in Wakulla . As the storm moved ashore , tides were less than 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) above normal , but were high enough to cause minor beach erosion . In Leon County , the storm destroyed two homes and six mobile homes , and damaged more than 120 homes in Wakulla County .
When Helene moved through Georgia , it had sustained winds of around 30 mph ( 48 km / h ) , with higher gusts . It dropped heavy rainfall along its path , with a statewide peak of 5 @.@ 13 in ( 130 mm ) in Dunwoody . The rainfall alleviated persistent drought conditions across the state . However , the combination of winds and rainfall downed trees and power lines ; one falling tree damaged a car in Sandersville . To the northwest of Georgia , rainfall spread into Tennessee , reaching 3 @.@ 12 in ( 79 mm ) in Copperhill . As Helene moved through South Carolina , it spawned an F2 tornado in Martin that killed one person , injured six , and damaged 12 houses . The highest rainfall in the United States associated with Helene was a total of 9 @.@ 60 in ( 244 mm ) in Bamberg , though weather radar images estimated totals of up to 14 in ( 360 mm ) . The rains caused flooding along Highway 47 near Elgin . In Berkeley County , a woman died after hydroplaning and driving her car into a tree .
Rainfall in North Carolina peaked at 8 @.@ 31 in ( 211 mm ) in Longwood ; in Jacksonville , the precipitation caused street flooding . Off the shore of North Carolina , a station at Diamond Shoal Light reported wind gusts of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) while Helene was re @-@ intensifying into a tropical storm . Along the coast , the highest gusts were 52 mph ( 84 km / h ) , reported at both Cape Lookout and Duck . Rainfall from the storm extended through Virginia and into Delaware .
= = = Canada = = =
After re @-@ intensifying into a tropical storm for a second time , Helene passed to the southeast of Atlantic Canada . Although its strongest winds remained offshore , the outer rainbands dropped light precipitation , peaking at 0 @.@ 89 in ( 22 @.@ 5 mm ) in eastern Nova Scotia , and 1 @.@ 18 in ( 30 mm ) in southeastern Newfoundland .
= = Aftermath = =
On October 3 , United States President Bill Clinton declared nine Florida counties as disaster areas , which allocated federal funding for debris removal , emergency services , and restoration of damaged public facilities . In Franklin County , many residents had to boil water before consumption due to contaminated water wells . As a result , the local Red Cross chapter provided water bottles to the affected residents . The Red Cross also deployed two Mobile Feeding Vehicles to Wakulla County , and a total of 700 meals were ultimately distributed .
= Mary Wayte =
Mary Wayte Bradburne ( born March 25 , 1965 ) , née Mary Alice Wayte , is an American former competition swimmer , two @-@ time Olympic gold medalist , and television sports commentator . During her international swimming career , Wayte won eight medals in major international championships , including four golds .
= = Early years = =
Wayte was born and raised on Mercer Island , Washington , where she swam for the Chinook Aquatic Club . As a 16 @-@ year @-@ old high school sophomore , Wayte won three gold medals in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle , the 200 @-@ meter backstroke and the 800 @-@ meter freestyle relay at the 1981 National Sport Festival . She won eight Washington state high school swimming titles in five different events while attending Mercer Island High School .
= = College swimming career = =
Wayte accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , where she swam for coach Randy Reese 's Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) competition from 1983 to 1987 . As a Gator swimmer , she won two individual NCAA national titles in the 100 @-@ yard freestyle and the 400 @-@ yard individual medley in 1985 . With Gator teammates Laureeen Welting , Kathy Treible , Tracy Caulkins , Dara Torres and Paige Zemina , she was a member of the Gators ' NCAA championship relay teams in the 400 @-@ yard and 800 @-@ yard freestyle relays for three consecutive years ( 1984 , 1985 , 1986 ) , anchoring five of the six relays . In total , she won eight NCAA championships in those three years . She also won eleven individual Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) championships and was a member of ten SEC championship relay teams . Wayte was the SEC Swimmer of the Year in 1985 , and received a total of twenty @-@ six All @-@ American honors in her four years as a collegiate swimmer .
= = International swimming career = =
From 1981 to 1988 , Wayte was a member of the U.S. national swim team , competing in major international championships in Japan ( 1981 , 1985 ) , France ( 1982 ) , the Netherlands ( 1982 ) , Venezuela ( 1983 ) , Monaco ( 1985 ) , Spain ( 1986 ) and South Korea ( 1988 ) . At the 1983 Pan American Games in Caracas , Venezuela , she won a gold medal as a member of the winning U.S. 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay team , and the silver medal in the 200 @-@ meter freestyle event .
At the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , Wayte won her first Olympic gold medal in the women 's 200 @-@ meter freestyle event by defeating her American rival and former world record @-@ holder Cynthia Woodhead . Her winning 200 @-@ meter time of 1 : 59 @.@ 23 was her career best to date , overcoming Woodhead 's early lead in the final 50 meters . She earned her second Olympic gold medal by swimming in the preliminary heat for the winning U.S. women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay team .
Four years later , when Seoul , South Korea hosted the 1988 Summer Olympics , she swam the freestyle leg for the silver medal @-@ winning U.S. team in the women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay with teammates Beth Barr ( backstroke ) , Tracey McFarlane ( breaststroke ) , and Janel Jorgensen ( butterfly ) . The U.S. women 's medley relay team was fraught with last @-@ minute drama , as several previously selected swimmers dropped out to focus on individual events , or were replaced because they had performed below expectations , only hours before the event final . In the event final , the U.S. medley relay team included women with no history of competing together , no relay exchange practice , and no coach ; the East German favorites taunted the Americans before the race . Wayte would later characterize the race as one of her proudest moments . She also captured a bronze medal with the third @-@ place U.S. women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay team that included Mitzi Kremer , Dara Torres and Laura Walker . Individually , she finished fourth in the women 's 200 @-@ meter freestyle ; she was also a medal contender in the women 's 200 @-@ meter individual medley , but was disqualified when the judges ruled she used an illegal butterfly kick on the breaststroke leg of the medley .
= = Life after swimming = =
Wayte graduated from the University of Florida with a bachelor 's degree in telecommunications in 1989 . She retired from competition swimming following the 1988 Olympics , and worked as a fund @-@ raiser for the International Swimming Hall of Fame . She became a celebrity promoter and endorsed products and services on behalf of Alamo Rent a Car , the National Spa and Pool Institute , and Speedo . She later worked as a television broadcaster for the Sports Channel network , covering NCAA and international swimming competitions and interviewing fans at NBA games . For the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona , Spain , Wayte worked as NBC 's women 's swimming color commentator , and later covered the NCAA women 's swimming championships for ESPN . She also served on the U.S. Olympic Committee 's athletes advisory council .
Wayte was inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as a " Gator Great " in 1998 , the International Swimming Hall of Fame in 2000 , and the Pacific Northwest Swimming Hall of Fame in 2004 . The community swimming pool where she formerly trained in Mercer Island , Washington was renamed " Mary Wayte Pool . "
Wayte married business executive Jim Bradburne in 1995 , and they have two daughters . She currently lives in Seattle , Washington , and works in corporate communications for Cisco Systems . Wayte participates in Swim Across America , a charitable organization that enlists former Olympic swimmers to raise funds for cancer research .
= Nickel ( United States coin ) =
A nickel , in American usage , is a five @-@ cent coin struck by the United States Mint . Composed of 75 % copper and 25 % nickel , the piece has been issued since 1866 . Its diameter is .835 inches ( 21.21mm ) and its thickness is .077 inches ( 1 @.@ 95 mm ) .
The silver half dime , equal to five cents , had been issued since the 1790s . The American Civil War caused economic hardship , driving gold and silver from circulation ; in response , in place of low @-@ value coins , the government at first issued paper currency . In 1865 , Congress abolished the five @-@ cent fractional currency note after Spencer M. Clark , head of the Currency Bureau ( today the Bureau of Engraving and Printing ) , placed his own portrait on the denomination . After successful introduction of two @-@ cent and three @-@ cent pieces without precious metal , Congress also authorized a five @-@ cent piece consisting of base metal ; the Mint began striking this version in 1866 .
The initial design of the Shield nickel was struck from 1866 until 1883 , then was replaced by the Liberty Head nickel . The Buffalo nickel was introduced in 1913 as part of a drive to increase the beauty of American coinage ; in 1938 , the Jefferson nickel followed . In 2004 and 2005 , special designs in honor of the bicentennial of the Lewis and Clark Expedition were issued . In 2006 , the Mint reverted to using Jefferson nickel designer Felix Schlag 's original reverse ( or " tails " side ) , although a new obverse , by Jamie Franki , was substituted . As of the end of FY 2013 , it cost more than nine cents to produce a nickel ; the Mint is exploring the possibility of reducing cost by using less expensive metals .
= = Background = =
The silver half disme ( as the half dime , pronounced the same , was first called ) was one of the denominations prescribed by the Mint Act of 1792 , its weight and fineness were set by law . The first pieces under federal authority were half dismes , struck in 1792 in the cellar of John Harper , a saw maker ; as the first federal mint was still under construction in Philadelphia , this took place locally at Sixth and Cherry Streets . The dies were engraved by Adam Eckfeldt , who a half @-@ century later recalled the silver for the half dimes was supplied by President George Washington , and that the 1 @,@ 500 coins struck from the bullion were given to Washington 's Secretary of State , Thomas Jefferson , for distribution to important people , both in the US and overseas . By legend , President Washington supplied silverware from his home , Mount Vernon , to provide bullion for the coins . In his annual message to Congress in late 1792 , Washington noted the ongoing construction of a mint building and stated : " There has also been a small beginning in the coinage of half dimes , the want of small coins in circulation calling the first attention to them . "
In 1793 , the newly established Philadelphia Mint began striking cents and half cents . Coinage of precious metal was delayed ; Congress required the assayer and chief coiner to each post a security bond of $ 10 @,@ 000 , a huge sum in 1793 . In 1794 , Congress lowered the chief coiner 's bond to $ 5 @,@ 000 , and the assayer 's to $ 1 @,@ 000 ; President Washington 's appointees to those positions were thus able to qualify and take office . Subsequently , silver coinage began that year .
The half dime was struck to various designs by Mint Engraver Robert Scot from 1794 until 1805 , though none were dated 1798 , 1799 , or 1804 . By 1804 , silver US coins were heavily exported , as they could be exchanged at par in the West Indies with heavier Spanish coins , which were then imported as bullion and deposited at the Mint for melting and restriking . In response , in 1804 the US stopped striking silver dollars ; issuance of the half dime was discontinued from 1805 until 1829 . In 1807 , mint Director Robert Patterson in a letter explained to Jefferson ( by then president ) " nearly the whole of our Silver Bullion ( chiefly Spanish dollars ) come through the Banks , and it is very seldom that they will consent to take any coin less than half dollars . "
Beginning in 1829 , the silver five @-@ cent piece was again struck ; beginning in 1837 , its fineness was increased from .8924 to .900 . Also in 1837 , the half dime 's obverse design changed from one by William Kneass , depicting a bust of Liberty , to one that featured a seated Liberty by Christian Gobrecht ; until its abolition in 1873 , the half dime would bear modifications of this design . In 1851 , it ceased to be the smallest US silver coin as a three cent piece was issued by the Mint .
= = Inception = =
The Civil War caused most American coins to vanish from circulation , with the gap filled by such means as merchant tokens , encased postage stamps , and United States fractional currency , issued in denominations as low as three cents . Although specie ( gold or silver coins ) was hoarded or exported , the copper @-@ nickel cent , then the only base metal denomination being struck , also vanished . In 1864 , Congress began the process of restoring coins to circulation by abolishing the three @-@ cent note and authorizing bronze cents and two @-@ cent pieces , with low intrinsic values , to be struck . These new coins initially proved popular , though the two @-@ cent piece soon faded from circulation . On March 3 , 1865 , Congress passed legislation authorizing the Mint to strike three @-@ cent pieces of 75 % copper and 25 % nickel .
In 1864 , Congress authorized a third series of fractional currency notes . The five @-@ cent note was to bear a depiction of " Clark " , but Congress was appalled when the issue came out not with a portrait of William Clark , the explorer , but Spencer M. Clark , head of the Currency Bureau . According to numismatic historian Walter Breen , Congress 's " immediate infuriated response was to pass a law retiring the five @-@ cent denomination , and another to forbid portrayal of any living person on federal coins or currency . " Clark kept his job only because of the personal intervention of Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase .
Mint Director James Pollock had been opposed to striking coins containing nickel , but in view of the initial success of the copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent piece , he became an advocate of striking five @-@ cent pieces in the same metals . In his 1865 report , Pollock wrote , " From this nickel alloy , a coin for the denomination of five cents , and which would be a popular substitute for the five cent note , could easily be made ... [ The five @-@ cent coin should be struck in base metal ] only until the resumption of specie payments ... in time of peace ... coins of inferior alloy should not be permitted to take the place permanently of silver in the coinage of pieces above the denomination of three cents . "
Industrialist Joseph Wharton had a near @-@ monopoly on the mining of nickel in the United States , and sought to promote its use in coinage . He was also highly influential in Congress . His friends there , though they had failed to obtain the metal 's use for the two @-@ cent piece , had been more successful with the base @-@ metal three @-@ cent coin . Pollock prepared a bill authorizing a five @-@ cent coin of the same alloy as the three @-@ cent piece , with a total weight not to exceed 60 grains ( 3 @.@ 9 g ) . At the committee stage in the House of Representatives , the weight was amended to 77 @.@ 19 grains ( 5 @.@ 00 g ) , ostensibly to make the weight equal to five grams in the metric system but more likely so that Wharton could sell more nickel . This made the new coin heavy , in terms of weight per $ .01 of face value , compared to the three @-@ cent copper @-@ nickel coin . The bill passed without debate on May 16 , 1866 . The new copper @-@ nickel coin was legal tender for up to one dollar , and would be paid out by the Treasury in exchange for coin of the United States , excluding the half cent , cent and two @-@ cent . It was redeemable in lots of $ 100 for banknotes . Fractional currency in denominations of less than ten cents was withdrawn .
= = Shield nickel ( 1866 – 1883 ) = =
In anticipation of the approval of the new five @-@ cent coin , the Mint 's chief engraver , James B. Longacre , had begun preparing designs and pattern coins in 1865 . After rejecting pieces showing deceased presidents George Washington and Abraham Lincoln , Treasury Secretary Hugh McCulloch decided on a design similar to Longacre 's two @-@ cent piece , with a shield on the obverse and a numeral 5 surrounded by stars and rays on the reverse . This has come to be known as the Shield nickel .
The new coins proved difficult to produce ; owing to the hardness of the planchet , the coins were not of high quality and the life of the striking dies was brief . The design was widely criticized ; Wharton described the obverse as suggesting " a tombstone surmounted by a cross and overhung by weeping willows . " The American Journal of Numismatics described the Shield nickel as " the ugliest of all known coins " . The rays were eliminated from the reverse design in 1867 , in the hope of eliminating some of the production problems . The design change created confusion among the population — many people assumed that one design or the other was a counterfeit — and the Mint briefly considered abandoning the shield design entirely . After heavy production in its first years , by late 1869 , enough nickels had been struck to meet the needs of commerce ; fewer were coined in the following years .
The new coins tended to accumulate in the hands of merchants beyond the legal tender limit , but banks refused to accept them beyond the one @-@ dollar maximum . Storeowners were forced to discount the coins to brokers . Postmasters , compelled by law to accept the coins , found that the Treasury would not accept them as deposits except in lots of $ 100 , in accordance with the authorizing statute . In 1871 , Congress alleviated the problem by passing legislation allowing the Treasury to redeem unlimited quantities of nickels and other low @-@ denomination coins when presented in lots of not less than $ 20 . It was not until 1933 , long after the shield design passed from the scene , that the nickel was made legal tender without limit .
Half dimes continued to be struck , at both the Philadelphia and the San Francisco Mint , until the series was ended by the Coinage Act of 1873 . Despite the abolition , the silver pieces continued to circulate in the West , where silver or gold coins were preferred , throughout the remainder of the 19th century . Improved economic conditions , combined with low silver prices , brought large quantities of hoarded silver coinage , including half dimes , into circulation beginning in April 1876 . In late 1876 , production of the Shield nickel was halted . No Shield nickels were struck in 1877 or 1878 , excepting proof specimens for collectors . As the Treasury had a large stock of nickels in storage , only small numbers were struck over the next few years ; full @-@ scale production did not resume until December 1881 .
= = Liberty Head or " V " nickel ( 1883 – 1913 ) = =
With production of nickels lagging in the late 1870s , and with minimal strikings of the copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent piece , Wharton sought to increase the use of nickel at the Mint . The bronze cent represented a major portion of the Mint 's production , and Wharton began to lobby for the piece to be struck in copper @-@ nickel , as it had been from 1857 until 1864 . In 1881 , this lobbying led Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Archibald Loudon Snowden to order Mint Engraver Charles Barber to produce uniform designs for a new cent , three @-@ cent piece , and five @-@ cent piece . Snowden required that the new coins depict the head of Liberty with the legend LIBERTY and the date , with the nickel 's reverse to have a wreath of wheat , cotton , and corn around a Roman numeral " V " for " 5 " , to denote the denomination . Under the proposal , the nickel would retain its weight of 5 grams ( 0 @.@ 18 oz ) , but its diameter would be increased to 22 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 87 in ) .
Barber duly produced the required designs . Snowden eventually decided against a new cent or three @-@ cent piece , but Barber continued work on the nickel , with the size adjusted to 21 @.@ 21 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 835 in ) . When specimens were sent to Washington for routine approval by Treasury Secretary Charles J. Folger , to Snowden 's surprise , they were rejected . The secretary , on review of the coinage statutes , had realized that the laws required " UNITED STATES OF AMERICA " to appear on the reverse , not the obverse where Barber had placed it . Barber modified his design accordingly , and the coin was ready for striking in early 1883 . However , by then , Shield nickels dated 1883 had already been coined . To ensure these pieces would not be hoarded for their rarity , Mint officials kept the two designs in production side by side for several months .
Criminals soon realized that the new nickel , which lacked the word " CENTS " , was close in size to the five @-@ dollar gold piece , and if they were to plate the nickel with gold , it might be passed for five dollars . Some coins were even given a reeded edge by fraudsters , making them appear more like the gold coins . The Mint halted production of the new coins ; production of Shield nickels continued . Barber was told to modify his work , which he did , moving other design elements to accommodate the word " CENTS " at the bottom of the reverse . The revised nickel was issued on June 26 , 1883 , the date on which production of the Shield nickel was finally stopped . The public promptly hoarded the " centless " nickels , believing the Treasury Department intended to recall them , and that they would become rare .
The Liberty Head nickel was heavily struck during its 30 @-@ year run , except during economic downturns in 1885 – 1886 and in 1894 , when only small numbers were struck . In 1890 , Congress ended production of the three @-@ cent piece , leaving the five @-@ cent coin as the only one in copper nickel . That year , Congress also allowed the Secretary of the Treasury to authorize the redesign of United States coins , if the former design had been struck for at least 25 years . Although the nickel and silver dollar had been redesigned within the previous quarter @-@ century , a provision in the latter act made them eligible for immediate redesign . In 1896 , pattern nickels were struck for the first time since 1885 , when experimental , holed coins had been tested ; however , no redesign took place .
= = = Growth of the nickel in commerce = = =
Coin @-@ operated machines to vend food , for amusement , and for gambling became popular in the 1890s . Such machines could be placed on otherwise unused floor space in businesses , required little maintenance , and brought in money for owners . Beginning about 1898 , coin @-@ operated mechanical pianos also became popular . The Mills Novelty Company was a leading producer of such devices ; by 1906 it was producing machines ranging from a mechanically played violin to fortune @-@ telling devices . While some machines took cents or other denominations , the nickel was the coin of choice for these machines .
Among the innovations in business caused by the use of the nickel in coin @-@ operated machines was the automat , in which patrons would serve themselves by inserting a coin ( initially a nickel , though by the 1950s a higher denomination was needed ) into a mechanism , turning a handle , and removing a sandwich or dessert . These restaurants were first established in Germany , but were popularized in the United States by , among other firms , Horn & Hardart . A type of business which took its name from the coin was the nickelodeon cinema , where a nickel bought admission to view a series of one @-@ reel short films , generally about 12 minutes in length , which ran continuously from early afternoon until late at night , with the patron free to remain as long as he liked . Although another denomination gave the penny arcade its name , the nickel was commonly used there as well .
Few nickels had circulated in the western states before the 1880s ( people there preferred silver and gold coins ) ; interest in the new Liberty Head design had led to increasing use of nickels there . Good economic conditions and high demand for nickels for use in coin @-@ operated devices caused the piece to circulate throughout the nation by 1900 . That year , Mint Director George E. Roberts called on Congress to quintuple the Mint 's appropriation to purchase base metals for striking into nickels and cents . At the time , statutory restrictions permitted production of cents and nickels only at Philadelphia ; Roberts ' request that Congress allow striking at the other mints was granted in 1906 . The Denver and San Francisco Mints began striking nickels in 1912 .
= = = 1913 Liberty Head nickel rarity = = =
The Liberty Head nickel was replaced after 1912 , and initially there was no indication that 1913 @-@ dated pieces with that design existed . In December 1919 , a coin dealer , Samuel W. Brown , placed advertisements in coin publications , offering to buy 1913 Liberty Head nickels . The following August , Brown appeared at the annual American Numismatic Association ( ANA ) convention bearing such a piece . Brown claimed that a master die had been prepared for 1913 and that these pieces had been run off to test it . As it turned out , Brown possessed five coins , which he eventually sold . After spending fifteen years in the hands of the eccentric Col. E.H.R. Green , the famous Fort Worth , Texas , area collector , the coins were finally dispersed in 1943 . Since then , they have had several owners each . Today , two are on public display — at the Smithsonian Institution in Washington and the ANA 's Money Museum in Colorado Springs , while three are owned privately . The most recent sale of a 1913 Liberty Head nickel was in January 2010 , when one sold for $ 3 @,@ 737 @,@ 500 in an auction .
It is uncertain how the 1913 nickels came to be made . The Mint 's records show no production of 1913 Liberty head nickels , and none were authorized to be made . Dies were prepared in advance and sent to California for a 1913 @-@ S Liberty Head nickel coinage , but upon orders from Mint Director Roberts in December 1912 to end the old design , they were returned to Philadelphia . They were received by December 23 , and were almost certainly destroyed routinely by early January . Brown had been an employee at the Philadelphia Mint ( although this was not known until 1963 ) and many theories focus suspicion on him .
= = Buffalo or Indian Head ( 1913 – 1938 ) = =
President Theodore Roosevelt in 1904 expressed his dissatisfaction with the artistic state of American coins , and hoped to hire sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens to beautify them . Saint @-@ Gaudens , before his 1907 death , designed a new eagle and double eagle , which entered circulation that year ; the cent , quarter eagle , and half eagle were redesigned by other artists and were released into circulation by 1909 . That year , Mint Director Frank Leach instructed Barber to make pattern coins for new nickels . Most of these coins featured the first president , George Washington . However , the project was discontinued when Leach left office on November 1 , 1909 , to be replaced by Abram Andrew .
On May 4 , 1911 , Eames MacVeagh , son of Treasury Secretary Franklin MacVeagh wrote to his father :
A little matter that seems to have been overlooked by all of you is the opportunity to beautify the design of the nickel or five cent piece during your administration , and it seems to me that it would be a permanent souvenir of a most attractive sort . As possibly you are aware , it is the only coin the design of which you can change during your administration , as I believe there is a law to the effect that the designs must not be changed oftener than every twenty @-@ five years . I should think also it might be the coin of which the greatest numbers are in circulation .
Soon after the MacVeagh letter , Andrew announced that the Mint would solicit new designs for the nickel . Sculptor James Earle Fraser , who had been an assistant to Saint @-@ Gaudens , approached the Mint , and rapidly produced concepts and designs . Mint Director George Roberts , who had returned to office in place of Andrew , initially favored a design featuring Lincoln , but Fraser soon developed a design featuring a Native American on one side and a bison on the other . Secretary MacVeagh wrote , " Tell him that of the three sketches which he submitted we would like to use the sketch of the head of the Indian and the sketch of the buffalo . " In July 1912 , news of the new nickel became public , and coin @-@ operated machine manufacturers sought information . Clarence Hobbs of the Hobbs Manufacturing Company , maker of counterfeit detectors , feared the new nickel would not be passed by his devices . Hobbs demanded various changes to the design , to which the artist was reluctant to agree .
The Hobbs Company continued to interpose objections in 1913 . On February 3 , Hobbs sent Roberts a lengthy list of changes that he wanted in the coin , and the sculptor was required to attend a conference with Hobbs representatives . On the fifth , following the conference , which ended with no agreement , Fraser sent MacVeagh a ten @-@ page letter , complaining that his time was being wasted by the Hobbs Company , and appealing to the Secretary to bring the situation to a close . Secretary MacVeagh agreed to hold a meeting at his office in Washington on February 14 . Barber prepared patterns showing what the nickel would look like if the changes demanded by Hobbs were made . MacVeagh conducted the meeting much like a legal hearing , and issued a letter the following day . The secretary noted that no other firm had complained , that the Hobbs mechanism had not been widely sold , and that the changes demanded — a clear space around the rim and the flattening of the Indian 's cheekbone — would affect the artistic merit of the piece . MacVeagh concluded , " You will please , therefore , proceed with the coinage of the new nickel . "
The coins were officially released to circulation on March 4 , 1913 , and quickly gained positive comments for depicting truly American themes . However , The New York Times stated in an editorial that " The new ' nickel ' is a striking example of what a coin intended for wide circulation should not be ... [ it ] is not pleasing to look at when new and shiny , and will be an abomination when old and dull . " The Numismatist , in March and May 1913 editorials , gave the new coin a lukewarm review , suggesting that the Indian 's head be reduced in size and the bison be eliminated from the reverse .
Dies for the new design proved to break quickly . Barber made proposed revisions , which Fraser approved after being sent samples . These changes enlarged the legend " FIVE CENTS " and changed the ground on which the bison stands from a hill to flat ground . According to data compiled by numismatic historian David Lange from the National Archives , the changes to what are known as Type II nickels ( with the originals Type I ) actually decreased the die life . A problem not addressed was the exposure of the date to wear ; many Buffalo nickels today have the date worn away .
In January 1938 , the Mint announced an open competition for a new nickel design , to feature early president Thomas Jefferson on the obverse , and Jefferson 's home , Monticello on the reverse . The last Buffalo nickels were struck in April 1938 at the Denver Mint , the only mint to strike them that year .
= = = Design and name controversies = = =
The identities of the models for the Native American on the obverse and for the bison on the reverse are not known with certainty . Fraser stressed that the Indian was a type , rather than based on a specific individual , and identified various Native Americans as models , not always consistently , including Iron Tail , Two Moons , and Big Tree ( of the Kiowa people ) . There have been other claimants , the most prominent being John Big Tree , a Seneca , who made many public appearances as the " nickel Indian " until his death in 1967 . Fraser recounted that the animal on the reverse was an American bison , Black Diamond , whom he stated lived at the Bronx Zoo , and also described the model simply as a bison at the Bronx Zoo . However , Black Diamond was never at the Bronx Zoo , but instead lived at the Central Park Zoo ( both facilities are in New York City ) until the animal was sold and slaughtered in 1915 . The placement of the horns on the still @-@ extant mounted head of Black Diamond differs from that of the bison on the nickel .
From its inception , the coin was referred to as the " Buffalo nickel " , reflecting the common misnomer for the bison . The numismatic publication with the greatest circulation , Coin World , calls it an Indian head nickel , while R.S. Yeoman 's Red Book refers to it as an " Indian Head or Buffalo type " .
= = Jefferson nickel ( 1938 – present ) = =
When the Buffalo nickel had been struck for 25 years and could be replaced without an act of Congress , the Mint moved quickly to replace it . Although the Fraser design is popular today among numismatists , it did not enjoy that status in 1938 , and there was no public outcry at the decision . In January 1938 , the Mint announced an open competition for the new nickel design , with the winner to receive a prize of $ 1 @,@ 000 . Anticipating the 1943 bicentennial of Jefferson 's birth , competitors were to place his portrait on the obverse , and a depiction of his house Monticello on the reverse .
On April 24 , Felix Schlag was announced as the winner . His design featured the portrayal of Jefferson which would be used on the nickel until 2004 , closely conforming to the former president 's bust by sculptor Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon , which is to be found in Boston 's Museum of Fine Arts . However , the model differs from the nickel that was struck for circulation because it featured a view of Monticello from an angle , and a style of lettering officials did not like ; Schlag was required to change both . Either through a misunderstanding or an oversight , Schlag did not include his initials in the design ; they would not be added until 1966 . Production began on October 3 , 1938 ; they were released into circulation on November 15 . According to contemporary accounts , the Jefferson nickel was initially hoarded , and it was not until 1940 that it was commonly seen in circulation .
With the entry of the United States into World War II , nickel became a critical war material , and the Mint sought to reduce its use of the metal . On March 27 , 1942 , Congress authorized a nickel made of 50 % copper and 50 % silver , but gave the Mint the authority to vary the proportions , or add other metals , in the public interest . The Mint 's greatest concern was in finding an alloy that would use no nickel , but still satisfy counterfeit detectors in vending machines . An alloy of 56 % copper , 35 % silver and 9 % manganese proved suitable , and this alloy began to be coined into nickels from October 1942 . In the hope of making them easy to sort out and withdraw after the war , the Mint struck all " war nickels " with a large mint mark appearing above Monticello . The mint mark P for Philadelphia was the first time that mint 's mark had appeared on a US coin . The prewar composition returned in 1946 ; all nickels struck since then have been in 75 % copper and 25 % nickel .
In 1966 , a small change was made to the design to add the initials of the designer ( FS ) to the obverse , underneath Jefferson 's portrait . In commemoration of that change , two specimen 1966 nickels with the initials were struck and presented to him . Coins struck at any mint between 1965 and 1967 lack mint marks , which were omitted as the Mint replaced the silver circulating coins with copper @-@ nickel . Beginning in 1968 , mint marks were again used , and on the nickel were moved to the lower part of the obverse , to the right of Jefferson 's bust . From 1971 , no nickels were struck for circulation in San Francisco — the 1971 @-@ S was the first nickel struck in proof only since 1878 .
= = = Westward Journey commemoratives ( 2004 – 2005 ) = = =
The Mint had struck circulating commemorative coins for the United States Bicentennial , giving quarters , half dollars , and dollars struck in 1975 and 1976 a dual date , " 1776 – 1976 " . After Canada issued a
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Fountain Brewery in Fountainbridge , then a suburb on the outskirts of Edinburgh , in 1856 , using £ 2 @,@ 000 loaned by his mother and his uncle . The area and the brewery are named after the spring waters from the vicinity , which , in addition to its proximity to the Caledonian railway line and the Union Canal , determined the location of the brewery . McEwan had employed geologists to identify the prime location for a supply of well water . Beforehand , McEwan had engaged in industrial espionage at Bass and Allsopp 's breweries in order to learn techniques and assay costs . After establishing a market share in the industrial regions of the Scottish lowlands , from the early 1860s McEwan built up a successful colonial export trade by exploiting his family 's shipowning connections . It was during this time that McEwan 's India Pale Ale , the beer that was the foundation for much of the company 's reputation , was first labelled Export .
By the 1870s McEwan 's brewery employed 170 men and boys , and its beers were widely available in England . By 1880 , the brewery site covered 12 acres . McEwan 's 80 / - , a Heavy beer , was first brewed in the late nineteenth century ; the shilling " / - " denotion refers to the wholesale price for a hogshead of the beer . In 1886 , as he prepared to enter Parliament , William McEwan appointed his nephew , William Younger , as managing director of the brewery . When the company was registered in 1889 it was worth £ 408 @,@ 000 and had capital of £ 1 million , and was the largest brewery in the United Kingdom under a single owner . By the turn of the twentieth century the company had a large share of the market throughout Scotland , a 90 per cent share of the Tyneside market , and was exporting to Scottish expatriates across the British Empire . At its peak the brewery was producing two million barrels of beer a year , much of it for export .
= = = Twentieth @-@ century mergers = = =
In 1907 , McEwan 's acquired the trade and goodwill of Alexander Melvin & Co of central Edinburgh . By 1914 , McEwan 's bottled beers were distributed across the United Kingdom . In December 1930 , McEwan 's merged with Edinburgh rival William Younger 's Brewery to form Scottish Brewers in a defensive move after the Great Depression diminished revenues . Each entity was initially run separately , and only certain financial and technological resources were amalgamated . During this period the company became an early pioneer of container beer , largely due to its dependence on exports , particularly to the Royal Navy , where beer might be stored on board ships for up to a year . The NAAFI continued to be an important McEwan 's customer throughout the century . In the early 1930s , Jardine Matheson approached the company regarding a potential brewing venture in China , but McEwan 's did not welcome the threat to their export business .
The company 's export trade declined during and after the Second World War , and as a result , the Abbey Brewery in Edinburgh , previously the Younger 's brewery , was closed down in 1956 and converted into offices . By the 1950s , McEwan 's had become the dominant party in the McEwan Younger venture , and a full merger was undertaken in 1959 . Scottish Brewers continued to increase its market share in the brewing sector , doubling its output after a costly five @-@ year programme of expansion and modernisation undertaken between 1958 and 1963 .
The company merged with Newcastle Breweries in 1960 , forming Scottish & Newcastle , a group with market value of £ 50 million . William McEwan Younger , the son of William Younger , was the chairman and managing director . The company dedicated itself to the free trade , and promoted its brands to an extent not previously witnessed in the British brewing industry . McEwan 's Export became one of the three core brands of the new company , alongside Newcastle Brown Ale and Younger 's Tartan Special . Scottish & Newcastle became the dominant force in brewing across Scotland and the North of England . From the 1960s , the company began to style itself MacEwan 's in export markets , in order to make pronunciation easier . The company 's McEwan 's Strong Ale was the highest gravity beer on general sale throughout the world . McEwan 's Export was alternatively sold as India Pale Ale or Scotch Ale overseas . William McEwan Younger retired in 1970 .
The Fountain Brewery was rebuilt in 1973 and pioneered the use of computer control for the entire brewing process . The site had a 2 million barrel capacity , and occupied 22 acres on a new site which had formerly been occupied by a British Rubber mill . McEwan 's Export became a nationally distributed beer by the 1970s , and was the highest selling canned beer in the United Kingdom by 1975 . McEwan 's Lager was introduced in 1976 as the demand for lager increased , but it struggled to gain credibility until the " Alive and kicking " campaign was launched in 1986 . McEwan 's Export was launched in the United States in 1989 . Two bottled ales were launched , McEwan 's Champion Ale ( 7 @.@ 3 % ) in 1997 and McEwan 's Parliament Ale ( 5 % ) in 1999 . In 2000 , McEwan 's had 13 percent of the Scottish lager market and around 40 percent of the Scottish ale market . In 2003 McEwan 's 70 / - was overtaken by Belhaven Best as Scotland 's best @-@ selling ale , and McEwan 's Lager was discontinued .
= = = Closure of the Fountain Brewery = = =
In February 2004 Scottish & Newcastle announced the closure of the Fountain Brewery . Production costs at Fountainbridge had become twice as high as those at the company 's lowest @-@ cost brewery in Tadcaster , North Yorkshire . It closed in June 2005 , with the loss of 170 jobs . Production of McEwan 's draught beers was transferred to the Caledonian Brewery with cans of McEwan 's Export being produced at John Smith 's Brewery in Tadcaster . The McEwan 's and Younger 's brands added around 50 @,@ 000 barrels to the production of the Caledonian . The last regular batch of the cask @-@ conditioned version of McEwan 's 80 / - was brewed in 2006 after annual production dropped below 10 @,@ 000 barrels , although the beer made a brief return in June 2011 and has since been brewed seasonally by W & Y. McEwan 's Lager was reintroduced in 2009 .
= = = Sale to Wells & Youngs = = =
In October 2011 , Heineken sold the McEwan 's beer brands to Wells & Youngs for around £ 20 million , and production of McEwan 's Best Scotch and canned and bottled brands moved to Bedford . The new owners vowed to reintroduce McEwan 's as a cask ale brand and launch an expanded premium bottled range . Together with the Younger 's brands McEwan 's generates £ 80 million of sales annually in the UK , and McEwan 's is now the largest Wells & Youngs brand . It is the highest @-@ selling ale brand in Scotland where it has a 20 per cent market share . Like most largely pasteurised ale brands in the UK it has been in a state of managed decline . The beers are sold predominantly in Scotland and the north of England ; a small amount is exported to Italy . 2012 saw the launch of McEwan 's Export in bottles , and a new seasonal cask @-@ conditioned golden ale called McEwan 's Gold . In 2013 , export sales to Canada were resumed , having been discontinued under Heineken . In April 2013 McEwan 's Red was launched , aimed at younger drinkers and with the intention of expanding the brand into England . McEwan 's beers began to be sold in France in April 2013 . The bottled beers McEwan 's Amber and Signature were launched in July 2013 .
= = Current product range = =
McEwan 's 60 / - ( 3 @.@ 2 per cent ABV )
A beer style known in Scotland as " Light " , this dark coloured beer is similar to an English mild ale .
McEwan 's Best Scotch ( 3 @.@ 6 per cent ABV )
A beer that shares style characteristics with both mild and bitter . It sells 23 @,@ 000 hectolitres annually . Sales are concentrated in the Tyneside region , and the beer is not found in Scotland . Production was moved from the Tyne Brewery in Newcastle upon Tyne to the Federation Brewery in Gateshead in 2005 . The Federation Brewery was closed in 2010 , and production of McEwan 's Best Scotch was contracted to the Burtonwood Brewery near Cheshire , until it moved to Bedford following the Wells & Youngs takeover .
McEwan 's 70 / - ( 3 @.@ 7 per cent ABV )
Shares many characteristics with an English session bitter .
McEwan 's 80 / - ( 4 @.@ 2 per cent ABV )
A Heavy , which until 2000 was brewed to 4 @.@ 5 per cent ABV .
McEwan 's Export ( 4 @.@ 5 per cent ABV )
The second highest selling canned premium ale in the UK . In cans , it sold over 30 @,@ 000 hectolitres in 2012 . In Scotland it accounts for 83 per cent of the canned premium ale market . Sometimes sold as McEwan 's India Pale Ale in overseas markets .
McEwan 's Champion Ale ( 7 @.@ 3 per cent ABV )
A Burton or Edinburgh ale , a style known locally as " Wee Heavy " . Available across the United Kingdom in 500ml bottles , it is one of the top twenty highest selling bottled ales , selling around 7 @,@ 000 hectolitres in 2012 . A stronger version is sold as McEwan 's Scotch Ale in export markets .
McEwan 's Lager ( 3 @.@ 6 per cent ABV )
McEwan 's Red ( 3 @.@ 6 per cent ABV )
An ale with a reddish tinge introduced in 2013 .
= = Advertising = =
Throughout the Victorian period , and into the twentieth century , McEwan 's drew heavily from imagery of the British Empire in its branding . The Laughing Cavalier mascot was introduced to the McEwan 's brand in the 1930s . Based on the well @-@ known Frans Hals painting , it has been used extensively in advertisements and branding ever since . During the 1960s and ' 70s , McEwan 's was advertised as " The best buy in beer " .
From the 1970s until the early 1990s McEwan 's Best Scotch was marketed in the North East of England as " The one you 've got to come back for " .
The " alive and kicking " campaign for McEwan 's Lager from 1986 until 1997 saw some of the most memorable and radical television advertisements yet produced at the time .
= = = Sponsorship = = =
During the 1980s and 1990s , McEwan 's sponsored six football clubs and two rugby league clubs :
Carlisle United – 1982 to 1988 ( as ' McEwan 's Younger ' )
Darlington – 1984 to 1987
Rangers – 1987 to 1999 ( McEwan 's Lager )
Notts County – 1991 to 1994 ( Away games only )
Blackburn Rovers – 1991 to 1995
St Helens RLFC – 1991 to 1999
Wakefield Trinity Wildcats – 1993 @-@ 1997
Newcastle United – 1991 to 1996 ( Away games only )
= Courage C60 =
The Courage C60 was a Le Mans Prototype ( LMP ) racing car built by Courage Compétition in 2000 , and used in international sports car races until 2006 . A replacement for the Courage C52 , it was Courage 's first all @-@ new prototype since the Courage C41 was built in 1994 . Initially fitted with a 4 @-@ litre naturally @-@ aspirated Judd GV4 V10 engine in 2000 , and run by SMG Compétition , Pescarolo Sport began using a 3 @.@ 2 @-@ litre twin @-@ turbocharged Sodemo @-@ Peugeot A32 V6 engined version of the car in 2001 , and the Peugeot @-@ engined versions would prove to be the most successful . In 2004 , Pescarolo redeveloped the C60 on their own , and replaced the Peugeot engines with 5 @-@ litre Judd GV5 V10s . In 2005 , Courage ran two updated versions of the C60 ( known as the C60 Hybrid , and using the Judd GV4 engines ) as a factory effort , and one of these took third place at that year 's 24 Hours of Le Mans ; Pescarolo also updated their C60s into a similar Hybrid format , and took second at the 2005 and 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans , whilst also winning the Le Mans Series in both years . In 2006 , the all @-@ new Courage LC70 was introduced by Courage , and Pescarolo introduced their 01 in 2007 .
= = Design and development = =
In 2000 , Courage Compétition introduced the C60 as a clean @-@ sheet replacement for the Courage C52 . Like its predecessor , the C60 was designed by Paolo Catone , and was the first all @-@ new car since the Courage C41 was introduced . The C60 used a carbon fibre and aluminium honeycomb monocoque chassis , whilst its suspension consisted of double wishbones , pushrods and horizontally @-@ located dynamic dampers . SMG Compétition were the first team to run the car , and their C60 was fitted with a 4 @-@ litre naturally @-@ aspirated Judd GV4 V10 engine , In 2001 , Pescarolo Sport began using the C60 and their C60s used a Sodemo @-@ developed 3 @.@ 2 @-@ litre twin @-@ turbocharged Peugeot A32 V6 engine , capable of a claimed power output of 550 hp ( 410 kW ; 558 PS ) . In 2002 , André de Cortanze redeveloped the C60 into the C60 Evo , which notably featured an unusual brake duct system similar to that found on an open @-@ wheel racing car at the front of the car , whilst the rear wing endplates were redesigned and the Peugeot A32 engine now produced a claimed output of 580 hp ( 433 kW ; 588 PS ) . The endplates were further developed in 2003 , whilst the engine 's air restrictors were decreased in size from 32 @.@ 4 to 30 @.@ 7 mm ( 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 2 in ) , resulting in the claimed power output decreasing to 510 hp ( 380 kW ; 517 PS ) . In 2004 , Pescarolo began running the car as a " Pescarolo C60 " with a 5 @-@ litre Judd GV5 V10 engine , as Henri Pescarolo had further developed the C60 . For 2005 , Courage and Pescarolo both released redeveloped versions of the C60 for the new LMP1 regulations ; both were designated as C60 Hybrids and used Judd engines . The Pescarolo version retained its Judd GV5 engine , with a claimed power output of 630 hp ( 470 kW ; 639 PS ) , whilst the Courage version used the smaller 600 hp ( 447 kW ; 608 PS ) Judd GV4 engine , and featured a noticeably different rear wing . Courage introduced the new Catone @-@ designed Courage LC70 in 2006 as the C60 's replacement .
= = Racing history = =
= = = 2000 – 2001 = = =
The C60 made its debut at the 2000 Silverstone 500 USA Challenge , when SMG Compétition 's Gary Formato and Philippe Gache used the car to take tenth place , and eighth in the LMP category . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Gache and Formato were to be joined by Didier Cottaz , but suspension failure after 219 laps forced the team to retire . SMG ran Cottaz and Gache at the 1000 km of Nürburgring , but an accident after 44 laps lead to the team 's retirement .
For 2001 , Pescarolo Sport replaced their C52s with the C60 . Their first race with the C60 came at the 12 Hours of Sebring , with Jean @-@ Christophe Boullion , Sébastien Bourdais and Laurent Rédon selected to drive the car ; however , engine problems after 167 laps forced them to retire , and they were classified 25th overall , and seventh in class . At the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Catalunya , Boullion and Bourdais completed 57 laps before another engine problem forced them to retire . For the 2 Hours 45 Minutes of Donington Park , Boullion partnered Rédon to fourth place , the fastest of the non @-@ Audi entries . However , oil pump issues struck at the 1000 km of Monza , forcing Boullion , Rédon and Bourdais to retire . Three C60s were entered in the 2001 24 Hours of Le Mans ; Pescarolo ran Boullion , Bourdais and Rédon in one car , and Emmanuel Clérico , Cottaz and Boris Derichebourg in another , whilst SMG ran Gache alongside Jérôme Policand and Anthony Beltoise in their C60 . Only the Boullion / Bourdais / Rédon C60 finished ( in 13th overall , and 4th in the LMP900 category ) , as the other Pescarolo car crashed out after 42 laps , and SMG 's C60 succombed to engine problems 9 laps later . Pescarolo Sport 's next race with the C60 came at the 1000 km Estoril , where Boullion , Rédon and Derichebourg were able to take the car 's first ever victory , although they had initially been disqualified for ignoring blue flags ; Boullion and Rédon immediately followed this with another victory in their next race , which was the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Magny @-@ Cours . Boullion and Derichebourg finished the season off with second at the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Nürburgring . Courage finished the American Le Mans Series ( ALMS ) season classified in sixth , whilst they took fifth in the FIA Sportscar Championship , and third in the European Le Mans Series ( ELMS ) .
= = = 2002 – 2003 = = =
For 2002 , Courage Compétition began running a factory team again ( using a Judd @-@ engined C60 ) , whilst Pescarolo Sport continued with their Peugeot @-@ engined C60 . The 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Catalunya saw Courage 's Thed Björk , Derichebourg and Cottaz take fifth overall , whilst Pescarolo 's Boullion and Bourdais won the race . At the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Estoril , it was Cottaz and Derichebourg who took second for Courage , whilst Boullion and Franck Lagorce finished fourth for Pescarolo . At the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Brno , Cottaz and Derichebourg took another second for Courage , whilst Pescarolo did not compete . Three C60s were entered for the 2002 24 Hours of Le Mans ; Courage selected Cottaz , Derichebourg and Björk to drive their car , whilst Pescarolo ran Boullion , Lagorce and Bourdais in one of their C60 @-@ Peugeots , and Stéphane Ortelli , Ukyo Katayama and Éric Hélary drove their other car . Although the C60 of Ortelli / Katayama / Hélary succombed to engine trouble after 144 laps , the other Pescarolo @-@ entered C60 finished tenth overall , and ninth in class whilst the Courage @-@ entered C60 finished 15th overall , and 11th in class . Pescarolo reverted to a single @-@ car entry for the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Magny @-@ Cours , which , with Bourdais and Boullion at the wheel , finished in second ; the Courage @-@ entered car , driven by Cottaz and Derichebourg , succumbed to electrical issues before completing a lap . Courage did not run their car again , whilst Pescarolo 's Boullion and Lagorce took third at the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Dijon , before Bourdais and Boullion finished the season with a victory at the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Spa . Courage finished the season tied with Dome on 97 points in the SR1 Constructor 's Championship , but lost the title to Dome as they had won a single race less .
Pescarolo started the 2003 FIA Sportscar Championship season with a victory at the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Estoril , with Boullion partnering Stéphane Sarrazin in the C60 . Like the previous year , three C60s were entered at the 24 Hours of Le Mans ; Courage ran Jonathan Cochet , Jean @-@ Marc Gounon and Stéphan Grégoire in their car , whilst Pescarolo ran Boullion , Sarrazin and Lagorce in one car , with Nicolas Minassian , Soheil Ayari and Hélary in the other . The three C60s finished seventh , eighth and ninth respectively , which equated to fifth , sixth and seventh in the LMP900 category . Pescarolo followed this result with a string of retirements at the 500 km of Monza , the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Oschersleben and the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Donington . The 1000 km of Spa saw a return to form , as Sarrazin and Lagorce took second , before Pescarolo ended the FIA Sportscar Championship season with a victory at the 2 Hours 30 Minutes of Nogaro ( where Ayari replaced Sarrazin ) . Despite the mid @-@ season slump , Pescarolo were still able to deliver Courage second in the SR1 Constructor 's Championship . The final race of the C60 's season came at the non @-@ championship 1000 km of Le Mans , where Sarrazin , Lagorce and Bourdais took second place .
= = = 2004 – 2005 = = =
In 2004 , Pescarolo Sport were the only team to use the C60 , which they ran as the " Pescarolo C60 " . The team 's first race came in the 1000 km of Monza , which formed part of the new Le Mans Endurance Series ( LMES ) ; here , Ayari and Emmanuel Collard took fourth overall , and were the fastest of the non @-@ Audi entrants . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Collard partnered Bourdais and Minassian in one C60 , whilst Ayari drove with Érik Comas and Benoît Tréluyer in the other . Although the C60 of Collard , Bourdais and Minassian succombed to engine trouble after 282 laps , the Ayari / Comas / Tréluyer finished fourth overall , and fastest of the non @-@ Audi runners once more . Hélary was selected to partner Ayari at the 1000 km of Nürburgring , and this time the pair brought the C60 home in fifth overall . Pescarolo 's last race of the season came at the 1000 km of Spa , where Gounon and Ayari lasted nine laps before being forced to retire due to accident damage . Pescarolo finished the LMES season in fifth place , level on points with Team Jota .
In 2005 , Courage Compétition began running their updated C60 Hybrid , whilst Pescarolo also updated their C60 ; the two teams were the fastest and second fastest respectively at the Paul Ricard test session . At the LMES season opener , which was the 1000 km of Spa , the Courage @-@ entered car , driven by Cochet , Christian Vann and Alexander Frei was eliminated in a pit @-@ lane accident , whilst the Pescarolo entry , driven by Bouillon , Collard and Comas finished second . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , both teams entered two cars ; Courage entered Frei , Vann and Dominik Schwager in one car , and Cochet , Shinji Nakano and Bruce Jouanny in the other , whilst Pescarolo ran Collard , Boullion and Comas in one of their C60s , with Ayari , Hélary and Sébastien Loeb in the other . One car from each team finished ; Collard , Boullion and Comas took second for Pescarolo , whilst Schwager , Frei and Vann finished eighth for Courage . Both teams reverted to single @-@ car entries for the 1000 km of Monza , which Collard and Boullion won for Pescarolo ; the Gounon / Vann / Frei combination in the Courage finished sixth overall , and fourth in the LMP1 category . For the 1000 km of Silverstone , it was Frei , Vann and Cochet , driving for Courage , who were the fastest C60 ; they took 14th , and 13th in class , whilst Collard and Boullion had problems and finished 34th , and 17th in class . The 1000 km of Nürburgring saw Boullion and Collard take fourth for Pescarolo , whilst Frei and Cochet took eighth for Courage . At the final round of the season , which was the 1000 km of Istanbul , Collard and Boullion took another victory for Pescarolo , whilst the Courage of Gounon and Frei took 21st overall , and eighth in class . This result meant that Pescarolo had won their first ever team 's championship , whilst Courage finished seventh .
= = = 2006 = = =
For 2006 , Pescarolo were the only team to run the C60 in the newly @-@ renamed Le Mans Series ( LMS ) . Collard and Boullion started the season in exactly the same way they had finished the previous one , by winning the 1000 km of Istanbul in the Pescarolo C60 Hybrid . The 1000 km of Spa saw Collard and Boullion win again , despite starting the race from the pitlane after a crash in free practice . At the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Pescarolo entered two C60s , as usual ; one driven by Hélary , Loeb and Franck Montagny , whilst the other was driven by Collard , Minassian and Comas . The Montagny / Hélary / Loeb car took second overall , beating one of the brand @-@ new Audi R10 TDIs , whilst the other car finished fifth overall , and fourth in the LMP1 category . Having returned to the LMS , Collard and Boullion were joined by Hélary for the 1000 km of Nürburgring , and the trio took another win for Pescarolo . Didier André replaced Hélary in the final two rounds , which were the 1000 km of Donington and 1000 km of Jarama , and Pescarolo won both races to complete a clean sweep . As a result , Pescarolo retained the LMP1 team 's championship with the maximum score possible . The C60 was made obsolete by the new LMP1 regulations for 2007 , and thus was retired , and replaced by the Pescarolo 01 .
= Operation Camargue =
Operation Camargue was one of the largest operations by the French Far East Expeditionary Corps and Vietnamese National Army in the First Indochina War . It took place from 28 July until 10 August 1953 . French armored platoons , airborne units and troops delivered by landing craft to the coast of central Annam , modern @-@ day Vietnam , attempted to sweep forces of the communist Viet Minh from the critical Route One .
The first landings took place in the early morning on 28 July , and reached the first objectives , an inland canal , without major incident . A secondary phase of mopping @-@ up operations began in a " labyrinth of tiny villages " where French armored forces suffered a series of ambushes . Reinforced by paratroopers , the French and their Vietnamese allies tightened a net around the defending Viet Minh , but delays in the movement of French forces left gaps through which most of the Viet Minh guerillas , and many of the arms caches the operation was expected to seize , escaped . For the French , this validated the claim that it was impossible to operate tight ensnaring operations in Vietnam 's jungle , due to the slow movement of their troops , and a foreknowledge by the enemy , which was difficult to prevent . From then on , the French focused on creating strong fortified positions , against which Viet Minh General Giáp could pit his forces , culminating in Opération Castor and the Battle of Dien Bien Phu .
With the French forces withdrawn from the operation by the late summer of 1953 , Viet Minh Regiment 95 re @-@ infiltrated Route One and resumed ambushes of French convoys , retrieving weapons caches missed by the French forces . Regiment 95 occupied the area for the remainder of the First Indochina War and were still operating there as late as 1962 against the South Vietnamese Army during the Second Indochina , or Vietnam War .
= = Background = =
The First Indochina War had raged , as guerrilla warfare , since 19 December 1946 . From 1949 , it evolved into conventional warfare , due largely to aid from the communists of the People 's Republic of China ( " PRC " ) to the north . Subsequently , the French strategy of occupying small , poorly defended outposts throughout Indochina , particularly along the Vietnamese @-@ Chinese border , started failing . Thanks to the terrain , popular support for August Revolution and support for decolonization from bordering China and the U.S.S.R. , the Viet Minh had succeeded in turning a " clandestine guerrilla movement into a powerful conventional army " , following asymmetric warfare theory laid by Mao Tse Tung , something which previously had never been encountered by the western colonial powers . In October 1952 , fighting around the Red River Delta spread into the Thai Highlands , resulting in the Battle of Nà Sản , at which the Viet Minh were defeated . The French used the lessons learned at Nà Sản – strong ground bases , versatile air support , and a model based on the British Burma Campaign – as the basis for their new strategy . The Viet Minh , however , remained unbeatable in the highland regions of Vietnam , and the French " could not offset the fundamental disadvantages of a roadbound army facing a hill and forest army in a country which had few roads but a great many hills and forests " .
In May 1953 , General Henri Navarre arrived to take command of the French forces , replacing General Raoul Salan . Navarre spoke of a new offensive spirit in Indochina – based on strong , fast @-@ moving forces – and the media quickly took Operation Camargue to be the " practical realization " of that .
= = = Chinese and American backing = = =
Following the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War in 1949 , the Viet Minh established close ties with China . It enabled the Chinese to expand their area of influence into Indochina and the Viet Minh to receive much @-@ needed Chinese equipment and strategic planning support . From mid @-@ 1950 , PRC military advisers were seconded to the Viet Minh at battalion , regimental and divisional levels . The common border meant that " China became a ' sanctuary ' where the Viet Minh could be trained and refitted " . When the Korean War broke out , Indochina became " an important pawn in Cold War strategy " . In December 1950 , the United States , concerned about growing Chinese Communist influence , started providing military aid to the French , with a first payment of US $ 15 million .
In the spring of 1953 , the Viet Minh launched campaigns in Laos and succeeded in linking up Laotian territorial gains with their bases in north @-@ western Vietnam . Meanwhile , the winding down of the Korean War meant that China was able " to give much more attention to its southern neighbour " . Similarly , the US " released from its heavy burden in the Korean conflict ... dramatically increased its military and financial support " to the French . By June 1953 , the US " had sent : 1 @,@ 224 tanks and combat vehicles ; 120 @,@ 792 rifles and machine guns ; more than 200 million rifle and machine gun cartridges ; more than five million artillery projectiles ; 302 boats and 304 aircraft " ( by end of the war , total US aid amounted to nearly four billion dollars ) .
= = Prelude to the battle = =
Route One , also known as Route Coloniale One ( or RC1 ) , had been the main north – south artery along the coastline of Vietnam since the outbreak of violence in 1949 . Communications and convoys along these lines suffered from regular attacks by Viet Minh irregulars , despite efforts by the French during 1952 in Operation Sauterelle . The Viet Minh paramilitary forces around Route One originated mainly from a region of fortified villages dispersed along sand dunes and salt marshes between Hué to the south , and Quang Tri to the north . French forces had suffered from Viet Minh ambushes , an attack that the latter had become very proficient at throughout the war , most notably in the annihilation of Group Mobile 42 in 1950 and of GM 100 in 1954 . The roads in Vietnam were almost all closed during the night and " abandoned to the enemy " . Between 1952 and 1954 , 398 armored vehicles were destroyed , 84 % of them from mines and booby traps . Typically , the Viet Minh ambushed convoys by obstructing the road with a fallen tree or pile of boulders , and then destroying the first and last vehicles of the halted convoy with remote mines . Caltrops , mines and the steep cliff faces naturally found at the road side aided in funneling the target convoy into a small area , where machine guns , mortars and recoilless rifles were trained . Viet Minh Regiment 95 repeatedly deployed these tactics , inflicting severe losses on the French forces passing along Route One , which led to its French nickname of la rue sans joie ( " the Street Without Joy " ) . Regiment 95 was , along with regiments 18 and 101 , part of the Viet Minh Division 325 , commanded by General Tran Quy Ha . The division was formed in 1951 from pre @-@ existing units in Thừa Thiên just north of Route One , and became operational in the summer of 1952 .
By early summer 1953 , thanks in part to the wind @-@ down of hostilities in the Korean War , the French command had " sufficient reserves " at hand to begin clearing the Viet Minh back from Route One . They assembled 30 battalions , two armored regiments and two artillery regiments for one of the largest operations of the conflict . Called Operation Camargue , it was named for the sandy marshland to the west of Marseille , France . The difficult terrain was to prove the decisive factor and gave a major advantage to the one Viet Minh regiment tasked with defending Route One .
From a 100 @-@ meter ( 109 yd ) deep beach of " hard sand " the French landing forces were to advance through a series of dunes . The dunes were up to 20 meters ( 22 yd ) high and interspersed with precipices , ditches and a handful of small villages . Beyond this was an 800 @-@ meter ( 875 yd ) belt of pagodas and temples , which war correspondent Bernard Fall described as having excellent defensive potential . Beyond these temples was Route One itself with a series of closely packed and fortified villages , including Tân An , Mỹ Thủy , Van Trinh and Lai @-@ Ha . This network of villages and hedgerows made both ground and air surveillance difficult . Across from Route One the villages continued amid an area of quicksand , swamps and bogs , which would stop all but a few of the vehicles at the disposal of the French . Although there were roads , most were mined or damaged . Throughout the area , the civilian population remained and provided a further complication for the French high command .
= = = French order of battle = = =
The French divided their forces into four groupement mobiles ( " mobile groups " ) : A through D. Group A consisted of Mobile Group 14 , which contained 3rd Amphibious Group , 2nd Marine Commando , 2nd Battalion 1st Colonial Parachute Regiment , and 3rd Vietnamese Parachute Battalion . Operation Camargue was to be one of the final proving grounds for the use of French armour during the war . It was to land on the beach in line with the center of Route One . Meanwhile , Group B was to advance over land from the west of the north @-@ east facing beach . This group consisted of Mobile Group Central Vietnam 's 6th Moroccan Spahis , 2nd Amphibious Group , a tank platoon from 1st Foreign Cavalry Regiment , and two infantry companies from the Quang @-@ Tri military base . Group C was to advance from the south @-@ west into the back of Van Trinh through the swamps , and consisted of the 9th Moroccan Tabor , 27th Vietnamese Infantry Battalion , 2nd Battalion of the 4th Moroccan Rifle Regiment , 1 Commando , a tank platoon of the Moroccan Colonials , an armoured patrol boat platoon , and an LCM platoon . Group D consisted of 3rd Battalion of the 3rd Algerian Rifles , the 7th Amphibious Group , and a commando group , and was to land at the south @-@ east end of the beach , below Group A. These forces in total formed " two amphibious forces , three land @-@ borne groupments and one airborne force " all of which was commanded by General Leblanc . This French force , vastly outnumbering the Viet Minh regiment opposing it , was tasked with sealing the Communist forces into a tight pocket , and systematically destroying them , as well as capturing as many prisoners , arms caches and as much equipment as possible .
= = Securing Route One = =
= = = French landing = = =
On 27 July 1953 , the French landing craft departed from their assembly points , and by 04 : 00 on the following had begun disembarking 160 amphibious landing craft belonging to Group A 's 3rd Amphibious opposite the coastline . By 06 : 00 , these vehicles had landed on the beach and proceeded to occupy sand ridges overlooking the dunes beyond . Proceeding into the dunes , the vehicles of 3rd Amphibious became stuck in the sand ; in the meantime , other regular infantry elements of Group A were experiencing more difficulties in the sea , taking two extra hours to reach the beach . Thus unsupported , elements of 3rd Amphibious that either disembarked floundering vehicles or were pushed , managed to escape the dunes and advance between Tân An and Mỹ Thủy . The French amphibious vehicles were the World War II @-@ era 29 @-@ C cargo carriers , nicknamed the " crab " or " crabe " and LVT 4 or 4As , known as " alligators " . The latter were armed with two .30 caliber and two .50 caliber Browning machine guns and an M20 recoilless rifle . While the alligators were sufficiently armoured and well suited to the water , they struggled on land . In contrast , the crab had difficulty in water and its large size presented too great a target on land ; however , it was lighter and more maneuverable , except in paddy fields where its suspension became clogged with vegetation .
While Group A 's forward elements were breaching the dune barrier unopposed , two of Group B 's battalions crossed the Van Trịnh Cănal . By 07 : 45 , when they made visual contact with the crabs and alligators of Group A , they had succeeded in sealing off the northern escape route of Regiment 95 . By 08 : 30 , the 6th Moroccan Spahis also reached the canal , having had difficulty crossing the swamps on the landward side with their M24 Chaffee tanks . No French units , as yet , had made any major contact with the Viet Minh . A minor fire @-@ fight had taken place on the southern edge of Group B 's advance when an Algerian company exchanged fire with 20 – 30 Viet Minh and suffered the first French fatalities . Simultaneously , Group C had advanced into the center of the area of operation , and executed " the most complicated maneuver of the operation " . This involved crossing Route One and sealing off the land side of the operational area , and was completed by 08 : 30 .
Group D , finally , was tasked with advancing south from its landing point to close off an escape route that ran between the sea and an inland lagoon towards the city of Hué . Landing at 04 : 30 , the group made quick progress through the beach and dunes , secured the small city of Thé Chi Dong and hit the north coast of the lagoon by 05 : 30 , thereby sealing off that escape route with no enemy contact . The final act of sealing the noose was to move some of the French Navy vessels north to the Vietnamese villages of Ba @-@ Lang and An @-@ Hoi where any attempt by Regiment 95 to flee by sea would have taken place .
= = = Tightening the loop = = =
With the landings and the encirclement of Regiment 95 complete and the net deemed secure , the French forces began the second phase of the operation and began to sweep through the area for the encircled Viet Minh . Each French group began to move through the villages around Route One in an attempt to locate the Viet Minh forces . Group B , which was lined up along the canal – the jump @-@ off point for the second phase of the operation – moved to sweep the northern villages while Group C did the same further south . The method of searching each village was to seal it off entirely with encircling troops , and then inspect it with a heavily armed unit of minesweepers and K @-@ 9 teams . Men of military age were arrested and screened by intelligence officers . This process was time @-@ consuming , and by 11 : 00 Group B had traveled 7 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) through the network of villages with no results or resistance . At this time , the 6th Moroccan Spahis entered the village of Dong @-@ Qué with their M @-@ 24 tanks and the support of the 1st Battalion of the Moroccan Rifles and the artillery of Colonel Piroth ( later commander of the artillery at the battle of Dien Bien Phu ) and his 69th African Artillery Regiment .
The Moroccan infantry took the lead , and the French commanders sealed themselves in their tank turrets and advanced behind . Viet Minh forces , which were waiting in ambush , fired almost the same instant as the lead Moroccan units who noticed their presence . The Moroccan forces spread out into the surrounding rice paddies , and the bazookas of the Viet Minh missed the French tanks . The French commander called in Piroth 's artillery and Dong @-@ Qué " disintegrated under the impact of their high @-@ angle fire " , particularly when a French shell found the Viet Minh ammunition depot . As the French tanks approached , the Viet Minh drove the civilians out to clog up the entrance to the village , however as the Viet Minh retreated they were spotted through the civilians by the Moroccan infantry and killed by 13 : 00 . During this battle , however , most of the Regiment 95 personnel who had been elsewhere managed to escape towards the southern end of the French encirclement . Leblanc had realized the intentions of Regiment 95 's commander , and had requested one of the two reserve paratroop units to be deployed at the border between the network of temples and the dune @-@ filled area in front of where Group D had originally landed . This paratroop unit , 2nd Battalion of the 1st Colonial Parachute Regiment , began to advance towards the canal at 10 : 45 , 15 minutes before Group B entered Dong @-@ Qué .
Group C 's 9th Tabor had also , like the M @-@ 24s of Group B , struggled through the marshes during the first phase of the operation , and were late in arriving at the jumping @-@ off point for phase two , the canal . At 08 : 45 , Moroccan units of Group C were investigating the village of Phu An on the opposite side of the lagoon from Group D 's landing area , when they came under heavy fire . Despite being nearer to Group D , the engaged units radioed their immediate commanders back in Group C , who were by now some distance away , further inland . This delay , coupled with the failure of many of the units ' SCR300 radios , meant that these advance elements of Group C failed to get through until 09 : 10 . At 09 : 40 , the commander of Group C called up various reinforcements from Hué including two companies of Vietnamese trainee NCOs and five infantry companies , two of which came via landing craft and did not reach the beleaguered elements of Group C until 18 : 00 , half an hour after the Moroccans had finally counter @-@ attacked and occupied Phu @-@ An . The 2nd Battalion of the Parachute Chasseurs Regiment had been requested to drop at 14 : 00 to support the advanced elements of Group C but did not jump until 16 : 50 and thus failed to assemble before the Moroccans themselves occupied Phu @-@ An . With the final capture of Phu @-@ An , the extreme southern tip of the encirclement , the pincer movement was complete .
= = = Escape of Regiment 95 = = =
By 17 : 30 , with Phu @-@ An captured , all French reserves now committed , and one half of the pocket fully swept by groups B and A at the northern end of the battlefield , the French appeared to have gained the upper hand . By now , the expected windfall of arms caches and prisoners should have taken place . However , the unexpected time taken to capture Phu @-@ An , and the delayed arrival of the paratroop reinforcements who had been scattered by the winds , had left a gap between Phu @-@ An and the southern edge of the lagoon . This 12 @-@ kilometer ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) gap was eventually covered by only four French battalions , leaving gaps through which the Viet Minh could escape . Crabs and alligators were stationed on , or in some cases in , the canal network , and French infantry were scattered across the edge of the pocket throughout that night in order to detect escaping Viet Minh . However , despite the occasional shot , flare and searchlight , no Viet Minh were detected .
On the morning of 29 July 1953 , the French forces continued to advance into the remaining 23 @-@ square @-@ kilometer ( 9 sq mi ) pocket , encountering neither Viet Minh nor civilian . Groups A , B and D reached the edge of the canal opposite Group C by 13 : 00 , having retrieved a small number of suspected Viet Minh and a " few weapons " . At this time , however , a Morane aircraft detected the movement of elements of Regiment 95 towards An @-@ Hoi on the extreme northern corner of the operational area , outside of the pocket . The French carried out a raid on An @-@ Hoi by commando groups and elements of Group A , which took place at 15 : 00 and returned with suspected Viet Minh by 18 : 00 . The French then undertook a methodical house @-@ to @-@ house search of the entire area , sweeping each village , and the surrounding paddy fields and jungle , risking encounter with Viet Minh caltrops . Meanwhile , 2nd and 3rd amphibious used their crabs and alligators to herd prisoners towards Trung @-@ An for interrogation . By the end of 29 July , with resistance to the French forces having ceased , a general withdrawal of paratroopers , amphibious groups and marines began .
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-@ fifth and last episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 19 , 1996 . In the episode , the Simpson family goes to Ned Flanders family 's beach house . Hanging around with a new set of children , Lisa becomes popular , while Bart is left out . Bart tries to sabotage his sister 's newfound acceptance , but fails .
The episode was written by Dan Greaney and directed by Mark Kirkland . The episode guest stars Christina Ricci , who recorded her lines over the phone instead of going into the studio . The Simpson family 's rented beach house is based on the then @-@ show runner Josh Weinstein 's parents ' house in New Hampshire . The episode features cultural references to Pippi Longstocking , The New Yorker character Eustace Tilley , and Alice and The Hatter from Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 , and was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week .
= = Plot = =
Lisa finds out on the last day of school how unpopular she is when nobody cares enough to sign her yearbook , while Bart makes people feel grateful that he signs theirs . Meanwhile , Ned Flanders offers the Simpson family the use of his beach house in Little Pwagmattasquarmsettport over the summer , though Homer makes Ned work on his faulty septic tank before he agrees . Marge likes the idea and suggests that Bart should bring Milhouse and that Lisa should bring a friend too . However , Lisa has no friends to bring and decides to change her image as a result , deliberately leaving behind her un @-@ stylish wardrobe . After reaching the beach house , Lisa lies to Marge that she forgot to pack , so they go shopping for new clothes . Lisa buys a new set of clothes that she believes will make her look " cool " , and goes to look for some likeminded people her own age . Marge , now feeling left out , decides to focus her parenting on Maggie , who looks worried . Homer , in the meantime , buys a large firework to celebrate Independence Day , only for it to backfire due to a fast @-@ burning fuse ; he initially throws it in the fridge , but changes his mind when he remembers the beer inside and instead chucks it in the dishwasher , causing it to rupture a pipe .
When Lisa succeeds in making friends with a group of local children ( in particular a girl named Erin ) , Bart becomes jealous and complains that they should be his friends . He tries to steal her new friends from her with a skateboarding display , but they find his effort pathetic and shun him , which Bart blames on Milhouse . Lisa is then spending more time with her new friends , to the point where they hold a beach party to celebrate the 4th of July . Bart then decides to take revenge by showing her friends the yearbook and all of Lisa 's deeply nerdy real pastimes . As her new friends stare in shock at Lisa 's nerdy hobbies , Lisa runs off in tears .
The next morning , Lisa is furious with Bart for exposing her true self . She is about to pour maple syrup in Bart 's eyes when Marge tells them about a carnival happening later that evening . They all go , but Bart and Lisa continue to bicker and fight , right up to when they ride the bumper cars and Bart rams Lisa 's car out of the arena . Feeling dejected , Lisa decides to leave , concluding that she was probably never meant to have friends , and Bart feels guilty for hurting Lisa . When Lisa returns to the beach house , she finds her friends in the act of seemingly vandalizing the Simpsons ' car . Thinking it 's some sort of cruel prank , she simply tells them to finish it and leave , but it 's then revealed they were actually decorating the car with sea shells in her honor , at which point they tell her they don 't care that she 's smart because she 's a good person and they learned stuff from her . Lisa is thrilled , but Homer shows up and screams in horror at how his car got messed up . Before leaving Bart presents Lisa with her yearbook , which now has wonderful messages from her new friends and even Milhouse . He reveals he felt guilty for hurting her , so he explained his behavior to her new friends and asked them to sign her yearbook . Lisa forgives Bart , while Marge tells Homer that the kids should 've cleaned out the shells before gluing them to the car , as the Simpsons are followed by seagulls trying to eat the mollusks inside .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Dan Greaney , and directed by Mark Kirkland . It was Greaney 's second episode on The Simpsons . The staff of the show wanted to do a summer episode because there was " so much stuff " about summer vacations that they felt had to be covered in an episode . David Silverman , one of the show 's animators , particularly likes the episode because he thinks it captures the feel of being on summer vacation .
The area in which the Flanders family 's beach house is located in is based on the Cape Cod peninsula . Many of the writers of The Simpsons spent time on Cape Cod so they decided to model the new locations on it . The animators looked at Cape Cod photographs to get inspiration for the episode , and one of the show 's background designers , Lance Wilder , grew up in that area . The beach house is based on the then @-@ show runner Josh Weinstein 's parents ' house in New Hampshire , to which the writers had paid visit many times . They played several board games when they were there , which gave them the idea to have to the Simpson family play the Mystery Date board game in the episode . Silverman said that the episode was difficult to animate and direct because it had so many new and detailed backgrounds and completely different locations .
American actress Christina Ricci guest starred in the episode as Erin , one of Lisa 's new friends . Ricci was not able to come to the recording studio , so she recorded all of her lines over the phone . Weinstein , who was a fan of Ricci , thought she did a nice performance in the episode .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's title is a parody of the 1971 film Summer of ' 42 . Lisa has a daydream in which the following fictional characters appear : Pippi Longstocking , The New Yorker character Eustace Tilley , and Alice and The Hatter from Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland . Milhouse compares Lisa 's new appearance to the character Blossom from the American television series Blossom . TeeJay 's ZayMart is a spoof of defunct retailer Zayre and parent company T.J. Maxx . Homer replicates a scene from the 1973 film American Graffiti when he buys some embarrassing products at the store in order to get some illegal fireworks . The Mystery Date board game that the family is forced to play is an actual Milton Bradley Company board game from the 1960s . Weinstein recalled playing it as a child and claim it to be " a very disappointing game to play as a little boy " because of the female target audience . The ending music of American Graffiti , " All Summer Long " by The Beach Boys , is also played at the end of the episode .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Summer of 4 Ft . 2 " finished forty @-@ second ( tied with Melrose Place and Married ... with Children ) in the ratings for the week of May 13 to May 19 , 1996 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 8 . The episode was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week ( tied with Melrose Place and Married ... With Children ) , following The X @-@ Files .
Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from fans and television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " This episode will strike a chord with anyone that 's ever tried to fit in with the crowd [ ... ] Lisa gets to show the many facets of her character , and there 's a superb slapstick sequence as Homer tries to dispose of a firework . " Dave Foster of DVD Times praised the episode and said : " The episode is quite simply my favourite Lisa episode regardless of season . From calm to cool and fiercely aggressive , we 've rarely seen Lisa so enticing as we do here , and the episode 's many elements including the side stories for the other family members culminate in one of the finest this season has to offer . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson enjoyed the episode and said that he likes how it addresses Bart 's resentment of Lisa 's popularity . " Granted , it makes [ Bart ] a little too mean , but it 's entertaining , " he added . Jacobson went on to say : " Marge gets the best moment again , as I love watching her non @-@ violent approach to the bumper cars . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best parts of the episode to be the scenes that feature Milhouse , particularly his yearbook message to Lisa and the scene with the Mystery Date board game . She concluded her review by giving the episode a grade of A.
= Roswell High School ( Georgia ) =
Roswell High School ( RHS ) is a public high school in Roswell , Georgia , USA which opened in 1949 . It serves the entire city of Roswell west of Georgia 400 and the city of Mountain Park , as well as small portions of Alpharetta and Milton . With a population of over of 2 @,@ 233 students in the 2013 – 2014 school year , RHS is one of the largest schools in the Fulton County School System . Roswell High School neighbors both Fellowship Christian School and Blessed Trinity Catholic High School . It is also the second oldest of Fulton County 's schools in the northern portion of the county , opening between Milton High School ( 1921 ) , and Chattahoochee High School ( 1991 ) . Roswell is currently on its third campus , which opened in 1990 . The current building is the oldest in use high school building in north Fulton .
The school offers students many extracurricular activities , including 72 clubs , 11 academic teams , and various services clubs . Some other activities meet as elective classes such as musical groups , drama , and art . These classes are supplemented by after @-@ school rehearsals , meetings , and outside concerts . Students also have the option to compete in the school 's 42 Varsity , Junior Varsity , and Freshman athletic programs .
Roswell is a member of the Georgia High School Association ( GHSA ) and Region 5 @-@ AAAAAA for athletic competition as of the 2013 @-@ 2014 academic year . The school 's mascot is the Hornets and the colors are green , white and black . The school offers 16 different sports comprising 23 varsity level teams . Eight of the Roswell Hornet teams have won state championships , totaling 20 overall . The most championships won by a single team is seven , accomplished by the girls ' gymnastics program .
= = History = =
Roswell High School first opened in 1949 and is the second oldest high school in Fulton County north of the Chattahoochee River . Like the city of Roswell , the school bears the name of Roswell King . King founded the cotton mill that would eventually be the city 's economic backbone for much of its early history . The immediate predecessor to Roswell High School was the Roswell Public School on Mimosa Boulevard , which housed grades 1 – 10 and opened in the 1892 after the Georgia General Assembly passed Act No. 51 on December 20 , 1892 , allowing the city to elect a school board and levy taxes for support of the school . Students from outside the city limits were required to pay tuition . In 1896 , the city council and mayor were authorized by the state to issue $ 5 @,@ 000 in bonds to build a new school building .
In 1914 , the existing school was torn down and two new structures were built . Since schools were segregated at that time , a two @-@ story brick building was constructed on Mimosa Boulevard to house the white students in grades 1 through 10 , and a one @-@ room wooden building was built on Pleasant Hill Avenue for black students in grades 1 through 7 . The Pleasant Hill facility also served as a meeting place for a local lodge and the Pleasant Hill Baptist Church until the church built its own facility across the street in 1922 . Grade 11 was added in the 1920s to the Mimosa Boulevard school . Black students who progressed past grade 7 could then attend Washington High School in Atlanta .
During the Great Depression , the city of Roswell was annexed into Fulton County from Cobb County as part of its 1932 combination with Milton County and Campbell County . Roswell students in grades ten and eleven were then sent to Milton High School in Alpharetta or North Fulton High School in Atlanta to finish their secondary education ( which ended upon completion of grade 11 ) .
In 1949 , the Mimosa Boulevard building was demolished , and a new school was built on the existing site to allow the 10th and 11th grades to return to Roswell as the inaugural Roswell High School . G.W. Adams was the first principal and oversaw the addition of more rooms to the school over the next few years . During this growth , the Baptist , Presbyterian and Methodist churches also located on Mimosa Boulevard were used to house auxiliary classrooms . Also in 1949 , the high school began participating in athletics with a varsity basketball team and other senior high school extracurricular activities . In 1950 , Roswell High School added grade 12 as part of state @-@ wide standard for high schools and played its first varsity football season . The first graduating class graduated in the spring of 1951 .
Construction began nearby on Alpharetta Highway near the present @-@ day Roswell City Hall on a new campus . That facility opened in the fall of 1954 and allowed the high school ( grades 8 – 12 ) to physically separate from the elementary school ( grades 1 – 7 ) . Roswell High 's second campus was designed by the architecture firm Stevens & Wilkinson , which innovated school designs and utilized a " finger plan " to improve functionality of the school . It had a capacity of 400 students and had facilities for industrial arts , shop , music halls , science labs , art room , indoor gymnasium , athletic fields , a football stadium , and a track . The primary school remained in the Mimosa Boulevard building as Roswell Elementary . As of 2007 , the brick elementary building is part of an expanded structure still owned by the Fulton County School System , and it houses the Crossroads Second Chance North Alternative School and the Teaching Museum North . Roswell High remained at the Alpharetta Highway campus until the fall of 1990 when the current campus on King Road was opened .
= = Campus = =
The current campus is the third that Roswell High School has occupied . It opened in the fall of 1990 on King Road , just off of Highway 92 , with an enrollment of nearly 2 @,@ 000 students . It is the oldest high school building in North Fulton . The new campus was expanded with a football stadium and softball field added in 1994 and an auditorium in 1995 , paid for by the RHS Foundation . The campus includes science , computer , video , and cosmetology labs ; baseball and softball fields , a stadium for football and soccer , a lacrosse field , an additional practice field , a dome style gymnasium , a cross country trail , and lighted tennis courts for athletics .
In 2008 the Roswell gymnasium was named one of the top high school gyms in the nation . Cited was the domed rotunda , the hanging four sided scoreboard , and locker room facilities .
On February 2 , 2007 , Roswell High had a groundbreaking ceremony for an expansion project . The 23 @,@ 851 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 215 @.@ 8 m2 ) expansion added ten new classrooms , including science labs and a new band room . This increased the school to a 1 @,@ 900 student official capacity with the state . The addition also reduced some of the need for portable classrooms , but portable units were still utilized after the expansion to handle Roswell 's enrollment ( 2400 students as of 2007 ) . Construction officially began on February 5 , 2007 . The addition was paid for by a one @-@ cent Special @-@ purpose local @-@ option sales tax ( SPLOST ) . Additional improvements to RHS for additional safety and security features , technology and curriculum equipment enhancements , and athletic facilities upgrades were to be implemented as part of third SPLOST approved by Fulton County voters on March 20 , 2007 .
In 2014 , Roswell High School began renovating its main entrance . The main office and front desk were relocated as a safety measure for the administration . The security office was also relocated to be near the main entrance . Due to the renovation , trailer one was removed from the property . The renovation took down the metal covering leading from the carpool drop off to the main entrance .
Roswell High School also added a new exterior with a stone face and large front @-@ facing windows . Small interior changes included new bathroom fixtures and tile .
= = Students and faculty = =
In the 2007 – 2008 school year , Roswell 's enrollment was 2 @,@ 428 . In that year , the student population was 68 % white , 15 % African American , 12 % Hispanic , and 1 % Asian . Roswell has a relatively large immigrant population , including students from Russia and other former Soviet republics , Korea , and African nations . More recent demographic data shows a student population composed of 63 % white , 14 percent Hispanic , 14 percent African American , 5 percent Asian , and 4 percent American Indian . According to 2007 statistics , 92 percent of the school 's graduates go on to colleges and universities across the United States . The school 's current student enrollment is 2 @,@ 436 . As of 2007 , Roswell 's faculty had 246 full @-@ time teachers , with 85 % holding an advanced degree .
Roswell High School is the highest @-@ level school in Fulton County 's Roswell Cluster . The schools that feed into Roswell include Hembree Springs , Mimosa , Mountain Park , Roswell North , and Sweet Apple Elementary Schools . The middle schools that feed into Roswell are Crabapple Middle School and Elkins Pointe Middle School . Also included in the Roswell Cluster is the Crossroads Second Chance North Alternative School , which serves northern Fulton County students in grades six through twelve .
= = Academics = =
RHS is a part of the Fulton County School System and is accredited by the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and the Georgia Department of Education .
Roswell was named a National Blue Ribbon School in 1997 – 1998 by the United States Department of Education . It was also designated a Georgia School of Excellence in 1996 .
26 Advanced Placement Program ( AP ) classes are offered , and SAT as well as ACT scores regularly exceed the national and state average . For the 2005 – 2006 school year , Roswell 's average SAT score was 1663 with the new SAT scoring system , which ranked Roswell third in the Fulton County School System and sixth in Metro Atlanta . The Georgia state average was 1477 while the national average was 1518 . 477 students took AP exams in 2005 , with 84 % receiving the necessary score ( 3 or higher ) to earn college credit . Nationally , only 60 % score high enough to earn college credits . Three RHS students were named National Merit Scholars in 2005 .
Roswell 's academic success has brought national recognition . In 2006 , the school was ranked the # 472 school in Newsweek Magazine 's top 1 @,@ 200 schools , ranking in the top 3 % nationally . Roswell was third on the list among Fulton County 's 12 high schools .
Roswell offers a unique curriculum with many electives not offered anywhere else in the county . The school 's unique course offerings include the Career Tech diploma track , robotics , psychology , archaeology , and foreign languages . The Foreign Language department offers French , Spanish , Latin , German , and Japanese , and was honored in the January 2007 issue of Atlanta Magazine for offering the most foreign language courses in the Atlanta area . RHS students participated in the 2007 Annual Japanese Challenge Academic Bowl and won the most awards of any school at the competition .
In 2007 , RHS Senior Maia Bageant was named as one of 141 Presidential Scholars by the United States Department of Education . In 2008 , Roswell High was one of 23 Georgia schools recognized by state school superintendent Kathy Cox as an AP Merit School ( 20 % of students taking AP exams , 50 % or more of those receiving a score of three or higher ) . Also in 2008 , Roswell High School student Ishna Sharma was named as one of only 139 Presidential Scholars . RHS student Anand Srinivasan received the Kroger Pinnacle Award in 2014 , the top award given at the state @-@ wide annual Georgia Science and Engineering Fair .
U.S. News & World Report ranked Roswell High 162nd in its 2014 list of best high schools for the academic disciplines of science , technology , engineering , and mathematics ( STEM ) and 339th on the 2014 list of best high schools in the United States .
= = = Career Tech = = =
The Career Tech department at Roswell High is made up of Broadcast and Video Production , Cosmetology , Family and Consumer Sciences , Diversified Technology , Pre @-@ Engineering , Business Education , and JROTC . Through this department , students may take three consecutive years of one of the branches to obtain a Career Technology High School Diploma in place of a College Prep Diploma . Courses cover diverse topics such as culinary arts , business , computers , interior design , and introduction to education and early childhood care .
= = = = Broadcast and Video Production = = = =
The Broadcast and Video Production department is designed to teach students about the television industry . Using a hands @-@ on method , students learn about all aspects of television from pre @-@ production to production to post @-@ production . The facility is made up of a working television studio , a large control room , six edit rooms ( each equipped with both linear and non @-@ linear editing systems ) , a radio station , and a normal classroom . Students in the program learn to produce everything from commercials and PSAs to dramas , news shows , and sporting events . The advanced classes produce a weekly news show , the Morning Buzz , which airs at the beginning of the day . The Broadcast and Video department supports the student @-@ run radio station , WRHS the Hive , the film club , and the yearly School House Rock concert .
= = = JROTC = = =
Roswell High School offers a Junior Reserve Officers ' Training Corps ( JROTC ) program . This helps students improve their grades , be more responsible , and hone leadership skills . The program at Roswell High School also offers extracurricular activities , including Drill Team , Raider Team , and Rifle Team .
The Drill Team provides students in the JROTC program the opportunity to learn how to properly follow orders by executing various complex series of commands given by the team 's captain . The sabre and color guards are a part of the drill team and present the colors ( national and state flags ) at various school and community events , or honor people of great importance . The Drill Team also represents the school in competitions .
The Raider Team is intended to improve the physical fitness of cadets ; they go through many exercises included in physical training , such as push ups , sit ups , pull ups , flexed arm hang , crunches , the one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) run , and litter carry . The Raider Team enters various competitions , winning a championship in 2006 – 2007 .
The Rifle team is jointly run by the JROTC program and the Athletics Department , and represents the school in the Olympic sport of riflery . The team won the Region 6 championship six straight years between 1996 and 2001 . The team finished second in the state in 2000 finishing with a score of 1142 . State champion East Coweta High School finished with a score of 1150 .
= = = Fine arts = = =
Roswell High School offers fine arts opportunities in art , band , chorus , drama , and orchestra . The groups meet throughout the year as elective classes and extracurricular activities , and hold many events . These include performances at football games , murals painted in the school 's halls , concerts , plays , and a spring musical jointly put on by the drama and choral departments .
The drama department annually hosts Short Attention Span Theatre , featuring plays , shorts , and monologues which written , casted , directed , and produced by RHS students .
= = = = Chorus = = = =
Roswell Choruses have performed on numerous occasions for the Georgia Music Educator 's Association and sang at the 2003 Southern Division of the Music Educator 's National Conference in Savannah , Georgia . The Singing Hornets have performed concerts at Notre Dame , St. Peter 's Basilica , Carnegie Hall , and Disney World . They have performed with professional orchestras , including the Atlanta Symphony Youth Orchestra and Orchestra Atlanta . Each year , the Roswell Choral Music Program receives invitations for students to participate in the Georgia All @-@ State Chorus and the Governor 's Honors Program . Ensembles include the Chamber Singers , Vocal Jazz , Advanced Women 's , and Advanced Men 's Choirs .
= = = = Band = = = =
The Roswell High School band department contains the marching band , wind ensemble , symphonic band , pep band , jazz band , and percussion ensemble . The marching band performs for all varsity football games and has competitions throughout the fall , as well as parade appearances . The marching band competes in Class AAA and in 2008 placed third overall in the Georgia Invitational Band Championship . In 2009 the wind ensemble , which was one of only three selected , will take part in the Honor Bands of Georgia program hosted at Columbus State University in Columbus , Georgia . The program is an educational opportunity for the bands participating and is meant to further music education in the state .
= = = Hornet Advisory Program = = =
The Hornet Advisory Program aims to help freshmen adjust to high school life . It brings together faculty advisers , academic counselors , and upperclassmen students to act as mentors to freshmen and acclimate them to Roswell High School . The program meets with students three times a week .
= = Extracurricular activities = =
Roswell High School offers students a variety of options to get involved in the school . Roswell sponsors sports teams in fifteen different sports as well as several club sports . Students can also participate in service clubs , academic clubs , and general interests clubs for a variety of tastes and preferences .
= = = Athletics = = =
The Roswell High mascot is the Hornet and the school colors are green , black , and white . The Hornets compete in 16 sports at the varsity level , with additional teams competing at the junior varsity and 9th grade level . 11 sports are available to boys , 10 are for girls , and 2 are co @-@ ed . Overall , 23 teams compete at varsity level , with 43 total .
The Hornets have won multiple state titles in athletics , including three each in football and baseball , and two in boys ' basketball . Roswell 's most successful girls ' team is gymnastics , which has won seven state championships ( 1997 , 2000 – 2003 , 2005 , 2007 ) . In 1970 @-@ 71 Roswell completed a three @-@ peat in the GHSA , winning a state title ( including a back @-@ to @-@ back campaign in baseball ) in baseball , basketball , and football within 12 months of each other . In total the Roswell Hornets have won 19 team state championship titles in the school 's 23 sports .
Since its inception , Roswell 's traditional rival has been Milton , the oldest high school in northern Fulton County . The Roswell / Milton series is the most @-@ played high school football rivalry in metro Atlanta , with the 2014 game marking the sixtieth meeting between the schools . The two have competed since 1950 in every sport the two schools offer . In 1963 a fight broke out between the fans of the schools at a football game and the series was banned for several years . The football series then went uninterrupted from 1970 – 1997 but was temporarily ended when the GHSA moved Milton to a different Region , which made scheduling difficult . The series was reinstated in 2000 when Milton and Roswell were again in Region 6 @-@ AAAAA . Since 1950 , Roswell has held a 34 – 21 – 1 advantage over their arch rival in football , including winning seven straight from 2001 @-@ 2007 . The 2008 meeting was won by Milton , 20 @-@ 19 . Roswell won a series record 14 straight games from 1983 – 1995 . Roswell 's very first football game was against Milton , a 14 @-@ 0 win on September 22 , 1950 . The largest margin of victory in the series also belongs to Roswell , a 45 @-@ 0 victory on October 26 , 2007 .
In lacrosse , the series records are the opposite ; Roswell has a losing record to its arch rival in lacrosse . The closest sport in the rivalry is gymnastics , in which the two teams have combined for eleven state titles ( seven Roswell , four Milton ) and for seven years from 1997 to 2003 one of the two teams won every state championship . In other sports with records available , Roswell 's boys ' soccer team has gone 5 – 0 – 1 against Milton since 2004 while the girls ' soccer team has gone 2 – 4 against the Eagles . 2008 saw the Hornet soccer teams record a sweep over the Milton Eagles for the second straight year . On October 22 , 2008 , the Atlanta Journal Constitution named the Roswell @-@ Milton rivalry as the 7th best football rivalry in the state . Reasons cited included the age of the rivalry and the fight in 1963 . In 2013 the rivals played for the state baseball championship . Milton ultimately ended up winning the state championship in extra innings by one run in front of an overflow crowd . It marked the second straight year a team from the rival schools faced off for a state title , as the girls ' lacrosse teams did so in 2012 .
Roswell has also developed a strong rivalry with Centennial High School , the city 's other public high school , in which the two teams play for the Roswell Cup in football , the series starting in 2000 . In soccer , Centennial is the bigger rival than Milton . Roswell Football holds a 9 – 2 record over Centennial . On the soccer pitch , Roswell girls have a 3 – 3 record with the Knights since 2004 , while the boys hold a 1 – 5 record during that time period .
Other significant rivals include Chattahoochee , Lassiter , and Alpharetta . Blessed Trinity is Roswell 's closest rival as the two are less than a mile apart ; it is also the newest rival . The two schools started an annual series in soccer in 2007 . They have met three times in soccer , with the boys ' record being tied 1 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 and the girls ' record being 0 @-@ 1 @-@ 2 for Roswell .
For the 2005 – 2006 school year , Roswell 's overall athletic program finished 25th in the state 's Director 's Cup standings , which measures the top athletic programs in the state . When ranking just the boys ' teams , Roswell finished 13th in the state .
As of the 2014 @-@ 2015 season , Roswell varsity teams compete in the eight team Region 5 @-@ AAAAAA . The AAAAAA classification was created for the 2012 @-@ 2013 season by the GHSA for the largest schools in the state . Roswell was previously a member of Region 6 @-@ AAAAA since its inception in 2000 with the addition of class AAAAA , although Roswell 's region opponents have varied . Prior to joining AAAAA , Roswell was in Region 6 @-@ AAAA for 12 years from 1988 until 1999 . The current members of Region 6 include county rivals Alpharetta , Centennial , and Milton . Teams from neighboring Cobb are Campbell , Kell , Lassiter , Pope , Walton , and Wheeler . Region realignment for the 2010 @-@ 2011 school year kept Roswell in Region 6 , along with Alpharetta , Centennial , and Milton . North Fulton school Northview joined the other four Fulton schools , along with the North Forsyth Raiders and West Forsyth Wolverines of Forsyth County , to create a seven @-@ team region .
Roswell offers all GHSA sponsored sports . Various programs offer teams at the varsity , JV , and freshman levels . Such sports for boys include football , baseball , basketball and lacrosse . Girls ' teams with all three levels are basketball and volleyball . Sports offering varsity and JV teams include cross country , golf , soccer , tennis , and track and field for both genders . Softball and lacrosse are such programs for girls while wrestling is such a program for boys . Swimming & diving is only varsity for both genders , while gymnastics is offered at the varsity level for girls . Roswell offers two co @-@ ed sports , competition cheerleading and riflery ; both are solely varsity teams .
= = = = Traditions = = = =
Every fall students are encouraged to wear their class colors on football game day Fridays to show their school spirit . The days of Homecoming Week are themed , and students dress up to win spirit points for their class , culminating in the Friday class color day and pep rally . On Wednesday or Thursday night of Homecoming Week , students decorate the halls of the school by class to reflect the theme of the dance . Each hall is judged , with the winning class receiving spirit points . On game days , the Roswell Marching Band plays the school 's fight song as they march through the halls . Roswell 's fight song is a version of the " Washington and Lee Swing . " Seniors dress up in camouflage every Friday for school and for the football games .
The senior class of 2010 brought the " Flour Toss " tradition to Roswell . At every kickoff of the Friday football games , students anticipate the kick , each holding fistfuls of white flour . As soon as the player kicks the ball , hands go up in the air , releasing the flour , creating a cloud of white to welcome the opposing team .
= = = = Football = = = =
Roswell 's football team has won three State Championships ( 1968 , 1970 , and 2006 ) , two State Runner @-@ Ups ( 1956 and 2015 ) , and ten Region Championships , the latest in 2015 . Since 1950 Roswell has a combined record of 405 – 244 – 7 . Roswell football history started in 1950 when a spring practice and game was held . During the fall of that year , Roswell posted a 4 – 2 record , including two wins over arch rival Milton .
Coach Bill Yoast began building Roswell 's football success when he came to coach the Hornets in 1954 . In two years he got Roswell to the 1956 State Championship game , which Roswell lost to Monticello . He stayed at the school until 1960 , when he left for Virginia .
Roswell 's first and so far only undefeated season was in 1968 , when sophomore quarterback Jeff Bower led the Hornets to a 13 – 0 season and the football team 's first State Championship . It was the most wins for a season in school history until 2006 , when that state championship team went 13 – 1 – 1 , tying the 1968 team in wins . Two years later , in 1970 , Roswell won a state title with a 12 – 2 record with Jeff Bower again leading the team . He also won state championships in baseball in 1970 and 1971 and basketball in 1971 . Bower would go on to a long career as a football coach , most notably as the head coach of Southern Miss from 1990 to 2007 .
Roswell 's coach with the best record is Ray Manus , who was head coach for 23 seasons ( 1975 – 97 ) . and had a record of 141 – 102 – 1 . After retiring as head coach , Coach Manus returned to the team as an assistant in 2004 , and the stadium was officially named after him that year as well . Though he never won a state title as head coach , Manus was on the coaching staff for all three titles .
In 2006 , after a 35 year absence from being at the top of the state , the Hornets recaptured a state title for the first time in 36 years . The team finished the regular season 9 – 1 and the # 2 seed in the playoffs from Region 6 @-@ AAAAA . Roswell continued to win in the state playoffs , including a 10 @-@ 9 win over defending State Runner @-@ Up Brookwood High School , and won the right to play for a State Championship by defeating Tift County in the Georgia Dome state semi @-@ finals . Roswell was eventually crowned state co @-@ champion after a controversial 14 @-@ 14 tie against the Peachtree Ridge Lions . The Hornets finished the season 13 – 1 – 1 . Roswell players won many post @-@ season accolades , including quarterback Dustin Taliaferro , who made the Atlanta Journal Constitution and Associated Press All @-@ State First team , and running back Alex Daniel ( All @-@ State Honorable Mention ) .
The Roswell Hornets began the 2007 season ranked # 1 in Class AAAAA and nationally ranked by three publications , including a # 8 ranking by Rivals.com. The Hornets finished 2007 with a 10 – 3 record . Of the three losses Walton made the state semifinals and Lowndes became state champions . The Hornets finished the season ranked # 6 in the state by the AJC and # 5 by the AP . Eight members of the 2007 football team received collegiate scholarships , and six of those signees will attend Division I Football Bowl Subdivision schools .
Coach Tim McFarlin resigned as the head coach in the spring of 2008 . Over his ten @-@ year tenure as head coach , Roswell compiled a record of 82 – 34 – 1 , won a share of the 5A state championship in 2006 , reached the state high school playoffs seven times and won two region championships . In 2006 , he was named State AAAAA Coach of the Year . McFarlin was an assistant football coach with the Hornets for 17 years before becoming head coach in 1998 . Roswell hired Leo Barker , defensive coordinator under McFarlin for the 2006 and 2007 seasons , as the head coach for the 2008 season . Barker was the tenth head coach of the Roswell Hornets and served in that position for the 2009 and 2010 seasons before resigning .
Leo Barker 's first season at Roswell , 2008 , ended with a 5 @-@ 5 record and the Hornets just missing the playoffs . In his second season the Hornets rebounded and had a 9 @-@ 1 regular season record , finishing second in Region 6 @-@ AAAAA behind Lassiter who defeated the Hornets 45 @-@ 24 . The Hornets made it to the second round of the playoffs , falling to the # 1 state ranked Grayson High School 24 @-@ 14 , giving Roswell a 10 @-@ 2 record for 2009 .
Justin Sanderson , the assistant head coach under Barker , was promoted to head coach for the 2011 season . After compiling a 3 @-@ 17 record in 2 seasons , Sanderson was replaced after the 2012 season with John Ford . As of the 2014 season , Ford is the current head football coach at RHS .
= = = = Gymnastics = = = =
Roswell 's gymnastics program has won a total of seven state championships since 1997 , including four straight from 2000 – 2003 . Roswell 's seven state titles is second in the sports history behind only Lakeside , Dekalb 's nine . The 2006 team finished third in the state , and in 2007 Roswell won their seventh state championship in the sport on April 27 at Westminster , defeating arch rival Milton by only 1 @.@ 55 points despite having no gymnasts winning an individual championship . The 2007 team , however , placed at least one gymnast in the top six of each apparatus , including Annie Turner , who placed second in the All @-@ Around , third on vault and bars , and fifth on floor . Two Roswell gymnasts finished second and sixth on the balance beam . In 2008 the Hornets finished fourth in the state .
= = = = Lacrosse = = = =
Along with rival Centennial , Roswell became one of the first two public schools in the state to offer lacrosse in 1999 . Roswell was the host of the first GHSA sponsored tournament in May 2002 . The school was one of only six to field a women 's team in 1999 , along with Centennial and several private schools . The 2006 Boys Lacrosse team made the state playoffs for the first time by finishing second in their region , and made it to the second round . In 2008 , the Roswell Lacrosse program added a freshman boys ' team , the first such team in the state . Another milestone for the Roswell Lacrosse team came in 2008 when Michael Bender was named an All @-@ American , the first Roswell lacrosse player to be given that honor .
In 2013 , the boys ' team took a big step forward , making it to the state semifinals before falling to Lambert 17 @-@ 6 . The following year , Roswell went into the state playoffs as a 2 seed from Region 2 . They beat East Coweta in the first round , and then beat their cross @-@ town rival and the defending state champion , Centennial . They would then beat Walton at home , which led to a rematch of the previous years semi @-@ final match up against Lambert in the State Championship . In Ray Manus Stadium , with over 5 @,@ 000 fans in attendance , Roswell captured its first Boys ' Lacrosse State Championship , defeating the Lambert Longhorns 6 @-@ 5 . They finished the season 17 @-@ 3 and were ranked by the Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution as the # 1 team in the state of Georgia . They were ranked the # 8 team in the South by Nike .
The Roswell Girls ' Lacrosse team made the state playoffs for the first time in 2009 . They made the second round of the state playoffs , falling to eventual champion Chattahoochee . The team finished with a 13 @-@ 5 @-@ 1 record and ranked # 5 in the state .
= = = = Other athletic programs = = = =
The Hornet baseball program has won three state titles . The team has been a state playoff participant and has been ranked nationally by such sources as USA Today Top 100 and Baseball America . For the 2007 season , Roswell 's team was ranked in the pre @-@ season nationally . The Hornets ' state championships in baseball were won in 1970 , 1971 , and 1986 . They finished second in the state in 1969 , 1976 , and 2013 . The 1986 state championship team holds the record for the most wins in program history at 29 .
Roswell 's boys ' golf team has one state title , taking first place in 1990 . In 2006 , Roswell finished second when rain canceled the second of the two @-@ round tournament . Coach Tim McFarlin led the 2006 State Runner @-@ Up team just seven months before taking the football team to the 2006 State Championship .
Roswell 's track & field program has won two boys ' state championships in 1959 and in 1961 . The 1959 State Championship in track was the school 's first state championship in any sport . The program hosts the annual Roswell Relays track meet and the Region 6 @-@ AAAAA Track Championships . The cross country program saw the girls ' team finish eighth in the state in 2007 . Roswell also won a Track and Field State Championship in 1961 . The track team partners annually with the Rotary Club of Roswell to hold the Roswell Rotary Relays .
Roswell won two state championships in boys basketball in 1971 and 1997 and in slow @-@ pitch softball in 1992 . The softball state title was the first for a girls ' team at Roswell .
= = = Clubs = = =
As of the 2012 @-@ 2013 academic year , RHS offers students many extracurricular activities catering to the school 's diverse interests , including 72 clubs , 11 academic teams , and service clubs .
Clubs include academic honor societies , political interests , service clubs , social / general interest clubs , and non @-@ varsity sport clubs . Service clubs include Key Club , Anchor Club , Animal Rescue Club , and the Habitat For Humanity Club , which raises funds and builds houses in conjunction with the local Habitat chapter . Academic clubs include Art Club , Art National Honor Society , Beta Club , and National Honor Society . Political interest clubs are the Peace Activists Club , Young Democrats , Young Republicans , and Shanti , which attempts to eliminate teenage apathy . Competitive clubs include the two @-@ time state champion Fencing Team , Roswell Ice Hockey Club , Ultimate Frisbee Club , Policy Debate Team , Breakdance Team , and the Unique Dance team .
General interest clubs include the Medical Club for students interested in medical careers , Chess Club , Cycling Club , Future Business Leaders of America , Fellowship of Christian Athletes , Fly Fishing Club , International Club Latino Club , Russian Club , Video Game Club , Writing Club , and Friends Club , which brings students with disabilities and regular education students together .
The school is served by the elected Student Council .
= = = Publications and media outlets = = =
Established in 1983 , The Sting is the school 's official student newspaper and is a member of the Georgia Scholastic Press Association . The monthly publication has been recognized on multiple occasions by the GSPA and the Henry W. Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication at the University of Georgia . The newspaper features news , editorials , opinions , features , entertainment , and sports . The staff also maintains the paper 's related website .
The student literary magazine the Helicon is produced by the school 's literary magazine staff . The magazine is published once each semester and features student @-@ created poetry , short stories , essays , photos , and artwork . The Helicon has also received multiple awards from the GSPA .
The student @-@ published yearbook is the Mimosan , and the student @-@ run radio station is WRHS The Hive .
= = Notable people = =
Coach Bill Yoast , portrayed by Will Patton in the movie Remember the Titans , was a Roswell High football coach from 1954 – 1960 before leaving for Virginia . Game film from Roswell is used in several scenes in the movie .
Former Roswell baseball and football coach Charlie Horne , who coached the Hornets from 1967 – 1974 , was named to the Georgia Athletics Coaches Association Hall of Fame in June 2007 . At Roswell he led the football and baseball teams to the 1968 and 1970 State Football Championships as well as the 1970 and 1971 baseball championships .
= = = Notable alumni = = =
Grover Babcock , film producer and director , Atlanta Film Festival and Sundance Film Festival winner for Best Documentary , Gotham Awards and Full Frame Documentary Film Festival award winner , and Hamptons International Film Festival nominee
Jimmy Barthmaier , MLB pitcher for the Pittsburgh Pirates
Justin Bolli , professional golfer
Jeff Bower , head football coach at The University of Southern Mississippi 1990 – 2007
Kim Burse , musical director for Beyoncé , composer , producer
Filippo Chillemi , Univ. of Notre Dame soccer 2000 – 2004 , US National Team member 1998 – 2002 , professionally in Italy with F.C. Matera , F.C. Olbia , and Empoli F.C. 2004 @-@ 2006 . Played in the 1999 FIFA U @-@ 17 World Championship where the US finished in fourth place .
Jay Clark , head coach for the Georgia gymnastics program at the University of Georgia 2009 – 2012
Alec Kessler , former NBA first round pick
Bryan Konietzko , Annie Award @-@ nominated , Daytime Emmy Award @-@ nominated , and Emmy Award @-@ nominated co @-@ creator and executive producer of Avatar : The Last Airbender
Carl Nyman , Emmy Award @-@ nominated art director
Jermaine Phillips , Tampa Bay Buccaneers safety , played during the Super Bowl victory of 2002
Tony Phillips , Major League Baseball player from 1982 – 1999
Steve Prouty , Academy Award @-@ nominated and Emmy Award @-@ nominated special effects and make @-@ up artist
Mike Ramsey , Major League Baseball infielder
Ken Ray , Major League Baseball player
Chris Reis , National Football League safety with the New Orleans Saints
Brad Schrade , Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning investigative reporter for the Star Tribune
Alain Sergile , swimmer on the Haitian Olympic Team at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Tony Skole , head baseball coach at East Tennessee State University
= Hurricane Mitch =
Hurricane Mitch was the most powerful and destructive hurricane of the 1998 Atlantic hurricane season , with maximum sustained winds of 180 mph ( 290 km / h ) . The storm was the thirteenth tropical storm , ninth hurricane , and third major hurricane of the season . Along with Hurricane Georges , Mitch was the most notable hurricane in the season . At the time , Hurricane Mitch was the strongest Atlantic hurricane observed in the month of October , though it has since been surpassed by Hurricane Wilma of the 2005 season . The hurricane matched the fourth most intense Atlantic hurricane on record ( it has since dropped to seventh ) .
Mitch formed in the western Caribbean Sea on October 22 , 1998 , and after drifting through extremely favorable conditions , it rapidly strengthened to peak at Category 5 status , the highest possible rating on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . After drifting southwestward and weakening , the hurricane hit Honduras as a minimal hurricane . It drifted through Central America , reformed in the Bay of Campeche , and ultimately struck Florida as a strong tropical storm .
Due to its slow motion from October 29 to November 3 , Hurricane Mitch dropped historic amounts of rainfall in Honduras , Guatemala , and Nicaragua , with unofficial reports of up to 75 inches ( 1 @,@ 900 mm ) . Deaths due to catastrophic flooding made it the second deadliest Atlantic hurricane in history ; nearly 11 @,@ 000 people were killed with over 11 @,@ 000 left missing by the end of 1998 . Additionally , roughly 2 @.@ 7 million were left homeless as a result of the hurricane . The flooding caused extreme damage , estimated at over $ 6 billion ( 1998 USD ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Depression Thirteen formed on October 22 over the southwestern Caribbean Sea , from a tropical wave that exited Africa on October 10 . It executed a small loop , and while doing so intensified into Tropical Storm Mitch . A weakness in a ridge allowed the storm to track slowly to the north . After becoming disorganized due to wind shear from an upper @-@ level low , Mitch quickly intensified in response to favorable conditions , including warm waters and good outflow . It became a hurricane on October 24 and developed an eye . After turning to the west , Mitch rapidly intensified , first into a major hurricane on October 25 and then into a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale the next day .
At peak intensity , Mitch maintained maximum sustained winds of 180 mph ( 285 km / h ) while off the northern coast of Honduras . Hurricane Hunters reported a minimum barometric pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) , which at the time was the lowest in the month of October and tied for the fourth lowest for any Atlantic hurricane . Initially , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) and various tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated a turn to the north , threatening the Yucatán peninsula . Instead , Mitch turned to the south due to a ridge that was not observed while the storm was active . Land interaction imparted weakening , and the hurricane made landfall on Honduras on October 29 with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . Mitch slowly weakened while turning to the west over land , maintaining deep convection over waters . After moving across mountainous terrain in Central America , the surface circulation of Mitch dissipated on November 1 . The next day , the remnants reached the Gulf of Mexico , which reorganized into a tropical storm on November 3 . Mitch accelerated to the northeast ahead of a cold front , moving across the Yucatán peninsula before striking southwestern Florida on November 5 . Shortly thereafter , the storm became an extratropical cyclone , which was tracked by the NHC until November 9 .
= = Preparations = =
Due to the threat , the government of Honduras evacuated some of the 45 @,@ 000 citizens on the Bay Islands and prepared all air and naval resources . The government of Belize issued a purple alert and asked for citizens on offshore islands to leave for the mainland . Because the hurricane threatened to strike near Belize City as a Category 4 hurricane , much of the city was evacuated in fear of a repeat of Hurricane Hattie 37 years earlier . Guatemala issued a purple alert as well , recommending boats to stay in port , telling people to prepare or seek shelter , and warning of potential overflowing rivers . By the time hurricane Mitch made landfall , numerous people were evacuated along the western Caribbean coastline , including 100 @,@ 000 in Honduras , 10 @,@ 000 in Guatemala , and 20 @,@ 000 in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Mitch was the deadliest Atlantic hurricane since the Great Hurricane of 1780 , displacing the Galveston Hurricane of 1900 as the second @-@ deadliest on record . Nearly 11 @,@ 000 people were confirmed dead , and almost as many reported missing . Deaths were mostly from flooding and mudslides in Central America , where the slow @-@ moving hurricane and then tropical storm dropped nearly 36 inches ( 900 mm ) of rain . The flooding and mudslides damaged or destroyed tens of thousands of homes , with total damage amounting to over $ 5 billion ( 1998 USD , $ 6 billion 2006 USD ) , most of which was in Honduras and Nicaragua . Prior to Mitch , the deadliest hurricane in Central America was Hurricane Fifi in 1974 , which killed an estimated 8 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 .
= = = Honduras = = =
While offshore northern Honduras , Hurricane Mitch passed over Guanaja island . High waves eroded northern coastlines and damaged lagoons . Most of the Bay Islands had damage to their water facilities . Two days of winds exceeding 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) destroyed nearly all of the plants and trees on Guanaja , uprooting or knocking down almost the entire mangrove forest . It is estimated that the hurricane produced waves of 44 ft ( 13 m ) in height .
While moving slowly for several days offshore Honduras , Hurricane Mitch drew moisture from the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea , producing high amounts of rainfall of over 300 mm ( 12 in ) per day . The highest official total was 928 mm ( 36 @.@ 5 in ) at Choluteca , which represented more than half of the annual precipitation average ; at the same location , 466 @.@ 7 mm ( 18 @.@ 37 in ) fell in a 24 @-@ hour period on October 31 , which was more than double of the previous record set in 1985 . There were unofficial rainfall totals in Central America as high as 1 @,@ 900 mm ( 75 in ) ; rain gauges in mountainous areas were washed away . The high rainfall caused many rivers in the country to overflow " to an unprecedented extent this century " , as described by the United Nations . The rainfall collected in rivers , causing extensive river flooding across the country . The greatest depth recorded was 12 @.@ 5 m ( 41 ft ) on the Ulúa River near Chinda , whilst the greatest width recorded was 359 m ( 1 @,@ 178 ft ) on the Río Lean near Arizona . The rainfall also caused widespread mudslides across the mountainous country . In the country 's interior , particularly the southern portion , the high rainfall caused hundreds of landslides , many of them shallow and about 95 % in the form of debris flow . However , two earthflows caused significant damage near Tegucigalpa .
Hurricane Mitch wrought significant damage to Honduras , affecting nearly the entire population and causing damage in all 18 departments . The United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean estimated that Mitch caused the worst floods of the 20th century in the country . An estimated 70 – 80 % of transportation network was destroyed , including most bridges and secondary roads , amounting to $ 236 million in damage . Hurricane Mitch left widespread power outages after damaging more than 385 km ( 239 mi ) of power lines and several power plants . About 70 % of Honduras lost access to fresh water after the storm , although many rural areas had already been experiencing water shortages . The combined damage to transportation , communication , utilities , including power and water , was estimated at $ 665 million .
High water levels along the Choluteca River affected the capital , Tegucigalpa , reaching levels 10 m ( 33 ft ) above their banks . The floods damaged about one @-@ third of buildings , including some more than 350 years old . Across Honduras , agriculture sustained serious damage , with initial estimates of 70 % of crops destroyed . About 50 @,@ 000 bovine were killed , as were 60 % of the fowl population . Crop and agricultural damage totaled about $ 1 billion , which would take the country years to recover . Honduras 's Social Fund for Housing estimated that 35 @,@ 000 houses nationwide were destroyed with another 50 @,@ 000 damaged , leaving 1 @.@ 5 million people homeless – about 20 % of the total population . This was the highest number of victims from any natural disaster in Honduras 's history . Overall , Hurricane Mitch killed about 7 @,@ 000 people in Honduras , and damage was estimated at L52,345,000,000 ( $ 3 @.@ 8 billion ) , of which $ 2 @.@ 005 billion was from direct damages and the remainder from indirect costs . The overall impact represented about 70 % of Honduras 's annual gross domestic product ( GDP ) .
= = = Nicaragua = = =
Though Mitch never entered Nicaragua , its large circulation caused extensive rainfall , with estimates of over 50 inches ( 1 @,@ 300 mm ) . In some places , as much as 25 inches ( 630 mm ) of rain fell on coastal areas . The flank of the Casita Volcano failed and turned into a lahar from excessive rain . The resulting mudslide ultimately covered an area 10 miles ( 16 km ) long and 5 miles ( 8 km ) wide .
Two million people in Nicaragua were directly affected by the hurricane . Across the country , Mitch 's heavy rains damaged 17 @,@ 600 houses and destroyed 23 @,@ 900 , displacing 368 @,@ 300 of the population . 340 schools and 90 health centers were severely damaged or destroyed . Sewage systems and the electricity subsector were severely damaged , and , combined with property , damage totaled to $ 300 million ( 1998 USD ) .
Transportation was greatly affected by the hurricane , as well . The rainfall left 70 % of the roads unusable or destroyed and greatly damaged 92 bridges . Over 1 @,@ 700 miles ( 2700 km ) of highways or access roads needed replacement subsequent to the storm , especially in the northern part of the country and along portions of the Pan @-@ American Highway . Total transportation damage amounted to $ 300 million ( 1998 USD ) . Agricultural losses were significant , including the deaths of 50 @,@ 000 animals , mostly bovines . Crops and fisheries were affected greatly as well , and , combined with agricultural losses , damage totaled to $ 185 million ( 1998 USD ) .
The situation was further compounded by a total of 75 @,@ 000 live land mines — left over from the Contra insurgency of the 1980s — that were calculated to have been uprooted and relocated by the floodwaters .
In all , Hurricane Mitch caused at least 3 @,@ 800 fatalities in Nicaragua , of which more than 2 @,@ 000 were killed in the towns of El Provenir and Rolando Rodriguez from the landslide at the Casita volcano . The mudslide buried at least four villages completely in several feet of mud . Throughout the entire country , the hurricane left between 500 @,@ 000 and 800 @,@ 000 homeless . In all , damage in Nicaragua is estimated at around $ 1 billion ( 1998 USD ) .
= = = Caribbean Sea = = =
Mitch was also responsible for the loss with all hands of Windjammer Barefoot Cruises ' schooner Fantome . The story was recorded in the book The Ship and The Storm by Jim Carrier . The schooner , which was sailing near the center of the hurricane , experienced over 50 foot ( 15 m ) waves and over 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) winds , causing her to sink off the coast of Honduras .
On the south coast of Cuba , the hurricane caused waves of up to 13 feet ( 4 m ) high and winds gusts peaking at 42 mph ( 67 km / h ) , causing numerous tourists and workers on the Isle of Youth and Cayo Largo del Sur to leave for safer grounds .
In Jamaica , where officials declared hurricane warnings 12 hours prior to its closest approach , Mitch caused moderate rainfall and gusty winds for days . Strong waves hit western Jamaica , with wave heights unofficially estimated at nearly 7 feet ( 2 m ) in height . The rainfall in outer rainbands , at times severe , flooded many roads across the island and left them covered with debris . One house in Spanish Town collapsed from the flooding , leaving four homeless . Many other homes and buildings were flooded , forcing many to evacuate . A river in northeastern Jamaica overflowed its banks , while heavy rainfall across the mountainous parts of the country caused numerous mudslides . In all , Mitch killed three people on Jamaica .
On the Cayman Islands , the hurricane caused strong waves , gusty winds , and heavy rainfall at times . Damage was relatively minimal , amounting to blown out windows and beach erosion . Strong waves damaged or destroyed many docks on the south shore of the islands , and also sank one dive ship near Grand Cayman . In addition , numerous incoming and outgoing flights were cancelled .
= = = Rest of Central America = = =
Due to Mitch 's large circulation , it dropped heavy precipitation as far south as Panama , especially in the Darién and Chiriquí provinces . The flooding washed away a few roads and bridges , and damaged numerous houses and schools , leaving thousands homeless . The hurricane left three casualties in Panama .
In Costa Rica , Mitch dropped heavy rains , causing flash flooding and mudslides across the country , mostly in the northeastern part of the country . The storm impacted 2 @,@ 135 homes to some degree , of which 241 were destroyed , leaving 4 @,@ 000 homeless . Throughout the country , the rainfall and mudslides affected 126 bridges and 800 miles ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) or roads , mostly on the Inter @-@ American Highway which was affected by Hurricane Cesar , two years prior . Mitch affected 115 sq. miles ( 300 km2 ) of crop lands , causing damage to both export and domestic crops . In all , Hurricane Mitch caused $ 92 million in damage ( 1998 USD ) and seven deaths .
While drifting through El Salvador , the hurricane dropped immense amounts of precipitation , resulting in flash flooding and mudslides through the country . Multiple rivers , including the Río Grande de San Miguel and the Lempa River overflowed , contributing to overall damage . The flooding damaged more than 10 @,@ 000 houses , leaving around 84 @,@ 000 homeless and forcing 500 @,@ 000 to evacuate . Crop damage was severe , with serious flooding occurring on 386 sq. miles ( 1000 & km2 ) of pasture or crop land . The flooding destroyed 37 % of the bean production , 19 % of the corn production , and 20 % losses in sugar canes . There were heavy losses in livestock as well , including the deaths of 10 @,@ 000 cattle . Total agricultural and livestock damaged amounted to $ 154 million ( 1998 USD ) . In addition , the flooding destroyed two bridges and damaged 1 @,@ 20
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0 mi ( 1 @,@ 900 km ) of unpaved roads . In all , Mitch caused nearly $ 400 million in damage ( 1998 USD ) and 240 deaths .
Similar to the rest of Central America , Mitch 's heavy rains caused mudslides and severe flooding over Guatemala . The flooding destroyed 6 @,@ 000 houses and damaged 20 @,@ 000 others , displacing over 730 @,@ 000 and forcing over 100 @,@ 000 to evacuate . In addition , the flooding destroyed 27 schools and damaged 286 others , 175 severely . Flooding caused major damage to crops , while landslides destroyed crop land across the country . The most severely affected crops for domestic consumption were tomatoes , bananas , corn , other vegetables , and beans , with damaged totaling to $ 48 million ( 1998 USD ) . Export crops such as bananas or coffee were greatly damaged as well , with damage amounting to $ 325 million ( 1998 USD ) . Damage to plantations and soil totaled to $ 121 million ( 1998 USD ) . The flooding also caused severe damage to the transportation infrastructure , including the loss of 37 bridges . Across the country , flooding damaged or destroyed 840 miles ( 1350 km ) of roads , of which nearly 400 miles ( 640 km ) were sections of major highways . In all , Hurricane Mitch caused $ 748 million ( 1998 USD ) and 268 deaths in Guatemala . In addition , Mitch caused 11 indirect deaths when a plane crashed during the storm .
In Belize , the hurricane was less severe than initially predicted , though Mitch still caused heavy rainfall across the country . Numerous rivers exceeded their crests , though the rainfall was beneficial to trees in mountainous areas . The flooding caused extensive crop damage and destroyed many roads . Throughout the country , eleven people died because of the hurricane .
In Mexico , Mitch produced gusty winds and heavy rains on the Yucatán Peninsula , with Cancún on the Quintana Roo coast being the worst hit . Nine people were killed from the flooding , though damage was relatively minimal . The maximum 24 @-@ hour rainfall total from Mitch was 13 @.@ 4 inches ( 340 mm ) in Campeche , while the highest rainfall total was 16 @.@ 85 inches ( 428 @.@ 0 mm ) in Ciudad del Carmen .
= = = Florida and remnants = = =
Then a tropical storm , Mitch caused a storm surge of up to 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) feet in the lower Florida Keys before making landfall on the Florida west coast . Key West International Airport reported peak wind gusts of 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) and sustained winds of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , the only report of tropical storm force in the state . Offshore , the Fowey Rocks Light reported a wind gusts of 73 mph ( 117 km / h ) . In addition , Mitch caused moderate rainfall , peaking at 7 inches ( 200 mm ) in Jupiter , though some estimates indicate localized totals of up to 10 inches ( 250 mm ) . The storm spawned five tornadoes over the state , the strongest of which was an F2 .
In the Florida Keys , multiple buildings that had been damaged by Hurricane Georges were leveled by Mitch . Tornadoes from the storm damaged or destroyed 645 houses across the state , in addition to injuring 65 people . Gusty winds left 100 @,@ 000 without power during the storm 's passage . In all , Mitch caused $ 40 million in damage ( 1998 USD ) in Florida and two deaths from drowning when two boats capsized .
As an extratropical cyclone , Mitch passed west of Ireland and the United Kingdom . In Ireland , the storm produced gusts as high as 90 mph ( 140 km / h ) and 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) waves . The winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving over 30 @,@ 000 homes without power . One tree fell onto a car in Louth , severely injuring the driver . In Dublin , high winds knocked the roof off of a building , and several other buildings nationwide were damaged . The storm caused airports to close and ferry service to be suspended .
= = Aftermath = =
Because of the hurricane 's destruction in Central America and elsewhere in North America , the World Meteorological Organization retired the name Mitch in the spring of 1999 ; it will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane . The name was replaced with Matthew in the 2004 season .
After the disaster caused by Hurricane Mitch , countries around the world donated significant aid , totaling $ 6 @.@ 3 billion ( 1998 USD ) . Throughout Central America , which was recovering from an economic crisis that occurred in 1996 , many wished to continue the growth of the infrastructure and economy . In addition , after witnessing the vulnerability to hurricanes , the affected governments endeavored to prevent such a disaster from occurring again .
Hundreds of thousands of people lost their homes , but many took this as an opportunity to rebuild stronger houses . With a new , structurally improved foundation , homes were redesigned to be able to withstand another hurricane . However , lack of arable crop land took away the jobs from many , decreasing an already low income even lower .
Following the passage of Mitch , disease outbreaks occurred throughout Central America , including cholera , leptospirosis , and dengue fever . Over 2 @,@ 328 cases of cholera were reported , killing 34 people . Guatemala was most affected by the bacterium , where most of the deaths occurred from contaminated food . 450 cases of leptospirosis were reported in Nicaragua , killing seven people . There were over 1 @,@ 357 cases of dengue reported , though no deaths were reported from the disease .
While stalling over the western Caribbean Sea , Mitch 's strong winds produced strong waves , damaging local coral reefs . Later , the storm 's immense rainfall led to runoff polluted with debris and fresh water . This resulted in diseases occurring within the coral . However , the hurricane 's upwelling cooled the warm water temperatures , preventing significant bleaching and destruction of the coral reef .
Mitch caused such massive and widespread damage that Honduran President Carlos Roberto Flores claimed it destroyed fifty years of progress in the country . Honduras , the country most affected by the hurricane , received significant aid for the millions impacted by the hurricane . Mexico quickly gave help , sending 700 tons of food , 11 tons of medicine , four rescue planes , rescue personnel , and trained search dogs . Cuba also volunteered , sending a contingent of physicians to the country . The U.S. administration offered at first troops stationed in Honduras , and then withdrew them a few days after the storm . They also at first offered only $ 2 million ( 1998 USD ) in aid , which came as a shock to residents , and president Carlos Roberto Flores alike . The U.S. later increased their offer to $ 70 million ( 1998 USD ) . The Honduran government distributed food , water , and medical services to the hurricane victims , including the more than 4 million without water . In addition , the country initially experienced a sharp increase in the unemployment rate , largely due to the destruction of crop lands . However , rebuilding provided jobs in the following years . In Costa Rica , reconstruction after the hurricane increased the number of jobs by 5 @.@ 9 % , lowering the unemployment rate slightly .
= Siege of Fort Stanwix =
The Siege of Fort Stanwix ( also known at the time as Fort Schuyler ) began on August 2 , 1777 , and ended August 22 . Fort Stanwix , in the western part of the Mohawk River Valley , was then the primary defense point for the Continental Army against British and Indian forces aligned against them in the American Revolutionary War . The fort was occupied by Continental Army forces from New York and Massachusetts under the command of Colonel Peter Gansevoort . The besieging force was composed of British regulars , American Loyalists , Hessian soldiers from Hesse @-@ Hanau , and Indians , under the command of British Brigadier General Barry St. Leger and the Iroquois leader Joseph Brant . St. Leger 's expedition was a diversion in support of General John Burgoyne 's campaign to gain control of the Hudson River Valley to the east .
One attempt at relief was thwarted early in the siege when a force of New York militia under Nicholas Herkimer was stopped in the August 6 Battle of Oriskany by a detachment of St. Leger 's forces . While that battle did not involve the fort 's garrison , some of its occupants sortied and raided the nearly empty Indian and Loyalist camps , which was a blow to the morale of St. Leger 's Indian support . They killed some Seneca . The siege was finally broken when American reinforcements under the command of Benedict Arnold neared , and Arnold used a ruse , with the assistance of Herkimer 's relative Hon Yost Schuyler , to convince the besiegers that a much larger force was arriving . This misinformation , combined with the departure of Indian fighters not interested in siege warfare and upset over their losses from the raids , led St. Leger to abandon the effort and retreat .
St. Leger 's failure to advance on Albany contributed to Burgoyne 's surrender following the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 . Although St. Leger reached Fort Ticonderoga in late September , he was too late to aid Burgoyne .
The first official US flag was flown during battle on August 3 , 1777 at Fort Schuyler . The Continental Congress adopted the following resolution on June 14 , 1777 : " Resolved , that the flag of the United States be thirteen stripes , alternate red and white ; that the union be thirteen stars , white , on a blue field , representing a new constellation . " There was a delay in displaying this flag . The resolution was not signed by the secretary of the Congress until September 3 , though it was previously printed in the newspapers . Massachusetts reinforcements to Fort Schuyler brought news of the adoption by Congress of the official flag . Soldiers cut up their shirts to make the white stripes ; scarlet material was secured from red flannel petticoats of officers ' wives , while material for the blue union was secured from Capt. Abraham Swartwout 's blue cloth coat . A voucher shows that Congress paid Capt. Swartwout for his coat for the flag .
= = Background = =
Fort Stanwix occupied a strategic western portage known as the Oneida Carrying Place ( site of modern Rome , New York ) between the Mohawk River , which flowed southeast to the Hudson River , and Wood Creek , whose waters ultimately led to Lake Ontario . Built by the British in 1758 during the French and Indian War on the only dry ground in the area , the fort had fallen into disrepair . When the American Revolutionary War widened in 1776 to include the frontier areas between New York and the Province of Quebec , the site again became strategically important .
British Colonial Secretary Lord Germain and General John Burgoyne developed a plan for gaining control of the Hudson River valley that included an expedition that King George described as a " diversion on the Mohawk River " . In March 1777 Germain issued orders assigning the expedition to Lieutenant Colonel Barry St. Leger , an experienced frontier fighter who had served in the French and Indian War .
= = Forces assemble = =
In April 1777 , Continental Army Major General Philip Schuyler ordered the 3rd New York Regiment under the command of Colonel Peter Gansevoort to occupy and rehabilitate the fort as a defense against British and Native incursions from Quebec . Arriving in May , they immediately began working on the fort 's defenses . Although they officially renamed the fort to Fort Schuyler , it was still widely known by its original name . Warnings from the friendly Oneida Indians that the British were planning an expedition to the Mohawk Valley were confirmed by mid @-@ July , spurring the pace of the work . In early July , Gansevoort reported on the state of affairs to Schuyler , noting that provisions and ammunition were in short supply . Schuyler ordered additional supplies sent to the fort on July 8 .
St. Leger , who was brevetted a brigadier general for the expedition , assembled a diverse force consisting of British regulars from the 8th and 34th Regiments , a number of artillerymen , 80 jäger from Hesse @-@ Hanau , 350 Loyalists from the King 's Royal Regiment of New York , a company of Butler 's Rangers , and about 100 Canadien laborers . His artillery consisted of two six @-@ pound pieces , two 3 @-@ pounders , and four small mortars . He expected these to be adequate for the taking of a dilapidated fort with about 60 defenders , which was the latest intelligence he had when the expedition left Lachine , near Montreal , on June 23 .
St. Leger first learned that the Americans had occupied Stanwix in force when prisoners captured from its garrison were brought to him on the St. Lawrence . He learned from the prisoners that Fort Stanwix had been repaired and was " garrisoned by upwards of 600 men ... and the rebels are expecting us , and are acquainted with our strength and route " . Daniel Claus , the Indian agent accompanying the expedition , convinced St. Leger to go to Oswego , where a body of Indians could be recruited . They arrived at Oswego , New York on July 14 , where Joseph Brant and about 800 Indians joined the expedition . These consisted mainly of Mohawks and Senecas , but there were also warriors from the other tribes of the Iroquois League ( other than the Oneidas and the Tuscaroras , who still claimed neutrality ) , and some Indians from the Great Lakes area .
After leaving Oswego another report reached St. Leger that more supplies were en route to the fort . St. Leger immediately dispatched Brant with 200 Indians and 30 regulars to intercept those supplies and begin besieging the fort . Brant 's arrival at the fort on August 2 was just too late . The supply convoy , which was guarded by 200 men from the 9th Massachusetts Regiment , had arrived and been unloaded . Brant 's men were able to capture the convoy 's boat captain ; the Massachusetts men remained in the fort . St. Leger 's main force arrived the next day , although the artillery did not arrive for several more days .
= = Siege begins = =
At first , St. Leger tried to intimidate the fort 's occupants by parading his troops — including the Indians in their war dress — in front of the fort . When this failed he sent a truce flag bearing a proclamation authored by General Burgoyne ; Gansevoort refused to respond . St. Leger then began siege operations , encamping the regulars and artillery on a low rise north of the fort , and most of the Indians and Loyalists to its south , with a picket line of Indian encampments along the Mohawk River .
St. Leger 's artillery was held up by a tactic that was also used to slow down Burgoyne 's army after the fall of Ticonderoga . Gansevoort and his men had systematically felled trees across the wooded track the expedition came down , and St. Leger needed to clear the track to make way for his artillery . This work occupied all but 250 of St. Leger 's white men , with the actual encirclement of the fort dominated by Indians .
On August 5 , St. Leger received word from Joseph Brant 's sister Molly that an American relief column was marching up the Mohawk valley .
= = Oriskany = =
The Tryon County Committee of Safety received news of St. Leger 's movements on July 30 , and set about raising additional troops . On August 4 , about 800 men from the Tryon County militia were mustered at Fort Dayton ( near modern Herkimer , New York ) by Nicholas Herkimer , the committee chairman . By late the next day the column had arrived within 10 miles ( 16 km ) of Fort Stanwix . St. Leger , on learning of their approach , sent Johnson with a small number of regulars and rangers , along with Brant and most of the Indians , to oppose Herkimer 's advance . They set up an ambush , and in a bloody confrontation near Oriskany Creek , both sides suffered significant casualties , including Herkimer , who suffered a serious wound to the leg . The Americans drove St. Leger 's detachment back , but Herkimer ( who eventually died of his wounds ) was forced to retreat back to Fort Dayton due to the large number of casualties . The confrontation came at another cost to St. Leger . Gansevoort 's besieged men took advantage of the absence of a sizable part of St. Leger 's force to make a sortie , in which Gansevoort 's second @-@ in @-@ command , Marinus Willett , led 250 men out and looted the nearly empty Indian camps of " several wagon @-@ loads of spoils " , including John Johnson 's orderly book , plans for the expedition , and a letter the British had intercepted from Gansevoort 's fiancée . The tale of this party recovering actual wagonloads of materials is probably untrue . It likely dates to a memoir by Marinus Willett written late in his life ; no contemporaneous accounts of the sortie , including Willett 's earlier journals , mention the need for wagons .
When the British force returned from Oriskany they arrived at a camp that had been stripped of much , including personal belongings and the blankets the Indians slept in . Combined with the fact that the battle at Oriskany had cost so many Indian lives , this greatly upset the Indians . They had been told that the white men , who had thus far fought relatively little , would do most of the fighting . This breach of trust damaged relations between the Indians and St. Leger , and became instrumental in the eventual failure of the siege .
St. Leger took advantage of his victory to deliver another demand for the fort 's surrender , which Gansevoort also rejected . The next day St. Leger sent in a third surrender demand , which included ( false ) news that Burgoyne was in Albany as well as threats that the Indians would be permitted to massacre the garrison and destroy the Mohawk valley communities from which the garrison was drawn . In an eloquent refusal , Lieutenant Colonel Willett responded , " By your uniform you are British officers . Therefore let me tell you that the message you have brought is a degrading one for a British officer to send and by no means reputable for a British officer to carry . "
Taking advantage of a brief truce , Gansevoort sent Willett and another officer out on August 8 to notify Schuyler of their situation . After making their way through swampy territory on the British lines , they continued down the Mohawk valley , eventually meeting a relief column under the command of Major General Benedict Arnold .
= = Siege relief = =
Schuyler had received early reports of the action at Oriskany on August 8 , and dispatched Ebenezer Learned 's 4th Massachusetts Regiment to relieve the besieged fort the next day . On August 12 , even before Willett could reach him , Schuyler held a war council to decide how to deal with the combined threats of St. Leger and Burgoyne , whose large army had reached the Hudson River . Amid concerns that the withdrawal from Ticonderoga by General Arthur St. Clair would be repeated at Stanwix , the council decided , with near unanimity , not to send a relief column to Fort Stanwix . In opposition to the council , Schuyler insisted on a relief expedition , which Arnold offered to lead . In addition to Schuyler 's actions , Major General Israel Putnam , based in Peekskill , New York , on August 14 dispatched two regiments ( the 1st Canadian and the 2nd New York ) , which were already on guard duty in the Mohawk River valley . These two units were still en route when the siege was lifted , and turned back .
By August 20 , Arnold , Willett and 700 Continental Army regulars had arrived at Fort Dayton . In an attempt to enlarge his force , Arnold tried to interest the Tryon County men in another attempt against St. Leger , but raised only about 100 men . He then decided to wait , hoping that friendly Oneidas and Tuscaroras could be convinced to join the effort , or that a request to Schuyler for another 1 @,@ 000 men would be fulfilled . However , news reached him that the siege had reached a critical stage , and that action was necessary . St. Leger had learned that his guns were largely ineffective against the fort 's walls from long range , so he began entrenching operations to establish positions closer to the fort . Gansevoort reported that the siege trenches had reached within striking distance of one of the fort 's bastions .
Uncomfortable with the number of troops available to him , Arnold opted for a deception to sow trouble in the British camp . While at Fort Dayton , a number of Loyalists had been arrested , including Hon Yost Schuyler . Arnold convinced Hon Yost , a member of the King 's Royal Regiment of New York who grew up with many of the Mohawk Indians attacking Fort Stanwix , to spread rumors that large numbers of Americans , under the command of " The Dark Eagle " , were about to descend on St. Leger 's camp . Hon Yost 's good conduct was assured by holding hostage his brother .
Arnold 's stratagem seems to have met with some success . St. Leger recorded on August 21 that " Arnold was advancing , by rapid and forced marches , with 3 @,@ 000 men " , even though Arnold was still at Fort Dayton on that day . When St. Leger held a council , about 200 Indians had already abandoned the camp , and in the council the remaining Indians , unhappy with siege warfare and the loss of their equipment , threatened to leave if he did not lift the siege . On August 22 , St. Leger broke camp and began the trek back to Lake Ontario , leaving behind a sizable amount of equipment . A number of men from St. Leger 's party deserted or were captured by the fort 's garrison , including Hon Yost .
= = Aftermath = =
Arnold , whose force was augmented by the arrival of friendly Indians , advanced about 10 miles ( 16 km ) toward Fort Stanwix on August 23 when a messenger from Gansevoort notified him of St. Leger 's departure . Pushing on , they reached the fort that evening . Early the next day , Arnold detached 500 men to pursue St. Leger , whose column was also being taunted and harassed by his formerly supportive Indian allies . An advance party reached the shores of Oneida Lake in heavy rain just as the last of St. Leger 's boats were departing . Leaving a garrison at the fort , with smaller outposts along the Mohawk , Arnold then hurried back with about 1 @,@ 200 men to rejoin the main army .
While still on Oneida Lake , St. Leger learned from an Indian messenger of the true state of Arnold 's force . On August 27 , St. Leger wrote to Burgoyne from Oswego that he intended to join him by traveling via Lake Champlain . He reached Fort Ticonderoga on September 29 , too late to assist Burgoyne .
Burgoyne blamed the failure of his campaign in part on St. Leger 's failure to penetrate the Mohawk valley , and the lack of sufficient Loyalist support . He believed that a well @-@ placed Loyalist uprising in upstate New York would have diverted enough American resources that either his advance or St. Leger 's would have succeeded . He was also hopeful that St. Leger 's arrival at Ticonderoga would be sufficient to assist in his retreat . However , he was already surrounded by the time St. Leger arrived at Ticonderoga , and surrendered after the Battle of Bemis Heights ( second Saratoga ) . In an analysis after the surrender , Burgoyne noted that the failure of General William Howe to support him made it possible for Washington to divert resources from the area around New York City to assist both in the relief of Stanwix and at Saratoga .
Fort Stanwix itself saw little action after the siege , although it was a dangerous and unpopular posting because of regular harassment by Loyalists and hostile Indians . In the spring of 1779 the Continental Army used the fort as a staging ground for the destruction of Onondaga Castle . In 1780 , the garrison was blockaded for several days by a large force of Indians led by Joseph Brant . Finally , in the spring of 1781 , when flood and fire ( most likely arson ) destroyed most of the fort , the Americans evacuated the post .
= = Legacy = =
Fort Stanwix was eventually destroyed in the 19th century . The site was designated a U.S. National Monument in 1935 . In 1961 the site was designated a National Historic Landmark , and in 1966 it was added to the National Register of Historic Places . The fort was reconstructed in the 1970s by the National Park Service .
= Ogle County Courthouse =
The Ogle County Courthouse is a National Register of Historic Places listing in the Ogle County , Illinois , county seat of Oregon . The building stands on a public square in the city 's downtown commercial district . The current structure was completed in 1891 and was preceded by two other buildings , one of which was destroyed by a group of outlaws . Following the destruction of the courthouse , the county was without a judicial building for a period during the 1840s . The Ogle County Courthouse was designed by Chicago architect George O. Garnsey in the Romanesque Revival style of architecture . The ridged roof is dominated by its wooden cupola which stands out at a distance .
In addition to the courthouse building , the public square contains several outbuildings and sites that are also historic in nature and considered contributing properties to the Oregon Commercial Historic District , including a sculpture by Lorado Taft and a cast @-@ iron fountain . The courthouse joined the Register in 1981 and was included as a contributing property to the historic district in 2006 . After initially joining the Register the structure underwent a careful restoration . The courthouse no longer serves as the primary judiciary center for the county ; its successor is located directly across the street .
= = History = =
Ogle County Courthouse has been the name of three buildings . The current structure on the public square , no longer in use as the judiciary center in Ogle County , was constructed in late 1890 and early 1891 at a cost of US $ 107 @,@ 000 . The basically square Romanesque Revival structure is topped with a cupola and features a full basement . It was designed by Chicago architect George O. Garnsey .
= = = First courthouse = = =
The first session of the Ogle County Commissioners ' Court took place on January 3 , 1837 , after the city of Oregon was picked as the county seat . The first courthouse was completed in 1840 @-@ 1841 , but it never saw use . The 1840 @-@ 41 courthouse was constructed at a cost of $ 4 @,@ 000 , partially in response to " a gang of villains " harassing citizens . On March 21 , 1841 , the night before court convened in its new building , the bandits allegedly set the courthouse on fire , completely destroying it . The town , whipped into a fury by horse whipping and thievery and , even murder , later formed a band of " Regulators " to hunt down and bring the bandits to justice . Essentially vigilantes , the group tracked down two residents , " Old Man Driscoll " ( possibly Driskell ) and his son , William Driscoll , both suspected of the murder . The Driscolls were arrested and brought to Oregon by the Regulators . A trial was organized at a nearby mill . The defendants were provided with counsel and the trial ensued , which residents involved called " fair " at the time .
The swift outcome of the trial resulted in the almost immediate execution of the two men . One Driscoll , led out alone , was shot first . Then the other was led out , shown his dead relative 's body and pushed for a confession . The defendant refused to confess , though he reportedly said he had committed other crimes for which he deserved death , and was also shot .
After the lynching , friends and relatives of the Driscolls attempted to strike back at the Regulators . They obtained an indictment against many of the Regulators charging them with murder . The Regulators responded by obtaining their own Bills of Indictment against every person who had stood by and witnessed the lynching . With 125 people under indictment no witnesses could be found , and no jury could be formed , so the judge cleared the charges .
= = = Courthouse limbo = = =
For several years , between the March 1841 arson and 1848 , court convened in various private residences . Without a courthouse in Oregon , the county seat , proposals to move the county seat began to circulate . Ogle County communities , Byron , Mount Morris , Grand Detour and Daysville were all in contention for the designation , and , ultimately , the new courthouse . At the deciding meeting the representatives from Daysville removed their town from the running and sided with Oregon . The withdrawal of Daysville gave Oregon a slim majority of votes and it retained its status as county seat of Ogle County .
= = = Second courthouse = = =
The replacement for the first courthouse , destroyed by arson , was not completed until the summer of 1848 . A one @-@ story brick building , the second Ogle County Courthouse was constructed for $ 3 @,@ 000 . The county used it for several decades but it was soon outgrown as various county offices began to accumulate more and more records and files . The structure exhibited Greek Revival style , common at the time . Some of the 1848 building 's architectural elements included , a vent cupola , double @-@ hung sash windows , complete with shutters , a gabled front roof and corniced returns . The new building was used as a multi @-@ purpose public building ; besides being the courthouse it served as the meeting hall for the Evangelical Lutheran Congregation of Oregon until 1850 . When community leader Henry Mix died in 1867 citizens gathered at the courthouse to mourn . Though the 1848 Ogle County Courthouse was soon found to be " inadequate in every respect " it would be over 40 years before a new facility was built . The idea of a new courthouse was met with staunch opposition and it was not until 1891 that the 1848 building was demolished and the current building erected .
= = = Third courthouse = = =
The current old courthouse in Ogle County was completed in 1891 and has been in constant use since . It was dedicated on August 20 , 1891 and remained the county 's primary judicial building until the same date 114 years later , in 2005 . On that day Ogle County dedicated its fourth courthouse , across the street from the historic old courthouse . The 1891 courthouse was completed at a cost of slightly more than $ 100 @,@ 000 . It is constructed of red brick and detailed with Naperville and Ashton limestone in a rock @-@ faced motif . Architect George O. Garnsey , who also designed the Ellwood House in nearby DeKalb County , designed the building in the Romanesque Revival style . The cupola was not added to the roof until 1892 .
During its early years , the courthouse was a popular community meeting place ; the courthouse lawn was a common setting for community events and gatherings . Today , events no longer regularly take place on the courthouse lawn , but some festivals still occur at the location . After being listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1981 a series of renovations began on the building , in order to , " preserve its historical and architectural integrity . " Inside the courthouse , each office and courtroom was renovated , the exterior of the structure was refurbished and restored as well . The work was completed in 1983 and the building opened for public tours in 1984 .
= = Architecture = =
This example of Romanesque Revival architecture was designed by George O. Garnsey , a Chicago architect well known in northern Illinois . An impressive structure , the courthouse is designed on a monumental scale .
= = = Exterior = = =
The building is constructed of red pressed brick , detailed with locally quarried limestone , and reinforced with steel girders . The building 's primary contractor was C.A. Moses . The red brick facade is detailed with significant amounts of limestone , including in its continuous lintels and sills . The entrances are covered with large round arches . The full basement is hinted at by the building 's prominent foundation and water table . The window lintels , and sills , as well as the arches and stairs are trimmed with limestone .
The roof is sharply angled toward its center , where a wooden cupola tops the building . It was completed after the building , in 1892 . At each of the square shaped building 's four corners are dormers , which serve to break up the monotony of the otherwise ridged roof . The dormers resemble the cupola , in that they are dormered as well as multi @-@ gabled . The roof has had routine maintenance performed as required . The building 's dominant feature , its cupola , sits on an oversized brick base with a terra cotta belt around its base top . It features blocked openings with multiple arches , double round arches , Corinthian pilasters , and organic corner detailing .
The courthouse is elaborately windowed . Some windows , mostly on the first floor are straight topped . On the second floor most of the windows are topped with limestone arches . The original , wood @-@ framed windows were replaced in 1972 . The building 's two main entrances feature stone arches over recessed doors ; eleven step stairways lead to both doors . New doors were installed in both entrances in 1971 .
= = = Interior = = =
The remaining original woodwork , sills , door frames , and interior doors , are all solid oak . The interior walls are 12 inches thick and , either painted or covered with paneling . An open , double staircase leads from the first floor to the second and third floors and the center of the building houses an elevator which moves from the basement to the third floor . The interior floors are all white pine wood , though some of the floors have now been carpeted . First floor ceilings are 15 feet high , with doors at a height of 12 feet . The second floor features the courtrooms , which , through the 1980s remodel , had the ceilings lowered to 10 feet . The interior renovation was completed at a cost of US $ 1 @.@ 5 million .
= = Other features = =
The public square where the Ogle County Courthouse stands is in the heart of the Oregon Commercial Historic District . Besides the courthouse , there are five other important sites on the public square , all of which are considered contributing properties to the historic district . The sites include cannons , war memorials , and a cast @-@ iron fountain . Iron Mike , the 1896 cast @-@ iron fountain , is on the south side of the 400 Block of Washington Street in the Oregon Commercial Historic District . The multi @-@ tier fountain is set into a matte green concrete base , and is four feet tall and three feet wide , at its widest point . Its lowest tier is adorned with the words " Illinois Humane Society . "
= = = Civil War cannons = = =
The public square also features two surplus Civil War era cannons . The two cannons " guard " the eastern entrance to the Ogle County Courthouse . Both cannons were put in place sometime between 1898 and 1900 . The Columbiad Cannon ( the southern most cannon ) was cast in 1846 in Boston , Massachusetts . The northern most cannon , the Parrot Cannon , was cast in 1864 .
= = = The Soldiers ' Monument = = =
The Soldiers ' Monument sits on the southeast corner of the public square . The monument was designed by sculptor Lorado Taft in 1911 and Chicago architects Allen Bartlit Pond and Irving Kane Pond designed the structure that encompasses Taft 's sculptures . The installation was dedicated in 1916 . The monument is adorned with plaques honoring Ogle County 's war dead from the American Civil War , Mexican War , War of 1812 and World War I , the last of which was added later .
= = = War Memorial = = =
On the north side of the public square is a terraced concrete memorial dedicated to Ogle County veterans of wars other than those included on The Soldiers ' Monument . Dedicated on June 29 , 1950 , the War Memorial is adorned with plaques representing five American wars , World War I , World War II , the Korean War , the Vietnam War and the Persian Gulf War . The plaques were added from 1951 @-@ 1991 . The memorial features four brick tiers topped with concrete caps , each cap holds a flagpole base .
= = Significance = =
The Ogle County Courthouse was added to National Register of Historic Places on September 10 , 1981 . On August 16 , 2006 its historic importance was reasserted when it was included as a contributing property in the Oregon Commercial Historic District 's listing on the National Register . On its original National Register nomination form the building was cited as significant in the areas of " architecture " and " politics and government . " The courthouse has been called a " prized landmark , " and a site " that holds a special place of honor " in the city of Oregon . Three of the features on and around the courthouse grounds , Iron Mike , the War Memorial , and The Soldiers ' Monument , all greatly contribute to the sense of time and place that the Oregon Commercial Historic District conveys .
= Sunday Bloody Sunday =
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " is a song by the Irish rock band U2 . It is the opening track from their 1983 album War and was released as the album 's third single on 11 March 1983 in Germany and the Netherlands . " Sunday Bloody Sunday " is noted for its militaristic drumbeat , harsh guitar , and melodic harmonies . One of U2 's most overtly political songs , its lyrics describe the horror felt by an observer of the Troubles in Northern Ireland , mainly focusing on the Bloody Sunday incident in Derry where British troops shot and killed unarmed civil rights protesters and bystanders who were there to rally against Operation Demetrius @-@ related internment ( imprisonment without trial ) , while at the same time rejecting hate and revenge as a response noted in the lyrics , " There 's many lost , but tell me who has won . " Along with " New Year 's Day , " the song helped U2 reach a wider listening audience . It was generally well received by critics on the album 's release .
The song has remained a staple of U2 's live concerts . During its earliest performances , the song created controversy . Lead singer Bono reasserted the song 's anti @-@ sectarian @-@ violence message to his audience for many years . Today , it is considered one of U2 's signature songs , and is one of the band 's most performed tracks . Critics rate it among the best political protest songs , and it has been covered by over a dozen artists . It was named the 272nd @-@ greatest song by Rolling Stone on their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . "
= = Writing and recording = =
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " grew from a guitar riff and lyric written by the Edge in 1982 . While newlyweds Bono and Ali Hewson honeymooned in Jamaica , the Edge worked in Ireland on music for the band 's upcoming album . Following an argument with his girlfriend , and a period of doubt in his own song @-@ writing abilities , the Edge — " feeling depressed ... channelled [ his ] fear and frustration and self @-@ loathing into a piece of music . " This early draft did not yet have a title or chorus melody , but did contain a structural outline and theme . After Bono had reworked the lyrics , the band recorded the song at Windmill Lane Studios in Dublin . During the sessions , producer Steve Lillywhite encouraged drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. to use a click track , but Mullen was firmly against the idea . A chance meeting with Andy Newmark ( of Sly & the Family Stone ) — a drummer who used a click track religiously – changed Mullen 's mind . The opening drum pattern soon developed into the song 's hook . A local violinist , Steve Wickham , approached the Edge one morning at a bus stop and asked if U2 had any need for a violin on their next album . In the studio for only half a day , Wickham 's electric violin became the final instrumental contribution to the song .
Drummer Mullen said of the song in 1983 :
" We 're into the politics of people , we 're not into politics . Like you talk about Northern Ireland , ' Sunday Bloody Sunday , ' people sort of think , ' Oh , that time when 13 Catholics were shot by British soldiers ' ; that 's not what the song is about . That 's an incident , the most famous incident in Northern Ireland and it 's the strongest way of saying , ' How long ? How long do we have to put up with this ? ' I don 't care who 's who – Catholics , Protestants , whatever . You know people are dying every single day through bitterness and hate , and we 're saying why ? What 's the point ? And you can move that into places like El Salvador and other similar situations – people dying . Let 's forget the politics , let 's stop shooting each other and sit around the table and talk about it ... There are a lot of bands taking sides saying politics is crap , etc . Well , so what ! The real battle is people dying , that 's the real battle . "
= = Composition = =
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " is played at a tempo of 103 beats per minute in a 4 / 4 time signature . The song opens with a militaristic drumbeat and electric violin part ; the aggressive snare drum rhythm closely resembles a beat used to keep a military band in step . The distinctive drum sound was achieved by recording Mullen 's drumwork at the base of a staircase , producing a more natural reverb . It is followed by the Edge 's repeating arpeggios ( see notation at left ) . The riff , which follows a Bm – D – G6 chord progression , establishes the minor chord territory of the piece . As the song progresses , the lyrics and guitar become more furious . The guitar riff has been described as the " bone @-@ crushing arena @-@ rock riff of the decade " by Rolling Stone . A bass drum kick on every beat provides the musical foundation until the first chorus , when Adam Clayton 's bass guitar enters .
In contrast to the violent nature of the verses , the emergence of major chords creates a feeling of hope during Bono 's " How long , how long must we sing this song ? " refrain . During the chorus , the Edge 's backing vocals further develop this tread , using a harmonic imitative echo . The snare drum is absent from this section , and the guitar parts are muted . This part of the song deviates musically from the raw aggression seen in the song 's verses and gives the song a more uplifting structure . Bono once commented that " love is ... a central theme " of " Sunday Bloody Sunday "
The band have said the lyrics refer to the events of both Bloody Sunday and Bloody Sunday ( in 1972 and 1920 , respectively ) , but are not specifically about either event . The song takes the standpoint of someone horrified by the cycle of violence in the province . Bono rewrote the Edge 's initial lyrics , attempting to contrast the two events with Easter Sunday , but he has said that the band were too inexperienced at the time to fully realise that goal , noting that " it was a song whose eloquence lay in its harmonic power rather than its verbal strength . "
Early versions opened with the line " Don 't talk to me about the rights of the IRA , UDA . " U2 's bassist , Adam Clayton , recalls that better judgment led to the removal of such a politically charged line , and that the song 's " viewpoint became very humane and non @-@ sectarian ... which , is the only responsible position . " The chosen opening line , " I can 't believe the news today " crystallises the prevailing response , especially among young people , to the violence in Northern Ireland during the 1970s and 1980s . In successive stanzas , the lyrics paraphrase religious text from Matthew 10 : 35 ( " mother 's children ; brothers , sisters torn apart " ) and bring a twist to 1 Corinthians 15 : 32 ( " we eat and drink while tomorrow they die " , instead of " let us eat and drink ; for tomorrow we die " ) . The song finishes with a call for the Irish to stop fighting each other , and " claim the victory Jesus won ... on [ a ] Sunday bloody Sunday . "
= = Reception = =
U2 were aware when they decided to record " Sunday Bloody Sunday " that its lyrics could be misinterpreted as sectarian , and possibly place them in danger . Some of the Edge 's original lyrics explicitly spoke out against violent rebels , but were omitted to protect the group . Even without these lyrics , some listeners still considered it to be a rebel song — even one which glorifies the events of the two Bloody Sundays to which the lyrics refer .
Commercially , the single had its biggest impact in the Netherlands , where it reached number 3 on the national charts . In the US , the song gained significant album @-@ oriented rock radio airplay , and together with the earlier " New Year 's Day " helped expose U2 to a mainstream American rock audience .
Critical reception to the song was positive . In the Irish magazine Hot Press , Liam Mackey wrote that " Sunday Bloody Sunday " " takes the widescreen view ... a powerful riff and machine @-@ gun drumming [ is ] crisscrossed by skipping violin . " Denise Sullivan commented for Allmusic that Mullen 's opening drumwork " helps set the tone for the unforgiving , take @-@ no @-@ prisoners feel of the song , as well as for the rest of the album . "
= = Live performances = =
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " has been performed more than 600 times by U2 . It was first heard by a live audience in December 1982 in Glasgow , Scotland , on a twenty @-@ one show " Pre @-@ War Tour . " The band were particularly nervous about playing the song in Belfast , Northern Ireland . Upon introducing the song there at the Maysfield Leisure Centre , Bono promised to " never play it again " if the crowd didn 't like it . The crowd overwhelmingly enjoyed the song ; the Edge recalls that " the place went nuts , it drew a really positive reaction . " , also saying that " We thought a lot about the song before we played it in Belfast and Bono told the audience that if they didn 't like it then we 'd never play it again . Out of the 3 @,@ 000 people in the hall about three walked out . I think that says a lot about the audience 's trust in us . " The band remained apprehensive , however . Even by the song 's sixth performance , Bono was introducing the song with the statement " This song is not a rebel song . "
Throughout 1983 's War Tour , Bono continued to reassure audiences that " This song is not a rebel song , this song is ' Sunday Bloody Sunday ' " highlighting the non @-@ partisan intentions of the lyrics . The live performances on this tour featured a routine during which Bono would set a white flag in the front of the stage while the band vamped three chords — B minor , D major , and G major . ( though the band traditionally tune their instruments down a half step so the chords are B flat minor , D flat and G Flat ) . As the band vamped , Bono would sing " no more ! " with the audience . These performances were highly effective with U2 's audience ( at the time , U2 were most popular as a college rock act ) . Live performances of the song subsequently appeared on their 1983 live album Under a Blood Red Sky and their concert film Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky . In the Unforgettable Fire Tour of 1984 and 1985 , " Sunday Bloody Sunday " continued to be a prominent midpoint of each U2 concert — as did the " no more ! " interlude . Along with a performance of " Bad , " the song was performed at Live Aid in July 1985 .
As U2 reached new levels of fame in 1987 with The Joshua Tree , " Sunday Bloody Sunday " continued to be a focal point of concerts . Some performances featured slower , more contemplative versions of the song ; other concerts saw the wilder , more violent version . This tour marked the first time " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was played in Northern Ireland since 1982 , and it has not been performed there since .
The 1988 rockumentary Rattle and Hum includes a particularly renowned version of the song , recorded on 8 November 1987 at McNichols Sports Arena in Denver , Colorado . On this version Bono 's mid @-@ song rant angrily and emphatically condemns the Remembrance Day Bombing that had occurred earlier that same day in the Northern Irish town of Enniskillen :
After the Joshua Tree Tour , Bono was heard saying the band might never play the song again , because the song was " made real " with the performance in Denver , and it could never be matched again . Following their original intent , " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was not played during any of the forty @-@ seven shows on the Lovetown Tour in 1989 . The song reappeared for a brief period during the Zoo TV Tour , and late during the second half of PopMart Tour ( 1997 – 1998 ) , U2 played an emotional concert in war @-@ ravaged Sarajevo that included a solo performance of the song by the Edge . " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was subsequently played live in this style until the end of the tour in March 1998 .
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " was played at every concert on the 2001 Elevation and 2005 – 2006 Vertigo tours . Performances in 2001 frequently included parts of Bob Marley 's " Get Up , Stand Up " and " Johnny Was " . A memorable mid @-@ song message referencing the Omagh bombing of 1998 ( " Turn this song into a prayer ! " ) is captured on the live DVD U2 Go Home : Live from Slane Castle . In concerts in New York City after the September 11 , 2001 attacks , the " no more ! " interlude was replaced by Bono holding an American flag .
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " was used during the Vertigo Tour of 2005 and 2006 , often alongside " Bullet the Blue Sky " and " Love and Peace or Else " as a trio of politically driven songs performed during the middle part of the band 's set . Bono extended the " no more ! " interlude to explain a headband he had donned in the previous song . The headband depicted the word " coexist " ( written to depict a crescent , a Star of David , and a Christian cross ) . The Coexist symbol is trademarked in the United States by an LLP in Indiana , and the original artwork was created in 2001 by a Polish artist . As with the 2001 shows , the Vertigo tour saw the song applied to subjects further afield than The Troubles in Northern Ireland . During 2006 Australian shows , in Brisbane , Bono asked for Australian Terrorism suspect David Hicks to be brought home and tried under Australian laws . In subsequent Australian concerts he dedicated the song to the victims of the 2002 Bali bombings – where 88 of the fatalities were Australians – saying ' This is your song now ! ' . The song was also performed at every concert on the U2 360 ° Tour , paying tribute to the 2009 Iranian election protests on each occasion by projecting scenes from the protests and Persian writing in green on the video screen .
= = Music video = =
Although a promotional music video had not been produced for the original release , the band used footage from a 5 June 1983 live performance filmed for the concert film U2 Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky to promote the song . Directed by Gavin Taylor , the video displays Bono 's use of a white flag during performances of the song . The video highlights the intensity and emotion felt by many audience members during U2 's concerts , while the rainy , torch @-@ lit setting in Colorado 's Red Rocks Amphitheatre further adds to the atmosphere . In 2004 , Rolling Stone cited the performance as one " 50 Moments that Changed the History of Rock and Roll " and noted that " the sight of Bono singing the anti @-@ violence anthem ' Sunday Bloody Sunday ' while waving a white flag through crimson mist ( created by a combination of wet weather , hot lights and the illumination of those crags ) became the defining image of U2 's warrior @-@ rock spirit and — shown in heavy rotation on MTV — broke the band nationwide . "
= = Other releases = =
The album version of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " was originally included on War , but it can also be heard on a number of promotional releases , including the compilations The Best of 1980 @-@ 1990 and U218 Singles . Several live versions have been released ; the video available on Live at Red Rocks : Under a Blood Red Sky is from a performance at Red Rocks Amphitheatre in June 1983 , but the version on the live album Under a Blood Red Sky is from a performance in August 1983 . Audio from the Sarajevo concert of 1997 is featured as a b @-@ side on 1997 's single " If God Will Send His Angels . " The song also appears on Rattle and Hum , PopMart : Live from Mexico City , Elevation 2001 : Live from Boston , U2 Go Home : Live from Slane Castle , Vertigo 2005 : Live from Chicago , Live from Paris , U2 3D , U2 360 ° at the Rose Bowl and in the closing credits of the 2002 TV film Bloody Sunday . The only concert films that " Sunday Bloody Sunday " does not appear on are Zoo TV : Live from Sydney and Vertigo 05 : Live from Milan .
= = Legacy = =
The song appears in the closing credits of the 2002 biopic Bloody Sunday .
In 2010 , Rolling Stone ranked " Sunday Bloody Sunday " 272nd on its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . " In 2006 , Q named " Sunday Bloody Sunday " the 18th @-@ greatest song of the 1980s . The staff of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame selected " Sunday Bloody Sunday " as one of 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll . The New Statesman listed it as one of the Top 20 Political Songs , and similarly , Time named it one of the Top 10 Protest Songs .
In 2007 , The Roots covered " Sunday Bloody Sunday " in a medley with " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " for an NAACP dinner honouring Bono . While the band played the song , Black Thought rapped lines from the band 's own " False Media " and bits of Edwin Starr 's " War " .
In 2008 , Jay @-@ Z sampled " Sunday Bloody Sunday " in a version of " Heart of the City " performed at the Glastonbury Festival . During a version of " Sunday Bloody Sunday " performed by the band at the 2009 MTV Europe Music Awards , Jay @-@ Z improvised lyrics over the breakdown in the song before including a snippet of " Get Up , Stand Up . "
= = Track listings = =
" Sunday Bloody Sunday " was commercially released throughout most of Europe in support of U2 's album War . Its cover art is the same as that of " Two Hearts Beat as One , " except on the Japan release . The B @-@ side on the single , " Endless Deep , " is one of the few U2 songs that features bassist Adam Clayton singing .
= = Personnel = =
Bono – lead vocals
The Edge – guitar , backing vocals
Adam Clayton – bass guitar
Larry Mullen , Jr . – drums
Steve Wickham – electric violin
= = Chart positions = =
= Ambondro mahabo =
Ambondro mahabo is a mammal from the middle Jurassic ( about 167 million years ago ) of Madagascar . The only species of the genus Ambondro , it is known from a fragmentary lower jaw with three teeth , interpreted as the last premolar and the first two molars . The premolar consists of a central cusp with one or two smaller cusps and a cingulum ( shelf ) on the inner , or lingual , side of the tooth . The molars also have such a lingual cingulum . They consist of two groups of cusps : a trigonid of three cusps at the front and a talonid with a main cusp , a smaller cusp , and a crest at the back . Features of the talonid suggest that Ambondro had tribosphenic molars , the basic arrangement of molar features also present in marsupial and placental mammals . It is the oldest known mammal with putatively tribosphenic teeth ; at the time of its discovery it antedated the second oldest example by about 25 million years .
Upon its description in 1999 , Ambondro was interpreted as a primitive relative of Tribosphenida ( marsupials , placentals , and their extinct tribosphenic @-@ toothed relatives ) . In 2001 , however , an alternative suggestion was published that united it with the Cretaceous Australian Ausktribosphenos and the monotremes ( the echidnas , the platypus , and their extinct relatives ) into the clade Australosphenida , which would have acquired tribosphenic molars independently from marsupials and placentals . The Jurassic Argentinean Asfaltomylos and Henosferus and the Cretaceous Australian Bishops were later added to Australosphenida , and new work on wear in australosphenidan teeth has called into question whether these animals , including Ambondro , did have tribosphenic teeth . Other paleontologists have challenged this concept of Australosphenida , and instead proposed that Ambondro is not closely related to Ausktribosphenos plus monotremes , or that monotremes are not australosphenidans and that the remaining australosphenidans are related to placentals .
= = Discovery and context = =
Ambondro mahabo was described by a team led by John Flynn in a 1999 paper in Nature . The scientific name derives from the village of Ambondromahabo , close to which the fossil was found . It is known from the Bathonian ( middle Jurassic , about 167 million years ago ) of the Mahajanga Basin in northwestern Madagascar , in the Isalo III unit , the youngest of the three rock layers that make up the Isalo " Group " . This unit has also yielded crocodyliform and plesiosaur teeth and remains of the sauropod Lapparentosaurus .
= = Description = =
Ambondro was described on the basis of a fragmentary right mandible ( lower jaw ) with three teeth in it ( Figure 1 ) , interpreted as the last premolar ( p @-@ last ) and the first two molars ( m1 and m2 ) . It is in the collection of the University of Antananarivo as specimen UA 10602 . Relative to other primitive mammals , it is small . Each of the teeth has a prominent cingulum ( shelf ) on the inner ( lingual ) side . The p @-@ last has a strong central cusp . There is a cuspule ( small cusp ) on the back of the tooth and probably another on the inner front corner . This tooth resembles the molars of symmetrodonts , a group of primitive mammals , but the back cusp is smaller than the metaconid of symmetrodonts .
The front half of the m1 and m2 consists of the trigonid , a group of three cusps forming a triangle : the paraconid at the front on the inner side , protoconid in the middle on the outer ( labial ) side , and metaconid at the back on the inner side ( see Figure 2 ) . The three cusps form a right angle with each other at the protoconid , so that the trigonid is described as " open " . The paraconid is higher than the metaconid . At the front margin , a cingulum is present that is divided into two small cusps . Unlike in various early tribosphenic mammals and close relatives , there is no additional cuspule behind the metaconid . At the back of the trigonid , the crest known as the distal metacristid is located relatively close to the outer side of the tooth and is continuous with another crest , the cristid obliqua , which is in turn connected to the back of the tooth .
The talonid , another group of cusps , makes up the back of the tooth . It is wider than long and contains a well @-@ developed cusp , the hypoconid , on the outer side and a depression , the talonid basin , in the middle . The cristid obliqua connects to the hypoconid . The smaller hypoconulid cusp is present towards the inner side of the tooth , and the hypoconid and hypoconulid are connected by a cutting edge which is suggestive of the presence of a metacone cusp on the upper molars . Further towards the inner side , a crest , the entocristid , rims the talonid basin ; on m1 , it is swollen and on m2 , it contains two small cuspules , but a distinct entoconid cusp is absent . This entocristid is continuous with the lingual cingulum .
Wear facets are areas of a tooth that show evidence of contact with a tooth in the opposing jaw when the teeth are brought together ( known as occlusion ) . Flynn and colleagues identified two wear facets at the front and back margins of the talonid basin ; they argue that these wear facets suggest the presence of a protocone ( another cusp on the outer side of the tooth ) on the upper molars . In a 2005 paper on Asfaltomylos , a related primitive mammal from Argentina , Thomas Martin and Oliver Rauhut disputed the presence of these wear facets within the talonid basin in Ambondro and instead identified wear facets on the cusps and crests surrounding the basin . They proposed that wear in the australosphenidan talonid occurs mainly on the rims , not in the talonid basin itself , and that australosphenidans may not have had a functional protocone .
= = Interpretations = =
In their paper , Flynn and colleagues described Ambondro as the oldest mammal with tribosphenic molars — the basic molar type of metatherian ( marsupials and their extinct relatives ) and eutherian ( placentals and their extinct relatives ) mammals , characterized by the protocone cusp on the upper molars contacting the talonid basin on the lower molars in chewing . The discovery of Ambondro was thought to extend the known temporal range of tribosphenic mammals 25 million years further into the past . Consequently , Flynn and colleagues argued against the prevailing view that tribosphenic mammals originated on the northern continents ( Laurasia ) , and instead proposed that their origin lies in the south ( Gondwana ) . They cited the retention of a distal metacristid and an " open " trigonid as characters separating Ambondro from more modern tribosphenidans .
In 2001 , Zhe @-@ Xi Luo and colleagues alternatively proposed that a tribosphenic molar pattern had arisen twice ( compare Figure 3 , top ) — once giving rise to the marsupials and placentals ( Boreosphenida ) , and once producing Ambondro , the Cretaceous Australian Ausktribosphenos , and the living monotremes , which first appeared in the Cretaceous ( united as Australosphenida ) . They characterized Australosphenida by the shared presence of a cingulum on the outer front corner of the lower molars , a short and broad talonid , a relatively low trigonid , and a triangulated last lower premolar .
Also in 2001 , Denise Sigogneau @-@ Russell and colleagues in their description of the earliest Laurasian tribosphenic mammal , Tribactonodon , agreed with the relationship between Ausktribosphenos and monotremes , but argued that Ambondro was closer to Laurasian tribosphenidans than to Ausktribosphenos and monotremes . As evidence against the integrity of Australosphenida , they cited the presence of lingual cingula in various non @-@ australosphenidan mammals ; the presence of two cusps in the anterior cingulum in Ambondro as well as some boreosphenidans ; the different appearance of the premolar in Ambondro ( flat ) and Ausktribosphenos ( squared ) ; and the contrast between the talonids of Ambondro ( with a well @-@ developed hypoconid on the labial side ) and Ausktribosphenos ( squared ) .
The next year , Luo and colleagues published a more thorough analysis confirming their previous conclusion and adding the Cretaceous Australian Bishops to Australosphenida . They mentioned the condition of the hypoconulid , which is inclined forward , rather than backward as in boreosphenidans , as an additional australosphenidan character and noted that Ausktribosphenos and monotremes were united , to the exclusion of Ambondro , by the presence of a V @-@ shaped notch in the distal metacristid . In the same year , Asfaltomylos was described from the Jurassic of Argentina as another australosphenidan . In contrast to Ambondro , this animal lacked a distal metacristid and did not have as well @-@ developed a lingual cingulum .
However , in 2003 Michael Woodburne and colleagues revised the phylogenetic analysis published by Luo and colleagues , making several changes to the data , particularly in the monotremes . Their results ( Figure 3 , bottom ) challenged the division between Australosphenida and Boreosphenida , as proposed by Luo et al . Instead , they excluded monotremes from Australosphenida and placed the remaining australosphenidans close to Eutheria , with Ambondro most closely related to Asfaltomylos . In 2007 , Guillermo Rougier and colleagues described another australosphenidan , Henosferus , from the Jurassic of Argentina ; they argued against a relationship between Eutheria and Australosphenida ( Figure 3 , top ) , but were ambivalent about the placement of monotremes within Australosphenida . Based in part on Martin and Rauhut 's earlier work on wear facets in australosphenidans , they questioned the presence of a true functional protocone on the upper molars of non @-@ monotreme australosphenidans — none of which are known from upper teeth — and consequently suggested that australosphenidans may not , after all , have had truly tribosphenic teeth .
= Overlord ( 2007 video game ) =
Overlord is an action role @-@ playing video game developed by Triumph Studios and published by Codemasters for the Xbox 360 , Microsoft Windows and PlayStation 3 . The former two versions of the game were released in North America on June 26 , 2007 , then later in Europe on June 29 and Australia on July 6 , 2007 .
Development on the game began in early 2006 and the game was first announced in May of the same year , with actual gameplay demonstrated at E3 2006 . After over a year and a half of development , its release in 2007 was met with generally favourable reviews and helped boost overall sales for Codemasters that year . An expansion pack entitled Overlord : Raising Hell was announced on November 1 , 2007 and released February 15 , 2008 along with additional multiplayer maps and a local split screen co @-@ op mode . A PlayStation 3 version of the game also entitled Overlord : Raising Hell was released in 2008 in Europe on June 20 , and June 24 in North America , which included both the original game and its downloadable content . A sequel for all three systems entitled Overlord II was announced the same year on August 13 along with a spin @-@ off for the Wii entitled Overlord : Dark Legend and a Nintendo DS game called Overlord : Minions . A Linux version is under development .
Overlord is set in a fantasy world , where the player takes the role of a resurrected warrior known simply as The Overlord who has control over hordes of gremlin @-@ like creatures known as " minions " . The player must defeat seven corrupt ruling heroes in order to reconquer the lands and establish his lordship over its inhabitants . The game features a corruption feature , similar to that of the Fable games , but allowing the player to " be evil ... or really evil , " where certain actions and choices affect different aspects of the story and gameplay . While the Overlord is controlled in a third person perspective , the way minions are controlled brings elements of real @-@ time strategy and upgrades bring those of role @-@ playing games . The game also uses black humour and is often a satire and parody of the traditional fantasy setting and plot .
= = Gameplay = =
The game centers around simultaneously controlling the Overlord and an army of goblin @-@ like minions to traverse the 3D gameworld and defeat the seven heroes who slew the Overlord 's predecessor , and who have since been corrupted by power . Each one represents one of the seven deadly sins .
There are four minion races , each of which have their own colour and abilities . Browns are melee fighters , blues can revive defeated minions and swim , reds throw fireballs at enemies , can put out fires and are immune to fire attacks , and greens backstab enemies and can clear poisonous gas and plants . Minions are summoned from the spawning pits found scattered throughout the game . The player needs to pay life @-@ force , which can be gained by killing creatures , like large bugs , to summon minions . At the start of the game only five minions can be summoned at once ; as the game progresses this can increase to a maximum of fifty . In addition to controlling minions , the player can sacrifice them at altars of blood and magic to restore the Overlord 's health or mana . Once a forge is acquired , they can be used to imbue weapons and armour to increase the Overlord 's abilities .
The player begins in an old ruined tower that has been plundered of its magical artifacts and acts as a central hub for the player . As the stolen tower objects are recovered , new rooms and spells become available for use , and the Overlord 's maximum health and mana increase . The player also needs to recover the blue , green , and red minion hives to summon the respective minions . The player can customize the tower with a variety of visual items such as banners and statues ; the available visual items differ depending on in @-@ game actions . Armour and weapons can be purchased or improved in the forge . Most defeated enemy types appear as opponents in the dungeon , an arena where the Overlord can fight them again ( excluding bosses such as heroes and one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind beasts ) .
While the game claims that the Overlord is evil , the quests show him being more of an anti @
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= 1933 Cuba – Bahamas hurricane =
The 1933 Cuba – Bahamas hurricane was last of six major hurricanes , or at least a Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale , in the active 1933 Atlantic hurricane season . It formed on October 1 in the Caribbean Sea as the seventeenth tropical storm , and initially moved slowly to the north . While passing west of Jamaica , the storm damaged banana plantations and killed one person . On October 3 , the storm became a hurricane , and the next day crossed western Cuba . Advance warning in the country prevented any storm @-@ related fatalities , although four people suspected of looting were shot and killed during a curfew in Havana . The German travel writer Richard Katz witnessed the hurricane while in Havana , and described the experience in his book " Loafing Around the Globe " ( " Ein Bummel um Die Welt " ) .
After entering the Florida Straits , the hurricane turned to the northeast , producing tropical storm winds along the Florida Keys . High rainfall caused flooding , while three tornadoes spawned by the storm damaged houses in the Miami area . The hurricane reached peak winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) on October 6 while moving through the Bahamas . It subsequently weakened and became extratropical on October 8 . The former hurricane lashed the coast of Nova Scotia with high winds and rain , leaving about $ 1 million ( 1933 CAD ) in damage . Rough seas sank several ships and killed nine people in the region . The remnants of the hurricane eventually dissipated on October 9 to the south of Newfoundland .
= = Meteorological history = =
Toward the end of September 1933 , there was a large area of disturbed weather across the southern Caribbean Sea . By September 30 , a low pressure area developed south of San Andrés island . The next day , observations from a station at Cabo Gracias a Dios and a ship indicated a tropical storm had developed off the eastern coast of Honduras . Low atmospheric pressure suggested the system had winds of tropical storm force despite lack of direct observations . Moving northward , the storm gained size as it slowly intensified . Based on observations and interpolation of data , it is estimated the storm became a hurricane early on October 3 while passing west of Jamaica . That day , a station at South Negril Point that day reported a force 8 on the Beaufort scale , well to the east of the center . While approaching the southern coast of Cuba , the hurricane reached estimated winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . At 0900 UTC on October 4 , the hurricane made landfall on the Zapata Peninsula of Cuba , followed by a second landfall on the Cuban mainland three hours later . Beginning at 1600 UTC that day , the capital , Havana , observed the passage of the eye , where a pressure of 976 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) was reported .
The hurricane weakened slightly over land before emerging into the Straits of Florida and re @-@ intensifying . On October 5 , it turned to the northeast while remaining southeast of the Florida mainland , although the strongest winds remained over water . Early on October 6 while the hurricane was moving through the Bahamas , a ship reported a pressure of 958 mbar ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) , although it was unknown if it was in the center or the periphery of the storm . Based on the data , the maximum sustained winds were estimated at 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) , although the ship estimated winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . The storm maintained peak winds for about 18 hours , after which it weakened while accelerating to the northeast . After passing to the west of Bermuda on October 7 , the hurricane became extratropical the next day while still maintaining hurricane force winds . The storm brushed the coast of Nova Scotia before it was last noted approaching another extratropical storm on October 9 to the south of Atlantic Canada .
= = Preparations and impact = =
Early in its duration , the developing storm brushed the coast of Honduras with light winds . In Jamaica , gusts approached hurricane force , while heavy rainfall damaged transportation in Kingston . The storm wrecked small houses and damaged the local banana industry . There was one death in Jamaica . The hurricane crossed western Cuba with winds estimated at 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) . This prompted officials to declare a curfew for the capital in the midst of political upheaval following a coup . A newspaper described the curfew before the storm as " the most peaceful night in a week . " However , the government ordered soldiers in Havana to shoot anyone suspected of looting , and four looters were killed during the storm 's passage . Heavy associated rainfall caused rivers to overflow in three provinces , flooding low @-@ lying areas . In Cienfuegos , the storm destroyed several houses . Offshore northern Cuba , two United States ships took shelter at the port in Matanzas due to rough seas . High tides flooded the Havana waterfront up to 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) deep , and several boats sank at the city 's harbor . Due to advance warning and evacuations , there were no direct deaths in the country , and 20 people were injured .
Storm warnings were issued on the west coast of Florida to Boca Grande and on the east coast to Titusville , with hurricane warnings for the Florida Keys . Although the hurricane passed just southeast of the Florida Keys , the highest winds reported in Florida were 44 mph ( 70 km / h ) in Key West . The storm passed closest to Long Key , where winds were estimated at 63 mph ( 102 km / h ) , due to being on the weak side of the storm . Farther north , Miami reported winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) . Rainfall reached over 11 in ( 280 mm ) in 24 hours in Key West . There , the storm knocked over several trees and caused some power outages . Portions of the city were flooded while boats were washed ashore . Elsewhere in Florida , three tornadoes were reported during the hurricane 's passage . In Fort Lauderdale , a tornado injured one person , and another one in Miami knocked down four homes and injured two . The third tornado was in Hollywood , where several houses were damaged .
Later as the hurricane moved through the Bahamas , it produced winds of 100 mph ( 161 km / h ) at Hope Town and 91 mph ( 146 km / h ) at Millville , both on Abaco . The outer periphery of the storm brushed Nantucket to the west with winds of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) and Bermuda to the east with 46 mph ( 75 km / h ) .
While moving offshore Atlantic Canada , the former hurricane produced gale force winds , peaking at 52 mph ( 83 km / h ) in Halifax , Nova Scotia . There , the storm also dropped heavy rainfall reaching 9 @.@ 84 in ( 250 mm ) over two days , including 3 @.@ 6 in ( 90 mm ) in 24 hours . Flooding covered streets in the province , causing traffic jams , and farmlands . In Annapolis Valley , the rainfall washed out a bridge while the winds damaged about one @-@ third of the apple crop . The dam at Chocolate Lake overflowed due to the rainfall , and a dam broke in Great Village , destroying a nearby bridge . Many trees fell during the storm , resulting in power outages after some fell onto lines . Outside Nova Scotia , the storm produced winds of 51 mph ( 81 km / h ) in Shediac , New Brunswick , where high waves left coastal damage . In Newfoundland , the storm washed out three bridges , as well as portions of roads and rails , and flooded one house . Throughout Atlantic Canada , high waves washed ashore , sank , or broke at least ten boats from their moorings , killing nine people including seven from an overturned boat sailing from Boston to Yarmouth . Overall damage in Canada was estimated at around $ 1 million ( 1933 CAD ) , including $ 250 @,@ 000 in lost apple crop .
= Merv Harvey =
Mervyn Roye Harvey ( 29 April 1918 – 18 March 1995 ) was a cricketer who played in one Test match for Australia in 1947 . His younger brother , Neil , was one of Australia 's finest batsmen , and the pair played together for Victoria during the latter part of Merv 's career .
Merv Harvey broke into the Victorian state team during the 1940 – 41 season and played in three first @-@ class matches . The highlight of the first phase of his career for Victoria was a rapid 70 in one hour against a New South Wales attack containing Bill O 'Reilly , regarded as the best bowler in the world at the time . However , the outbreak of World War II in the Pacific caused the suspension of top @-@ level cricket and halted Harvey ’ s progress . Harvey then served in the Royal Australian Air Force as an airframe fitter , losing his best cricketing years to the war .
An opening batsman , Harvey was described by Neil as " the greatest cricketer of us all " and known for his attacking style and penchant for hooking fast bowlers . He was initially overlooked for Victorian selection after cricket resumed in 1945 – 46 , before being recalled for the final match of the season , and he responded by scoring a career @-@ best 163 . He was a regular member of the Victorian team during the 1946 – 47 season , and although he faced much competition for national selection as Australia had an abundance of quality openers at the time , he was selected for his only Test during the fourth Test of the season against England at the Adelaide Oval when both Bill Brown and Sid Barnes were injured . Harvey made 12 and 31 before being dropped immediately due to Barnes ' recovery .
In 1947 – 48 , Harvey played with younger brothers Neil and Ray in two matches for Victoria , captaining the team in the second of these fixtures . However , his own form began to wane and he was dropped from the team mid @-@ way through the season . In 1948 – 49 , Harvey remained outside the first @-@ choice team , and played in only two first @-@ class matches against Tasmania when Victoria fielded a second @-@ string team . He retired at the end of the season , having played only 22 first @-@ class matches in an interrupted career . Harvey captained his state five times during the post @-@ war phase of his career , standing in when regular captain Lindsay Hassett was away on national duty .
= = Early years = =
Merv Harvey was born in Broken Hill , New South Wales to Horace " Horrie " and Elsie Harvey . Horace worked for BHP driving horse @-@ drawn trailers . Merv was the second child in the family and the oldest son . Five younger brothers were to follow , in chronological order Mick , Harold , Ray , Neil and Brian . The family relocated to Newcastle , a mining town and harbour in New South Wales , before shifting to the inner @-@ Melbourne suburb of Fitzroy , a staunchly working @-@ class , industrial area . Horace secured a job at the confectionery company Life Savers ( Australasia ) Ltd , located next door to their house at 198 Argyle Street . The 19th century two @-@ storey house was owned by the firm and was used as lodgings for the workers ’ families . It no longer exists , having been demolished to make way for a textile factory .
The Cornish @-@ descended Horace raised his family as strict Methodists , disallowing gambling , alcohol , tobacco and profanity in his household . An ardent cricketer during his years in New South Wales , he was good enough to hit 196 runs during a match in Newcastle , and he encouraged his children to play sport . He himself played for the Rita Social Club after moving to Fitzroy .
As recreational facilities and grass ovals were sparse in densely populated Fitzroy , Merv and his younger brothers played cricket in a cobblestone laneway between their terraced house . Here they played cricket with a tennis ball , home made cricket bat and a kerosene tin for a wicket . They were usually joined by other local children , two of whom became elite sportsmen : Allan Ruthven and Harold Shillinglaw . The group also played Australian rules football , kicking around rolled up cardboard and newspaper . Much of the batting skill displayed by the Harvey brothers has been attributed to these games played on the unpredictable bounce of the bumpy laneway . The surface also had a V @-@ shaped slope inwards towards the centre of the lane , causing balls to deviate sideways after bouncing . As the laneway meant that the playing area was long and narrow , the young boys also had to learn to play the ball straight in accordance with orthodox cricket technique . The Harveys played another form of cricket in their concreted backyard using a marble instead of a ball , and a miniature bat . This sharpened their reflexes .
Merv was the first of the brothers to attend the nearby George Street State School and join the Fitzroy Cricket Club as they reached their early teens . The club had a program whereby they gave a medal for every local school to award to the best cricketer in their ranks in that year . The successful student would then be given access to all of the club 's facilities . All of the Harvey brothers were recipients were of this medal . At Fitzroy , they came under the influence of former Victorian all @-@ rounder Arthur Liddicut and the club ’ s veteran captain Joe Plant . Merv and his younger siblings had no formal coaching , and their father , a regular presence at the club , chose to stay in the background as their respective careers developed . Horace did not advise his sons on how to bat , allowing them to formulate their own style and technique . According to the brothers , it was their mother who was vocal and extroverted , in contrast to their reserved father . The boys who failed to score runs were given kitchen duty , and according to them , their parents never showed favouritism .
During the winter , they played baseball for Fitzroy Baseball Club , often competing in matches played as curtain raisers to the elite Australian rules football competition , the Victorian Football League . Saturday night entertainment for the family typically consisted of dinner after the day ’ s cricket matches for Fitzroy , and Plant , Liddicut and other cricket club personnel were often invited . Under the influence of Plant and Liddicut , the boys were taught to adopt an aggressive approach , using fast feet movement to attack spin bowling in particular . In 1932 , Harvey captained the Victorian Under @-@ 15 schoolboys team on a tour of Queensland and one of his players was future Victorian and Australian teammate Keith Miller . Harvey graduated to Fitzroy 's first XI in 1933 – 34 .
= = First @-@ class beginnings = =
During the 1938 – 39 season , Harvey was selected for the Victorian Second XI to play in a match against their counterparts from New South Wales . Harvey was run out for four in the first innings and then made eight as his team succumbed to a 227 @-@ run defeat . As a result , he was not called up into the First XI for the next two years .
Harvey made his first @-@ class debut for Victoria against Queensland at the Gabba in 1940 – 41 . In the first innings , he made 25 before being caught by wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon from the bowling of Jack Ellis as the visitors took first innings points in a drawn match . In the next match , he made an impression . After making 35 in the first innings , he scored 70 in an hour 's batting in the second innings at the SCG against New South Wales . In both innings , he was dismissed by leg spinner Bill O 'Reilly , the leading bowler in the world , but Victoria managed to prevail by 24 runs . The teams met again three weeks later , and this time , New South Wales turned the table , winning by 235 runs . Harvey made 14 in the first innings , bowled by O 'Reilly for the second innings in a row . In the second innings he made 38 before being removed by another leg spinner , Cec Pepper . Harvey ended the season with 182 runs at 36 @.@ 40 .
Harvey enlisted in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) at Fitzroy on 12 May 1942 and was a member of the 30 Squadron . He served as an airframe fitter during World War II , which severely interrupted his sporting career , and first @-@ class cricket was cancelled after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor prompted the outbreak of hostilities in the Pacific . He was discharged on 25 January 1946 with the rank of aircraftman . According to cricket administrator Bill Jacobs , the war cost Harvey his prime cricketing years . Jacobs believed that Harvey would have been selected for Australia in the period otherwise interrupted by war .
= = Post @-@ war resumption and only Test = =
After the war ended in 1945 , first @-@ class cricket resumed in 1945 – 46 . Harvey played in a trial match for state selection . Playing for the Rest of Victoria against the first @-@ choice state team , he made 82 and 25 . This was not enough to convince the state selectors and Harvey did not get a recall to the Victorian team until the end of the season when he played against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval . He responded by striking a career @-@ best 163 to help his team to an innings win .
Immediately after the war , Harvey faced a lot of competition for a place as an opening batsman in the Australian team , but a vacancy arose in 1946 – 47 , when Bill Brown , who had captained Australia the previous season and opened for the country in Tests in the 1930s , was sidelined with injury for the whole summer .
In the first match of the season , Harvey ’ s Victorians faced the touring England cricket team led by Wally Hammond . In the first innings , Harvey made 21 of the team ’ s 189 before being caught and bowled by leg spinner Doug Wright . He then made 57 before being dismissed by Alec Bedser as the hosts fell for only 204 in pursuit of 449 for victory , losing by 244 runs .
This was enough for him to be selected in the Australian XI for a match against the Englishmen , in what was effectively a Test dress rehearsal . Rain curtailed the match , and the game did not reach the second innings ; Harvey made 22 in his only opportunity .
There was another match for Victoria against South Australia before the Tests , allowing him another chance to push his claim for national selection . It was also his first Sheffield Shield match ; his previous appearances for Victoria in interstate games were in seasons where the competition was called off due to war and replaced by one @-@ off matches . Harvey could manage only 9 as Victoria amassed 548 in their first innings . They needed 79 runs for victory in 35 minutes on the last afternoon , and with quick scoring required , the more aggressive Keith Miller opened in place of Harvey . When the first wicket fell with the target almost completed , Harvey came in and made three not out by the time the match was over . These performances were not enough for the Australian selectors and Harvey was overlooked for the team for the first two Tests .
After this , Harvey had two opportunities to press for selection for the next Test . He made 13 in an innings victory over Queensland and continued to be overlooked . The second match was the Shield clash with arch @-@ rivals New South Wales , which started on Boxing Day at the MCG . After the visitors had made 205 , Harvey opened with Ken Meuleman , who was out at 1 / 31 , bringing Miller to the crease . Miller hammered the bowling and Victoria were 1 / 154 at the end of the day . The next day , the 271 @-@ run partnership ended after just over three hours when Miller fell at 2 / 302 . Harvey went on to make 136 in what was generally regarded as his best innings . He famously hooked leading Australian paceman Ray Lindwall , the fastest in the world at the time , over the fence into the public bar for six . It was one of the few occasions that Lindwall was hit for six in his long career . Victoria declared at 8 / 560 , Test bowlers Lindwall and Ernie Toshack taking the most punishment with figures of 1 / 100 and 0 / 133 from 18 and 21 overs respectively , as Victoria went on to win by an innings and 114 runs .
In the return match against Queensland , Harvey made 17 as Victoria took a convincing innings win . In the next match against New South Wales , Harvey played with Neil for the first time at first @-@ class level , and pair played together for their state ’ s two remaining matches of the season , although they never batted together as Merv was always out before Neil came in , usually at No. 6 . Merv made 30 and 44 , failing to capitalise on his starts to make a big score with a Test vacancy beckoning ; incumbent opener Sid Barnes was injured and unavailable for the Fourth Test .
Nevertheless , Harvey was selected to play his only Test , the Fourth Test at Adelaide , filling in for the injured Barnes . England batted first and made 460 before being dismissed late on the second day . Harvey opened with Arthur Morris , and made 12 in the first innings before being bowled by Bedser while playing an aggressive shot . With only a few minutes of play left , the Australian captain Don Bradman came in and he too was bowled by Bedser , without scoring a run . Harvey later privately said the Bradman had told him to play cautiously and survive until the end of the day , rather than attack , and that the captain was angry with the resulting two wickets . According to Harvey , Bradman told him that he would never be selected for Australia again . The tourists then declared during the last afternoon and left Australia a target of 314 . The target was not a realistic offer and Morris and Harvey put on an opening stand of 116 before the latter was bowled for 31 by the medium pace of occasional bowler Norman Yardley . The match ended in a draw with Australia on 1 / 215 .
Barnes recovered and resumed his position for the Fifth Test . Harvey ended his season by scoring 10 in his only innings of Victoria ’ s second tour match against England , which was drawn , and was 3 not out in the first innings of the Shield match against South Australia when it was washed out . Harvey made his captaincy debut in the latter match as Lindsay Hassett was representing Australia in the Fifth Test , and his bowlers dismissed South Australia for 222 in Victoria ’ s only innings in the field . This washed @-@ out drawn match was the only time in six Shield matches during the season that Victoria did not emerge victorious , and they won the competition . Harvey ended the season with 405 runs at 33 @.@ 75 .
= = Final seasons = =
By 1947 – 48 , Brown had recovered , so Harvey had to compete with him as well as Morris and Barnes for selection . In the first match of the season against the touring Indians , Harvey made 4 and 35 . The following week , he made 89 in the first innings against South Australia but managed only three in the second innings as the Victorians collapsed to be all out for 182 and lost by nine wickets . Harvey was overlooked for the Australian XI for the Test trial against India the following week . Instead , he played in the match against Queensland , scoring only 13 and 3 . He was subsequently overlooked for the Test selection . During this time , he played alongside Neil in all but the Queensland match , when his younger brother was playing in the Australian XI . However , neither batted together .
Neil returned to the Victorian team for the match against New South Wales at the SCG the following week , and Ray was selected to make his first @-@ class debut , so three Harveys were in the state team for the first time . Merv opened , while Neil and Ray batted at Nos. 4 and 7 respectively . Victoria batted first and the brothers again did not form any partnerships . Merv opened and made 45 as Victoria ended with 331 ; the Harvey brothers had scored almost half the runs . New South Wales were forced to follow on , and Victoria were set 51 for victory . After the fall of Fred Freer at 1 / 24 , captain Lindsay Hassett elevated Ray to No. 3 , allowing two Harveys to bat together for the first time at first @-@ class level . Ray and Merv put on an unbeaten partnership of 27 to take Victoria to a nine @-@ wicket win . Merv and Ray ended unbeaten on 12 and 22 respectively .
The trio then proceeded to play together in the next match against Western Australia two weeks later and Merv captained the team as Hassett was away on Test duty . Victoria batted first and Neil came in to join Merv with the score at 2 / 102 , and the pair added 173 together before the younger brother fell for 94 . One run later , Merv was out for 141 in what turned out to be his final first @-@ class century ; later , Ray made only 1 . Victoria ended on 370 and Western Australia took a 59 @-@ run lead . In the second innings , Merv made 6 and did not bat with his brothers . He declared the innings at 9 / 304 , setting Western Australia a target of 246 for victory . They reached 5 / 205 and Victoria avoided defeat . A fortnight later , Harvey again captained the team and made a duck in his only innings in a rain @-@ curtailed match . After the Victorians had made 412 , Queensland reached 5 / 144 at the end of the match . Despite being the captain , Harvey was dropped for the next match and was overlooked for the rest of the season , ending with 351 runs at 35 @.@ 10 .
After being dropped for the second half of the previous season , Harvey had even less opportunities in 1948 – 49 . His only matches for Victoria came during the Christmas period , when he played consecutive fixtures , both against Tasmania . Although the two games had first @-@ class status , they were effectively Second XI fixtures , as the first @-@ choice team was playing Sheffield Shield matches at the same time . Victoria only batted once in each innings and Harvey made 7 and 36 respectively . Harvey captained the team , and they dominated both matches . The Victorians took a first @-@ innings lead of 171 in the first match , but rain interruptions ended the match with Tasmania at 1 / 100 in their second innings , still 71 runs in arrears . In the second match , Victoria dismissed their opponents for 65 in the first innings to take a lead of 309 runs and they went on to win by an innings and 73 runs . Having seen his previous four matches as captain end in a draw , Harvey ended his first @-@ class career with his only victory as a leader in his final match .
Harvey continued playing in the First XI for Fitzroy until 1954 – 55 , and he finished with 6 @,@ 654 runs at 29 @.@ 31 in 207 First XI matches for the club . Harvey was an attacking opening batsman , strong on the drive and fond of hooking fast bowling . His brother Neil called him " the greatest cricketer of us all " .
= = Outside cricket = =
Harvey worked for more than five decades for the same engineering firm , and lived with his wife Myrtle in the western industrial suburb of Footscray . He had two sons , Jeff and Graeme , both of whom played in first grade for Fitzroy . His grandson Robert Harvey — son of Jeff — was one of the leading Australian rules footballers of the 1990s and the early 21st century . Robert made his Australian Football League debut for St Kilda Football Club in 1988 and played 21 seasons . He was a member of the All @-@ Australian team eight times and won the Brownlow Medal twice , in 1997 and 1998 , for the best and fairest player . Robert played for Victoria at Under @-@ 19 level as a bowler , but he was already playing top @-@ flight football at the time and gave up his cricket career after the national Under @-@ 19 tournament . Another grandson Anthony , the younger brother of Robert , also played for St Kilda and captained Norwood to the 1997 South Australian National Football League ( SANFL ) premiership .
= Hiroh Kikai =
Hiroh Kikai ( 鬼海 弘雄 , Kikai Hiroo , born 18 March 1945 ) is a Japanese photographer best known within Japan for four series of monochrome photographs : scenes of buildings in and close to Tokyo , portraits of people in the Asakusa area of Tokyo , and rural and town life in India and Turkey . He has pursued each of these for over two decades , and each has led to one or more book @-@ length collections .
Although previously a respected name in Japanese photography , Kikai was not widely known until 2003 , when the first edition of his book Persona , a collection of Asakusa portraits , won both the Domon Ken Award and Annual Award of the PSJ . In 2009 , the ICP and Steidl copublished Asakusa Portraits for an international market .
= = Early years = =
Kikai was born in the village of Daigo ( now part of Sagae , Yamagata Prefecture ) on 18 March 1945 as the seventh and last child ( and fifth son ) of the family . He had a happy childhood , from the age of 11 or so preferring to play by himself in the nature that surrounded the village . He graduated from high school in 1963 and worked in Yamagata for a year , and then went to Hosei University in Tokyo to study philosophy . As a student he was keen on the cinema — he particularly enjoyed the films of Andrzej Wajda , who would later contribute essays to some of his books , and Satyajit Ray — and has said that he would have worked in film production if it did not require writing , a task he has never enjoyed , and money , which he lacked .
Immediately after his graduation in 1968 , Kikai worked for two years as a truck driver and for two in a shipyard . Meanwhile , he stayed in touch with his philosophy professor from his university days , Sadayoshi Fukuda , whose interests extended to writing a regular column for the magazine Camera Mainichi ; he introduced Kikai to its editor , Shōji Yamagishi , who showed him photographs by Diane Arbus that made a great impact on Kikai . Kikai started to take photographs in 1969 . At that time ( when somebody fresh out of university could expect to earn ¥ 40 @,@ 000 per month ) , a Hasselblad SLR camera normally cost ¥ 600 @,@ 000 ; Kikai heard of an opportunity to buy one for ¥ 320 @,@ 000 and mentioned this to Fukuda , who immediately lent him the money , with no interest , and no date or pressure for repayment . ( The loan was eventually repaid . ) This Hasselblad 500CM , with its 80mm lens , is what Kikai has used for his portraits ever since .
= = Career = =
Kikai thought that work on a boat might be photogenic , but , having no experience , could not get a job on one . He was eventually accepted on a boat fishing for tuna when he displayed the scar from an unneeded appendectomy as evidence of one risk fewer that his presence might force the boat into port . He worked on the boat in the Pacific from 6 April until 9 November 1972 , with a stop in Manzanillo ( Mexico ) for provisions . It was during this time that he took his first photographs to be published , in the May 1973 issue of Camera Mainichi . In 1973 he won a prize for his submission to the 14th exhibition of the Japan Advertising Photographers ’ Association . But Kikai decided that in order to be a photographer he needed darkroom skills , and he returned to Tokyo to work at Doi Technical Photo ( 1973 – 76 ) . He became a freelance photographer in 1984 , a year after his first solo exhibition and the same year as his second .
Living close to Asakusa ( Tokyo ) , Kikai often went there on his days off , taking photographs of visitors . He stepped up his visits in 1985 ; a number of collections of his portraits taken there have been published .
Kikai ’ s other long @-@ term photographic projects are of working and residential neighborhoods in and near Tokyo , and of people and scenes in India and Turkey . All these are black and white . However , his occasional diversions have included color photographs of the Gotō Islands and even of nudes .
Unusually in Japan , where photographers tend to join or form groups , Kikai has never been in any group , preferring to work by himself . When not setting out to take photographs , Kikai does not carry a camera with him . He leaves photographing his own family to his wife Noriko , and it is she who has the camera if they go on a trip together .
In the early part of his career , Kikai often had to earn money in other ways : after three years ’ work in the darkroom , he returned to manual labor .
Kikai taught for some time at Musashino Art University , but he was disappointed by the students ’ lack of sustained effort and therefore quit .
= = = Asakusa portraits = = =
Kikai had started his Asakusa series of square , monochrome portraits as early as 1973 , but after this there was a hiatus until 1985 , when he realized that an ideal backdrop would be the plain red walls of Sensō @-@ ji . At that time , the great majority of his Asakusa portraits adopted further constraints : the single subject stands directly in front of the camera ( originally a Minolta Autocord TLR , later the Hasselblad ) , looking directly at it , and is shown from around the knees upwards . Kikai may wait at the temple for four or five hours , hoping to see somebody he wants to photograph , and three or four days may pass without a single photograph ; but he may photograph three people in a single day , and he has photographed over six hundred people in this way . He believes that to have a plain backdrop and a direct confrontation with the subject allows the viewer to see the subject as a whole , and as somebody on whom time is marked , without any distracting or limiting specificity .
Though Kikai started to photograph in Asakusa simply because it was near where he then lived , he has continued because of the nature of the place and its visitors . Once a bustling and fashionable area , Asakusa long ago lost this status . If it were as popular and crowded as it was before the war , Kikai says , he would go somewhere else .
Published in 1987 , Ōtachi no shōzō / Ecce Homo was the first collection of these portraits . It is a large @-@ format book with portraits made in Asakusa in 1985 – 86 . Kikai won the 1988 Newcomer ’ s Award of the Photographic Society of Japan ( PSJ ) for this book and the third Ina Nobuo Award for the accompanying exhibition .
In 1995 , a number of portraits from the series were shown together with the works of eleven other photographers in “ Tokyo / City of Photos ” , one of a pair of opening exhibitions for the purpose @-@ made building of the Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography .
Ya @-@ Chimata , published a year later , has a greater number of portraits printed more cheaply on smaller pages .
Persona ( 2003 ) is a further collection of portraits made in Asakusa . A few are from Kikai ’ s earliest work , but most postdate anything in the earlier books . Several of the subjects appear twice or more often , so the reader sees the effect of time . The book format is unusually large for a photograph collection in Japan , and the plates were printed via quadtone . The book won the 23rd Domon Ken Award and 2004 Annual Award of the PSJ . A smaller @-@ format edition with additional photographs followed two years later .
Asakusa Portraits ( 2008 ) is a large collection edited by the International Center of Photography ( New York ) , published in conjunction with the ICP ’ s exhibition of recent Japanese photography and art “ Heavy Light ” . Kikai ’ s contribution to this exhibition was well received , and Asakusa Portraits won praise for its photography and also ( from Paul Smith ) for the vernacular fashion of those photographed .
= = = Portraits of spaces = = =
Kikai has said that people and scenery are two sides of the same coin . When tired of waiting ( or photographing ) in Asakusa , he walks as far as 20 km looking for urban scenes of interest where he can make “ portraits of spaces ” . A day ’ s walk might take two or three hours for less than a single roll of 120 film . He generally photographs between 10 a.m. and 3 p.m. , and avoids photographing when people are outside as their presence would transform the photographs into mere snapshots , easily understood ; even without people , they are the images or reflections of life . Kikai may find a scene that he wants to photograph and then wait there and only photograph it when something unexpected occurs in the frame . After development , he does not bother with contact prints , instead judging a photograph by the negative alone .
Samples from this series have appeared in various magazines from at least as early as 1976 . Each photograph is simply captioned with the approximate address ( in Japanese script ) and year .
Tōkyō meiro / Tokyo Labyrinth ( 1999 ) presents portraits of unpeopled spaces in Tokyo ( and occasionally the adjacent town of Kawasaki ) . There are individual shopfronts , rows of shops and residential streets . Most of the buildings are unpretentious . Like the Asakusa series , these portraits are monochrome and square , taken via a standard lens on 120 film .
Tōkyō mutan / Labyrinthos ( 2007 ) — based on an essay / photograph series that ran in the monthly Sōshi ( 草思 ) from March 2004 to July 2005 and then in the web series “ Tokyo Polka ” — presents more of the same . Between a single nude in a shopfront display from 1978 and a very young boy photographed in December 2006 ( the latter appearing to share the Sensō @-@ ji backdrop of Persona ) , are square monochrome views of Tokyo and Kawasaki , compositions that seem casual and rather disorderly , mostly of unpeopled scenes showing signs of intensive and recent use . The book also has Kikai ’ s essays from “ Tokyo Polka ” , essays that dwell on the inhabitants of Tokyo as observed during walks or on the train .
Tokyo View ( 2016 ) is a large @-@ format collection , mostly of photographs that also appear in one or other of the earlier books ( or Tōkyō pōtoreito / Tokyo Portraits ) .
= = = India = = =
Kikai has said that going to India feels like a return to the Yamagata of his youth , and a release from life in Tokyo . His photography there is much less planned or formal than his portraits of people or places in Tokyo : after an early start with color 120 film , he uses black and white 35mm film in India — and has laughingly said that he would use 35mm in Tokyo if the city were more interesting and didn ’ t make him feel unhappy .
India , a large @-@ format book published in 1992 , presents photographs taken in India ( and to a much lesser extent Bangladesh ) over a period totalling rather more than a year and ranging from 1982 to 1990 . It won high praise from the critic Kazuo Nishii , who commented that the India of Kikai ’ s work seems perpetually overcast , and that in their ambiguity his photographs seem to benefit from the work done in the Asakusa portrait series . The book won Kikai the 1993 Society of Photography Award .
Shiawase / Shanti ( 2001 ) is a collection of photographs that concentrates on children , most of which were taken in Allahabad , Benares , Calcutta , Puri and Delhi in 2000 . It won the Grand Prix of the second Photo City Sagamihara Festival .
= = = Turkey = = =
Wanting to explore somewhere that ( in contrast to India ) was cold , as well as a Muslim land where Asian and European cultures meet , in 1994 Kikai made the first of six visits to Turkey , where he has stayed for a total of nine months . His monochrome photographs of Turkey appeared in the magazine Asahi Camera , and his colour photographs on its website , before the publication in January 2011 of his large book Anatolia , a compilation of his monochrome work .
= = = Photography elsewhere = = =
Kikai was one of thirteen Japanese photographers invited by EU – Japan Fest to photograph the twenty @-@ six nations of the European Union ; he spent twenty @-@ one days in Malta in September 2005 and a short period in Portugal in October 2004 , travelling widely in both countries . In color , these photographs are a departure from his earlier work . Most are more or less candid photographs of people . A collection was published as the eighth in a series of fourteen volumes , In @-@ between .
Series of color photographs from short visits to Cuba ( 2007 ) and Taiwan ( 2013 ) have appeared in Asahi Camera .
= = = Writing = = =
Kikai 's essays have appeared in periodicals and within some of his own photobooks . They have also been collected in four books , in which they are illustrated by reproductions of relevant photographs .
Indo ya Gassan ( “ India and Gassan ” , 1999 ) is a collection about and photographs of India . Gassan is a mountain in central Yamagata close to where Kikai was brought up ; Kikai muses on India and compares it with the Yamagata of his youth .
Me to kaze no kioku ( “ Memories of the eye and the wind ” , 2012 ) collects essays published in Yamagata Shinbun ( 山形新聞 ) since 2006 ; Dare omo sukoshi suki ni naru hi : Memekuri bōbiroku ( “ Days when you come to like anyone a little : An image @-@ turning aide @-@ memoire ” , 2015 ) collects essays published in Bungakukai ( 文學界 ) since 2011 ; Kutsuzoku no herikata ( “ Ways to wear down shoe rubber ” , 2016 ) is a fourth collection .
= = Exhibitions = =
Supplementary English titles in parentheses are nonce translations for this article ; those outside parentheses and in quotation marks were used at the time .
[ A ] : Asakusa portraits
[ I ] : India
[ S ] : Portraits of spaces
[ T ] : Turkey
= = = Selected solo exhibitions = = =
“ Nagi : Machinaka no kōkei ” ( 凪 ： 町中の光景 , Calm : Town scenes ) . [ S ] Konishiroku Photo Gallery ( Shinjuku , Tokyo ) , August – September 1983 .
“ Indo kikō ” ( インド紀行 , India travelogue ) . [ I ] Doi Photo Plaza Shibuya ( Shibuya , Tokyo ) , August 1984 ; Art Plaza ( Fukuoka ) , August 1984 ; Gallery Antomeru ( Sendai ) , September 1984 ; Yamagata , 1984 .
“ Ōtachi no shōzō ( Sensōji keidai ) ” ( 王たちの肖像 ( 浅草寺境内 ) , Portraits of kings [ in the grounds of Sensō @-@ ji ] ) . [ A ] Ginza Nikon Salon ( Ginza , Tokyo ) , September 1988 .
“ Dai @-@ 13 Ina Nobuo shō jushō sakuhinten : Kikai Hiroo ‘ Ōtachi no shōzō ( Sensōji keidai ) ’ ” ( 第13伊奈信男賞受賞作品展 ・ 鬼海弘雄 「 王たちの肖像 ( 浅草寺境内 ) 」 , Exhibition of works winning the 13th Ina Nobuo Award : Hiroh Kikai , Portraits of kings [ in the grounds of Sensō @-@ ji ] ) . [ A ] Ginza Nikon Salon ( Ginza , Tokyo ) ; Osaka ; Kyoto ; etc . , 1988 – 89 .
The Hitachi Collection of Contemporary Japanese Photography , Center for Creative Photography , Tucson , Arizona . 1989 .
“ Dai @-@ 13 @-@ kai Ina Nobuo shō jushō sakuhinten : Kikai Hiroo ‘ Kanshō : Machi no katachi ’ ” ( 第13回伊奈信男賞受賞作品展 ・ 鬼海弘雄 「 観照 ： 町のかたち 」 , Exhibition of works winning the 13th Ina Nobuo Award : Hiroh Kikai , Meditation : Town shapes ) . [ S ] Osaka Nikon Salon , February 1990 ; Ginza Nikon Salon ( Ginza , Tokyo ) , March 1990 ; Kyoto ; etc . , 1990 .
“ Ecce Homo ” . [ A ] Robert Koch Gallery ( San Francisco ) , 1993 .
“ Indo kikō ” ( インド紀行 , India travelogue ) . [ I ] Shōmeidō Gallery ( Kodaira ) , 1998 .
“ Persona ( 1 ) ” . [ A ] Centrum Sztuki i Techniki Japońskiej “ Manggha ” ( Kraków ) , 1999 .
“ Shashin to insatsu hyōgen ” ( 写真と印刷表現 , Photographs and printing expression ) . [ S ] Mitsumura Art Plaza ( Ōsaki , Tokyo ) , February – March 2000 .
“ Persona ( 2 ) ” . [ A ] Centrum Sztuki i Techniki Japońskiej “ Manggha ” ( Kraków ) , November – December 2002 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] The Third Gallery Aya ( Osaka ) , October 2003 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] Domon Ken Photography Museum ( Sakata ) , September – November 2004 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] Ginza Nikon Salon ( Tokyo ) ; Osaka , 2004 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] Galeria Fotografii PF , Centrum Kultury “ Zamek ” ( Poznań ) , February – March 2005 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] Shōmeidō Gallery ( Kodaira ) January 2005 .
“ Perusona ” ( ぺるそな ) . [ A ] Ginza Nikon Salon ( Ginza , Tokyo ) , February – March 2006 ; Osaka Nikon Salon ( Osaka ) , April 2006 .
“ Tōkyō mutan ” ( 東京夢譚 , Tokyo dreams ) . [ S ] Ginza Nikon Salon ( Ginza , Tokyo ) , September 2007 ; Osaka Nikon Salon ( Osaka ) , October 2007 .
“ Tokyo Labyrinth ” . [ S ] Yancey Richardson Gallery ( New York City ) , September – October 2008 .
“ Jinsei gekijō ” ( 人生劇場 , Human theatre ) . [ A ] Gallery Raku , Kyoto University of Art and Design , Kyoto , March 2009 .
“ Persona ” . [ A ] Yancey Richardson Gallery ( New York City ) , May – July 2009 .
“ Asakusai portrék ” . [ A ] Liget Gallery ( Budapest ) , November – December 2010 .
“ Anatoria e no purosesu ” ( アナトリアへのプロセス ) . [ T ] Aoyama Book Center ( Omotesandō , Tokyo ) , January 2011 .
“ Tōkyō pōtoreito ” ( 東京ポートレイト ) / “ Tokyo portraits ” . [ A , S ] Tokyo Metropolitan Museum of Photography ( Ebisu , Tokyo ) , August – October 2011 .
“ Anatoria ” ( アナトリア ) . [ T ] M2 ( Shinjuku , Tokyo ) , August 2011 .
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the invasion in March 1944 , they had helped 22 @,@ 000 – 25 @,@ 000 Jews reach Hungary .
Oskar Schindler became one of the committee 's contacts , smuggling letters and money into the Kraków ghetto on their behalf . During a visit by Schindler to Budapest in November 1943 , they learned that he had been bribing Nazi officers to let him bring Jewish refugees into his factory in Poland , which he ran as a safe haven . This further encouraged the committee , after the invasion of Hungary , to try negotiating with the SS .
= = March – May 1944 = =
= = = Invasion of Hungary = = =
The Germans invaded Hungary on Sunday , 19 March 1944 , meeting no resistance . Following Hungary 's annexation in 1941 of parts of Romania , Yugoslavia and Czechoslovakia , there were 725 @,@ 000 Jews in the country , as well as over 60 @,@ 000 Jewish converts to Christianity and others the Nazis counted as Jews , according to Yehuda Bauer . Most were liberal Jews and fully assimilated , nearly 30 percent were Orthodox , and a small minority were Zionists .
Restrictions on Jews were already in place before the invasion , including a prohibition on marrying Christians . After the invasion , Randolph Braham writes , the Hungarian government immediately began the process of isolating Jews from the rest of the community . From 5 April Jews over the age of six had to wear a 3 @.@ 8 x 3 @.@ 8 inch ( 10 x 10 cm ) yellow badge . They were forbidden from using telephones , owning cars or radios , travelling or moving home , and had to declare the value of their property . Jewish civil servants , journalists and lawyers were sacked , non @-@ Jews could not work in Jewish households . Books by Jews were removed from libraries and Jewish authors could no longer be published .
Brand was hidden in a safe house by Josef Winniger , a courier for German military intelligence , who had been selling Brand information about Jewish refugees ; Kasztner and Komoly also went into hiding . The committee wanted to establish contact with the Germans and offered a go @-@ between $ 20 @,@ 000 to arrange a meeting with SS Hauptsturmführer Dieter Wisliceny , one of Eichmann 's assistants .
David Crowe writes that the SS had become an economic force in its own right by 1944 , thanks to its plundering of Jewish businesses and ownership of factories that used slave labour from concentration camps . Jewish rescue workers made several attempts to exploit SS corruption . Gisi Fleischmann and Rabbi Michael Dov Weissmandl paid Dieter Wisliceny $ 20 @,@ 000 in 1942 to suspend the deportation of Jews from Slovakia , though whether the bribe was the reason for the suspension is debatable .
Fleischmann and Weissmandl 's rescue group , the Working Group , devised a more ambitious proposal in November that year . Known as the Europa plan or Grossplan , the aim was to bribe the SS with money from Jews overseas , primarily the United States , to stop the deportation of all Jews to Poland . Various sums have been mentioned in connection with this , including $ 2 – 3 million . Nothing came of it , reportedly because Heinrich Himmler intervened in August 1943 .
The Aid and Rescue Committee decided to ask Wisliceny whether the SS were , as Kasztner wrote in a later report , " prepared to negotiate with the illegal Jewish rescue committee on an economic basis about the moderation of the anti @-@ Jewish measures . " Brand and Kasztner met Wisliceny on 5 April . They told him they were in a position to continue Fleischmann 's negotiations and could offer $ 2 million with a down payment of $ 200 @,@ 000 . They asked that there be no deportations , mass executions or pogroms in Hungary , no ghettos or camps , and that Jews who held immigration certificates for Palestine ( issued by the British mandatory government ) be allowed to leave . Wisliceny accepted the $ 200 @,@ 000 , but indicated that $ 2 million might not be enough . He said there would be no deportations and no harm to the Jewish community while negotiations continued , and arranged for Aid and Rescue Committee exemptions from anti @-@ Jewish laws to allow its members to travel and use cars and telephones .
= = = First meeting with Eichmann = = =
Following the contact with Wisliceny , Brand received a message on 25 April that SS Obersturmbannführer Adolf Eichmann wanted to see him . Eichmann had arrived in Budapest as head of the Sondereinsatzkommando overseeing the deportation of the Jews . Brand was told to wait in the Opera Cafḗ and from there was driven by the SS to Eichmann 's headquarters at the Hotel Majestic .
SS Untersturmbannführer Kurt Becher , an emissary of Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler , was also at the meeting . In a tone that Brand compared to the " clatter of a machine gun , " Eichmann offered to sell him one million Jews , not for money , but for goods from overseas :
I have already made investigations about you and your people and I have verified your ability to make a deal . Now then , I am prepared to sell you one million Jews ... Goods for blood – blood for goods . You can take them from any country you like , wherever you can find them – Hungary , Poland , the Ostmark , from Theresienstadt , from Auschwitz , wherever you like .
Eichmann said he would discuss the proposal with Berlin , and that in the meantime Brand should decide what kinds of goods he was in a position to offer . Brand asked how the committee was supposed to obtain these goods . Eichmann said he should open negotiations with the Allies overseas and that Eichmann would arrange a travel permit . Brand suggested Istanbul , where another committee member had a Jewish Agency contact . He testified years later that on leaving the hotel he felt like a " stark madman . "
= = = Further meetings = = =
Eichmann sent for Brand again a few days later . Eichmann was accompanied this time by Gerhard Clages , also known as Otto Klages , chief of Himmler 's Sicherheitsdienst ( security service ) in Budapest . Clages ' presence meant that three of Himmler 's senior officers – Eichmann , Becher and Clages – had involved themselves with the Brand proposal . Clages handed Brand $ 50 @,@ 000 and 270 @,@ 000 Swiss francs that the Germans had intercepted , sent to the Aid and Rescue Committee by rescue workers in Switzerland via the Swedish Embassy in Budapest .
Eichmann told Brand that he wanted 10 @,@ 000 new trucks for the Waffen @-@ SS to use on the Eastern front , one truck for every 100 Jews , as well as 200 tons of tea , 200 tons of cocoa , 800 tons of coffee and 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cases of soap . If Brand returned from Istanbul with confirmation that the Allies had accepted the proposal , Eichmann said he would release 10 percent of the one million . The deal would proceed with 100 @,@ 000 Jews released for every 1 @,@ 000 trucks .
It remains unclear whether Eichmann told Brand to return to Budapest by a particular date . According to Bauer , Brand said at various points that he was advised he could " take [ his ] time " or given one , two or three weeks . Hansi Brand testified during Eichmann 's trial that in the meantime she and her children had to remain in Budapest , effectively as hostages . Brand and Eichmann met several more times , the final time on 15 May , the day the deportations began . Between then and 8 July 1944 , 437 @,@ 402 Jews , almost the entire Jewish population of the Hungarian countryside , are recorded as having been deported to Auschwitz on 147 trains , a rate of around 12 @,@ 000 a day . Most were gassed .
= = May – October 1944 = =
= = = Brand leaves for Istanbul = = =
Brand secured a letter of recommendation for the Jewish Agency from the Hungarian Jewish Council . He was told he would be travelling with Bandi Grosz ( real name , Andor Gross ) , a Hungarian who had worked for Hungarian and German military intelligence ; Grosz would travel to Istanbul as the director of a Hungarian transport company . The SS drove the men from Budapest to Vienna on 17 May , where they stayed the night in a hotel reserved for the SS .
Grosz later testified that Brand 's mission had been a cover for his own . He said he had been told by Clages to arrange a meeting in a neutral country between senior German and American officers , or British if necessary , to broker peace between the German Sicherheitsdienst and the Western Allies .
= = = Meeting with Jewish Agency = = =
In Vienna Brand was given a German passport in the name of Eugen Band . He cabled the Jewish Agency in Istanbul to say he was on his way , and arrived by German diplomatic plane on 19 May . Paul Rose writes that Brand had no idea at this point that the deportations to Auschwitz had already begun .
Brand had been told by the Jewish Agency by return cable that " Chaim " would meet him in Istanbul . Convinced of the importance of his mission , he believed this was Chaim Weizmann , president of the World Zionist Organization , later the first president of Israel . In fact the man who had arranged to meet him was Chaim Barlas , head of the Istanbul group of Zionist emissaries . Not only was Barlas not there , but there was no entry visa waiting for Brand , and he was threatened with arrest and deportation . Brand saw this as the first betrayal by the Jewish Agency . Bauer argues that Brand , then and later , failed to grasp that the Jewish Agency was powerless . That his passport was in the name of Eugen Band would have been enough to cause the confusion .
The visa situation was sorted out by Bandi Grosz and the men were taken to a hotel , where they met the Jewish Agency delegates . Brand was furious that no one sufficiently senior was available to negotiate a deal . The Jewish Agency agreed to arrange for Moshe Sharett ( previously Shertok ) , head of its political department and later second prime minister of Israel , to travel to Istanbul to meet him . Brand passed them a plan of Auschwitz ( probably from the Vrba @-@ Wetzler report ) and demanded that the gas chambers , crematoria and railways lines be bombed . The discussions left him discouraged and depressed . He wrote that the delegates lacked any sense of urgency and were focused more on internal politics and Jewish emigration to Palestine , rather than the slaughter in Europe : " [ They ] were undoubtedly worthy men ... But they lacked any awareness of how critical was the period of history in which they were living . They had not looked death in the face day after day , as we had in Budapest ... "
= = = Interim agreement = = =
Ladislaus Löb writes that proposals and counter @-@ proposals flew between Istanbul , London and Washington . The Jewish Agency and Brand wanted the Allies to string the Germans along in the hope of slowing the deportations .
The Agency gave Brand a document , dated 29 May 1944 , that offered $ 400 @,@ 000 for every 1 @,@ 000 Jewish emigrants to Palestine , one million Swiss francs per 10 @,@ 000 Jewish emigrants to neutral countries such as Spain , and 10 @,@ 000 Swiss francs a month if the deportations were to stop . If the SS would allow the Allies to supply food , clothes and medicine to the Jews in concentration camps , the Nazis would be supplied with the same . Rose writes that the agreement was intended only to give Brand something to take back to Budapest .
Brand cabled his wife on 29 and 31 May to tell her ( and thereby Eichmann ) about the agreement , but there was no response . Rezső Kasztner and Hansi Brand had been held in Budapest between 27 May and 1 June by the Hungarian Arrow Cross . They received the telegrams when they were released , but Eichmann refused to halt the deportations .
= = = Arrested by British = = =
In Istanbul Brand was told that Moshe Sharett was unable to obtain a visa for Turkey . The Jewish Agency asked Brand to meet him instead in Aleppo on the Syrian @-@ Turkish border . He was reluctant ; the area was under British control and he was afraid they would want to question him , but the Agency told him it would be safe and he left by train with two of its delegates .
While on the train , Brand was approached by two representatives of Zeev Jabotinsky 's Hatzohar ( Revisionist Zionist ) party and the World Agudath Israel Orthodox religious party . They told him the British were going to arrest him in Aleppo : " Die Engländer sind in dieser Frage nicht unsere Verbündeten " ( " the British are not our allies in this matter " ) . As soon as he arrived at the Aleppo train station on 7 June , he was stopped by a British man in plain clothes and pushed into a Jeep that was waiting with its engine running .
The British drove him to a villa , where for four days they tried to stop Moshe Sharett from meeting him . Sharett " fought a battle of telephones and cables , " Bauer writes , and on 11 June he and the Jewish Agency intelligence group were finally introduced to Brand . The discussion lasted several hours . Sharett wrote in a report of 27 June : " I must have looked a little incredulous , for he said : ' Please believe me : they have killed six million Jews ; there are only two million left alive . ' " At the end of the meeting , Sharett broke the news that the British were insisting Brand not return to Budapest . Brand became hysterical .
= = = Proposal rejected = = =
Brand was taken to Cairo , where he was questioned by the British for weeks . On 22 June he was interviewed by Ira Hirschmann of the American War Refugee Board ; Hirschmann wrote a positive report about Brand , but his influence was limited . Brand went on hunger strike for 17 days in protest at his detention .
The British , Americans and Soviet Union discussed the proposal . British Foreign Secretary ( later Prime Minister ) Anthony Eden wrote a memo on 26 June outlining the options . The British were convinced they were dealing with a Himmler trick , perhaps an attempt to broker a peace deal without the Soviet Union . If the deal had gone ahead and large numbers of Jews had been released in central Europe , Allied airborne and possibly land @-@ based military operations might have had to stop . Bauer believes the British feared this was Himmler 's motive – to turn the Jews into human shields – because it would have allowed the Germans to devote their forces to fighting the Red Army .
The Americans were more open to negotiating . A rift developed between them and the British who , Bauer writes , were worried about large @-@ scale Jewish immigration to Palestine , then under British control . There was also concern about the effect of Jewish immigration to the UK or US .
Eden did suggest a counter @-@ proposal on 1 July , but it was reduced , Bauer writes , to a ridiculous minimum . He told the American government that the British would allow Brand to return to Budapest with a message for Eichmann suggesting that 1 @,@ 500 Jewish children be given safe passage to Switzerland , 5 @,@ 000 from Bulgaria and Romania be allowed to leave for Palestine , and that Germany guarantee safe conduct for ships carrying Jewish refugees . He did not say what he would offer in return . On 11 July Prime Minister Winston Churchill put an end to the idea when he told Eden that the murder of the Jews was " probably the greatest and most horrible crime ever committed , " and that there should be " no negotiations of any kind on this subject . " Of Brand 's mission he wrote : " The project which has been put forward through a very doubtful channel seems itself also to be of the most nondescript character . I would not take it seriously . "
= = = Leak to media = = =
The British leaked details of Eichmann 's proposal to the media . On 19 July 1944 – the day before the 20 July plot , the attempted assassination of Adolf Hitler – the New York Herald Tribune ( dateline London , 18 July ) reported that two Hungarian government emissaries in Turkey had proposed that Hungarian Jews be given safe passage in exchange for British and American pharmaceuticals and transport for the Germans . The London Times called it " one of the most loathsome " stories of the war , an attempt to " blackmail , deceive and split " the Allies , and a " new level of fantasy and self @-@ deception . "
The mass deportation of Hungarian Jews had already stopped by the time of the leak . Following publication in mid @-@ June of parts of the Vrba @-@ Wetzler report , describing the use of gas chambers inside Auschwitz , the Jewish Agency in Geneva had cabled London asking that Hungarian ministers be held personally responsible for the killings . The cable was intercepted and passed to Hungarian regent Miklós Horthy , who ordered an end to the deportations on 7 July .
The British released Brand on 5 October 1944 . Brand said they would not allow him to return to Hungary and forced him to travel to Palestine . Bauer disputes this , writing that Brand was simply afraid of returning to Budapest , convinced the Germans would murder him .
= = = Himmler 's involvement = = =
Germany 's Foreign Minister , Joachim von Ribbentrop , had apparently known nothing about the proposal . He cabled Brigadeführer Edmund Veesenmayer of the SS on 20 July 1944 to ask about it , and was told on 22 July that Brand and Grosz had been sent to Turkey on the orders of Heinrich Himmler , head of the SS . Eichmann himself said during interrogation after the war that the order had come from Himmler , as did SS officer Kurt Becher : " Himmler said to me : ' Take whatever you can from the Jews . Promise them whatever you want . What we will keep is another matter . ' "
Bauer writes that the " clumsiness of the approach has been a wonderment to all observers . " He argues that Eichmann wanted to murder Jews , not sell them , but was forced instead to act as Himmler 's reluctant messenger . On the day Brand left Germany for Istanbul in May 1944 , Eichmann was in Auschwitz checking that it was ready for the trainloads of Jews about to arrive from Hungary . The camp 's commander , Obersturmbannführer Rudolf Höss , said it would be difficult to process such large numbers , whereupon Eichmann ordered that new arrivals be gassed immediately rather than going through " selection . " This does not suggest that he was going to halt the killing until Brand returned from Istanbul .
In Bauer 's view , the presence at one of the meetings of Gerhard Clages of the SS signals that Himmler was focusing on secret peace talks . Brand and Grosz arrived in Istanbul just two months before the attempted assassination of Adolf Hitler on 20 July 1944 . Himmler knew that attempts might be made on Hitler 's life , though not where and when . It is possible that he wanted to broker for peace in case Hitler did not survive , using low @-@ level agents for plausible deniability , and if Hitler did survive , Bauer argues , Himmler could offer him a peace deal with the West that excluded the Soviet Union .
Brand himself came to believe that the proposal had been designed to drive a wedge between the Allies . Two months before his death in 1964 , at the trial in Germany of Eichmann 's deputies Hermann Krumey and Otto Hunsche , he said he had " made a terrible mistake in passing this on to the British . It is now clear to me that Himmler sought to sow suspicion among the Allies as a preparation for his much desired Nazi @-@ Western coalition against Moscow . "
= = = Kasztner train = = =
Brand 's failure to return to Budapest was a disaster for the Aid and Rescue Committee . On 27 May Hansi Brand , who at some point during this period had become Kasztner 's lover , was arrested and beaten by the Hungarian Arrow Cross . Kasztner wrote that on 9 June that Eichmann told him : " If I do not receive a positive reply within three days , I shall operate the mill at Auschwitz " ( " die Muehle laufen lasse " ) . Hansi Brand told Claude Lanzman :
We ... [ lived ] between fear and despair and hope . And that formed itself into such a heap of stuff , that I can 't really describe it – how it was and what it was . Every evening , we went to pieces and during the night , we tried to build ourselves up again , so we could go into the street ... and look like human beings again ... And [ it ] was like being in a windmill ; it turned and moved .
Bauer argues that the Aid and Rescue committee made the mistake of almost adopting the anti @-@ Semitic belief in unlimited Jewish power , that Jewish leaders could move around freely and persuade the Allies to act , and that American Jews had easy access to money and goods . The committee had similar trust in the Allies , but the latter were preparing for the invasion of Normandy , which began on 6 June 1944 . " At that crucial moment , " writes Bauer , " to antagonize the Soviets because of some hare @-@ brained Gestapo plan to ransom Jews was totally out of the question . "
Despite the setbacks , Kasztner , Hansi Brand and the rest of the committee secured the release of around 1 @,@ 684 Jews , including 273 children , who were allowed to leave Budapest for Switzerland by train on 30 June 1944 . The committee paid SS officer Kurt Becher $ 1000 per person in foreign currency , shares , jewellery and gold , raised from the wealthier passengers to cover the cost of the rest . After an unexplained detour to the Bergen @-@ Belsen concentration camp , the passengers arrived in Switzerland in two batches in August and December that year . Joel Brand 's mother , sister and niece were on the train , as were 10 members of Kasztner 's family and 388 people from the Kolozsvár ghetto in his home town . Kastner 's relationship with these passengers led to the criticism that his negotiations with Becher had focused on saving people he knew , an allegation that led to his assassination in 1957 .
= = Later life = =
= = = Move to Israel = = =
Bauer concludes that Brand was a courageous man who had passionately wanted to help the Jewish people , but his life was plagued after the mission by suspicion , including from other members of the Aid and Rescue Committee , because of his failure to return to Budapest . After the British released him , he joined the Stern Gang , who were fighting to remove the British from Palestine . He and Hansi Brand lived for the rest of their lives in Israel , at first moving to the Givat Brenner kibbutz , then Tel Aviv , with their two sons .
Ronald Florence writes that Brand seemed to live only to set the record straight . He offered testimony about the blood @-@ for @-@ goods proposal during several trials , including that of Eichmann in Jerusalem in 1961 and Eichmann 's assistant Hermann Krumey in Frankfurt in 1964 .
= = = Kasztner assassination = = =
Brand testified in 1954 at the controversial libel trial in Jerusalem of Malchiel Gruenwald , who was sued by the Israeli government on behalf of Rezső Kasztner . Gruenwald was a Hungarian Holocaust survivor who had moved to Israel after the war . In a self @-@ published pamphlet in 1952 he accused Kasztner , by then an Israeli civil servant , of having collaborated with the Nazis by dealing with Eichmann . Brand testified for Kasztner , but instead of defending him took the opportunity to accuse the Jewish Agency , whose officials became the first Israeli government , of having helped the British scupper the blood @-@ for @-@ goods proposal .
After a trial that lasted 18 months , the judge concluded that , by negotiating with Eichmann , failing to warn the many to save the few on the Kasztner train , and writing an affidavit after the war for Kurt Becher , Kasztner had " sold his soul to the devil . " It was because of Kasztner 's support for Becher that the Americans decided not to prosecute Becher at Nuremberg . Kasztner also wrote affidavits for Hans Jüttner , Dieter Wisliceny and Hermann Krumey .
The judge said that Kasztner 's failure to do more to warn the community that they were being sent to the gas chambers , and not resettled , had helped Eichmann maintain order , and that the Kasztner train had been a payoff . Tom Segev called the ruling " one of the most heartless in the history of Israel , perhaps the most heartless ever . " The Supreme Court of Israel overturned most of the verdict in January 1958 , ruling that the lower court had " erred seriously , " but Kasztner was assassinated in 1957 as a result of the earlier judgment .
= = Death = =
Brand was never able to put behind him the idea that he might have saved a million lives . In 1961 Life magazine called him " a man who lives in the shadows with a broken heart . " He died of a heart attack , aged 58 , during a visit to Germany in July 1964 , telling an interviewer shortly before his death : " An accident of life placed the fate of one million human beings on my shoulders . I eat and sleep and think only of them . "
Over 800 mourners attended his funeral in Tel Aviv , including Colonel Arieh Baz on behalf of Israel 's President Zalman Shazar and Teddy Kollek , director @-@ general of the prime minister 's office , on behalf of Prime Minister Levi Eshkol . The eulogy was delivered by Gideon Hausner , the attorney general who prosecuted Adolf Eichmann .
= Acid2 =
Acid2 is a test page published and promoted by the Web Standards Project to expose web page rendering flaws in web browsers and other applications that render HTML . Named after the acid test for gold , it was developed in the spirit of Acid1 , a relatively narrow test of compliance with the Cascading Style Sheets 1 @.@ 0 ( CSS1 ) standard , and was released on 13 April 2005 . As with Acid1 , an application passes the test if the way it displays the test page matches a reference image .
Acid2 tests aspects of HTML markup , CSS 2 @.@ 1 styling , PNG images , and data URIs . The Acid2 test page will be displayed correctly in any application that follows the World Wide Web Consortium and Internet Engineering Task Force specifications for these technologies . These specifications are known as web standards because they describe how technologies used on the web are expected to function .
Acid2 was designed with Microsoft Internet Explorer particularly in mind . The creators of Acid2 were dismayed that Internet Explorer did not follow web standards . It was prone to display web pages differently from other browsers , causing web developers to spend time tweaking their web pages . Acid2 challenged Microsoft to make Internet Explorer comply with web standards .
Acid2 was released on 13 April 2005 . On 31 October 2005 , Safari 2 @.@ 0 @.@ 2 became the first browser to pass Acid2 . Opera , Konqueror , Firefox , and others followed . With the release of Internet Explorer 8 on 19 March 2009 , the latest versions of all major desktop web browsers now pass the test , until IE10 was released , which fails the test , and its successor , Microsoft Edge , has never been able to render it ( as of writing ) . Acid2 was followed by Acid3 .
The test fails when browsers become compliant with current CSS collapse and margin standards .
= = History = =
Acid2 was first proposed by Håkon Wium Lie , chief technical officer of Opera Software and creator of the widely used Cascading Style Sheets web standard . In a 16 March 2005 article on CNET , Lie expressed dismay that Microsoft Internet Explorer did not properly support web standards and hence was not completely interoperable with other browsers . He announced that Acid2 would be a challenge to Microsoft to design Internet Explorer 7 , then in development , to achieve a greater degree of standards compliance than previous versions of Internet Explorer . The original Acid1 test had forced browser makers to fix their applications or face embarrassment ; Lie hoped that Acid2 would do the same .
Lie and a colleague , Ian Hickson , had created the first draft of the test in February 2005 . Ian Hickson coded the final test in collaboration with the Web Standards Project and the larger web community . It was officially released on 13 April 2005 and at that time , every web browser failed it spectacularly .
On 23 April 2005 , Acid2 was updated to fix a bug that made the mouth appear too close to the nose . After several complaints , the test was again updated in January 2006 to remove a test for unpopular SGML @-@ style comments that were never widely implemented . In browsers that do not implement SGML @-@ style comments , the original test displayed the word " ERROR " on the bottom part of the face .
In March 2008 , Ian Hickson released Acid3 as a follow @-@ up to Acid2 . While Acid2 primarily tests CSS , Acid3 focuses more on JavaScript and other " Web 2 @.@ 0 " technologies .
= = Microsoft 's response = =
In July 2005 , Chris Wilson , the Internet Explorer Platform Architect , stated that passing Acid2 was not a priority for Internet Explorer 7 , describing the test as a " wish list " of features rather than a true test of standards compliance . In December 2007 , Microsoft announced that all the changes required to pass Acid2 would be made available in Internet Explorer 8 , but that the changes would not be turned on by default , meaning that IE8 would not actually pass the test . The concern was that switching to a new behavior would cause too many problems in web pages expecting Internet Explorer 's old , non @-@ compliant behavior . Then in March 2008 Microsoft released IE8 beta 1 and turned on the changes by default after all . James Pratt , product manager for IE8 , explained that this decision was made so that " developers can spend more time building features and cool stuff , and less time just trying to tweak their sites across different browsers . "
Unfortunately , another unresolved standards compliance issue caused IE8 beta 1 to fail if not all elements of the test were hosted from the same server . In August 2008 Microsoft released IE8 beta 2 , which resolved the issue . As of that beta , however , standards mode is not turned on by default for pages loaded in the " Intranet Zone " . This zone is active for pages loaded via UNC paths , named addresses without dots ( like http : / / mysite / ) , and sites that bypass the proxy settings . As such , IE8 will not pass the Acid2 test if loaded in these cases .
= = Overview of standards tested = =
Acid2 tests a variety of web standards published by the World Wide Web Consortium and the Internet Engineering Task Force . With the exception of CSS 2 @.@ 1 , all web standards tested were codified before the year 2000 . CSS 2 @.@ 1 was a candidate recommendation at the time of Acid2 's release , and was still a candidate recommendation as of 23 April 2009 .
Specifically , Acid2 tests :
Alpha transparency in PNG @-@ format images : The eyes of the smiley face use alpha transparency , which is part of the 1996 Portable Network Graphics specification . Alpha transparency blends the eyebrows into the face smoothly and elegantly . This was a significant issue because Internet Explorer 6 , the most widely used web browser at the time Acid2 was released , did not support alpha transparency . This deficiency was rectified in Internet Explorer 7 , bringing Internet Explorer in line with other web browsers in this regard .
The object element : The eyes also test support of the HTML object element . The object element has been a part of HTML since HTML 4 was released in 1998 , yet by 2005 it still was not completely supported in all web browsers . The creators of Acid2 considered object element support important because it allows for content fallback — if an object fails to load , then the browser can display alternative ( generally simpler , more reliable ) content in its place .
Data URIs : The actual images that form the eyes are encoded as data URIs , which allow multimedia to be embedded in web pages rather than stored as a separate file . Acid2 tests the most common case , where a binary image is base64 @-@ encoded into text and then that encoded text is included in a data URI in the web page . Although the IETF published the data URI specification in 1998 , they never formally adopted it as a standard . Nonetheless , the HTML 4 @.@ 01 specification references the data URI scheme , and data URI support has now been implemented in most browsers .
Absolute , relative , and fixed CSS positioning : Absolute positioning means that the web developer specifies the exact X and Y coordinates where an element is to be placed into the page . Relative positioning means that the web developer specifies an X and Y offset from the usual position of the element . Fixed positioning means that the element is placed relative to the browser window , and scrolls with the window rather than with the rest of the page .
The CSS box model : This feature allows the web designer to specify dimensions , padding , borders , and margins , and was the focus of the original Acid1 test . Acid2 not only retests margin support but also tests minimum and maximum heights and widths , features new to CSS 2 @.@ 0 .
CSS table formatting : This part of CSS allows the web designer to apply table formatting without traditional HTML table markup .
CSS generated content : Using CSS generated content , web developers can add decorations and annotations to specified elements without having to add the content to each one individually .
CSS parsing : A number of illegal CSS statements are present in Acid2 to test error handling . Standards @-@ compliant browsers are expected to handle these errors as the CSS specification directs . This helps ensure cross @-@ browser compatibility by making all browsers treat CSS with the same level of strictness , so that what works in one browser should not cause errors in another .
Paint order : Acid2 requires that the browser has standard paint order . That is , overlapping elements should be placed or painted on top of each other in the correct order .
Hovering effects : When the user moves his or her mouse over the smiley face 's nose , it turns blue . This is called a hovering effect , and while it has traditionally been used for hyperlinks , it should work on a wide variety of HTML elements .
Because Acid2 is not a comprehensive test , it does not guarantee total conformance to any particular standard . A variant of the Acid2 test that does not test for data URI support is also available from the Web Standards Project .
= = Passing conditions = =
A passing score is only considered valid if the browser 's default settings were used . Actions such as changing font sizes , zoom level , and applying user stylesheets can break the display of the test . This is expected and is not relevant to a browser 's compliance .
The following browser settings and user actions invalidate the test :
Scrolling
Resizing the browser window
Zooming in or out
Disabling images
Using Opera 's Fit to width or Small Screen Rendering modes
Applying custom fonts , colors , styles , etc .
User JavaScript or Greasemonkey scripts
Enabling Internet Explorer 's " compatibility view "
= = Compliant applications = =
If rendered correctly , Acid2 will appear as a smiley face below the text " Hello World ! " in the user 's browser , with the nose turning blue when the mouse cursor hovers over it . At the time of the test 's release , every browser failed it , but now a number of browsers pass it . See the list below .
= = = Officially released = = =
Internet Explorer , the web browser that comes with Windows
Odyssey Web Browser , a web browser for AmigaOS and MorphOS
Gecko @-@ based browsers
Mozilla Firefox , a web browser for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
SeaMonkey , an Internet suite for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
Songbird , a media player and web browser for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
Camino , a web browser for Mac OS X
Mozilla Thunderbird , an email client for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
Firefox for mobile , a web browser for mobile devices
Miro , an RSS aggregator , BitTorrent client , web browser and media player
Mozilla Sunbird , a calendar application for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
Spicebird 0 @.@ 8 , a personal information manager for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
WebRunner ( formerly Prism ) , a web application platform for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
WebKit- and KHTML @-@ based browsers
Safari , the web browser included in Mac OS X
Google Chrome , a web browser for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
Konqueror , a web browser for Linux
OmniWeb , a web browser for Mac OS X
Shiira , a web browser for Mac OS X
iCab , a web browser for Mac OS X
Web , the official GNOME web browser
Midori , the official Xfce web browser
The Google Earth integrated web browser
Presto @-@ based browsers
Opera , a web browser for Windows , Mac OS X , Linux , BSD and Solaris with mobile versions for all mobile phones , tablets and all Apple products like iPad
The Internet Channel , a version of the Opera browser for the Nintendo Wii game console .
Prince , an XML @-@ to @-@ PDF converter for Windows , Mac OS X , and Linux
= = Non @-@ compliant applications = =
Even though Opera Mini is based on the same rendering engine as Opera for personal computers , it does not pass the Acid2 test . This is because Opera Mini intentionally reformats web pages to try to make them more suitable for devices with small screens .
= = Timeline of passing applications = =
The following is a list of releases noting significant releases of applications that passed the test . New applications that have passed Acid2 since their first official release are not included in the timeline .
= Radstock =
Radstock is a town in Somerset , England , 9 miles ( 14 km ) south west of Bath , and 8 miles ( 13 km ) north west of Frome . It is within the unitary authority of Bath and North East Somerset and had a population of 5 @,@ 620 according to the 2011 Census . Since 2011 Radstock has been a town council in its own right .
Radstock has been settled since the Iron Age , and its importance grew after the construction of the Fosse Way , a Roman road . The growth of the town occurred after 1763 , when coal was discovered in the area . Large numbers of mines opened during the 19th century including several owned by the Waldegrave family , who had been Lords of the Manor since the English Civil War . Admiral Lord Radstock , brother of George , fourth Earl Waldegrave , took the town 's name as his title when created a Baron .
The spoil heap of Writhlington colliery is now the Writhlington Site of Special Scientific Interest , which includes 3 @,@ 000 tons of Upper Carboniferous spoil from which more than 1 @,@ 400 insect fossil specimens have been recovered . The complex geology and narrow seams made coal extraction difficult . Tonnage increased throughout the 19th century , reaching a peak around 1901 , when there were 79 separate collieries and annual production was 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 tons per annum . However , due to local geological difficulties and manpower shortages output declined and the number of pits reduced from 30 at the beginning of the 20th century to 14 by the mid @-@ thirties ; the last two pits , Kilmersdon and Writhlington , closed in September 1973 . The Great Western Railway and the Somerset and Dorset Railway both established stations and marshalling yards in the town . The last passenger train services to Radstock closed in 1966 . Manufacturing industries such as printing , binding and packaging provide some local employment . In recent years , Radstock has increasingly become a commuter town for the nearby cities of Bath and Bristol .
Radstock is home to the Radstock Museum which is housed in a former market hall , and has a range of exhibits which offer an insight into north @-@ east Somerset life since the 19th century . Many of the exhibits relate to local geology and the now disused Somerset coalfield and geology . The town is also home to Writhlington School , famous for its Orchid collection , and a range of educational , religious and cultural buildings and sporting clubs .
= = History = =
Radstock has been settled since the Iron Age . Its importance grew with the construction of the Fosse Way , the Roman road that ran along what is now part of the A367 in Radstock . As a result , the town was known as Stoche at the time of the Domesday Book of 1086 , meaning the stockade by the Roman road , from the Old English stoc . The rad part of the name is believed to relate to red ; the soil locally is reddish marl . The parish of Radstock was part of the Kilmersdon Hundred ,
The Great Western Railway , and the Somerset and Dorset Railway , established stations and marshalling yards in the town . Radstock was the terminus for the southern branch of the Somerset Coal Canal , which was turned into a tramway in 1815 . It then became a central point for railway development , with large coal depots , wash houses , workshops and a gas works . As part of the development of the Wiltshire , Somerset and Weymouth Railway , an 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) line from Radstock to Frome was built to carry the coal . In the 1870s the broad @-@ gauge line was converted to standard gauge and connected to the Bristol and North Somerset Line which linked the town to the Great Western Railway . The Radstock Railway Land covers the old marshalling yards and sheds and comprises an area of approximately 8 @.@ 8 hectares of land which is the subject of ongoing planning and development applications to redevelop the area .
The town is close to the site of the Radstock rail accident , a rail crash that took place on the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway , on 7 August 1876 . Two trains collided on a single track section , resulting in the deaths of 15 passengers .
The last passenger train services in Radstock closed in 1966 , and the last coal mines closed in 1973 . Manufacturing industries such as printing , binding and packaging provide some local employment . More recently Radstock has become a commuter town for the nearby cities of Bath and Bristol , leading to traffic problems at peak hours .
= = = Coal mining = = =
In 1763 , coal was discovered in Radstock and mining began in the area . In , 1896 the pits were owned by the Trustee of Frances , late Countess of Waldegrave . The Waldegrave family had been Lords of the Manor of Radstock since the English Civil War . Between 1800 and 1850 , Ludlows , Middle Pit , Old Pit , Smallcombe , Tynings , and Wellsway mines opened . There were also a series of pits east of the town at Writhlington and under different ownership . In 1896 , they were owned by Writhlington , Huish and Foxcote Colliery Co . ; however , following an acrimonious dispute about the terms and conditions of the miners in 1899 , a new company , Writhlington Collieries Co . , was set up to run the mines . The Upper and Lower Writhlington , Huish and Foxcote were all merged into one colliery . The spoil heap is a now Writhlington Site of Special Scientific Interest . The site and includes 3 @,@ 000 tons of Upper Carboniferous spoil from which more than 1 @,@ 400 insect fossils have been recovered . These include Phalangiotarbi , and Graeophonus. and the world 's earliest known Damselfly . It is a Geological Conservation Review Site .
The complex geology and narrow seams made the coal extraction difficult ; three underground explosions , in 1893 , 1895 and 1908 , were amongst the first attributable solely to airborne coal dust .
Tonnage increased throughout the 19th century , reaching a peak around 1901 , when there were 79 separate collieries and annual production was 1 @.@ 25 million tons per annum . However , due to local geological difficulties and manpower shortages , decline soon took hold and the number of pits reduced from 30 at the beginning of the 20th century to 14 by the mid @-@ thirties , 12 at nationalisation to create National Coal Board on 1 January 1947 , 5 by 1959 and none after 1973 . Narrow seams made production expensive , limiting profit and investment , and a reduced national demand together with competition from more economical coalfields led to the closure of the last two pits in the coalfield , Kilmersdon and Writhlington , in September 1973 .
= = Governance = =
As of 2011 , Radstock became a town council in its own right . Until then , the town was part of the Norton Radstock civil parish , which was created in 1974 as a successor to the Norton @-@ Radstock Urban District , itself created in 1933 by the merger of Midsomer Norton and Radstock urban districts , along with part of Frome Rural District . Under the Local Government Act 1972 it became a successor parish to the urban district .
Radstock is governed by the unitary authority of Bath and North East Somerset and by Radstock Town Council . There is one electoral ward in Radstock with the same area and population as is quoted above .
It was also part of the Wansdyke constituency , which elects a Member of Parliament to the House of Commons of the Parliament of the United Kingdom . At the 2010 general election this constituency changed to North East Somerset . It is also part of the South West England constituency of the European Parliament .
= = Geography = =
The main geological feature in this area of the Mendip Hills south of Hallatrow consists of Supra @-@ Pennant Measures which includes the upper coal measures and outcrops of sandstone . The southern part of the Radstock Syncline have coals of the Lower and Middle Coal Measures been worked , mainly at the Newbury and Vobster collieries in the southeast and in the New Rock and Moorewood pits to the southwest . The Hercynian orogeny caused shock waves in the rock as the Mendip Hills were pushed up , forcing the coal measures to break along fractures or faults . Along the Radstock Slide Fault the distance between the broken ends of a coal seam can be as much as 1 @,@ 500 feet ( 457 m ) .
Radstock lies on the Wellow Brook which then runs through Wellow to join the Cam Brook at Midford to form Midford Brook before joining the River Avon close to the Dundas Aqueduct and the remains of the Somerset Coal Canal . The base of the valley is of alluvium deposits . Above this on both sides of all of the valley is a band of shales and clays from the Penarth Group . These rocks are from the Triassic period . The majority of the remaining upland around Radstock is Lias Limestone ( white and blue ) while the very highest part above 130 m , south of Haydon , is a small outcrop of Inferior Oolitic Limestone . All these limestones are from the Jurassic period . The steepest slopes of both the Kilmersdon and Snail ’ s Bottom valleys have frequently slipped . Below all of the area is the coal bearing Carboniferous strata . Haydon is an outlier of Radstock and was built to house the miners for the local pit . The disused railway line and inclined railway at Haydon form important elements within the Kilmersdon valley east of Haydon . The modern landscape has a less maintained and " rougher " character and texture than neighbouring agricultural areas . This is caused in the main by the remnants of the coal industry and its infrastructure and changes in agricultural management . The disturbance caused by coal mining and the railways and the subsequent ending of mining and disuse of the railways has created valuable habitats of nature conservation interest .
Along with the rest of South West England , Radstock has a temperate climate , which is generally wetter and milder than the rest of England . The annual mean temperature is about 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) with seasonal and diurnal variations , but because of the modifying effect of the sea , the range is less than in most other parts of the United Kingdom . January is the coldest month , with mean minimum temperatures between 1 ° C ( 34 ° F ) and 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) . July and August are the warmest months in the region , with mean daily maxima around 21 ° C ( 70 ° F ) . In general , December is the dullest month and June the sunniest . The southwest of England enjoys a favoured location , particularly in summer , when the Azores High extends its influence north @-@ eastwards towards the UK .
Cloud often forms inland , especially near hills , and reduces exposure to sunshine . The average annual sunshine is about 1 @,@ 600 hours . Rainfall tends to be associated with Atlantic depressions or with convection . In summer , convection caused by solar surface heating sometimes forms shower clouds , and a large proportion of the annual precipitation falls from showers and thunderstorms at that time of year . Average rainfall is 800 – 900 mm ( 31 – 35 in ) . About 8 – 15 days of snowfall is typical . November to March have the highest mean wind speeds , and June to August having the lightest . The predominant wind direction is from the southwest .
= = Transport = =
Radstock was the terminus for the southern branch of the Somerset Coal Canal , which was turned into a tramway in 1815 and later incorporated into the Somerset and Dorset Joint Railway . It then became a central point for railway development with large coal depots , warehouses , workshops and a gas works . As part of the development of the Wilts , Somerset and Weymouth Railway an 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) line from Radstock to Frome was built to carry the coal . In the 1870s the broad @-@ gauge line was converted to standard gauge and connected to the Bristol and North Somerset Line connecting it to the Great Western Railway at Bristol ; the GWR also took over the Wiltshire , Somerset and Weymouth Railway in 1876 . The Bristol and North Somerset line closed to passenger traffic in 1959 . The line is now the route of National Cycle Route 24 , otherwise known as the Colliers ' Way , a national cycle route which passes many landmarks associated with the coal field ; other local roads and footpaths follow the tramways developed during the coal mining years . The cycle route currently runs from Dundas Aqueduct to Frome via Radstock , although it is intended to provide a continuous cycle route to Southampton and Portsmouth .
Radstock had a second railway station on the Somerset & Dorset Joint Railway extension to Bath , which closed to passengers in 1966 . The stations were adjacent to each other in the centre of the town , and each had level crossings across the busy A367 road , causing long tailbacks at busy periods . The S & D line also carried substantial coal traffic . A spur from the Great Western line on to the S & D and continuing to Writhlington Colliery remained open for a few years after the railway 's closure to passenger traffic , until the colliery closed in 1973 .
= = Memorial Gardens = =
Since the closure of the railways the railway land in the centre of the town stood empty for many years . Most prominent was a green space between the museum and brook which housed a dis @-@ used pit wheel on a low steel frame , which many passers @-@ by mistook for a spinning wheel . There had long been an aspiration to develop a memorial park or garden on the site to commemorate both the mining history of the town and to provide a new setting for the town 's war memorial .
In 2001 a local practice of landscape architects , New Leaf Studio were commissioned by Bath & North East Somerset Council to develop proposals for the land . The first phase of the park , the Memorial gardens were then built for the Norton Radstock Town Council in 2005 to New leaf Studio 's designs incorporating a new sculptural base for the old mine wheel by artist Sebastien Boyesen .
The new Memorial Gardens incorporate the war memorial which was moved from Victoria Square as part of the project . The planting employs a naturalistic style with broad drifts of herbaceous perennials and grasses providing colour through a long season , extending through the winter with dry stems and seed heads .
= = Museum = =
The Radstock Museum is housed in the town 's former market hall . The museum has a range of exhibits which offer an insight into north @-@ east Somerset life since the 19th century . The museum was originally opened in 1989 in barns in Haydon , and moved to its current site in the restored and converted Victorian Market Hall , a grade II listed building dating from 1897 which was opened on 10 July 1999 by Loyd Grossman . Many of the exhibits relate to the now disused local Somerset coalfield and geology . Other areas include aspects of local history including the school and shops , a forge , carpenter 's shop and exhibits relating to agriculture . Artefacts and memorabilia of the Somerset Coal Canal , Somerset and Dorset and Great Western Railways are also on display .
= = Education = =
First schools for children up to 11 include St Mary ’ s C of E Primary School , St Nicholas C of E Primary School and Trinity Primary School . In the neighbouring parish of Westfield lie Westfield Primary School and , for pupils with complex learning difficulties , Fosseway School .
Writhlington School in Radstock is a secondary school for pupils aged 11 – 18 . It has specialist status as a Business and Enterprise College . The school has 1 @,@ 242 pupils in both compulsory and sixth @-@ form education . The school is notable for its orchid project , which includes the biggest collection of orchids outside Kew Gardens and has won numerous awards including a gold medal at the 2009 Chelsea Flower Show . The school has also won awards in business with its enterprise companies and was named the most enterprising school in England in 2006 .
The town is served by the Somer Valley site of Bath College , a further education college in neighbouring Westfield .
= = Sport and leisure = =
Radstock has a Non @-@ League football club Radstock Town F.C. who play at The Southfields Recreation Ground .
= = Media = =
The local free newspaper , the Midsomer Norton , Radstock & District Journal , has its offices in the town . The other local weekly paper is the Somerset Guardian , which is part of the Daily Mail and General Trust . The monthly magazine , the Mendip Times , also includes local features . Somer Valley FM ( 97.5FM and online ) is the Community Radio for the district .
= = Religious sites = =
Radstock contains four churches , united under the umbrella of " Churches together in Radstock " . There are frequent interfaith unity services in the town .
The Anglican parish church of St Nicholas has a west tower dating from the 15th century . The rest of the church was rebuilt in 1879 in Geometric style , by William Willcox . It is Grade II listed .
Radstock Methodist Church was formed in 1842 but the present building opened in 1902 . It was damaged by a fire in 2004 , and reopened in 2005 . Radstock Baptist Church , situated on Wells Hill , was founded in 1844 .
Radstock was one of the missions established in 1913 by the Downside community . A temporary building of thin wooden beams and asbestos blocks was erected in 1913 , and dedicated to St Hugh . Its altar rails and benches came from Prior Park . Dom Mackey was succeeded in 1918 by Dom Ambrose Agius , who acquired a disused printing works , formerly a barn and converted it into the present church in Westfield , which opened in 1929 . It was rebuilt after a serious fire in 1991 . It has a statue of the patron on its façade .
Radstock is also home to a Jehovah 's Witness Kingdom Hall .
= = Notable people = =
William Blacker ( 1843 – 1913 ) , Australian politician
L. J. F. Brimble ( 1904 – 65 ) , botanist and editor of Nature magazine .
Alick Grant ( 1916 – 2008 ) , footballer for Aldershot , Leicester City , Derby County , Newport County and York City .
Bill Hyman ( 1875 – 1959 ) , Somerset County cricketer .
Ernest Hyman ( 1904 – 1927 ) , Yeovil Town footballer .
Frank Pratten ( 1886 @-@ 1941 ) , founder of F. Pratten and Co Ltd , manufacturer of prefabricated classrooms and other buildings .
Janet Tanner , novelist and former local councillor ( also writes under the pseudonyms Jade Shannon and Amelia Carr ) .
= Effects of Hurricane Wilma in The Bahamas =
The effects of Hurricane Wilma in The Bahamas were generally unexpected and primarily concentrated on the western portion of Grand Bahama . Hurricane Wilma developed on October 15 , 2005 in the Caribbean Sea , and after initially organizing slowly it explosively deepened to reach peak winds of 185 mph ( 295 km / h ) and a record @-@ low pressure of 882 mbar ( hPa ) . It weakened and struck eastern Mexico as a Category 4 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale , and accelerated northeastward to make landfall on southwestern Florida on October 24 . After crossing the state , Wilma briefly restrengthened in the open Atlantic Ocean , moving north of The Bahamas before weakening and later becoming an extratropical cyclone .
On October 24 , Hurricane Wilma made its closest approach to The Bahamas , passing about 150 km ( 90 mi ) north @-@ northwest of Freeport . While passing the archipelago , Wilma produced hurricane @-@ force winds and powerful storm surge , flooding southwestern coastal areas of Grand Bahama and destroying hundreds of buildings . Damage totaled about $ 100 million ( 2005 USD ) , almost entirely on the western half of the island . Central Grand Bahama , including the Freeport area , reported minor to moderate damage , while the eastern end received little to no damage . One child died on the island from the flooding . Elsewhere in the Bahamas , moderate damage occurred on Abaco and Bimini , while islands further to the south reported minimal wind damage
= = Preparations = =
At 1200 UTC on October 23 , about 24 hours before Wilma made its closest approach to the archipelago , the government of The Bahamas issued a hurricane warning for the northwestern portion of the territory , including the Abacos , Andros Island , Berry Islands , Bimini , Eleuthera , Grand Bahama , and New Providence . The government of The Bahamas advised citizens to rush preparations to completion , though many failed to fully prepare , believing Wilma would pass through the region as a tropical storm . Many homes failed to board windows or apply hurricane shutters , as well . Officials ordered evacuations for the eastern and western portion of Grand Bahama island , and established multiple shelters on the island . Evacuations were minimal ; it is estimated that between 300 and 1 @,@ 000 people left . As most people failed to prepare sufficiently for the hurricane , hardware stores and food markets were generally well @-@ stocked .
= = Impact = =
On Grand Bahama Island , Wilma produced sustained winds of 155 km / h ( 95 mph ) and a gust of 178 km / h ( 111 mph ) . The hurricane also produced a storm surge of over 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) , reportedly as high as 6 @.@ 1 m ( 20 ft ) along the southwestern portion of the island . The surge , which moved about 305 m ( 1 @,@ 000 ft ) inland , caused large @-@ scale flooding that washed away or destroyed about 800 homes . Damage was estimated at $ 100 million ( 2005 USD ) on the western portion of the island . Excluding the southwestern region of Grand Bahama , the majority of the island reported minor wind damage , and the eastern end of the island reported little , or no , damage . Over 7 @,@ 000 people on the island were directly affected by the hurricane , many of whom had not fully recovered from hurricanes Frances and Jeanne during the previous year .
Significant damage was reported in coastal areas of Grand Bahama Island , with widespread destruction of roofs and vehicles , along with downed poles and trees . Power and telephone services were disrupted throughout the island . A total of 400 structures sustained damage , of which about 200 commercial buildings were severely damaged and recommended by engineers not to be repaired . Among the destroyed buildings were a police station on the western end and several buildings in Freeport . More than 500 automobiles were flooded , including five police cars . The storm surge also raised 54 corpses in five graveyards on the island . Several resorts were closed for an extended period of time , all on the western portion of the island . One hotel , the Xanadu Beach and Marine Resort , reported about $ 3 @.@ 5 million in damage ( 2005 USD ) , including numerous destroyed windows designed to withstand hurricane @-@ force winds . Further to the east , numerous houses and commercial buildings lost their roofs in the city of Freeport . One serious traffic accident occurred when the winds overturned a bus , inflicting injuries on the driver . Several other traffic accidents were reported in the area , although none were severe . During the passage of the hurricane , five cases of looting were reported , of which one person was caught in the process . Storm surge from the hurricane killed one child , the only casualty directly related to Wilma in the archipelago .
Damage was also heavy on Bimini island , where heavy rainfall and powerful storm surge damaged homes , trees , and utility poles . On the island , the hurricane severely damaged a hotel and eight waterfront homes . On Abaco , eight homes and a governmental clinic were destroyed . The storm surge destroyed a government dock and caused flooding and beach erosion near the coast . New Providence and the Berry Islands also reported minor wind damage from Wilma , primarily to downed trees and power lines . Throughout the Bahamas , Wilma damaged public infrastructure such as schools , roads , health clinics , and electrical systems .
= = Aftermath = =
By about two days after the passage of Hurricane Wilma , 800 residents on Grand Bahama remained in shelters , including 65 families who lost their homes and stayed in a hotel set up as a government shelter in Freeport . On Bimini , most residents who evacuated to shelters returned to their homes within two days of the hurricane . The Bahamian Red Cross quickly assessed the damage on Grand Bahama and Bimini , and successfully requested to be included under the federation 's hurricane appeal for Central America . Local Red Cross chapters mobilized all available resources to assist the residents most affected . The Bahamian Red Cross began a three @-@ month program to distribute food and other items to 1 @,@ 000 of the 3 @,@ 500 affected families , primarily on Grand Bahama ; the remaining 2 @,@ 500 families received assistance from the government and other organizations . Volunteers delivered building materials and provided water vouchers to those affected . In Nassau , the Red Cross disaster contingency stock sent a boat with food items , blankets , health kits , tarpaulins and water . About a week after the hurricane , the United States Agency for International Development began providing $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 2005 USD ) to the Bahamian National Emergency Management Agency for the purchase and distribution of emergency supplies . The agency also provided $ 9 @,@ 000 ( 2005 USD ) for locally contracted helicopter assessments in the affected areas . Red Cross agencies throughout the Caribbean Sea provided hygienic kits , plastic sheeting , blankets , and jerry cans .
Electricians had power restored to the Freeport area by the day after the storm , and had power restored to most of the western portion of the island within three weeks after the hurricane . Work crews quickly removed road debris and tree limbs , and by the day after the passage of Wilma most roads were cleared . The passage of the hurricane left 1 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 people and hundreds of animals homeless . In response , the Grand Bahama Humane Society distributed about 340 kg ( 750 lb ) of dog food and treated or euthanized injured animals , depending on their condition . The earlier effects of Wilma on Mexico left many tourist areas in that country closed , leading to a 10 % increase in tourism in the Bahamas in December 2005 . By about three weeks after the hurricane , the airport on Grand Bahama Island was reopened , and all but one resort were also reopened ; the remaining resort was reopened about two months after the hurricane .
= SMS Viribus Unitis =
SMS Viribus Unitis was the first Austro @-@ Hungarian dreadnought battleship of the Tegetthoff class . Its name , meaning " Joint Forces " , was the personal motto of Emperor Franz Joseph I.
Viribus Unitis was ordered by the Austro @-@ Hungarian navy in 1908 . As the first of the newly created Tegetthoff @-@ class battleships , she was laid down in Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste on 24 July 1910 . Viribus Unitis was launched from the shipyard on 24 June 1911 and was formally commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 5 December 1912 .
During World War I , Viribus Unitis took part in the flight of the German warships SMS Goeben and Breslau . In May 1915 , she also took part in the bombardment of the Italian port city of Ancona . Viribus Unitis was sunk by a limpet mine planted by frogmen of the Italian Regia Marina on 1 November 1918 .
= = Construction and design = =
= = = Construction = = =
Viribus Unitis was ordered in 1908 as the first of a class of four , the first dreadnoughts to be built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . Initially intended to be named Tegetthoff , she was renamed on the personal order of Emperor Franz Josef ; following this , the second ship of the class was named Tegetthoff . The ship was laid down in the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste on 24 July 1910 . Following eleven months of construction , Viribus Unitis was launched on 24 June 1911 . Following her fitting out , she was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 5 December 1912 .
= = = Characteristics = = =
Viribus Unitis had an overall length of 152 metres ( 498 ft 8 in ) , a beam of 27 @.@ 9 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) , and a draught of 8 @.@ 7 metres ( 28 ft 7 in ) at deep load . She displaced 20 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 19 @,@ 684 long tons ) at load and 21 @,@ 689 tonnes ( 21 @,@ 346 long tons ) at deep load .
Viribus Unitis had four Parsons steam turbines , each of which was housed in a separate engine @-@ room . The turbines were powered by twelve Babcock & Wilcox boilers . The turbines were designed to produce a total of 27 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 20 @,@ 134 kW ) , which was theoretically enough to attain her designed speed of 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) , but no figures from her speed trials are known to exist . She carried 1 @,@ 844 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 815 @.@ 4 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 267 @.@ 2 tonnes ( 263 @.@ 0 long tons ) of fuel oil that was to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . At full capacity , she could steam for 4 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 12 mph ; 19 km / h ) .
Viribus Unitis mounted twelve 305 @-@ millimetre ( 12 in ) / 45 @-@ caliber K 10 guns in four triple turrets . Her secondary armament consisted of twelve 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 91 in ) / 50 K 10 guns mounted in casemates amidships . Twelve 66 @-@ millimetre ( 3 in ) / 50 K 10 guns were mounted on open pivots on the upper deck above the casemates . Three more 66 @-@ mm K 10 guns were mounted
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great conditions for high @-@ tech , trade and investment development .
Hsu worked to make Tainan a smoke @-@ free environment . After the successful ban of smoking in public areas such as shopping centers , he pushed through the ban of smoking in historical sites . The Chihkan Tower became the first smoke @-@ free historical site in Taiwan after the passing of the regulation in October 2007 . Other historical sites covered by the regulation include Tainan Confucian Temple , Fort Zeelandia , and Eternal Golden Castle .
In January 2008 , the government of Tainan started an operation to clean up dioxin @-@ contaminated soil around the site of a defunct factory of Taiwan Alkali Industrial Corp ( 台鹼公司 ) . The Hsu administration was the first to take action since 1982 , when the government became aware of the mercury concentrations .
= = = Law enforcement = = =
Due to an accidental killing of a teenage girl while trying to shoot a psychotic suspect , the Tainan City Police Bureau made a decision to develop a special kind of baton in 2006 . When dealing with suspects without firearms , the police officers are expected to use the baton first in order to reduce accidents . To commemorate the girl who died , mayor Hsu named the baton after her .
In September 2007 , the Tourism Mounted Police Unit of Tainan ( Chinese : 臺南市觀光騎警隊 ) was established to attract tourists . The members of the unit wear green uniforms and ride bicycles around the city in the weekends . They facilitate tourists and at the same time try to reduce crime rate .
= = Criticism = =
After the DPP nominated Hsu as the 2001 Tainan mayoral race candidate , protests led by supporters of then @-@ incumbent mayor George Chang , who is also a member of the DPP , arose . The protesters called Hsu a betrayer of the party as he left the party in 1995 . They showed their disapproval of the party 's choice by burning their party membership cards .
The prevention of dengue fever in Taiwan was always most successful in Tainan City . In 2007 , however , outbreaks in the city was almost unstoppable . The fever outbreaks originally occurred only in Annan District , where the first case was reported in June . The health department failed to control the spread of the fever , and all six districts ended up having confirmed cases . There were also an outbreak in an old soldiers ' home . On August 22 , Mayor Hsu apologized for the disastrous outbreak of the dengue fever ; he announced that the health department would be reorganized and new officials would be appointed in six months .
= = = Mayoral scandals = = =
While then @-@ mayor of Taipei Ma Ying @-@ jeou was indicted for alleged misuse of " special allowance fund " , prosecutors dropped Hsu Tain @-@ tsair 's case in March 2007 . However , on April 10 , 2007 , Hsu was indicted by prosecutors for his alleged involvement in a construction scandal and violations of the Government Procurement Act ( Chinese : 政府採購法 ) . The scandal was broken by the Tainan City councillor Hsieh Long @-@ chieh ( 謝龍介 ) in May 2006 during a council meeting .
In April 2007 , Hsu was indicted by the Tainan prosecutors . In their statement of charges , the prosecutors accused Hsu of money grafting in an underground city construction project . According to Hsu , the prosecutors heavily used the testimonies of people who were convicted of crime . In August 2009 , Hsu was found not guilty by the Tainan District Court .
= = Electoral history = =
= The Kampung Boy =
The Kampung Boy , also known as Lat , the Kampung Boy or simply Kampung Boy , is a graphic novel by Lat about a young boy 's experience growing up in rural Perak in the 1950s . The book is an autobiographical account of the artist 's life , telling of his adventures in the jungles and tin mines , his circumcision , family , and school life . It is also the basis for the eponymous animated series broadcast in 1999 . First published in 1979 by Berita Publishing , The Kampung Boy was a commercial and critical success ; its first printing ( of at least 60 @,@ 000 copies , 16 times ) was sold out within four months of its release . Narrated in English with a smattering of Malay , the work has been translated into other languages , such as Japanese and French , and sold abroad .
The book made Lat an international figure and a highly regarded cartoonist in Malaysia . It won several awards when released as Kampung Boy in the United States , such as Outstanding International Book for 2007 and the Children 's Book Council and Booklist Editor 's Choice for 2006 . The Kampung Boy became a franchise , with the characters of The Kampung Boy decorating calendars , stamps , and aeroplanes . A Malaysian theme park is scheduled to open in 2012 with the fictional characters as part of its attractions . The Kampung Boy is very popular in Southeast Asia and has gone through 16 reprints . A sequel , Town Boy , which followed the protagonist in his teenage years in the city , was published in 1981 and a spin @-@ off , Kampung Boy : Yesterday and Today , in 1993 . The latter reused the setting of The Kampung Boy to compare and contrast the differences between Malaysian childhood experiences in the 1950s and 1980s .
= = Problem = =
The Kampung Boy tells the story of a young boy , Lat , and his childhood in a kampung ( village ) . A graphic novel , it illustrates the boy 's life in pictures and words . Aside from being the protagonist , Lat is also the narrator . The story opens with his birth in a kampung in Perak , Malaysia , and the traditional rituals surrounding the event : the recitation of blessings , the singing of religious songs , and the observance of ceremonies . As Lat grows older , he explores the house , gradually shifting the story 's focus to the comic activities of his family outside their abode .
Lat starts the first stage of his formal education — reading the Qur 'an . At these religious classes , he makes new friends and joins them in their adventures , swimming in the rivers and exploring the jungles . Lat 's parents worry over his lack of interest in his studies ; he acknowledges their concern but finds himself unmotivated to forgo play for academic pursuits . When he reaches his tenth year , he undergoes the bersunat , a ritual circumcision . The ceremonies that precede the operation are elaborate , with processions and baths in the river . The circumcision proves to be " just like an ant bite ! "
Sometime after recovering from the circumcision , Lat trespasses on a tin mine with his friends . They teach him how to gather the mud left in the wake of the mining dredges and pan for valuable ore . The activity is illegal but often overlooked by the miners . Lat brings the result of his labour back to his father , expecting praise . Instead , he is punished for neglecting his studies and future . After overhearing his parents ' laments and being shown the family 's rubber plantation , Lat finds the will to push himself to study . He is rewarded for his efforts , passing a " special examination " and qualifying for a " high @-@ standard " boarding school in Ipoh , the state capital .
Rushing home to inform his parents , Lat discovers his father in negotiations with a tin mining company , which is surveying the land . The company will offer a large sum of money for the family 's properties if they discover tin on it . Other villagers are hoping for similar deals with the company . They plan to buy houses in Ipoh if their hopes are realised . The day for Lat to depart the village has arrived and he is excited , but as he is about to depart , sadness washes over him . He acknowledges the emotions as his love of the village and hopes that the place where he was born will remain unchanged when he returns and see it changed .
= = Conception = =
The Kampung Boy is an autobiography . Its author , Lat , grew up in a kampung and moved to the city after graduating from high school . He worked there as a crime reporter and drew cartoons to supplement his income — a hobby he had started at the age of nine . Lat became the column cartoonist for his newspaper after impressing his editors with his cartoons on the bersunat . He was sent to London to study at St Martin 's School of Art and on returning to Malaysia in 1975 , he reinvented his column , Scenes of Malaysian Life , into an editorial comic series . It proved popular and as Lat 's fame grew , he began questioning his city lifestyle and reminiscing about his life in the kampung . Lat felt he and his fellow citizens had all forgotten their village origins and wanted to remind them of that . He began working on The Kampung Boy in 1977 , conceptualising and drawing the scenes when he was not drawing Scenes of Malaysian Life . His labour came to fruition in 1979 when Berita Publishing Sendirian Berhad released The Kampung Boy on the Malaysian market .
= = Art style and presentation = =
The style of Kampung Boy does not follow that commonly found in Western graphic novels . A page can be occupied fully by a single drawing , accompanied by text . The image either presents a scene that stands on its own or segues into the next , forming a story sequence that flows across two facing pages . The story is told in a local dialect of English , simpler in its grammatical structure and sprinkled with Malay words and phrases . Deborah Stevenson , editor of The Bulletin of the Center for Children 's Books , found that the narration invokes a sense of camaraderie with the reader , and carries an " understated affection for family , neighbours and village life . " Mike Shuttleworth , reviewer for The Age , said that Lat often achieved humour in this book by illustrating the scene contrary to what was described . Stevenson agreed , highlighting a scene in which Mat spoke of how his mother tenderly fed him porridge ; the illustration , however , shows her irritation as the toddler spits the porridge back at her .
Kevin Steinberger , reviewer for Magpies , found Lat 's layout made Kampung Boy an " easy , inviting read . " He said that Lat 's pen @-@ and @-@ ink drawings relied on the " strong contrast between black and white to create space and suggest substance . " Lat drew the children of Kampung Boy as " mostly mop @-@ topped , toothy , bare @-@ bottomed or sarong @-@ draped " kids , who are often " exaggeratedly dwarfed " by items of the adult world . He explained that the way the boys were drawn was partly due to the influence of comics he read in the 1950s ; " naughty ones with ... bushy hair " were prominent male protagonists in those books . The adult characters are easily distinguished by their exaggerated clothing and accessories such as puffed out pants and butterfly glasses . " Short and round " shapes make the design of the characters distinctive . These characters display exaggerated expressions , particularly when they are drawn to face the readers .
Francisca Goldsmith , a librarian and comics reviewer , found Lat 's scenes to be " scribbly " , yet " wonderfully detailed " . Similarly , comics journalist Greg McElhatton commented that The Kampung Boy was " a strange mix of caricature and careful , fine detail . " These two views lend support to Muliyadi 's assertion that Lat demonstrated his strength in The Kampung Boy ; his eye for detail extended to his characters and , more importantly , the surroundings . Lat 's characters look , dress , act , and talk like real Malaysians would , and they are placed in environments that are readily identifiable with local jungles , villages , and cities . The faithful details impart a sense of familiarity to Malaysian readers and make the scenes convincing to others .
= = Adaptations = =
New Straits Times , the paper Lat was working for in the 1970s , was published in English ; its directive was to serve a multi @-@ racial readership . Redza commented that Lat understood Malaysian society and the need to engage all of its racial groups . The Kampung Boy was thus written and published in English . At Lat 's request , Berita Publishing hired his friend , Zainon Ahmad , to translate the graphic novel into Malay . This version was published under the title Budak Kampung . By 2008 , The Kampung Boy had been reprinted 16 times , and translated into various languages such as Portuguese , French , and Japanese . Countries that have printed localised versions of The Kampung Boy include Brazil , Germany , Korea and the United States .
= = = United States adaptation = = =
The United States adaptation , which dropped the definite article from the title , was published by First Second Books in 2006 . The book is in a smaller format ( 6 inches by 8 inches ) and sported Matt Groening 's testimonial — " one of the all @-@ time great cartoon books " — on its cover . According to Gina Gagliano , First Second 's Marketing Associate , the publishers left the story mostly untouched ; they had not altered the contents to be more befitting to American tastes . They did , however , change the grammar and spelling from British English ( the standard followed by Malaysia ) to the American version and lettered the text in a font based on Lat 's handwriting . First Second judged that the original book 's sprinklings of Malay terms were not huge obstacles to their customers . Most of the Malay words could be clearly understood from context , either through text or with the accompanying illustrations . The clarity of the language left the publisher few terms to explain to North American readers ; the few that remained were explained either by inserting definitions within parentheses or by replacing the Malay word with an English equivalent .
= = = Animated television series = = =
The success of The Kampung Boy led to its adaptation as an animated series . Started in 1995 , production took four years to complete and was an international effort , involving companies in countries such as Malaysia , the Philippines , and the United States . The series uses the characters of the graphic novel , casting them in stories that bear similarities to The Simpsons . Comprising 26 episodes , Kampung Boy features themes that focus on the meshing of traditional ways of life with modern living , the balance between environmental conservation and urban development , and local superstitions . One of its episodes , " Oh ! Tok " , featuring a spooky banyan tree , won a special Annecy Award for an animated episode of more than 13 minutes in 1999 . Although the pilot episode was shown on television in 1997 , the series began broadcasting over the satellite television network Astro in 1999 . Aside from Malaysia , Kampung Boy was broadcast in other countries such as Germany and Canada .
= = Reception and legacy = =
According to Lat , The Kampung Boy 's first print — 60 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 copies — was sold out in three to four months ; by 1979 , at least 100 @,@ 000 had been sold . The Kampung Boy is regarded as Lat 's finest work and representative of his oeuvre . After being published in the United States , Kampung Boy won the Children 's Book Council and Booklist Editor 's Choice award in 2006 . It was also awarded the Outstanding International Book for 2007 by the United States Board of Books for Young People .
The Kampung Boy was successful due to its realistic presentation of Malaysia 's cultural past . Many Malaysians who grew up in the 1960s or earlier fondly remembered the laidback lives they had in the kampung upon reading the book . Stevenson said that The Kampung Boy 's portrayal of the past would resonate with everyone 's fondness for a happy experience in his or her own past . Those unfamiliar with the ways of the kampung could relate to the " universal themes of childhood , adolescence , and first @-@ love " . According to Stevenson , the illustrations help to clarify any unfamiliar terms the reader might face and the narrative force of Lat 's story depends more on the protagonist 's experiences than on the details . The book 's appeal to both children and adults lies in Lat 's success in recapturing the innocence of childhood .
Malaysian art historian Redza Piyadasa said that " The Kampung Boy was a masterpiece that was clearly designed to be read as a novel . " He compared the graphical depiction of childhood experience to Camara Laye 's novel The African Child and viewed The Kampung Boy as the " finest and most sensitive evocation of a rural Malay childhood ever attempted in [ Malaysia ] , in any creative medium . " Steinberger had the same thoughts , but compared The Kampung Boy to Colin Thiele 's autobiographical novel Sun on the Stubble , which expounds on the fun and mischief of early childhood .
Lat 's success with The Kampung Boy created new opportunities for him . He set up his own company — Kampung Boy Sendirian Berhad ( Village Boy private limited ) — to handle the merchandising of his cartoon characters and occasional publishing of his books . Kampung Boy is partnering with Sanrio and Hit Entertainment in a project to open an indoor theme park in Malaysia by the end of 2012 . One of the park 's attractions is the showcasing of Lat 's characters alongside those of Hello Kitty and Bob the Builder . The distinctive characters of The Kampung Boy have become a common sight in Malaysia . They are immortalised on stamps , financial guides , and aeroplanes .
= = Sequel and spinoff = =
= = = Town Boy = = =
Town Boy is the sequel to The Kampung Boy . Published in 1981 , it continues Mat 's story in the multicultural city of Ipoh , where he attends school , learns of American pop music , and makes new friends of various races , notably a Chinese boy named Frankie . Mat capers through town and gets into mischievous adventures with his friends . He and Frankie bond through their common love of rock @-@ and @-@ roll and playing air @-@ guitar to Elvis Presley 's tunes above the coffee shop run by Frankie 's parents . As Mat grows into his teens , he dates Normah , " the hottest girl in Ipoh . " Town Boy 's story is a collection of Lat 's reminiscences about his teenage days in Ipoh , an account of " the days before [ he ] moved to the capital city to venture into life as an adult ... and later a professional doodler . " The cartoonist wanted to publicise his knowledge of music and write a subtle story about friendship . Frankie is representative of the diverse friends Lat made in those days through a common love of music .
The book 's layout is more varied than The Kampung Boy 's , featuring " short multi @-@ panel sequences with giant double @-@ page @-@ spread @-@ drawings . " Comics artist Seth commented that Lat 's drawings are filled with " vigor and raw energy " , " entirely based on eccentric stylizations but grounded with an eye capable of wonderfully accurate observation of the real world . " At certain points , crowd scenes spread across the pages of the book , filled with " Lat 's broadly humorous and humane " characters . Comics journalist Tom Spurgeon said after readings such scenes : " There are times when reading Town Boy feels like watching through a street fair after it rains , everyday existence altered by an event just enough to make everything stand out . You can get lost in the cityscapes . "
The Asian characters occasionally speak in their native tongues , their words rendered in Chinese or Tamil glyphs without translations . Goldsmith and Ridzwan did not find the foreign words to be a hindrance in understanding and enjoying the work . Instead , they believed the non @-@ English languages aided Lat 's construction of his world as one different from a dominantly English @-@ speaking world . Lat 's depiction of Mat 's visit to Frankie 's home transcends culture , portraying realistically the experiences most children feel when visiting the " foreign but familiar staleness " of their new friend 's home . Mat and Frankie 's growing friendship is a central theme of the book , and their bond as they enjoy rock @-@ and @-@ roll together in Frankie 's house has become a notable scene for readers such as journalist Ridzwan A. Rahim . Their friendship marks a shift in the story of Mat 's life from a focus on his family in The Kampung Boy to a focus beyond . As the book revolves around Mat 's friendship with Frankie , it ends with the Chinese boy 's departure to the United Kingdom from the Ipoh railway station .
As of 2005 , Town Boy had been reprinted 16 times . It has also been translated into French and Japanese . Reviews of Town Boy were positive . Librarian George Galuschak liked the book for its detailed crowd scenes and its diverse cast of characters — both animal and human . The " energy " in Lat 's drawings reminded him of Sergio Aragonés and Matt Groening . Laurel Maury , a reviewer for the Los Angeles Times , likened the book to a Peanuts cartoon , but without the melancholy typical of Charles M. Schulz 's work . She said that Lat delivered a " rollicking " world and that his characters ' interactions made the story unpretentious and heart @-@ warming . Although Spurgeon believed any single scene in Town Boy was superior to any book from a lesser cartoonist , he preferred the narrower scope of The Kampung Boy ; he felt the tighter focus of Lat 's first book gave a more personal and deeper insight into the author 's growth as a young boy . Town Boy , with its quicker pace , felt to him like a loose collection of heady first @-@ time experiences that failed to explore all possibilities of the encounters .
= = = Kampung Boy : Yesterday and Today = = =
John Lent , a scholar of comics , described Kampung Boy : Yesterday and Today as Lat 's " crowning achievement " . Published in 1993 , Yesterday and Today returns to Lat 's roots as a kampung child as described in The Kampung Boy . It explores in greater detail the games played by Lat and his friends and the lifestyle they had in the 1960s . However , Yesterday and Today also compares these past events to similar occurrences in the 1980s and ' 90s , contrasting the two in a humorous light ; the opposition of the two time frames is further enhanced by rendering the portrayals of contemporary scenes in watercolour while those of the past remain in black and white . Lat 's goal for this book was to " tell his own children how much better it was in the old days . "
Like in The Kampung Boy , the scenes in Yesterday and Today are presented in great detail . Lat shows the children playing with items constructed from simple items found in the household and nature . He also illustrates the toys ' schematics . He compares the games with their modern counterparts , lamenting the loss of creativity in modern youths . Other comments on societal changes are in the book . A child is taking a swimming lesson in a pool , intently watched by his parents who have a maid in tow with various items in her hands . While the parents gesticulate wildly at their son , the lifeguard and instructor calmly sit by the pool , watching the boy 's smooth progress . This scene is contrasted with Lat 's own experience at the hands of his father , who casually tosses the terrified boy into a river , letting him either swim or flounder . Such details , according to Muliyadi , invoke a yearning for the past and help readers " better appreciate [ the ] cartoons " .
University lecturer Zaini Ujang viewed Yesterday and Today 's comparisons as criticisms of society , putting forth the question of whether people should accept " development " to simply mean discarding the old for the new without regards to its value . Professor Fuziah of the National University of Malaysia interpreted the book 's ending as a wakeup call to parents , questioning them if they should deny their children a more relaxed childhood . Lent agreed , saying that Lat had asserted the theme from the start , showing him and his childhood friends " not in a hurry to grow up " . Redza hinted that Lat 's other goal was to point out the " dehumanising environment " that Malaysian urban children are growing up in . A Japanese edition of Yesterday and Today was published by Berita Publishing in 1998 .
= Portland Trail Blazers =
The Portland Trail Blazers , commonly known as the Blazers , are an American professional basketball team based in Portland , Oregon . The Trail Blazers compete in the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) as a member club of the league 's Western Conference Northwest Division . The team played its home games in the Memorial Coliseum before moving to Moda Center in 1995 ( called the Rose Garden until 2013 ) . The franchise entered the league as an expansion team in 1970 , and has enjoyed a strong following : from 1977 through 1995 , the team sold out 814 consecutive home games , the longest such streak in American major professional sports at the time , and only since surpassed by the Boston Red Sox . The Trail Blazers have been the only NBA team based in the bi @-@ national Pacific Northwest , after the Vancouver Grizzlies relocated to Memphis and became the Memphis Grizzlies in 2001 , and the Seattle SuperSonics relocated to Oklahoma City and became the Oklahoma City Thunder in 2008 .
The team has advanced to the NBA Finals three times , winning the NBA championship once in 1977 . Their other NBA Finals appearances were in 1990 and 1992 . The team has qualified for the playoffs in 31 seasons of their 45 @-@ season existence , including a streak of 21 straight appearances from 1983 through 2003 , the second longest streak in NBA history . The Trail Blazers ' 31 playoff appearances rank third in the NBA only behind the Los Angeles Lakers and San Antonio Spurs since the team 's inception in 1970 . Six Hall of Fame players have played for the Trail Blazers ( Lenny Wilkens , Bill Walton , Clyde Drexler , Dražen Petrović , Arvydas Sabonis , and Scottie Pippen ) . Bill Walton is the franchise 's most decorated player ; he was the NBA Finals Most Valuable Player in 1977 , and the regular season MVP the following year . Four Blazer rookies ( Geoff Petrie , Sidney Wicks , Brandon Roy and Damian Lillard ) have won the NBA Rookie of the Year award . Two Hall of Fame coaches , Lenny Wilkens and Jack Ramsay , have patrolled the sidelines for the Blazers , and two others , Mike Schuler and Mike Dunleavy , have won the NBA Coach of the Year award with the team .
= = History = =
= = = Franchise inception = = =
Sports promoter Harry Glickman sought a National Basketball Association ( NBA ) franchise for Portland as far back as 1955 when he proposed two new expansion teams , the other to be located in Los Angeles . When the Memorial Coliseum was opened in 1960 Glickman saw the potential it could serve as a professional basketball venue but it was not until February 6 , 1970 , that the NBA board of governors granted him the rights to a franchise in Portland . To raise the money for the $ 3 @.@ 7 million admission tax , Glickman associated himself to real estate magnates Bob Schmertz of New Jersey , Larry Weinberg of Los Angeles and Herman Sarkowsky of Seattle . Two weeks later , on February 24 , team management held a contest to select the team 's name and received more than 10 @,@ 000 entries . The most popular choice was " Pioneers " , but that name was excluded from consideration as it was already used by sports teams at Portland 's Lewis and Clark College . The name " Trail Blazers " received 172 entries , and was ultimately selected by the judging panel , being revealed on March 13 in the halftime of a SuperSonics game at the Memorial Coliseum . Derived from the trail blazing activity by explorers making paths through forests , Glickman considered it a name that could " reflect both the ruggedness of the Pacific Northwest and the start of a major league era in our state . " Despite initial mixed response , the Trail Blazers name , often shortened to just " Blazers " , became popular in Oregon .
= = = 1970 – 1974 = = =
Along with the Cleveland Cavaliers and Buffalo Braves ( now Los Angeles Clippers ) , the Trail Blazers entered the NBA in 1970 as an expansion team , under coach Rolland Todd . Geoff Petrie and Sidney Wicks led the team in its early years , and the team failed to qualify for the playoffs in its first six seasons of existence . During that span , the team had three head coaches ( including future hall @-@ of @-@ famer Lenny Wilkens ) ; team executive Stu Inman also served as coach . The team won the first pick in the NBA draft twice during that span . In 1972 , the team drafted LaRue Martin with the number one pick , and in 1974 the team selected Bill Walton from UCLA .
= = = 1974 – 1978 = = =
In 1976 , the ABA – NBA merger saw those two rival leagues join forces . Four ABA teams joined the NBA ; the remaining teams were dissolved and their players distributed among the remaining NBA squads in a dispersal draft . The Trail Blazers selected Maurice Lucas in the dispersal draft . That summer , they also hired Jack Ramsay as head coach .
The two moves , coupled with the team 's stellar play , led Portland to several firsts : winning record ( 49 – 33 ) , playoff appearance , and NBA Championship in 1977 . Starting on April 5 of that year , the team began a sellout streak of 814 straight games — the longest in American major professional sports history — which did not end until 1995 , after the team moved into a larger facility .
The team started the 1977 – 78 season with a 50 – 10 mark , and some predicted a dynasty in Portland . However , Bill Walton suffered a foot injury that ended his season and would plague him over the remainder of his career , and the team struggled to an 8 – 14 finish , going 58 – 24 overall . In the playoffs , Portland lost to the Seattle SuperSonics in the 1978 conference semifinals . That summer , Walton demanded to be traded to a team of his choice ( Clippers , Knicks , Warriors , or 76ers ) because he was unhappy with his medical treatment in Portland . Walton was never traded , and he held out the entire 1978 – 79 season and left the team as a free agent thereafter . The team was further dismantled as Lucas left in 1980 .
= = = 1980 – 1983 = = =
During the 1980s , the team was a consistent presence in the NBA post @-@ season , failing to qualify for the playoffs only in 1982 . However , they never advanced past the conference semifinals during the decade . The Pacific Division of the NBA was dominated by the Los Angeles Lakers throughout the decade , and only the Lakers and the Houston Rockets represented the Western Conference in the NBA Finals . Key players for the Blazers during the early 1980s included Mychal Thompson , Billy Ray Bates , Fat Lever , Darnell Valentine , Wayne Cooper , T. R. Dunn , Jim Paxson , and Calvin Natt .
= = = 1983 – 1988 = = =
In the 1983 draft , the team selected University of Houston guard – forward Clyde Drexler with the 14th pick ; " Clyde the Glide " would become the face of the franchise for over a decade , and the team 's second @-@ most decorated player ( after Walton ) . In the next year 's draft , the Trail Blazers landed the No. 2 pick in the NBA draft . After the Houston Rockets selected Drexler 's college teammate Akeem Olajuwon at No. 1 , the Trail Blazers selected Kentucky center Sam Bowie . Drafting third , the Chicago Bulls selected Michael Jordan . The selection of the injury @-@ plagued Bowie over Jordan has been criticized as one of the worst draft picks in the history of American professional sports . That summer , the Blazers also made a controversial trade , sending Lever , Cooper , and Natt to the Denver Nuggets for high @-@ scoring forward Kiki Vandeweghe . In the 1985 draft , the Blazers selected point guard Terry Porter with the last pick of the first round . Porter would go on to become one of the top point guards in the league , and the Blazers ' all @-@ time leader in assists .
However , the Blazers continued to struggle in the post @-@ season , and in 1986 , Ramsay was fired and replaced with Mike Schuler . Despite this , they were the only team to beat the Boston Celtics on the road that season . That off @-@ season , the team drafted two players from behind the Iron Curtain , Arvydas Sabonis and Dražen Petrović , and sent Thompson to the San Antonio Spurs for former Oregon State University star Steve Johnson . Johnson was a high @-@ scoring forward @-@ center who the team intended to pair with Bowie on the frontline . It was not to be , as Bowie broke his leg five games into the 1986 – 87 season , missing the next two and a half seasons . During Schuler 's brief tenure , the Blazers failed to advance out of the first round of the NBA playoffs .
= = = = Paul Allen ownership = = = =
In 1988 , Paul Allen purchased the Blazers . His first season as owner was one marked by turmoil , as conflicts erupted over who should start at several positions . Both Vandeweghe and Johnson suffered injuries ; they were replaced in the starting lineup by Jerome Kersey and Kevin Duckworth . Several players , most notably Drexler , were accused of undermining Schuler . The team went 25 – 22 to open the 1988 – 89 season , and Schuler was fired . He was replaced on an interim basis with assistant coach Rick Adelman , and Vandeweghe was traded to the New York Knicks . Under Adelman , the team went 14 – 21 to finish the season , and barely qualified for the playoffs . That off @-@ season , the team traded Sam Bowie ( who had returned to the team to end the season ) to the New Jersey Nets for forward Buck Williams , and Adelman was given the coaching job on a non @-@ interim basis .
= = = 1988 – 1995 = = =
The addition of Williams , and the replacement of the defensively challenged Vandeweghe with the defensive @-@ minded Kersey , turned the team from a poor defensive squad into a good one . Led by Drexler , the team reached the NBA Finals in 1990 and 1992 , losing to the Detroit Pistons and Chicago Bulls , respectively . Possibly inspired by the 1985 Chicago Bears 's " Super Bowl Shuffle " , during the run @-@ up to their 1990 Finals appearance , the Blazers recorded two songs : " Bust a Bucket " and " Rip City Rhapsody " ( with music played and recorded by Josh Mellicker , " Rip City " being a reference to the city 's nickname ) . The year in between their two finals appearances , the team posted a league @-@ best 63 – 19 record before losing to the Los Angeles Lakers in the Western Conference finals . However , the team failed to win an NBA title , and failed to advance past the first round in 1993 and 1994 . Adelman was fired after the 1994 season , and replaced with P. J. Carlesimo , which led to the resignation of executive vice @-@ president Geoff Petrie , a close friend of Adelman 's .
In July 1994 , the Trail Blazers announced the hiring of a new team president , former Seattle SuperSonics general manager Bob Whitsitt . Whitsitt , known as " Trader Bob " for his penchant for making trades , immediately set about revamping the Blazers roster ; this included dismantling the aging Drexler @-@ led team that had twice been to the finals . Drexler requested to be traded to a contender , and the Trail Blazers traded him to the Houston Rockets . In the fall of 1995 , the team left the Memorial Coliseum for a new home , the 20 @,@ 000 @-@ seat Rose Garden Arena . The sellout streak ended in the new building .
= = = 1995 – 2003 = = =
= = = = 1995 – 2000 = = = =
Several players left in free agency , including Terry Porter ( 1995 ) , Buck Williams ( 1996 ) , and Cliff Robinson ( 1997 ) , which left Jerome Kersey unprotected in the 1995 expansion draft .
In an effort to rebuild , the team acquired several players who were highly talented , but had reputations for off @-@ court troubles . Isaiah Rider , who was traded by the Minnesota Timberwolves for a draft pick and career backups due to his frequent arrests and lack of punctuality , was arrested for cannabis possession two days before his debut with the Blazers . Rasheed Wallace , who was acknowledged as a hot @-@ tempered player since college , was also acquired , in a trade with the Washington Bullets . Point guard Kenny Anderson was signed as a free agent , and subsequently traded to the Toronto Raptors for Damon Stoudamire in February 1998 ( the Raptors traded Anderson to the Boston Celtics five days later , because he did not want to play in Canada ) . Initially , this approach worked , as the team returned to the Western Conference finals in 1999 under head coach Mike Dunleavy . After being swept by the eventual champion San Antonio Spurs , Whitsitt sent Rider and guard Jim Jackson to the Atlanta Hawks for guard Steve Smith and acquired former All @-@ Star forward Scottie Pippen from the Houston Rockets . The team again advanced to the Western Conference Finals , where they faced a Los Angeles Lakers team led by Shaquille O 'Neal and Kobe Bryant . In that series , the Trail Blazers dropped three out of the first four games before winning the next two , forcing a pivotal Game 7 . The Blazers had a 15 @-@ point lead in the fourth quarter , but lost the game and the series to the Lakers , who went on to win the first of three consecutive titles .
= = = = 2000 – 2003 = = = =
The Trail Blazers made a series of personnel moves in the 2000 and 2001 off @-@ seasons that failed to produce the desired results . Forward Jermaine O 'Neal was traded to the Indiana Pacers for Dale Davis . Brian Grant signed with the Miami Heat , and was replaced with ex @-@ Seattle forward Shawn Kemp . The team started off well , posting the Western Conference 's best record through March 2001 , and then signed guard Rod Strickland to augment their point guard corps . The move backfired , and the team lost 17 of its remaining 25 games , and was eliminated in the first round of the playoffs ( swept by the Los Angeles Lakers ) . Some in the media began to criticize the team , and Whitsitt , previously proclaimed a genius for his work in both Seattle and Portland , was criticized . A particular criticism was that Whitsitt was attempting to win a title by assembling a roster of stars , without paying attention to team chemistry . Longtime NBA coach and analyst , Doug Collins , referred to Whitsitt as a " rotisserie @-@ league manager . " A fan was ejected from the Rose Garden for holding up a banner that said " Trade Whitsitt " , and many in the national media started referring to the team as the " Jail Blazers " because of many players ' off @-@ court problems .
That offseason the churning continued ; Dunleavy was fired , and replaced with Maurice Cheeks , a " players ' coach " who some thought would relate better to the players than Dunleavy did . Cheeks brought on Dan Panaggio as assistant coach after a failed courtship with Henry Bibby of Southern California . More transactions followed as the Blazers traded Steve Smith to the Spurs for Derek Anderson . In one of his most controversial moves to that time , Whitsitt signed free agent Ruben Patterson , who had previously pleaded no contest to a felony sexual assault charge and was required to register as a sex offender . Popular center , Arvydas Sabonis , who had a towel flung in his face by Rasheed Wallace during the playoffs , decided to leave the team .
The next two seasons were just as disastrous for the team 's reputation . Several players , including Wallace , Stoudamire , and Qyntel Woods , were cited for marijuana possession . Woods pleaded guilty to first @-@ degree animal abuse for staging dog fights in his house , some involving his pit bull named Hollywood . Hollywood and Woods ' other pit bull , Sugar , were confiscated , and Woods was given eighty hours of community service . He also agreed to donate $ 10 @,@ 000 to the Oregon Humane Society . Wallace was suspended for seven games for threatening a referee . Zach Randolph and Patterson got in a fight during practice , with Randolph sucker punching his teammate in the eye , an injury which kept Patterson from making a meaningful contribution during the playoffs . When police came to Stoudamire 's house to respond to a burglar alarm , they noticed the smell of marijuana , searched the premises , and found a pound of cannabis located in a crawlspace ; the search was later declared illegal and charges in the matter were dropped . Guard Bonzi Wells famously told Sports Illustrated in a 2002 interview : " We ’ re not really going to worry about what the hell ( the fans ) think about us . They really don ’ t matter to us . They can boo us everyday , but they ’ re still going to ask for our autographs if they see us on the street . That 's why they ’ re fans , and we ’ re NBA players . " Wells was fined $ 50 @,@ 000 by the Blazers for the statement .
Fan discontent soared ; despite the team continuing to post a winning record , attendance at the Rose Garden started to decline . In the summer of 2003 , with attendance declining , the team going nowhere on the court , and an exorbitant payroll , Whitsitt announced that he would leave the team to focus on Paul Allen 's other franchise , the Seattle Seahawks .
= = = 2003 – 2006 = = =
To replace Whitsitt , the team hired two men at new positions . John Nash , a veteran NBA executive , was hired as general manager , and Steve Patterson as team president . The new management promised a focus on character while remaining playoff contenders ; the team soon published a " 25 @-@ Point Pledge " to fans . Troublesome players including Wells , Wallace , and Jeff McInnis were traded . However , the team failed to qualify for the 2004 NBA Playoffs , ending a streak of 21 straight appearances .
The following year was marked by more trouble as the team plummeted to a 27 – 55 record . The bankruptcy of the Oregon Arena corporation , which resulted in the Rose Garden being owned by a consortium of investment firms , further alienated the fanbase , as did an incident in which forward Darius Miles ( himself African @-@ American ) called coach Maurice Cheeks a " nigger " , following it up with more racial invective when Cheeks sought out Nash , referring to Nash as Cheeks ' " daddy . " The latter incident was compounded by what many viewed as inadequate discipline for Miles , followed by a secret agreement between the team and Miles to refund the amount of his fine . Cheeks was fired that season and replaced on an interim basis by director of player @-@ personnel Kevin Pritchard . That summer the team hired Nate McMillan , who had coached the Sonics the prior season , and Pritchard returned to the front office .
The following 2005 – 06 season was not better , as the Blazers posted a league @-@ worst 21 – 61 record . Attendance was lower , and the year was not free of player incidents . Players such as Miles , Patterson , Randolph , and Sebastian Telfair were involved in either on @-@ court bickering or off @-@ court legal incidents . Nash was fired at the end of the season , with Steve Patterson assuming the general manager role in addition to his duties as president . In addition , the team had a poor relationship with the management of the Rose Garden , frequently complaining of a " broken economic model . " It was widely speculated by the end of the year that Paul Allen would sell the team , and the team was offered for sale that summer , with several groups expressing interest . However , Allen was willing to spend money and urged Pritchard to make draft @-@ day trades . He subsequently took the team off the market .
= = = 2006 – 2011 = = =
In the 2006 NBA draft the Blazers traded Viktor Khryapa and draft rights for Tyrus Thomas for draft rights to LaMarcus Aldridge . The Blazers also traded for the sixth pick , Brandon Roy . In the spring of 2007 , Steve Patterson resigned as team president , and Paul Allen entered into an agreement to re @-@ purchase the Rose Garden . On the court , the team finished with a 32 – 50 record , an 11 @-@ game improvement , and rookie shooting guard Roy was named the 2006 – 07 Rookie of the Year . That summer Pritchard was promoted to general manager , and former Nike Inc. executive Larry Miller was hired as team president . The Blazers won the 2007 NBA draft lottery and selected Ohio State center Greg Oden with the No. 1 pick in the draft . Some had speculated that they might choose Kevin Durant instead ; Durant was picked at No. 2 by regional rivals the Seattle SuperSonics . Oden suffered a pre @-@ season knee injury requiring microfracture surgery , and missed the entire 2007 – 08 season . Oden 's constant battle with injuries and Durant 's success resulted in comparisons to the Blazers ' selection of Sam Bowie over Michael Jordan in 1984 .
Despite this , the Trail Blazers had a 13 @-@ game winning streak that began in early December , resulting in a 13 – 2 record , an NBA best for the month of December . Nate McMillan won NBA Coach of the Month honors , and Roy garnered NBA Western Conference Player of the Week honors in back @-@ to @-@ back weeks ( the first Trail Blazer to accomplish the feat since Clyde Drexler in the 1990 – 91 season ) . Western Conference head coaches selected Roy to the 2008 NBA All @-@ Star Game , the first All @-@ Star for the Blazers since Rasheed Wallace in 2001 . The Blazers finished the season 41 – 41 , their best record since the 2003 – 04 season . Following the season , the Blazers became the only NBA team for the Pacific Northwest , as the Seattle SuperSonics moved to Oklahoma City .
During the 2008 – 09 season , after much waiting , Greg Oden debuted with the Blazers , playing in 61 games . Portland also added some international flavor to the team with the arrival of Spanish swingman Rudy Fernández , a member of the Spanish national basketball team . French @-@ native Nicolas Batum emerged as a skilled defensive forward who was inserted into the starting lineup as a rookie . Roy appeared in his second @-@ straight All @-@ Star Game , and Fernández competed in the Sprite Slam Dunk Contest during NBA All @-@ Star Weekend . Roy had a career @-@ high 52 points against the Phoenix Suns and game @-@ winning shots against the Houston Rockets and New York Knicks . The Blazers clinched a playoff berth for the first time since 2003 and achieved a 54 – 28 record , their first winning record since the 2002 – 03 season . As the fourth seed and holding home court advantage , the Trail Blazers played the fifth @-@ seeded Houston Rockets in the 2009 Playoffs , losing the playoff series 4 games to 2 .
In the 2009 off @-@ season , the Trail Blazers traded the No. 24 pick to Dallas for the No. 22 pick and selected Víctor Claver . They also selected Villanova forward Dante Cunningham with the No. 33 pick , Jon Brockman and guard Patrick Mills . Brockman was traded to the Kings in exchange for No. 31 pick Jeff Pendergraph . Free agent Channing Frye signed with the Phoenix Suns and Sergio Rodríguez was traded to the Kings . The Blazers attempted to sign free agent small forward Hedo Türkoğlu , who led the Orlando Magic to the 2009 NBA Finals , but after a verbal agreement he decided to sign with the Toronto Raptors . The Blazers then attempted to sign restricted free agent Paul Millsap ; however , their offer was matched by the Utah Jazz . On July 24 , 2009 , the Trail Blazers signed point guard Andre Miller .
Despite a winning record , injuries hobbled the team for the 2009 – 2010 season . Reserves Batum and Fernández started the season on the inactive list and forward Travis Outlaw soon followed after a serious foot injury early in the season . Most notably , centers Oden and Joel Przybilla suffered season @-@ ending knee injuries , while Roy and Aldridge played through shoulder , hamstring , ankle and knee injuries . Head Coach Nate McMillan was likewise not spared , suffering a ruptured Achilles tendon during practice and was in a walking boot . Because of the void at the center position , Blazers general manager Kevin Pritchard worked out a deal to acquire Marcus Camby from the Los Angeles Clippers in exchange for Steve Blake and Outlaw . Although wins did not come as easily as the season before , the Blazers rallied to finish at 50 – 32 , and finished 6th in the West . Roy underwent surgery after suffering a torn meniscus in his right knee , but returned for Game 4 of the first round series against the Phoenix Suns . However , the accumulation of injuries was too much to bear , and the short @-@ handed Trail Blazers lost the series 4 – 2 to the Suns .
= = = = 2010 – 2011 = = = =
During the 2010 off @-@ season , the Blazers ' front office experienced significant personnel changes beginning in July with the announcement of new general manager Rich Cho , succeeding former general manager Kevin Pritchard , who was relieved of his duties after the 2010 NBA draft . Cho became the first general manager of Asian descent in NBA history . On August 12 , the Trail Blazers signed two new assistant general managers , Bill Branch and Steve Rosenberry . Branch and Rosenberry replaced former assistant general manager Tom Penn , who was released by Portland in March . The organization also made changes to Nate McMillan 's coaching staff by hiring Bernie Bickerstaff , Bob Ociepka and Buck Williams , with Bickerstaff assuming the lead assistant coach position due to the departure of Monty Williams . The Blazers acquired rookies Armon Johnson , Luke Babbitt , and Elliot Williams from the 2010 NBA draft and off @-@ season trades . On July 21 , Wesley Matthews signed a five @-@ year deal with the Blazers after his former team , the Utah Jazz , declined to match Portland 's offer .
Similar to the previous season , Portland was overcome with injuries from the start of the 2010 – 11 season . Jeff Pendergraph and rookie guard Elliot Williams both suffered knee injuries that sidelined them for the season ; Portland later waived Pendergraph . In November , they announced that Oden would have microfracture surgery on his left knee , ending his 2010 – 2011 season . This injury marked Oden 's third NBA season cut short due to a knee injury . Three @-@ time All @-@ Star Brandon Roy underwent double @-@ arthroscopic surgery on January 17 , 2011 , to repair both knees after dealing with constant struggles , leaving his future up in the air . Just days after , Marcus Camby also underwent arthroscopic knee surgery to repair his left knee .
Despite struggles with injury , Portland performed at a playoff level throughout the season . LaMarcus Aldridge emerged as the focal point of the team and posted career @-@ high numbers , as well as Western Conference Player of the Week and Month honors . Wesley Matthews also emerged in the absence of Brandon Roy , proving his worth as the Blazers ' key off @-@ season addition . Believing the team could make a significant run in the playoffs , Cho executed his first major trade on February 24 , 2011 , just seven minutes before the deadline . The Trail Blazers sent forward Dante Cunningham , center Joel Przybilla and center Sean Marks to the Charlotte Bobcats in return for former All @-@ Star and All @-@ Defensive forward Gerald Wallace . The emergence of Aldridge and the play of Matthews kept the Blazers competitive , sealing another playoff berth by winning 48 games . However , like in their last two postseasons , the Blazers were eliminated in six games of the first round , this time against the eventual champions , the Dallas Mavericks .
During the 2011 off @-@ season , the Blazers released Cho , reportedly due to communication and " chemistry issues " with owner Paul Allen . Director of Scouting Chad Buchanan took over as acting interim General Manager . The dismissal of Cho was criticized by Sports Illustrated as " illogical " , although they noted that Allen had done a lot of questionable moves during his tenure as team owner .
On June 23 , 2011 , in the NBA draft , the Trail Blazers drafted guards Nolan Smith from Duke University with the 21st selection and Jon Diebler from Ohio State University with the 51st selection . On the same day , the Blazers front office had made a three @-@ team trade with the Denver Nuggets and Dallas Mavericks . The trade sent Blazers guards Andre Miller to Denver and Rudy Fernández to Dallas along with international player Petteri Koponen , who had yet to make an appearance for Portland ; Denver then sent guard Raymond Felton to Portland and Denver also received rookie forward Jordan Hamilton from Dallas as well as a future second @-@ round pick from Portland .
= = = 2011 – 2013 = = =
A lockout put transactions on hold until early December , and the Blazers were hit with three downfalls once the date came : Brandon Roy announced his retirement due to chronic knee problems , Greg Oden was diagnosed with yet another setback involving his ongoing knee issues , and LaMarcus Aldridge underwent heart surgery . Interim GM Chad Buchanan signed three free agents in the week before Portland 's first exhibition game : Kurt Thomas , Jamal Crawford and Craig Smith .
In the shortened 2011 – 12 NBA season , the Blazers got off to a 7 – 2 start . But the team quickly began to collapse , as starting point guard Raymond Felton , among others , struggled with McMillan 's new approach to a running @-@ style offense . The team gained some notability as Aldridge was named to his first All @-@ Star Game . Despite Aldridge 's performance , the rest of the team became more inconsistent .
On March 15 , 2012 , the Trail Blazers made several moves , including two trades before the 3 pm EST deadline . Center Marcus Camby was sent to the Houston Rockets in exchange for center Hasheem Thabeet and point guard Jonny Flynn . Portland also received Houston 's second @-@ round draft pick in the 2012 NBA draft . Portland then traded forward Gerald Wallace to the New Jersey Nets for center Mehmet Okur , forward Shawne Williams , and New Jersey 's first @-@ round , top @-@ 3 @-@ protected pick in the 2012 NBA draft . All four players acquired in the trades held expiring contracts , meaning they would be free agents at the end of the season . Oden was released from the roster after playing a total of 82 games in five NBA seasons , being cut along with Chris Johnson in order to make room for the incoming traded players . Finally , head coach Nate McMillan was also fired , leaving the franchise with the third @-@ most coaching wins , behind Jack Ramsay and Rick Adelman . Portland named Kaleb Canales as the interim head coach for the rest of the 2011 – 2012 NBA season . A few days later , Portland claimed forward J. J. Hickson off waivers from the Sacramento Kings . After shaking up the roster and limping to the end of the regular season with a 28 – 38 record and finishing out of playoff contention for the first time in three years , the team entered the offseason on the search for a general manager and new head coach .
At the 2012 NBA draft lottery on May 30 , the Blazers secured the number 6 pick of the draft via the Brooklyn Nets from the Gerald Wallace trade , and also ended up with the number 11 pick due to their own record . Neil Olshey became the new GM in June , making it just over a year since the Blazers had had a non @-@ interim general manager .
On June 28 , 2012 , the Blazers selected Weber State guard Damian Lillard and University of Illinois center Meyers Leonard with the 6th and 11th picks overall , respectively . They also selected University of Memphis guard Will Barton with the 40th pick overall , and traded the rights of the 41st overall pick , University of Kansas guard Tyshawn Taylor , to the Brooklyn Nets for cash considerations .
Headed by their new general manager Olshey , the Trail Blazers front office further made a few changes during July 2012 . The Blazers signed their 30th pick from the 2006 draft , Joel Freeland , and their 22nd pick from the 2009 draft , Víctor Claver , as well as re @-@ signing Hickson and Nicolas Batum . They also signed veteran point guard Ronnie Price to back up Lillard , who was selected as co @-@ MVP of the 2012 Las Vegas Summer League . Dallas Mavericks assistant coach Terry Stotts was hired as head coach on August 7 , 2012 .
Under the reins of Lillard , the Blazers played well into January 2013 , posting a 20 – 15 record . On January 11 , 2013 , at home against the Miami Heat , Wesley Matthews made two consecutive three @-@ pointers late in the fourth quarter to help the Blazers secure a 92 – 90 victory . However , despite the Blazers remaining among the playoff contenders for most of the season , injuries to starters Batum , LaMarcus Aldridge , and Matthews , as well as a losing streak of 13 games – the longest in the franchise 's history – led to the 11th position in the West , with a 33 – 49 record . Averaging 19 @.@ 0 points , 6 @.@ 5 assists , and 3 @.@ 1 rebounds , Lillard was unanimously named Rookie of the Year , joining Ralph Sampson , David Robinson , and Blake Griffin as the only unanimous selections in NBA history .
= = = 2013 – 2015 = = =
Going into the 2013 NBA draft , the Trail Blazers held four picks : the 10th pick in the first round and three second @-@ round picks . The Blazers selected guard C. J. McCollum out of Lehigh University with their 10th pick , and also selected center Jeff Withey from Kansas , power forward Grant Jerrett from Arizona , and Montenegrin big man Marko Todorović . In addition , Cal guard Allen Crabbe was acquired from the Cleveland Cavaliers in exchange for two second @-@ round picks , in the 2015 and 2016 drafts .
The Blazers finished the 2014 season with 21 more wins than the previous season , which amounted for the largest single @-@ season improvement in franchise history . This included a period in November when they won 11 straight games , and 13 – 2 in the month overall , for which coach Terry Stotts took home Coach of the Month honors . On December 12 , 2013 , Aldridge scored 31 points and pulled down 25 rebounds in a home game against the Rockets , the first time a Trail Blazer recorded a 30 @-@ point , 25 @-@ rebound game . On December 14 , 2013 , the Blazers made a franchise @-@ record 21 three @-@ pointers against the Philadelphia 76ers . They tied the new record 19 days later against the Charlotte Bobcats , becoming the first NBA team to make 20 or more three @-@ pointers in a game more than once in a season . Lillard was voted in as a reserve to his first All @-@ Star game , joining Aldridge to represent Portland at the game . Portland finished 54 – 28 , securing the fifth seed in the playoffs against the Rockets . The team also shot 81 @.@ 5 % at the free throw line , made 770 three pointers , and started four players for all 82 regular @-@ season games , all franchise records .
The first @-@ round series against the Rockets was a tight one , with three of the six games going to overtime . The Blazers fared well in the first two games despite not having home @-@ court
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military and civil guard houses with embrasures flanking the inner gate . The two storey limestone gatehouse , with a central clock , presents an imposing entry to the former prison . The gatehouse and associated entry complex was constructed between 1854 and 1855 using convict labour . It was designed by Royal Engineer Edmund Henderson , and constructed out of limestone . The gatehouse has two towers either side of a narrow gate , reminiscent of those found in 13th century English castles or walled cities . The gate was made from iron which had been scavenged from shipwrecks , while the clock at the top of the structure was imported from England . The clock was made in London in 1854 , installed two years later , and as of 2004 , was still sounding every hour .
The gatehouse also has a smaller , second , inner gate , engraved with the names of three significant figures : H. Wray RE , who designed the gate ; J. Manning , clerk of works , who supervised its fabrication ; and Joseph Nelson , the Royal Sappers soldier that wrought the iron . The complex was expanded and altered successively throughout the use of the entry complex for prison 's functions . The entry complex was extended north to the female division as a workshop range , the western workshops , leaving a sterile zone beside the perimeter wall . The gatehouse has remained a significant feature and landmark since the closure of the prison , as the main entrance , and housing a café and office areas . Restoration was carried out in 2005 , preserving the original stone facade and removing non @-@ original rendering .
= = Cell blocks = =
= = = Main Cell Block = = =
Based on the English Pentonville Prison design model of Joshua Jebb , the site 's key feature , the Main Cell Block , was designed by the Comptroller of Convicts Captain Henderson , and completed in 1859 . Designed to hold up to 1000 prisoners , it is 145 metres ( 476 ft ) long and four storeys high , the longest and tallest cell range in Australia . It was constructed by convicts in the 1850s , and there have been few changes since that time . The 1859 main cell block has an impressive facade and is built of limestone ashlar blocks quarried from the site . It is significant for the ways in which its scale , position in the precinct , simplicity , material and near pristine character ensures that it is the focal and dominating feature of the prison ; the evidence of its fabric , internal configuration and spaces reveals its functioning as a convict depot and subsequent prison and its atmosphere . It has come to symbolise the imperial convict era in colonial Western Australia .
The central , four @-@ storey high cell block is flanked on either end by large dormitory wards , called the Association Rooms . Here , as many as 80 men slept in hammocks , either as a reward for good behaviour or because they would soon receive their Ticket of Leave . In contrast , the cells were a confining space measuring just seven by four feet ( 2 @.@ 1 by 1 @.@ 2 m ) . While each cell initially had a basin connected to running water , the installation was before the advent of S @-@ bends ; the smells coming up the pipes lead to their removal by the 1860s . Following a Royal Commission , the cells were made larger by removing a dividing wall from between two cells . Electric lighting was installed in the 1920s , but there were never any toilets – buckets were for the duration of the prison 's operation . Since the prison 's closure , six cells have been restored to represent the varying living conditions at different times in the prison 's history . The main block also houses the gallows , solitary confinement cells , and two chapels .
The single storey 1855 refractory block is on the same axis as the main cell block to its east . It consists of twelve punishment cells and six dark cells with no light . The gallows chamber , built in 1888 , is between this and the main cell block and relates to the colonial use of the prison . The gallows operated via a rope tied around a beam , over a trap door , on the upper level . Opening the trap door would cause the condemned prisoner fall , and thus be hanged .
At the centre of the Main Cell Block is the Anglican Chapel , whose windows were the only ones without bars . It occupies a prominent position in the projecting wing in the centre of the facade . It retains its original painted and stencilled wall patterns beneath later paint layers and is the most intact early prison chapel in Australia . Its interior features include an early and substantial example of a laminated arch construction in the colonies and the first in WA , handsome decalogue boards and some original and elegant joinery . Behind the Anglican chapel altar , there is a painted representation of the Ten Commandments . The words to the sixth commandment use the unusual translation of " thou shalt do no murder " rather than " thou shalt not kill , " the more common interpretation in the Church of England . Given that the gallows were still in regular use , it was felt that " thou shalt not kill " would have been hypocritical . The Catholic Chapel was put into the upper northern Association Ward in 1861 . The floor has evidence of its former use for communal prisoner accommodation , in the form of mortices for hammock rails and a convict painted mural which decorates its wall .
= = = New Division = = =
Fremantle Prison 's New Division was constructed between 1904 and 1907 , as a response to overcrowding . The division continues the façade alignment of the main block . The building , L shaped in plan , is three storeys high of regular coursed pale ashlar limestone blocks with rock @-@ face . Openings are set in brick and freestone and it has a handsome lantern range above the main atrium . The building is visually significant as it complements the main cell block and completes the northern zone of the prison . The interior configuration and cells are significant as an example of an attempt to introduce the separate system to Western Australia , whereby prisoners were completely isolated for the first three months of their sentence . The division 's exercise yard initially used a panopticon to facilitate this concept during the prisoners ' hour of exercise each day . The system was not successful , and considered a dated prisoner management strategy , leading its removal within five years .
The New Division was the first to have electricity , with underground wiring . During World War Two , the Australian Army appropriated the New Division , to keep prisoners separate from the main population , and for those condemned to death . In 1994 the building was retrofitted to cater for offices , small business premises , and meeting rooms .
= = = Women 's Prison = = =
The north @-@ western complex was originally a service area with a cookhouse , bakehouse and laundry , built in the 1850s . A place for women prisoners was needed following the closure of Perth Gaol and the transfer of prisoners to Fremantle . The buildings were converted to a prison , and a wall built around them , creating Western Australia 's first separate prison for women – a gaol within a gaol . Population and crime growth led to them being extended in the 1890s and 1910s . The single storey limestone building , also known as the female division , has a distinctive monitor roof and an upper storey addition to part of the eastern range in red brick . The construction of Bandyup Women 's Prison saw Fremantle 's Women 's Prison close in 1970 . The space was used for education and assessment until the main prison 's closure in 1991 , and has since been adapted for TAFE use as a visual arts facility .
= = Staff accommodation = =
A flat area , to the immediate west of the prison , is called The Terrace and was formed from rubble resulting from the levelling of the prison site . Adjoining the western perimeter wall , but outside the prison on the northern side of the terrace compound , is staff accommodation . Three adjoining residences were built in the 1890s as quarters for prison staff .
The cottages at 2 , 4 , and 6 The Terrace , at the northern end of the street , were built in a Victorian style , in contrast to the Georgian style of the other houses . Number 2 incorporates parts of an 1857 guard room and was converted in the 1890s to quarters , when Numbers 4 and 6 were built alongside as a duplex . Number 2 is a single storey house with random rubble limestone walls and corrugated iron roof separated from the perimeter wall by a rear yard . Numbers 4 and 6 are a pair of single duplex units with random rubble limestone walls , corrugated iron roofs and front verandahs , separated from the perimeter wall by a rear yard .
Four two storey residences , Numbers 8 , 10 , 16 and 18 The Terrace , were built during the 1850s for officer accommodation . Number 8 , also known as the Chaplain 's House , is a two storey house with rendered and painted limestone walls . The plan is roughly square with verandahs and balconies along the west and south sides . A single storey building connects the south @-@ east side of the house to the main prison wall .
Number 10 , also known as the Superintendent 's House , is a two storey house with rendered limestone walls and a corrugated iron roof behind parapet walls . It is connected to the gatehouse with limestone walled buildings . The plan is roughly square and there is a door from the house into the prison from the north @-@ east room of the ground floor . The house was initially built in 1853 for the Chaplain , but was taken over by the superintendent in 1878 and was later used by the prison administration .
Number 16 is a house is two storey building , roughly square in plan , with painted limestone walls and a corrugated sheet metal roof behind a parapet . It accommodated first the superintendent , later on the resident magistrate , and remained in @-@ use as housing for prison officers until the 1970s . Number 18 , also known as the Surgeon 's House , is a two storey structure with limestone walls . It is the southernmost house on The Terrace . Numbers 18 and 8 , the northernmost of the initial buildings , both featured two sitting rooms , three bedrooms , and two dressing rooms , as well as a kitchen , water closet and shed , but with mirrored layouts . Number 18 was expanded with additions built in the 1890s . A single storey limestone structure ( former stables ) is located to the south of Number 18 .
= = Other buildings = =
= = = Hospital = = =
The hospital , built between 1857 and 1859 , was a crucial component of Fremantle Prison . Public works during the convict era relied on convict labour , which could only be provided if the convicts were healthy . Located in the north @-@ eastern corner of the prison compound , the building is H @-@ shaped in plan , single storey with rendered and painted limestone walls . It features a wide verandah with timber posts . From 1886 to 1903 , medical services were relocated to the main cell block , with the former building used to keep invalids and female prisoners . The hospital was refurbished , and reopened in 1904 . It subsequently remained in continuous operation until the prison 's closure in 1991 .
Adjacent to the hospital building is the east reservoir . The brick vaulted reservoir and reticulation system , constructed in 1890 and about 1895 , appear as a low brick structure . The reservoir roof consists of with five rendered vaults each side of a central vault raised 600 millimetres ( 24 in ) above those each side . The centre of the eastern terrace contains the subsurface remains of the 1850s bathhouse and well .
= = = Workshops = = =
The prison 's workshops provided activities and training for the prisoners . They also reduced the cost of maintenance , repairs , and construction by providing an in @-@ house service . The original workshop was a blacksmith 's shop , one of the first buildings to be constructed on the prison site . Later known as the East Workshops , other workshops included carpenter 's , plumber 's and painter 's , a printing office , and from the 1850s , a metal shop . The West Workshops were built at the start of the twentieth century , providing more work for prisoners through a paint shop , mat maker , shoe maker , book binder and tailor shop . The five western workshops are a single storey squared limestone rubble building with openings dressed in brick , with an open saw @-@ tooth roof with southern skylights , concealed behind a parapet wall . In 1993 the western workshops were adapted for use as TAFE art workshops .
Buildings in the area south of the east workshops were used for a shower block , helmet workshop and associated sheds . The structures are recent and , with the exception of some terrace walling , are the last of a series that have been erected and dismantled since World War I.
= = Tunnels = =
At the south eastern corner of the eastern terrace is the former pumping station , associated tunnels and a set of 1850s workshops within an enclosing wall . Underneath parts of the eastern terrace , the adjacent Hampton Road , the pumping station and the workshops there are a complex series of shafts , drives and weirs cut from the rock during the 1890s and early twentieth century . The east workshops is a single storey limestone building on the western side with an enclosed area to the east . The entire workshops yard was roofed using a light steel truss on steel supports in 1960 .
A network of tunnels exists under the prison , including a one @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) connection to South Beach in South Fremantle . It was built by prisoners , but the purpose was not to enable escapes ; their labour was used to provide the prison , and later the town of Fremantle , with a supply of fresh water . Guards in a gun tower adjacent to the tunnel entrance prevented any attempted escapes .
In 1852 , during construction of the buildings , shafts were sunk into the limestone bedrock to provide the prison with fresh water from an aquifer . In 1874 , the Fremantle 's " Water House Well " , used to supply ships , suffered storm damage . This prompted a tank to be installed at the prison , behind the main cell block , to offer the town an alternative water supply . Prisoners worked a pump to fill the tank , which was connected to the jetties through gravity @-@ fed pipes .
Increasing demand led to the construction of a reservoir in 1876 , from which water was drawn , still pumped by prisoners . From 1888 to 1894 , additional wells were built , connected by a series of tunnels or horizontal drives 20 metres ( 66 ft ) under the north @-@ east of the prison . A steam pump was implemented , which drew fifteen thousand imperial gallons ( 68 @,@ 000 L ) per hour of water into the new East Reservoir . In 1896 , a town reservoir was constructed on Swanbourne Street , fed from the prison by a triple expansion steam @-@ driven pump which could take more than one million imperial gallons ( 4 @.@ 5 ML ) per day from the prison tunnels . Prisoners , relieved of manual pumping , were employed to supply wood and stoke boilers .
The Metropolitan Sewerage & Water Supply authority took over control of the pumping station from 1901 until 1910 , when both the prison and town were connected to Perth 's metropolitan water supply . The tunnels were closed in 1910 , but the groundwater continued to be used for the prison 's gardens . In 1989 , oil leaking from nearby tanks contaminated the water . The pollution was eventually cleared by 1996 through bioremediation .
Since the prison 's closure the water supply system including the tunnels , were the subject of heritage studies , including a 2004 inspection by the Western Australia Maritime Museum . The tunnels were re @-@ opened in mid @-@ 2005 , and within one year the main shaft had been refurbished , including " installation of audio @-@ visual equipment , railings and lighting as well as the removal of debris from the access shaft and tunnels , the creation of new steel platforms and ladders and the addition of extra limestone rocks in the tunnels to help lift users out of the water . "
= = Open spaces and related elements = =
The open spaces of the precinct are significant as they provide impressive settings for the structures . They are also important spaces in their own right retaining the stark open character of a penal institution required for surveillance . The extensive forecourt of the main cell block , with its scale and secure location within the perimeter walls , is particularly impressive . Paths are bitumen with grassed garden beds delineated by raised brick edging . South Knoll comprises the remains of the high , natural ground level which at least by 1896 had been terraced to form flat , grassed areas . The former playing fields and tennis courts are still in evidence . There is a brick- vaulted reservoir located under the Knoll . The significant landscape presents an austere and formal quality within the perimeter walls . Generally the landscape is sparse and simple , comprising unobtrusive elements such as lawn , low plantings and pavement . Landscape elements outside the walls include the exotic almond and pine trees on the Terrace .
An inclined tramway , the ramp , was built from the front of the terrace , on the axis of the gatehouse , down towards the port area of Fremantle . The ramp , constructed between 1852 and 1853 , is of limestone rubble from the cut and fill activities required to create the prison site and the terrace . The ramp is an integral part of the original design of the prison complex and is of exceptional heritage significance . It is now cut at its western end by a modern road which severs the historic visual link with Fremantle . On each side of the alignment of the ramp , where it intersects with Henderson Street , are three terrace houses for the accommodation of prison warders . These were erected between 1851 and 1858 and mark the boundary of the Convict Establishment at this point . The limestone used for the early prison and its associated housing was quarried on the site .
Other surviving elements of the early convict establishment include Henderson 's house , " The Knowle " , the three Henderson Street cottages ( terrace housing ) at numbers 7 – 17 , 19 – 29 , and 31 – 41 Henderson Street , a range of terraces at 3 – 9 Holdsworth Street , paths , roads and ramps , garden sites , walls , sub surface works and the more distant routes to the Asylum , the Commissariat Store and wharf site .
= = = Attribution = = =
This article incorporates text from the source Australian Heritage Database – Fremantle Prison ( former ) , 1 The Terrace , Fremantle , WA , Australia , which is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3 @.@ 0 Australia licence ( CC @-@ BY 3 @.@ 0 AU ) . Required attribution : © Commonwealth of Australia 2013 .
= Legend of Mana =
Legend of Mana , originally released in Japan as Seiken Densetsu : Legend of Mana , is a 1999 action role @-@ playing game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) for the PlayStation . It is the fourth game in the Mana series , following 1995 's Seiken Densetsu 3 . Set in a high fantasy universe , the game follows an unnamed hero as they restore the land of Fa 'Diel by creating the world around them and completing a number of interrelated quests in order to restore the Tree of Mana .
While incorporating action role @-@ playing elements from the prior games in the series , such as real @-@ time battles , Legend of Mana has its own distinct style of gameplay . Most notably , it gives the player the ability to shape the world 's structure through the Land Make system , generating regions and quests in a non @-@ linear gameplay system rather than a strong main plotline . Legend of Mana was directed by series creator Koichi Ishii , designed by Akihiko Matsui , and produced by veteran Square director and producer Akitoshi Kawazu .
The game had high sales , selling 400 @,@ 000 copies in its first week of release and 700 @,@ 000 by the end of 1999 . Reviews were less positive than for prior games in the series . Critics gave considerable acclaim to its vibrant and colorful hand @-@ drawn graphics and soundtrack by Yoko Shimomura , but were critical of the lack of a clear main storyline , stating that it left the game feeling disjointed . The game was re @-@ released as a part of both the PlayStation 's and Square Enix 's best @-@ sellers lines , and re @-@ released on the PlayStation 3 PlayStation Network store as part of the PSone Classics series in 2011 .
= = Gameplay = =
Like previous games in the Mana series , Legend of Mana displays an angled top @-@ down perspective , in which the player characters navigate the terrain and fight off hostile creatures . The player controls the unnamed main character , and is assisted by up to two companions . One of these companions is an optional support character , which depends on what quest the player is performing , while another companion can be chosen by the player out of a roster of monsters , pets , and golems . Both companions are typically controlled by the game 's AI , though a second player can take control of the support character if present . The main character and companions each have their own set of numerical attributes including hit points and strength , which represent the amount of damage the player can take or cause . These stats grow whenever the player advances a level , after gaining enough experience points from battle with enemies .
Battles occur when the player character encounters an enemy while traversing the world . Combat takes place in real @-@ time , and in the location the player found the enemy rather than a separate battle screen . The main character can equip a variety of weapons , armors , and accessories . Weapons let the player perform abilities in combat . Referred to as Special Techs , these abilities are powerful attacks by the main characters and support characters that can be used when the special move meter is full . This meter fills as the player damages enemies . Each weapon , such as a sword or spear , has a set number of special attacks to learn , which can hit single or multiple targets and can be assigned to different buttons on the controller .
Legend of Mana , unlike most action role @-@ playing games , does not feature a set journey through a fixed world . Instead , it features a unique " Land Make " system where the player generates the structure of the game world by placing objects , named Artifacts , on empty square plots on a map . This map takes the form of a grid of spaces presented in an isometric viewpoint on a map screen . When an Artifact is placed in a space on the map , it creates a Land , and the player can enter that Land by selecting the position on the map . Adjacent Lands are not connected ; to move from one land to another the player must first return to the map screen . Different Lands are generated from different Artifacts , each containing a quest which upon completion usually gives the player another Artifact to place . Lands can also contain additional quests . Each Land is ranked from 0 ( no presence ) to 3 ( strong presence ) in its strength in each Spirit of Mana ; this in turn causes magic of that element to be stronger in that Land . The strength of the rankings is dependent on the Artifact , its position on the Map , and the rankings of adjacent Lands . Many locations have non @-@ player characters who give quests and information or sell equipment . Other areas feature enemies and bosses with which the player can battle .
In addition to the main game , after certain quests are completed Legend of Mana gives the player the option to delve into optional gameplay aspects centered around the hero or heroine 's house . The player can forge or improve weapons and armor using raw materials found throughout the game , or combine equipment with items to change their power or add special effects . They can grow different types of fruit in the orchard , raise pets to use as adventuring companions , create items , and build golems . Pets can also be raised with the Japan @-@ only PocketStation peripheral , and two players can battle each other in an arena .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
Legend of Mana is set in the fictional world of Fa 'Diel . The Mana Tree , the giver of mana and life for the world , burned down almost entirely nine centuries prior to the events of the game . A war erupted between faeries , human , and others seeking the scarce power of mana that was left . When the war concluded , the burnt Mana Tree slept as it regrew and the many lands of the world were stored in ancient artifacts . A hero , controlled by the player , is self @-@ charged with restoring the world , and mana , to its former self . The Lands of Fa 'Diel are populated with a large number of different creatures , including humans , faeries , demons , the jewel @-@ hearted Jumi race , plant @-@ like Sproutlings and Flowerlings , miner bears called Dudbears , and shadowy beings of the Underworld known as Shadoles . Fa 'Diel is also the home of a host of anthropomorphic animals and objects , as well as monsters from other Mana titles such as Rabites , Chobin Hoods , and Goblins . The player controls the protagonist of the game , who is either a male or female silent protagonist . The character is unnamed and no information is given about their past ; their history and personality is meant to be determined by the player .
= = = Characters and story branches = = =
Rather than a single , overarching plot , the story of Legend of Mana is composed of a multitude of quests split into three main quest arcs , numerous other quests , and a final quest arc . Each main quest arc contains optional side @-@ quests in addition to the main quests . Whenever the player completes the required portions of one of the quest arcs they are allowed to begin the final arc and finish the game , even if the other arcs have not yet been started or completed . The three main quest arcs prior to the final arc are : the Jumi arc , the Larc and Sierra arc , and the Matilda and Irwin arc .
The first main arc is the story of the Jumi , a dying race of people who have external jewel hearts which are considered valuable . The Jumi have long been a persecuted people , and many magic characters in this game refer to them as " dirt " as a pejorative on their jewel cores . This branch focuses on Elazul and Pearl , who are among the few survivors of the Jumi . Elazul is a Jumi Knight , and the mission of his life is to protect the Jumi Guardian Pearl at any cost , even in the face of the jewel hunter , Sandra . The player assists them in helping the Jumi .
The second arc is the story of Larc and Sierra — brother and sister dragoons who serve different dragon masters and fight on opposite sides of the same war for power . Larc serves the dragon Drakonis , who wants to kill the other three dragons so that he can rule the world . Larc blackmails the game 's protagonist to help him in this quest . Sierra , a dragoon for Vadise the White Dragon , wants to stop Drakonis without hurting her brother Larc . In the end , Drakonis is defeated again and banished to the underworld , and Larc is killed .
The third arc is the complicated love story of four childhood friends : Matilda , Irwin , Daena and Escad . Irwin is a half @-@ demon who is angry that society prevents him from a relationship with the holy leader Matilda , and seeks to destroy the world in retribution . Escad seeks to destroy Irwin , and Daena tries to act as a mediator between all parties while keeping Matilda away from Irwin . The conflict eventually escalates into a war between humans and faeries . Depending on the choices of the player , either Daena or Escad will die , while the player helps bring an end to the conflict .
Regardless of which path ( s ) the hero decides to take , they begin the game 's final story , titled " Legend of Mana " . This arc concerns the re @-@ appearance of the Mana Tree . The player journeys to the Mana Tree and scales it , but upon reaching the top they find that the Mana Goddess has become corrupted and the tree is rotten . The player is forced to fight the Mana Goddess , and after winning a Sproutling plants itself in the Mana Tree 's rotten trunk . Calling upon the other Sproutlings to join them , they restore the Mana Tree .
= = Development and release = =
Legend of Mana was directed by Mana series creator Koichi Ishii , who had worked on the three previous games in the series . Many of the other developers were new to the series , including producer Akitoshi Kawazu , the director and producer of many games in Square 's SaGa series , and designer Akihiko Matsui , who had been the director for Chrono Trigger . The game 's character designs and illustrations were done by Shinichi Kameoka , who was also new to the series . Retro Gamer , in 2011 , stated that although Ishii kept the game tied to previous titles in the series by reusing gameplay elements , Kawazu had a heavy influence on the gameplay design of the game .
Legend of Mana was designed as a 2D game , despite the PlayStation 's 3D @-@ focus , as the console could not handle the full 3D world Ishii envisioned where one could interact with natural shaped objects . Kawazu initially let Ishii have a relaxed schedule and budget , as Ishii had a great number of ideas he wanted in the game , but when the project began to get out of control and out of time Kawazu tightened down the rest of the development schedule and convinced the Square executives to delay the game by two months — even though it had already been announced to the public — to allow it to be completed as Ishii envisioned . Kawazu has said that this experience taught him that his true skill in game development lay in working as a producer .
Legend of Mana was first announced by Square in March 1999 just before its debut at the Tokyo Game Show . The game was released in Japan in July 1999 with considerable hype , packaged with demos of Square 's future releases Vagrant Story , Chrono Cross , Front Mission 3 , and Threads of Fate . It was planned to be released in North America alongside the July and August 2000 releases of Chrono Cross and Threads of Fate , but was instead released early on June 6 .
= = = Music = = =
The original score for Legend of Mana was composed , arranged , and produced by Yoko Shimomura . Shimomura was a newcomer to the series ; the previous two Mana games were scored by Hiroki Kikuta , and the first by Kenji Ito . Shimomura said in 2002 that she considered the soundtrack to Legend of Mana to be the one that best expresses herself . She claims that she prefers " passionate music that comes from the heart " , and that she has to " feel the emotions of a piece in the extreme before I am able to write " the music by putting herself in the same mood as the piece is supposed to be in . Legend of Mana featured the first vocal track of any Mana game , " Song of Mana " , which also serves as the game 's opening theme . It was sung by Swedish vocalist Annika Ljungberg , who was chosen by Shimomura because she " wanted to stay away from working with someone popular that everyone already knows " . After hearing a sample of Ljungberg 's music , she flew to Sweden " straight away " to do an analog recording of the song .
The 1999 soundtrack album Seiken Densetsu / Legend of Mana Original Soundtrack collects 55 tracks of music from Legend of Mana on two discs . The music covers many styles including piano , hard rock , and electronic music . The soundtrack was published by DigiCube , and was reprinted by Square Enix in 2004 . The album reached # 65 on the Japanese Oricon music charts and stayed on the charts for two weeks . " Song of Mana " was later made available on the Square Vocal Collection album in 2001 . Four of the game 's tracks were released as part of Drammatica : The Very Best Works of Yoko Shimomura , an album of arrangements highlighting the composer 's work .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Upon the game 's Japanese release , several promotional items were made available from Square , including stuffed toy dolls of the rabite enemy and mascot of the series , a necklace , and lighters . As a promotion for Square 's " Summer of Adventure " release schedule in 2000 , which the North American release of the game was a part of , those who preordered the game were given a free music CD with select tracks from the game . Legend of Mana was re @-@ released in Japan late in 2000 as part of the Square Millennium Collection at a budget price along with a special music box and two character figurines . A companion book titled Seiken Densetsu : Legend of Mana Ultimania including artwork and interviews was released as part of Square 's Ultimania series . It was published by DigiCube in 1999 and later reprinted by Square Enix in 2004 after the subsidiary 's closing . An artbook , Legend of Mana : Making of Mana , was published in 2000 by ASCII . A five @-@ volume manga series , created by Shiro Amano , was published between 2000 and 2002 .
= = Reception = =
In Japan , Legend of Mana was a bestseller at the time of release , and sold over 400 @,@ 000 units in its first week alone as the highest @-@ selling release that week in Japan . By the end of the year , it had sold over 700 @,@ 000 copies in Japan . Legend of Mana was also the top selling PlayStation game during the week of its release in North America .
Legend of Mana received mixed reviews from critics . The game 's presentation was almost universally praised , especially its use of vibrant and colorful hand @-@ drawn graphics . David Smith of IGN claimed that the graphics were one of the game 's best points , and RPGamer 's Andrew P. Bilyk noted that the visuals " may be the most impressive two @-@ dimensional graphics ever to grace an RPG " . Andrew Pfister of Electronic Gaming Monthly praised them even more , calling them " the most impressive 2D artwork ever seen on a console " . Damian Thomas 's RPGFan review likened the graphics to Disney animation for having " a very storybook , cutesy cartoony feel to them " , while Andrew Vestal of GameSpot said that the graphics were some of the most lush and ornate 2D graphics ever made . The game won an award for best graphics at the 4th Japan Game Awards from the Computer Entertainment Supplier 's Association . The music in Legend of Mana was also a high point in many reviews ; the reviewers for Electronic Gaming Monthly called it " fantastic " and " wonderful " . Smith of IGN 's review stated that the soundtrack is " as good as any you 'll hear today " with a good mix of intensity , suspense , and subtle nuance , and Vestal of GameSpot termed it " excellently orchestrated " and a perfect fit for the game in each environment .
Much of the game 's criticism stemmed from its substitution of mostly unrelated quests over a main storyline . GamePro found that the " focus of Legend of Mana is obscured by the over @-@ abundance of subplots " . Similarly , Game Revolution 's Johnny Liu commented that the game lacked depth and felt like a collection of short quests rather than a single game , while Vestal of GameSpot noted that the game 's use of miniquests will likely disappoint those seeking an action @-@ RPG classic , and said that , although fun , the gameplay had a " schizophrenic and disjointed nature " . Next Generation agreed , saying that the Land Make system was an " innovative feature " but that it left the game disjointed without a solid plot to keep everything together . The Japanese Weekly Famitsu reviewers felt that the system was ambitious , but left the game feeling disconnected , and that the divided plotlines kept the beginning of the game from having the charm of the end .
Gary Steinman of Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine said that the lack of a plotline gave the player no incentive to keep playing through what he felt was a poor combat system . Both of those criticisms were repeated by Electronic Gaming Monthly 's Sam Kennedy in his review . RPGamer 's Bilyk felt that the smaller plots , while sometimes simplistic and not focused on the player , were enjoyable experiences . IGN 's Smith concluded that while he enjoyed the game , he felt that it was not a complete game like Secret of Mana , but instead a collection of fun experiences .
= = = Legacy = = =
In November 2000 , Legend of Mana was ranked number 48 on Weekly Famitsu 's list of top 100 PlayStation games of all time . The game was re @-@ released on February 21 , 2002 as part of the PSone Books best @-@ sellers series in Japan , in 2006 as part of Square Enix 's Ultimate Hits collection , and re @-@ released on the PlayStation 3 PlayStation Network store as part of the PSone Classics series on March 22 , 2011 .
= How the García Girls Lost Their Accents =
How the García Girls Lost Their Accents is a 1991 novel written by Dominican @-@ American poet , novelist , and essayist Julia Alvarez . Told in reverse chronological order and narrated from shifting perspectives , the text possesses distinct qualities of a bildungsroman novel . Spanning more than thirty years in the lives of four sisters , the story begins with their adult lives in the United States and ends with their childhood in the Dominican Republic , from which their family was forced to flee due to the father ’ s opposition to Rafael Leónidas Trujillo 's dictatorship .
The novel 's major themes include acculturation and coming of age . It deals with the myriad hardships of immigration , painting a vivid picture of the struggle to assimilate , the sense of displacement , and the confusion of identity suffered by the García family , as they are uprooted from familiarity and forced to begin a new life in New York City . The text consists of fifteen interconnected short stories , each of which focuses on one of the four daughters , and in a few instances , the García family as a whole . Although it is told from alternating perspectives there is particular focus throughout the text on the character of Yolanda , who is said to be both the protagonist and the author 's alter ego .
= = Background and historical context = =
The years between 1956 and 1970 were a period of oppression and instability in the Dominican Republic as the dictatorship of Rafael Trujillo came to an end with his assassination in 1961 , only to be followed by military rule , revolution , intervention by the United States , and further dictatorship . Central control over the military , the economy , and the people meant that only a select few were allowed to leave the island . Critic William Luis describes the situation of immigrants from the Dominican Republic to the United States during the revolution : " The displacement of Caribbean people from their islands to the United States , for political or economical reasons , has produced a tension between the culture of the country of origin and that of the adopted homeland , one representing the past and the other future of the immigrant " .
The García family is an example of this phenomenon . In How the García Girls Lost Their Accents , Alvarez succeeds in altering the events of her own life to create fiction . The family is displaced to the United States after living an established , upper @-@ class life in the Dominican Republic , and is forced to face the challenges which come along with being an immigrant family in a foreign land . Julia Alvarez herself was not born in the Dominican Republic , but in the United States . After her parents ' failed attempt at a life in America , she returned to the Dominican Republic at the age of three months as her parents preferred the dictatorship of Trujillo to the US . Clearly in the novel , this is not the case , however throughout , the reader witnesses the Garcia family assimilate into American society . Although their Hispanic roots are reflected in their personalities , it is evident that the stories which focus on the four daughters depict many problems that normal North American girls do .
Even though How the García Girls Lost Their Accents was written in the United States , there are significant historical ties between the novel and the author ’ s country of origin . Alvarez wrote an essay entitled " An American Childhood in the Dominican Republic " , in which she reveals some information about her own life . This is evidence that it may have served as the basis for the novel . For example , she mentions that it was Mr. Victor , of the US embassy and a member of the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , who persuaded Carlos García to join the resistance against Trujillo , and later helped him in leaving the country , and obtaining a job with an international cardiovascular team . This is a parallel to the novel in which Carlos Garcia obtains work as a doctor in New York . Julia Alvarez emigrated to the United States at the age of 10 with her parents and three sisters as political refugees from the Dominican Republic . The novel is a variation of her real @-@ life experiences , which have perhaps been slightly altered . The majority of her literature is constructed from multiple viewpoints and a strongly concealed political undercurrent is present in her literature . In this case , that undercurrent is her family fleeing the Trujillo revolution , something she did as a child . The novel encompasses the impact living under a regime can have on a family , and the way it shaped the four girls ' upbringing . It is also an attempt to understand memory , the past , and a time before the sisters lost their innocence and accents .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel is written episodically and in reverse @-@ chronological order . It consists of fifteen chapters facts three parts : Part I ( 1989 – 1972 ) , Part II ( 1970 – 1960 ) , and Part III ( 1960 – 1956 ) . Part I is centered on the adult lives of the García sisters ; Part II describes their immigration to the United States and their adolescence , and Part III recolletheir early childhood on the island , in the Dominican Republic .
The Garcías are one of the Dominican Republic 's prominent and wealthy families , tracing their roots back to the Conquistadores . Carlos García , a physician and the head of the family , is the youngest of 35 children his father sired during his lifetime , both in and out
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